 OHM’S LAW (𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑) :

• We have read that for the continuous flow of current in a conductor, a constant potential
difference has to be maintained across it.
• In 1826, a German scientist Georg Simon Ohm, by his experiments, found a relationship between
the potential difference and current in a conductor. This relationship is stated in form of a law
known as Ohm’s law.
• Statement of Ohm’s law : According to Ohm’s law, the current flowing in a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided all the physical
conditions and the temperature of conductor remain constant.
• The direct proportionality between the current and potential difference (implies that)
⇒ if the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is doubled, the current flowing in it
also gets doubled.
• If a current 𝑰 flows in a conductor when the potential difference across its ends is 𝑽, then
𝑽
according to Ohm’s law, 𝑰∝𝑽 or 𝑰
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.

• If we put the constant equal to 𝑹, the resistance of conductor. Then, = 𝑰𝑹 .

Here the resistance 𝑹 is a constant at a given temperature for the given conductor.
• If 𝑰 = 𝟏, then 𝑽=𝑹.
Thus the resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the potential difference across its ends
when unit current flows through it.
• Limitation of Ohm ’s law : Ohm’s law is obeyed only when the temperature of conductor remains
constant.

 Unit of Resistance :
𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑽
• 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑹 = 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑰

• The unit of resistance is volt /ampere (or 𝑽𝑨 𝟏 ) which is named after the scientist Ohm as 𝒐𝒉𝒎. It
is denoted by the symbol 𝜴 (omega).
• One ohm is defined as : The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows
through it when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across the ends of the conductor. 𝑖. 𝑒.,
𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
𝟏 𝒐𝒉𝒎 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 .

• High resistances are measured in units kilo-ohm (𝒌𝜴) and mega-ohm (𝑴𝜴), where

1 kilo-ohm 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑘𝛺 = 10 𝛺

and 1 mega-ohm 𝑜𝑟 1 𝑀𝛺 = 10 𝛺

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  Conductance :
• The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
𝟏
i.e., 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 .

• Its unit is (𝒐𝒉𝒎) 𝟏

or siemen (symbol 𝜴 𝟏 ).

• Note : Now a days we do not write mho for (𝒐𝒉𝒎) 𝟏 .

 𝑰 − 𝑽 graph :
• For a metallic conductor, the ratio 𝑽/𝑰 is constant for all
values of 𝑉 and 𝐼.
• If a graph is plotted for current 𝑰 against potential
difference 𝑽, we get a straight line passing through origin
as shown in Fig. 8.3.
∆𝑰
• The slope of 𝑰 − 𝑽 graph is ∆𝑽 which is the reciprocal of
resistance of the conductor.
∆𝑰 𝟏
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = = .
∆𝑽 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

 Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law :

a) Electric circuit :
• To verify Ohm’s law, the electric circuit used is shown in Fig. 8.4.
• The rheostat Rh, key K, ammeter A and resistance wire R are connected in series with the battery
B, taking care that the + ve marked terminal of ammeter A is towards the positive terminal of the
battery.
• The voltmeter V is then connected in parallel across the resistance wire R keeping its + ve marked
terminal towards the positive terminal of the battery.
• The battery (B) sends current in the circuit. The current in the circuit is controlled by the rheostat
(Rh) and the ammeter (A) measures the current. The key K is used to make and break the circuit.
• The wire R (say, a nichrome wire) is the unknown resistance.
• The voltmeter (V) measures the potential difference across the ends of the resistance wire R.

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 b) Procedure :
• As the key K is closed, current flows in the circuit. The rheostat Rh is adjusted to get the minimum
(non-zero) reading in the ammeter A and voltmeter V. The ammeter reading 𝑰 and the voltmeter
reading 𝑽 are noted.
• The sliding terminal of rheostat is then moved to increase the current gradually and each time the
value of current 𝑰 flowing in the circuit and the potential difference 𝑽 across the resistance wire R
are recorded by noting the readings of the ammeter A and voltmeter V respectively.
• In this way, different sets of the values of 𝑰 and 𝑽 are recorded in the table given below. Then for
each set of values of 𝐼 and 𝑉 the ratio 𝑽/𝑰 is calculated.

c) OBSERVATIONS :
• From the above table,
• it is noticed that for each observation, the ratio 𝑽/𝑰 is almost constant (slightly differ) .
• so its average value gives the resistance R of the wire.

d) 𝐕 − 𝐈 graph :
• A graph is plotted for 𝑽 against 𝑰 by taking 𝑽 on Y-axis and 𝑰 on X-axis which is found to be a
straight line as shown in Fig. 8.5. This verifies the Ohm’s law.

e) Slope of 𝐕 − 𝐈 graph :
• To find the slope of straight line obtained on 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph, take
two points P and Q on the straight line.
• From the points 𝑷 and 𝑸, draw normals PA and QB on the Y-axis;
and PC and QD on the X-axis.
• Read the potential 𝑽𝑨 at A and 𝑽𝑩 at B and find the difference
𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 = ∆𝑽.
• Similarly read the current 𝑰𝑪 at C and 𝑰𝑫 at D, and find the
difference 𝑰𝑪 − 𝑰𝑫 = ∆𝑰.
• Then find the slope = ∆𝑽/∆𝑰.

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 • The slope of the straight line on 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph i. e., (∆𝑽/∆𝑰) gives the resistance 𝑹 of the conductor
(or wire),
∆𝑽
i.e., 𝑹= ∆𝑰
= slope of 𝑽 vs 𝑰 graph

• Obviously, greater is the slope of 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph, greater is the resistance of conductor.

If slope increase, ∆𝑉 increase and ∆𝐼 decrease, So R increase.

 OHMIC AND NON-OHMIC RESISTORS :

1. Ohmic resistors :
• The conductors which obey the Ohm’s law are called the ohmic resistors (or linear resistances).
• Examples are : all metallic conductors (such as silver, aluminium, copper, iron, etc.), nichrome,
copper sulphate solution with copper electrodes, and dilute sulphuric acid, etc. at a constant
temperature.
• For such resistors, a graph plotted for the potential difference V against current 𝐼
• is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 8.5 and
• the resistance R is same irrespective of the value of 𝐕 or 𝐈 (i.e., the ratio 𝑽/𝑰 is constant for
all values of 𝐕 or 𝐈 ).

 Non-ohmic resistors :
• The conductors which do not obey the Ohm’s law are called the non-ohmic resistors (or non-linear
resistances ).
• Examples are : LED, solar cell, junction diode, transistor, filament of a bulb, etc.
• For these conductors, the graph plotted for the potential difference V against current 𝐼
• is not a straight line, but it is a curve.
• the resistance (i.e., the ratio V/I) is different for
different values of V or I.
• Fig. 8.6 shows a 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph in case of a junction diode.
• Note : For the Ohmic resistor, it is necessary that the
straight line on 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph passes through the origin;
but for a non-ohmic resistor, it is not necessary that the curve on 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph must pass through
the origin.
• The resistance at a particular value of V or I is obtained by finding the slope of the tangent drawn
at the corresponding point on the 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph. The value ∆𝑽/∆𝑰 is called the dynamic resistance
since its value is different for the different values of V or I.

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  Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor :
• The resistance of a conductor depends on the following four factors :
1) material of conductor,
2) length of conductor,
3) thickness of conductor, and
4) temperature of conductor.

1. Dependence on the material of conductor :

• Different substances have different concentration of free electrons and therefore the resistance
of a conductor depends on its material.
• Substances such as silver, copper, lead, alluminium, etc. have high concentration of free electrons,
so they offer less resistance and are, therefore, called the good conductors of electricity.
• But the substances such as rubber, glass, wood, etc. have negligible concentration of free
electrons, so they offer very high resistance and are called the insulators of electricity.

2. Dependence on the length of conductor :

• In a long conductor, the number of collisions of free electrons with the positive ions will be more
as compared to a shorter one. Therefore, a longer conductor offers more resistance.
• In fact, the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length 𝒍 of the conductor i.e.,
𝑹∝𝒍
• If the length of wire of same radius is doubled, the resistance of the wire gets doubled.

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 3. Dependence on the thickness of conductor :
• In a thick conductor, electrons get a larger area of cross section to flow as compared to a thin
conductor, therefore a thick conductor offers a less resistance.
• The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross section 𝒂, normal to the
direction of flow of current i.e.,
𝟏
𝑹∝𝒂.

• If the radius of wire of same length is doubled (or area of cross section becomes four times), its
resistance becomes one- fourth.
• If the radius is tripled (or area of cross section becomes nine times), the resistance becomes one-
ninth and so on.

4. Dependence on the temperature of conductor :

• With the increase in temperature of a conductor, the random motion of electrons increases. As a
result, the number of collisions of electrons with the positive ions increases. Hence, the resistance
of conductor increases with an increase in its temperature.
• The resistance of filament of a bulb is more when it is glowing (i.e., when it is at a high
temperature) as compared to that when it is not glowing (i.e., when it is cold).

 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph for a conductor at two temperatures :

• Fig. 8.7 shows two straight lines A and B on the 𝑽 − 𝑰 graph for a
conductor at two different temperatures 𝑻𝟏 and 𝑻𝟐 (𝑇 > 𝑇 )
respectively.
• The straight line A is more steeper than the line B because the
resistance of conductor is more at high temperature 𝑻𝟏 than at low
temperature 𝑇 .

 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE (OR RESISTIVITY) : (𝝆)

• Experimentally it has been observed that
1) The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length. i.e.,
𝑹∝𝒍
1) The resistance of a wire varies inversely as the area of cross section of the wire.
𝟏
𝑅∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑹 ∝ 𝝅𝒓𝟐 .

where 𝒓 is the radius of wire.

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 • Combining the above eqns. (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖),
𝒍 𝒍
𝑹∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑅=𝜌 =𝜌
𝒂 𝝅𝒓𝟐

Here 𝝆 is a constant which is called the specific resistance (or resistivity) of the material of the
wire.
• From the above relation (8.16),
𝑹𝒂
Specific resistance → 𝝆 =
𝒍

• If 𝑰 = 𝟏, 𝒂 = 𝟏 then 𝝆 = 𝑹. Thus, Specific resistance of a material is the resistance of a wire of

that material of unit length and unit area of cross section.

 Unit of specific resistance :

×
• Unit of 𝜌 =

×
= = 𝒐𝒉𝒎 × 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝒐𝒓 𝜴 𝒎) .

 Factors affecting the specific resistance :

• The specific resistance of a substance is different for different substances. It is

 very low for metals (≈ 10 𝛺 𝑚),

 low for semiconductor (≈ 10 𝛺 𝑚),

 but very high for insulators.
• The specific resistance of a substance depends on its temperature.
 for metals : it increases with the increase in temperature, but
 for semiconductors : it decreases with the increase in temperature.
 For some alloys e.g. constantant, manganin : it remains practically constant with change in
temperature.

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  Notes :
 The specific resistance of material of a conductor is constant at a given temperature and it does
not depend on the shape and size of the conductor.
• If a given wire is stretched such that its length gets doubled, then its area of cross section will get
halved (since the volume remains unchanged). Now the resistance will increase to four times of its
previous value.
( )
𝑅 = 𝜌( / )
= = 4𝑅

• Similarly, if the length is increased to three times by stretching the wire, its resistance becomes
nine times of its previous value.
( )
𝑅 = 𝜌( / )
= = 9𝑅

• On the other hand, if a wire is doubled on itself, its length is halved and area of cross section is
doubled, so the resistance becomes one- fourth of its previous value.
(/ )
𝑅 =𝜌( )
= = .

• But in each case, specific resistance is unchanged.

 Conductivity :
• The reciprocal of specific resistance is known as conductivity.
• It is represented by the symbol 𝝈 (sigma).
• Thus conductivity,

𝜎= = =

𝟏
• Its S.I. unit is 𝒐𝒉𝒎 × 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 or 𝒐𝒉𝒎 𝟏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝟏
(symbol 𝜴 𝟏 𝒎 𝟏) or 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝟏
.

 CHOICE OF MATERIAL OF A WIRE :

• The choice of material of a wire depends on the purpose for which the wire is to be used.

1) The wires used for electrical connections and for power transmission :
• Such wires should possess negligible resistance. Due to low (or negligible) resistance of connection
wires, the current in circuit remains unaffected, and the loss of energy due to heating is
prevented.
• Hence they are made of materials such as copper or aluminium, whose specific resistance is very
small.
• Further they are made thick so that their resistance becomes low.
• Note : Though specific resistance of silver is less than that of copper, but because of its high cost,
silver is not used.

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 2) The resistance wires (or standard resistors) :
• Such wires are of high resistance and their resistance almost does not change due to change in
temperature.
• They are made from alloys such as manganin, constantan, etc. for which the specific resistance is
high and the effect of change in temperature on their resistance is negligible.

3) A fuse wire :
• It is made from an alloy of lead and tin because its melting point is low and its specific resistance is
more than that of copper or aluminium.
• So that the resistance of a short and thin fuse wire is → high to the extent that it permits current
up to its safe limit to pass through it. An excessive current melts it so that it blows off.

4) The filament of an electric bulb :

• A tungsten wire is used because it has a high melting point.

5) The heating element in appliances such as heater, toaster, oven, etc. :

• A nichrome wire is used because the specific resistance of nichrome is high and its resistance
increases to a great extent with the increase in temperature.

 SUPERCONDUCTORS :
• Experimentally it is observed that the resistance of some substances like tin, lead, etc. decreases
tremendously with the decrease in temperature and becomes almost zero in the low temperature
range near absolute zero. Such substances are called the superconductors.
• Zero resistance of a superconductor means its infinite conductivity (i.e., once a current starts
flowing in a superconductor, it persists even when there is no potential difference across it).
• Thus A superconductor is a substance of zero resistance (or infinite conductance) at a very low
temperature.
Examples :
• Mercury below 4.2 K, lead below 7.25 K and niobium below 9.2 K are the superconductors.
• The superconductors are not in common use since it is very difficult to achieve such a low
temperature.
• However they can be very useful if it is possible to obtain them at room temperature. The size of
computers could then be reduced to a few centimetre and power lines could then be made as thin
as a single wire.

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