Unit VI

Atmosphere

Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere Students must be able to
6.3 Temperature and Heat Budget • Understand the composition and
6.4 Atmospheric Pressure and nature of atmospheric layers.
Winds • Understand the vertical and
6.5 Humidity, Condensation and horizontal distribution of
Clouds temperature in the atmosphere.
6.6 Air Masses and Fronts • Explain the mechanism of formation
6.7 Precipitation of various wind systems of the world.
6.8 Atmospheric Disturbances • Identify various forms and types of
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone)
precipitation.

6.1 Introduction moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and

other elements. Weather is highly variable
You must have heard people, in the
from time to time, day to day and place to
countryside, saying
place. Weather is not constant. It is always
“When sheep collect and huddle, changing within hours or a day.
Tomorrow will puddle!” On the other hand, climate is the
“If ants march in a straight line, average weather conditions of an area
expect rain” for a long period of time. The World
Phrases like ‘a cold morning’, ‘sunny day’, Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
‘cloudy day’ and rainy day refer to the weather. has suggested data for a period of 30
Weather refers to the state of atmosphere at consecutive years to be referred for
a particular place at any given time denoting calculating the climatic averages of various
the short term variations of atmosphere weather elements. Climate is constant. It
in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, is a permanent condition of a place.

140
 The ancient Greeks called the tilt of
latitude as ‘klima’, literally meaning ‘slope’ 1% Other gases
or ‘inclination’. Then the earth was divided
21% Oxygen
into seven latitudinal regions, called
‘klimata’. The word came into modern 78% Nitrogen
European languages as clime or ‘climate’,
denoting the average weather condition.
Figure 6.1 Components of Atmosphere
6.2 Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is essential for the surface. Water vapour, aerosols and tiny
survival of all the organisms on the earth. solid particles occur in varying quantities as
The atmosphere is a blanket of gases suspended material. These are responsible
and suspended particles that entirely for weather phenomena as they have ability
envelope the earth. It extends outward over to absorb and release heat energy.
thousands of kilometres from the earth’s

Figure 6.2 Structure of the Atmosphere

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 The atmosphere is composed of mixture approximately to a height of 8 km from
of many gases, water vapour and other the poles and 18 km from the equator.
solid particles. The major components The height of the troposphere changes
are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and seasonally also. It increases during
other gases (1%). Argon, Carbon dioxide, summer and decreases during winter.
Neon and the other gases found in the All weather phenomena occur in this
atmosphere (Figure 6.1). layer as it has dust particles and water
6.2.1 Layers of the Atmosphere vapour. This layer has clouds which
produce precipitation on the earth. The
The atmosphere is divided into five Sun’s rays directly fall on the earth and
distinct layers (Figure.6.2) based on the then they are reflected back into the
temperature variations. They are, atmosphere. The temperature decreases in
1. Troposphere the troposphere with increase in altitude
2. Stratosphere at the rate of 1 qC for 165 metre or 6.5 qC
3. Mesosphere for every 1000 metres of ascent. This is
known as lapse rate of temperature. This
4. Ionosphere( Thermosphere) and
is the densest layer as it contains 70 to
5. Exosphere
80 percent of gases. The outer boundary
Troposphere of the troposphere is called tropopause,
The troposphere( Figure 6.2) is the lower which is about 1.5 kilmeter thick.
most layer of the atmosphere. It extends

km
60 mesosphere

48
upper limit for
military jet aircraft
22mi(35km)
40 ozone layer
Weather ballons
11-19mi(18-30)
stratosphere
31
passenger airplane
thunderstorm cloud 8mi(13km)
up to 8mi(13km)
19
Mount Everest
5.5mi(8.8km)
10
troposphere

Figure 6.3 Stratosphere

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Stratosphere to a height of 400 km. The temperature
It is the second layer of the atmosphere increases rapidly up to 1,0008C. It is due
found above the troposphere. It to the absorption of very short wave and
approximately extends up to a height high energy solar radiation by the atoms
of 50 km from the earth’s surface. of hydrogen and oxygen gases. When light
Temperature is constant up to a height of energy is transformed into heat energy,
20 km and increases gradually up to the some gas molecules lose or gain electrons
stratopause where temperature is nearly and become the charged particles called
-4qC. The lower part of this layer is highly ions. The charged particles forming the
concentrated with ozone gas which is lower part of the thermosphere as a zone,
called as ‘ozonosphere’. It prevents the is called Ionosphere (Figure 6.4). These
ultra-violet rays from the Sun to enter ionised particles create auroras at higher
into the lower part of the atmosphere latitudes. Ionosphere can reflect radio
as the rays are highly harmful it causes waves back to the earth. This facilitates long
skin cancer and other ill effects to living distance wireless satellite communication.
organisms. But the ozone layer safeguards The credit of discovering ionosphere goes
the life on the earth. to Hennelly and Heaviside.
Mesosphere Exosphere
The mesosphere is the third layer of the The upper most layer of the atmosphere
atmosphere found approximately up to which extends into the outer space from
a height of 85 km above the surface of above 400 km up to 1600km. It has rarefied
the earth. It is the coldest layer of the contents. It contains mainly oxygen and
atmosphere. The temperature decreases hydrogen atoms. These atoms can travel
with increase of altitude due to the hundreds of kilometres without colliding
absence of ozone. Its upper boundary is with one another. Thus, the exosphere has no
called mesopause where temperature longer behaves like a gas. The temperature
reaches 2908C. Luminous noctilucent increases with increase of altitude and it
clouds form here due to the presence ranges as high as 1650 qC. The gravitational
of cosmic dust. Meteors falling from pull is minimal in this layer. This layer
the space get burned in this layer. It is gradually merges with the space.
because when meteors hit the air, the air
Ozone and Ozone Depletion
gets compressed and heated up causing
meteors to burn out. Ozone (O3) is form of oxygen that
combines three atoms into each molecule.
HOTS It absorbs and filters the harmful
ultraviolet B radiation coming from the
Why is Mesosphere the coldest layer? sun. This way the ozone layer protects all
life on earth. However, ozone is harmful
Ionosphere (Thermosphere) when it develops near the ground. It
causes health problems like asthma and
The ionosphere is the fourth layer of the
other respiratory illness.
atmosphere extending approximately up
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 above Hubble Space telescope
level
kilometres 600 km (370 mi)
(km) exosphere
h
480

aurora

thermosphere

meteors

low orbit
lo
space shuttle
185km (115mi)

80
50 mesosphere
stratosphere
10

Troposphere
Ozone layer
Figure 6.4 Thermosphere

Ozone Depletion: A steady decline in Ozone depletion occurs when chloro

the concentration of ozone in the earth’s fluoro carbon (CFC) and halon gases,
stratosphere (the ozone layer) is called formerly found in aerosol spray cans
ozone depletion. and refrigerants are released into the

144
atmosphere and they cause chemical to produce the ozone hole in Antarctic
reactions that break down ozone springtime.
molecules and reduce the concentration of Satellite images of the earth over last
them. Nitrogen oxide released by emitted decades observed that the atmospheric
by supersonic aircrafts can also destroy ozone layer is getting thinner. On October
the ozone molecules to break down. 2, 2015, the ozone hole was recorded to
Ozone-depleting substances are present its maximum size of 28.2 million sq.km
throughout the stratospheric ozone over Antarctica (Figure 6.5). The size of
layer because they are transported great the ozone hole is larger than the size of
distances by atmospheric air motions. continent of North America. The ozone
The severe depletion of the Antarctic holes over Antarctica allow the ultraviolet
ozone layer known as the “ozone hole” radiation to enter and cause global
occurs because of the special atmospheric warming, skin cancer, eye cataract and
and chemical conditions that exist there even blindness.
and nowhere else on the globe. The very Depletion of the ozone layer has
low winter temperatures in the Antarctic consequences on human, animal, plants
stratosphere cause polar stratospheric and micro organisms. This typically
clouds (PSCs) to form. Special reactions results from higher UV levels reaching
that occur on PSCs, combined with the us on earth. Research confirms that high
relative isolation of polar stratospheric levels of UV rays cause non-melanoma
air, allow chlorine and bromine reactions skin cancer.

UV 1. UV causes a
F F chlorine atom
CFC molecule
C C to break way from
the CFC molecule.
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Cl

Stratosphere
Cl Cl
O O
O O
Cl O Cl
free chlorine O O O O
O free chlorine

O3-ozone ClO2- chlorine O2- oxygen free oxygen CIO-chlorine O2- oxygen
monoxide molecule from stratosphere monoxide molecule

2. The free chorine 3. The chlorine atom 4. A free oxygen atom 5. The result is
atom hits an ozone plus one oxygen atom hits the chlorine another free chlorine
molecule. away. monoxide molecule. atom.
6. Free chlorine will continue to deplete ozone in the stratosphere.

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 To protect the ozone layer for our Terrestrial radiation supplies more heat
future generation, avoid using products energy to the atmosphere due to its long
which are emitting pollutants such as wave length.
aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams b. Conduction
and packing materials, as solvents and as
The heat energy from the earth’s surface is
refrigerants.
transferred to the lower atmosphere which
is directly in contact with the surface by
The Dobson Unit
the process of conduction.
(DU) is the unit of
measurement for total c. Convection and advection
ozone. The movement of air molecules in vertical
and horizontal direction is called as
‘convection and advection’ respectively. This
movement carries heat energy to the various
parts of the earth and at different altitudes.
Heat budget
The heat energy reflected, absorbed and
radiated back into the space equals the
energy received by the earth. Incoming
radiation and the outgoing radiation
pass through the atmosphere. The earth
maintains its optimum temperature.
When 100% solar radiation reaches
the earth’s atmosphere, 35% is reflected
back to space by clouds, water bodies and
Figure 6.5 Spread of Ozone hole ice covered areas. This heat does not heat
either the earth or atmosphere.
6.3 Temperature and Heat Budget Of the remaining 65% of heat, 14%
Air temperature of a particular place are absorbed by the atmosphere and
denotes the degree of hotness or coldness 51% are absorbed by the earth’s surface
of air at a given place. It is measured in (34% of direct solar radiation and 17%
Celsius. Let us understand how the earth from scattered radiation). 51% received
is heated. The surface of the earth is by the earth are radiated back to the
heated by the sun’s rays in the form of space directly as terrestrial radiation
short wave radiation. The heat received (Figure 6.6).
by the earth is called ‘Solar Radiation’ or In total, 17% are radiated to space
‘Insolation’. Heating of atmosphere is an directly and 48% are absorbed by the
indirect process. The processes are: atmosphere ( 14% from insolation and 34%
from terrestrial radiation) are radiated
a. Terrestrial radiation
back to space gradually. Therefore, 65%
The solar radiation reflected by the earth’s heat received from the sun is balanced
surface is called ‘Terrestrial radiation’.
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 65 units radiated back to space 35 units lost even before reaching
(34+14 radiated by atmosphere the earth’s surface Albedo
+17 by land of earth
bed 6 + 27 + 2
its absor Reflected by
n
34 u osphere
17 radiated to space
atmosphere
d
at m rbe
by so
ab ere
ts h
uni osp
14 atm
by
Total 100 units of heat received from sun

51 units absorbed
by Earth’s surface
Heat Budget
Figure 6.6 Heat Budget

by the 65% radiated by the earth. This

balance between the incoming and the The average time
outgoing heat energy is called the global taken by the solar
heat energy balance. radiation to reach
the earth’s surface is
Distribution of Temperature 8 minutes 20 seconds.
Distribution of temperature varies both
horizontally and vertically. Let us study it 6.3.1 Factors Affecting the Horizontal
under Distribution of Temperature
a. Horizontal Distribution of
The horizontal distribution of temperature
Temperature
on the earth’s surface varies from place to
b. Vertical Distribution of Temperature place. Following are the factors affecting
A) Horizontal Distribution of the horizontal distribution of temperature
Temperature of the earth:
Distribution of temperature across the a. Latitude: The angle formed by the
latitudes over the surface of the earth solar radiation to the ground is
is called horizontal distribution of called ‘angle of incidence’. The solar
temperature. On maps, the horizontal radiation passes vertically along
distribution of temperature is commonly the equator. The angle of incidence
shown by isotherms. Isotherms are line decreases from equator towards the
connecting points that have an equal poles. The area heated by the solar
temperature at mean sea level. radiation increases towards the poles
and therefore, temperature decreases
from the equator to the poles.

147
b. Distribution of land and water: Land of land cover. The more reflection
is heated and cooled at a faster rate from the snow surface leads to low
due the conduction process whereas temperature accumulation. But the
water is heated and cooled at slower dense forest, which reflects less heat
rate due to convection process. Water energy and absorbs more heat energy,
takes 2.5 times of heat energy to heat leads to higher temperature.
a unit area compared to land. Thus, g. Mountain barriers: If a wind or air
the land will have higher temperature mass blows towards the mountain,
than the water in summer and vice it influences the distribution of
versa during the winter. So more temperature on either side of the
land mass in northern hemisphere mountain.
(15.28C) leads to higher average For example, polar easterlies and blizzards
temperature than the southern are obstructed by Himalayas in Asia and
hemisphere (13.38C). Alps in Europe respectively. This leads to
c. Ocean currents: Warm ocean lower temperature in the northern slopes
currents carry warm water from the and higher temperature in the southern
tropical region towards the poles slopes of the respective mountains.
and increase the temperature while
cold ocean currents carry cold water 6.3.2 Factors Affecting the Vertical
from Polar Regions and reduce the Distribution of Temperature
temperature along the coasts. We all know that the temperature
d. Prevailing winds: Warm winds like decreases with increasing altitude from
trade wind and westerly, that carry the surface of the earth. The vertical
higher heat energy, increase the decrease in temperature of troposphere is
temperature while cold polar easterlies called as ‘Normal Lapse Rate’ or ‘vertical
carry lower heat energy from polar temperature (Figure 6.7) gradient’ at
region reduces the temperature. which the temperature reduces at the rate
e. Cloudiness: The cloudy sky obstructs of 6.5 8C per 1000 meter of ascent. This is
the solar radiation from the sun to influenced by the following factors:
earth and reduces the temperature. a. Amount of terrestrial radiation
But the clear sky during the day reaching the altitude and
allows more solar radiation to reach b. Density of air to absorb the heat
the earth’s surface and increases energy at higher altitude.
the temperature. Meanwhile clear As both the above said factors decrease with
sky at night allows more terrestrial altitude, the temperature also decreases
radiation to escape. For example, (Figure 6.5).
the tropical hot deserts experience
higher temperature at day and lower
temperature at night.
f. Nature of the surface: The reflection
from surface varies based on the nature

148
 c. Dry air near the surface: the dry air
Cold air absorbs less terrestrial radiation and
Warm air
allows them to escape into space.
d. Snow covered ground: During night,
Warm air Cold air Sm
og due to terrestrial radiation and higher
albedo, most of the heat is lost to the
Normal Condition Temperature Inversion
atmosphere and the surface is cooled.
Typical Temperature profile Inversion Temperature profile e. Formation of fronts: the movement of
00C 00C
warm air over the cold air during the
formation of the various fronts leads
Altitude
Altitude

to inversion condition.
f. Mountain wind: The subsidence
of cold mountain wind at the early
Air Temperature Air Temperature
morning leads to the displacement
Figure 6.7 Vertical distribution of of warm air from the valley to higher
Temperature altitude. This type of inversion is
called as ‘valley inversion’.
Student Activity
Albedo is the amount
If the temperature of Chennai (7 m)
of solar radiation
is 348C, calculate the temperature of
reflected from the
Kodaikanal (2133m) using normal
surface. The variation
lapse rate.
is based on the nature of the earth’s
surface. Snow has higher albedo
6.3.3 Inversion of Temperature
compared to forest.
The condition at which the temperature
increases with altitude is called as 6.3.4 Measurements of Temperature
‘inversion of temperature’. In this
Unit of
condition, warm air lies over cold air. Scientist Year
Temperature
The conditions for inversion of Fahrenheit Gabriel Fahrenheit 1714
temperature are: Celsius Andrew Celsius 1742
a. Long winter nights: The bottom layer Kelvin Lord Kelvin 1848
of the atmosphere in contact with the
ground is cooled and the upper layer
remains relatively warm.
b. Cloudless sky: The higher amount
of terrestrial radiation reaches the
higher altitude which leads to lower
temperature at low level due to clear
sky.

149
 rZ one
Pola
Arctic
C ircle
e
te Zon
p era
Tem
Tropic o
SUN f cancer
Equato
r Z one
opical
Tropic o Tr
f Capric
orn
e
te Zon
p era
Antarc Tem
tic Cir
cle
rZ one
Pola

Figure 6.8 Heat Zones

‘Torrid zone’ (Figure 6.8). The sun’s rays

Conversion of Units are vertical throughout the year and it
Celsius to Fahrenheit Ex. 208C, receives maximum insolation. Thus, this
is the hottest zone.
F 5 (C 3 1.8) 1 32 F 5 (20 3 1.8)
1 32, Temperate Zone (23 ½ 8N to 66 ½ 8N
F 5 36 1 32, and 23 ½ 8S to 66 ½ 8S)
F 5 68 The temperate zone lies between the
Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle in
Celsius to Kelvin Ex.208C, the northern hemisphere and the Tropic
K 5 C 1 273.15 k K 5 208 1 273.15k, of Capricorn and Antarctic circle in
K 5 293.150k the southern hemisphere. This region
never experiences over head sun light
6.3.5 Heat Zones of the World but experiences longer days and shorter
nights during summer and vice versa
The earth has been divided into three heat during winter. This region experiences
zones according the amount of insolation moderate temperature and is therefore
received. These are the Torrid Zone, the called as ‘Temperate zone’.
Temperate zone and the Frigid Zone.
Polar Zone (Frigid Zone – 66 ½ 8N to
Torrid Zone ( 23 ½ 8N to 23 ½ 8S)
908N and 66 ½ 8S to 908S )
The zone lying between the Tropic of
cancer and Tropic of Capricorn is called
150
The region between North pole and Global Warming
Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere Global warming is observed in a
and South pole and Antarctic Circle in the centuryscale. The temperature increase
southern hemisphere is called ‘Polar Zone’. over the years has been due to the greenhouse
This region always receives more oblique gas concentration such as carbon dioxide
rays of the sun and so the temperature (CO2), water vapour, methane and ozone.
is very low. It is the coldest zone. This Greenhouse gases are those gases that
region experiences 24 hours of day and contribute to the greenhouse effect. The
night during peak summer and winter largest contributing source of greenhouse
respectively. gas is the burning of fossil fuels leading
to the emission of carbon dioxide from
Annual Temperature : industries, automobiles and domestic.
The average annual
6.3.6 Urban Heat Island (UHI)
temperature of a region
URBAN HEAT ISLAND PROFILE
for a year.
33.3
Mean Annual Temperature: The 32.8
32.2
average of 30 years of annual 31.7
31.7
temperature of the region. 30.6
30.0
Range of Temperature: Difference 29.4
Temp
between highest and lowest 0
C
Urban Suburban
temperature of a place. Rural Commercial
Suburban Residential Residential
Downtown Park
Residential
Annual Range of Temperature: The
difference between highest and lowest Figure 6.9 Urban Heat Island
temperature of a place in a year. An urban heat island is an urban area or
Diurnal range of Temperature: The metropolitan area that is significantly warmer
difference between highest temperature than its surrounding rural area due to high
and lowest temperature of a place in a day. concentration of high rise concrete buildings,
metal roads, sparse vegetation cover and less
exposure of soil. These factors cause urban
From the above discussion, it is clear that
regions to become warmer than their rural
the energy for the earth is from the sun.
surroundings, forming an “island” of higher
Green House Effect: As seen in the
temperatures (Figure. 6.9).
heat budget, the longer wavelengths are
Ways to reduce the impact of urban
absorbed by greenhouse gases in the
heat island:
atmosphere, increases the temperature of
atmosphere. These greenhouse gases act 1. Increase shade around your home:
like a green house and retains some of the Planting trees and other vegetation,
heat energy would otherwise be lost to provides shade and cooling effect
space. The retaining of heat energy by the through evapotranspiration and it
atmosphere is called the ‘greenhouse effect’. lowers the surface and air temperature.
2. Install green and cool roofs.

151
 January July
1024
1020 High
6
101

10 04
10
08
10
2

99
101 India

00
Low

6
India
08
10
1004

1000
1012
Low High 1016

Indian Ocean Indian Ocean

Figure 6.11 Location of High pressure and Low pressure in winter and summer

3. Use energy-efficient appliances and amount of pressure increases or decreases,

equipments. according to the amount of molecules, that
4. Shift all industries away from the exerts the force on the surface.
urban area. When temperature of the air increases,
5. Reduce emission from automobiles. the air expands and reduces the number
of molecules over the unit area. It leads
6.4 Atmospheric Pressure and Winds to reduction in pressure. Similarly, when
Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force the temperature falls, the air contracts
per unit area exerted against a surface by the and the pressure increase. Therefore, the
weight of the air molecules above the earth temperature and atmospheric pressure are
surface. In the Figure below (Figure 6.10), the inversely related.
pressure at point ‘X’ increases as the weight of Atmospheric pressure is measured by
the air increases. The atmospheric pressure is an instrument called ‘Barometer’
not distributed uniformly over the earth. The
6.4.1 Vertical Distribution of
Top of the Atmosphere Atmospheric Pressure
The relationship analysis between
Weight of the air in the column
applles a pressure to point ‘X’ altitude and atmospheric pressure is
very peculiar. The upper atmosphere
is thin and less dense. The pressure at
Surface
sea level is highest and keeps decreasing
rapidly with increasing altitude because
Unit Area
of the progressive reduction of the mass
Figure 6.10 Atmospheric Pressure

152
 Altitude in m Atmospheric pressure in m b
Isobar is an imaginary
Sea level 1013.25
line connecting the
1,000 898.76
places of uniform
2,000 795.01
atmospheric pressure
3,000 701.01
reduced to mean sea level 4,000 616.60
5,000 540.48
above the point where it is measured
10,000 264.0
(Figure 6.12).
Relationship between Standard
Pressure and Altitude Brain Storming
People feel discomfort to breathe
look at how few
atmos are pressing lower
when they go to the places of higher
down on the guy at
the top of the
pressure altitude (mountain sickness). Why?
mountain

6.4.2 Horizontal Distribution of the

Atmospheric Pressure
When the air gets heated it expands,
becomes light and rises vertically. As air
look at all the
atoms pressing
rises, the pressure it exerts on the earth
down on the guy
at the bottom of
surface is reduced, causing a low pressure
higher
the mountain
pressure area (Figure 6.13).
On the other hand, cool air is dense
Figure 6.12 Relationship between
altitude and pressure and heavy. As a consequence it sinks

153
 (B) July

L
H
H
H

H
H H
H

Figure 6.13 Horizontal distribution of temperature

6.4.3 Pressure Belts of the Earth

Coriolis Effect
The atmospheric pressure belts envelope on
The rotation of the earth affects the the surface of the earth. They are equatorial
moving objects on the earth surface. low pressure belt, sub tropical high pressure
Free moving objects, affected by the belts, sub polar low pressure belts and polar
rotation of the earth, do not follow high pressure belts (Figure 6.13).
a straight line. In the northern
hemisphere they drift towards right 6.4.4 Wind Systems
and towards left in the southern
Wind is the horizontal movement of air
hemisphere. A car travelling down
molecules from areas of high pressure
a straight road at 95 km/hr in
to areas of low pressure to maintain
northern hemisphere would drift to
the atmospheric equilibrium. The wind
the right of the path if the friction
always moves perpendicular to isobars. If
between surface and tyre is absent.
the earth did not rotate, the winds would
The tendency is called as Coriolis
blow in a straight path. Then the rotation
Effect as it was discovered by
of the earth results in corilois effect and it
G.G. Coriolis. This is the reason why
deflects the direction of the wind. Wind
racket launching stations are located
direction is identified by an instrument
on the east coastal areas. Example:
called Wind Vane and wind speed is
Sriharihota, French Guyana.
measured by Anemometer.
vertically. It results in additional weight Types of Winds
and pressure which cause a high pressure Winds are classified based on the nature
area to occur on the ground. and area of influence as follows;

154
 Classification of Winds

Surface winds High Altitude winds

Jet streams

Primary winds (Global Secondary winds / Tertiary winds /

winds / Planetary winds / (Seasonal winds / Periodic Local Winds
Permanent winds) Winds / Regional winds)

Trade winds, Westerlies, Monsoons, Cyclones 1. Sea Breeze and Land

Polar Easterlies Breeze
2. Mountain and valley
wind
3. Cold and warm wind
High
Low Low
Low Polar easterlies 600
Polar front
Prevailing
westerlies
High High High High 300 High
Horse latitudes

Ne Trade winds
Sun’s
0
Low Low Low Equatorial doldrums (ITCZ) Low 0 Low
Low Rays

SE Trade winds

High High Horse latitudes High 300

High Prevailing High
westerlies
Low Polar front Low 600
Polar easterlies
Low Low
High

Figure 6.14 Pressure Belts and Primary Winds

6.4.5 General Atmospheric Circulation, totally there are seven belts on the globe.
Pressure Belts and Primary Wind The pressure belts lead to formation
System of primary wind system as follows
From the equator to the poles, each (Figure 6.14):
hemisphere has four pressure belts and a. The equatorial low pressure belt
(between 58oN and 58oS): This
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 is the region of calm, weak and left in northern hemisphere and
changeable winds. Due to the high southern hemisphere respectively.
temperature over this region, the c. The sub polar low pressure belt (50o
air gets heated expands and become to 60o N and S): The warm westerly
lighter and rises upward and creates wind from sub tropical region moves
low pressure over the region. This towards the pole and collide with the
region is a belt of calm and referred cold polar easterly wind from polar
to as the ‘Doldrums’. The winds blow high pressure region and raises up to
from the sub tropical high pressure form sub polar low pressure belt.
belt towards the equatorial low d. Polar high pressure belt (80o N
pressure belt. Due to Coriolis Effect and S to pole): The constant low
these winds are deflected to the right temperature at the poles due to
in the northern hemisphere and to inclined solar radiation and reduced
the left in the southern hemisphere. insolation leads to the formation of
As winds are named after the polar high pressure belt on both poles.
direction from which they originate
they are called as the North East and
Ocean is dominant
South east trade winds. As the winds
in the southern
favoured trading ships they are called
hemisphere between
as ‘Trade winds’.
the latitudes 40º
b. The sub tropical high pressure belt and 60ºS. Hence the westerlies are
(25o to 35o N and S): Air begins to so powerful and persistent that the
cool when it reaches higher altitude sailors used such expressions as
over equatorial region and flows “Roaring Forties”, “Furious Fifties”
towards the poles. This wind collides and “Screeching Sixties” for these
with the wind coming from the polar high velocity winds in the latitudes of
region at higher altitude and subsides 40º, 50º and 60º respectively.
down over sub tropical latitudes. This
leads to formation of high pressure The high pressure on the surface always
belt along the sub tropical region. coincide with the low pressure at higher
It is said that to avoid the slowing altitude while the low pressure on the
down of ship due to high pressure the surface always coincide with higher
horses were thrown into the sea. So pressure on the higher altitude. High
this belt is called as ‘Horse latitude’. pressure always has divergence of air
The sinking air bifurcated in to two masses from the centre but low pressure
branches towards the equator and has convergence of air.
poles, they are called as trade winds
and westerly respectively. Westerlies 6.4.6 Basis of Formation of Pressure
flow towards the pole from sub Belts
tropics and turn towards right and There are two important bases on which
the pressure belts are formed. They are;

156
more heat energy to space during winter
leading to the formation of high pressure If any wind system
above the continent. But the ocean will has all the above
have relatively higher temperature than mentioned characters
the continent leading to formation of of monsoon in one
low pressure system over ocean. So, wind season but absence of at least one
blows from land to sea during the winter in the other season then is called as
season. This mechanism has an important ‘Pseudo monsoon’. The other names
effect on rainfall received over the region. are ‘Monsoon tendency’ or ‘false
monsoon’.
Nature of Monsoon System
There are three distinct characteristics
related to monsoon wind system which Monsoon system is classified into two
differentiates it from other wind systems. groups based on the location. They are;
They are; a. Asian Monsoon
1. Minimum 1608 reversal of wind b. South Asian Monsoon
direction between seasons. a. Asian Monsoon
2. They affect a large part of the continents The Asian monsoon system is divided into
and oceans. two components based on season it flows.
3. The formation of low and high pressure The presence of high temperature with
systems over land and water and their low pressure in the lake Baikal region and
interchange between the seasons. low temperature with high pressure in the
Aleutian islands region leading to flow of
wind from Pacific Ocean to interior part
of Asia during summer is called ‘Summer

Not to scale Not to scale

Figure 6.16 South Asia Monsoon

158
Monsoon of Asia’. This leads to rainfall in and rises over it. The orographic effect by
the east coast of Asia. the Western Ghats results in heavy rainfall
Meanwhile, in winter the low temperature in the windward side and low rainfall in
and high pressure in the Lake Baikal region the leeward side. So the west coast of India
and high temperature and low pressure receives high rainfall when compared to the
in the Aleutian Island region leading to eastern side of the Western Ghats. Kerala
flow of wind from Central Asia to Pacific is the first state to receive rainfall from
Ocean is known as ‘Winter Monsoon of the south west monsoon in India, which
Asia’. As the wind system flows off shore, occurs during first week of June. Then, the
the rainfall does not occur in the continent wind gradually moves towards the north
of Asia except western coast of Japan. of the western coast and leads to gradual
development of the monsoon in parts of
b. South Asian Monsoon
Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, Gujarat
South Asian Monsoon includes the and Rajasthan. The wind further advances
countries in the southern part of towards foot hill of the Himalayas and
Himalayas, that is India, Pakistan, creates orographic rainfall in the Himalayan
Bangladesh, Sri lanka, Maldives, Nepal states, Punjab and Haryana. The other part
and Bhutan. This monsoon system has of the Arabian Sea branch moves towards
been classified into two groups based on the east and results in onset of monsoon
the direction of origin of wind namely in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Here, it unites
south west monsoon and north east with the Bay of Bengal branch and leads to
monsoon (Figure 6.16). heavy rainfall and flood.
South West Monsoon Bay of Bengal Branch
During summer the Indian peninsula is Bay of Bengal branch flows from south west
heated more than the sea around it. Intense which results in orographic rainfall in Sri
low pressure is formed in the region of Lanka and reaches Andaman and Nicobar
Peshawar of Pakistan. At the same time, Islands and results in orographic rainfall.
the Indian Ocean has higher pressure due Indira point in the Great Nicobar is the first
to relatively low temperature. So the wind place which receives rainfall during south
blows from Indian Ocean towards South west monsoon in India during middle of
Asia as Southeast Winds. The wind turns May. The wind flows parallel to the east coast
towards right due to Coriolis Effect and of India and Eastern Ghats. So Coromandel
blows as south west winds which bring Coast of India doesn’t get enough rainfall
heavy rains around four months of the during south west monsoon. The wind
year. This is known as south west monsoon strikes Arakanyoma Mountain in Myanmar
in Indian Sub continent. This wind system and results in heavy rainfall in western coast
bifurcates into two branches as Arabian of Myanmar. The wind funnels towards
Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch. north eastern part of India after deflected
Arabian Sea Branch by the Arakanyoma Mountain in Myanmar.
The Arabian Sea branch strikes the This wind strikes Meghalaya plateau which
Western Ghats at perpendicular direction leads to heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and

159
North eastern part of India. Mawsynram, The south west monsoon gradually
the wettest place (highest annual rainfall) in withdraws from south Asian continent due
the world, is located in the windward side of to apparent movement of the Sun towards
Meghalaya plateau. the southern hemisphere. This is called as
The wind further advances towards ‘Withdrawal of South West Monsoon’.
the Himalayas where it creates heavy North East Monsoon
rainfall in the southern slopes. This leads During winter the Indian Subcontinent
to flood in River Brahmaputra. The wind becomes colder than the Indian Ocean.
gradually moves towards the west and As a result the wind blows from Northeast
results in onset of monsoon in Bhutan, to South West direction. This is dry wind
Sikkim, West Bengal, Nepal and Bihar. It system and it does not produce rainfall in
joins with Arabian Sea branch in Bihar the coastal region of south Asia except the
and results in heavy rainfall and flood. Coromandel Coast of India and Sri Lanka.

Mawsynram, world’s wettest place!

‘’It was the kind of rain you wouldn’t see anywhere else. We could barely see four feet
ahead of us. We could touch the clouds, smell the clouds, and taste the clouds’’ said a
local resident. Yes, it is about Mawsynram which is located in Meghalaya’s East Khasi
Hills, with the cluster of about 1,000 homes. It holds the Guinness Record for “the
wettest place on earth”. The average annual rainfall is 11,861mm, according to the
Guinness website.

However, the soil in the limestone plateau doesn’t absorb water. “There is barely
any forest cover, so a lot of erosion of top soil happens. All of it flows down into
Bangladesh. The irony is that “the wettest place on earth” grapples with an acute water
shortage after monsoon ends around October. Hence, people call world’s rainiest
place Mawsynram, which is also world’s wettest desert.

160
 L H
H Warm L Cool
Cool Warm

Figure 6.17 Sea breeze and Land breeze

This is known as North East Monsoon or

Retreating Monsoon in South Asia. Sea breeze and land
breeze influence the
Agriculture in India mostly depends
movement of boats
on the rainfall brought by the monsoons.
near the coastal
During the El Nino year the temperature region and fisher men use these
of the ocean water increases. This weakens winds for their daily fish catching.
the high pressure over Indian Ocean thereby Fishermen go for fishing at early
reduces the strength of south west monsoon morning along the land breeze and
over south Asia. However during winter, return to the shore in the evening
it induces the low pressure over the ocean with the sea breeze.
resulting in severe depressions and cyclones.
Mountain and Valley Breezes
6.4.9 Tertiary Winds
A valley breeze develops during the day
The tertiary winds are formed due to pressure as the sun heats the land surface and air at
gradients which may develop on a local the valley bottom and sides. As the air gets
scale because of differences in the heating
and cooling of the earth’s surface. Mountain and valley
Sea and Land Breezes wind systems influence
the weather pattern of
During daytime, land heats up much faster
the mountain top and
than water. The air over the land warms
valley bottom. Mountain top can be
and expands leading to form low pressure.
seen clearly at early morning and valley
At the same time, the air over the ocean
bottom at evening. But mountain top
becomes cool because of water’s slower
will be covered with clouds at evening
rate of heating and results in formation
due to rising of valley wind system and
of high pressure. Air begins to blow
valley bottom would be covered by
from high pressure over ocean to the low
clouds at early morning due to arrival
pressure over the land. This is called as
of mountain wind system. These clouds
‘Sea breeze’. During night time, the wind
are sometimes called as ‘fog’ which is
blows from land to sea and it is called as
used for cultivation in the dry regions
‘Land breeze’ (Figure 6.17).
like Yemen.

161
 Cold Cold

Cold

Cold Warm
Warm
Warm

Warm

Figure 6.18 Mountain and Valley breeze

N

W E
Buran
S
Karaburan
Chinook Helm
Nor’easter Bora
NORTH Blizzards
AMERICA Mistral EUROPE
Levant Etesians ASIA
Norther Fohn
Norte
Sirocco
Khamsin
Harmattan
Haboob
(non-Directional)
SOUTH
AFRICA
AMERICA
Berg AUSTRALIA
Pampero Brickfielder
Southerly

Not to scale

Figure 6.19 Local winds of the world

heated it becomes less dense and begins Fohn: Warm dry southerly off the
to blow gently up the valley sides. This is northern side of the Alps and Switzerland.
called as ‘valley wind’. This process reverses Harmattan: Dry northerly wind across
at night leading to blow of wind from central Africa
mountain top to valley bottom referred to Karaburan: ‘Black storm’ a spring and
as ‘mountain wind’ (Figure 6.18). summer katabatic wind of central Asia
Local Winds Khamsin: South easterly from North
Local wind systems influence the weather Africa to the eastern Mediterranean
pattern where ever they blow (Figure 6.19). Loo: Hot and dry wind which blows
Some important local winds are; over plains of India and Pakistan.
Bora: North easterly from eastern Mistral: Cold northerly from central
Europe to north eastern Italy France and the Alps to Mediterranean.
Chinook: Warm dry westerly off the
Rocky Mountains

162
they are called as ‘Circum polar wind system’ cyclones formed over Mediterranean
(Figure 6.20). Sea during winter towards India.
Although the jet streams flow at higher These clouds piles up on the
altitude they also influences the surface Himalayas and results in rainfall over
weather pattern of the Earth. the states of Punjab and Haryana. This
assists in the cultivation of wheat in
Jet streams were India.
discovered during the 6. Development of super cyclone: The
Second World War condition at which the speed of the
as the jet pilots felt jet stream is transferred to tropical
the strong obstruction in the higher cyclone may leads to development of
altitudes. super cyclone.

The Major impacts of Jet streams 6.5 Humidity, Condensation and

1. Creation of Polar vortex: Polar Clouds
westerly jet stream will carry cold Humidity is the amount of water vapour
polar air masses towards temperate in the atmosphere. Temperature of the
region which creates severe cold waves air controls the capacity of the air to
in North America and Eurasia during hold moisture. The maximum amount of
winter. moisture that can be hold by the air in the
2. Sudden burst of South west monsoon: particular temperature is called as Humidity
Sudden withdrawal of polar westerly Capacity. As the volume increases with the
jet stream from Indian sub continent temperature of the air, it can hold more
to northern part of Pamir, leads to moisture. So, humidity capacity increases
sudden burst of South west monsoon with temperature. It is measured as weight
into Indian Sub continent. of humidity or volume of the air.
3. Late and early monsoon in South Humidity of the air can be expressed in
Asia: Rate of with drawl of polar the following ways.
westerly jet stream decides the onset of a. Absolute Humidity: This measures
south west monsoon. Slower and faster the total amount of water vapour
rate of with drawl leads to late and present in the air at particular time.
early onset of south west monsoon. It is highly variable based on the
4. Intensity of monsoon rainfall: The surface on which the air moves. It
arrival of tropical easterly jet stream is measured as weight of humidity/
influences the intensity of south west volume of the air.
monsoon. This leads to increasing
intensity of rainfall during south west
Hygrometer is used to
monsoon.
measure the relative
5. Bringing rainfall to India by western
humidity of a region.
disturbances: Polar westerly jet
stream carries rainy clouds from
164
 b. Relative Humidity (RH %): This
is the ratio of Absolute humidity
and humidity capacity in term of WARM
MOIST
percentage. It reveals the condition of AIR
air to get saturated. This is controlled COLD
WATER
by both temperature and moisture
content of the air. The condition is
CONDENSATION
that when the temperature increases
RH% decreases. But when absolute
humidity increases RH% increases.

6.5.1 Process of Condensation

Condensation is the change of the Figure 6.21 Process of Condensation
physical state of water vapour (gas
state) into water (liquid state). The Student Activity
following process explains mechanism of
The cup filled with ice cubes has tiny
condensation in the atmosphere.
water droplets on its outer surface
If an air reaches 100% relative (Figure 6.21). Identify why.
humidity, it means that the air is
completely filled with moisture content.
It indicates that both the absolute The moisture in the atmosphere is
humidity and the humidity capacity of based on the following processes:
the air are in same level. This condition a. Evaporation – Water changes
is called ‘saturation of air’ which can be from liquid state to gaseous
attained by reducing the temperature (vapour) state.
of the air or increasing the moisture b. Transpiration – Water state changes
content. The temperature at which the from liquid in to (gas) vapour state
air gets saturated is called as ‘dew point’. due to the activity of plants.
The RH crosses the 100% when the
c. Evapotranspiration – This
temperature of the air drops below its dew
denotes that the total amount
point. This condition is called as ‘super
of (liquid) water state changed
saturation’ of the air. In this condition
in to (gas) vapour state due to
the air releases the excess moisture out
evaporation and the activity of
of it in the form of tiny water droplets
plants transpiration.
which floats and form clouds in the
atmosphere.
6.5.2 Clouds and its Types
If the same process occurs on the
Clouds are tiny water droplets suspended
surface of the earth, it is called as ‘fog’ or
in the air formed due to the condensation.
cloud on the ground.

165
 Common types of clouds in the troposphere

Cirrus
Cirrocumulus aabove
bove
b 5,486 metres
ove 5,486 me
(mackeral sky)
above 5,486 metres

Al
A ltostratu
Altostratususs
11,828-6,09
,828
828
828-666,09
0996 m
1,828-6,096 e
metres
Altocumulus
1,828-6,096 metres

Stratocumulus Cumulus
Below 1,828 metres Stratus Below 1,828 metres
Below 1,828 metres

Figure 6.22 Types of Clouds

iv. Altocumulus (Alt-Cu): These are

Isonephs – The imaginary line woolly, bumpy clouds arranged
connecting the places having equal in layers appearing like waves in
amount of cloudiness. the blue sky. They indicate fine
weather.
The clouds can be classified based on their
v. Altostratus (Alt-St): These are
form, height and appearance as follows:
denser and have watery look.
(Figure 6.22)
c. Low Clouds: Mainly Stratus or sheet
a. High clouds: Mainly cirrus (Ci)
clouds below 2 km height.
which are feathery form at 6 km above
the ground. vi. Stratocumulus (St-Cu): This is
rough and bumpy clouds with wavy
i. Cirrus (Ci) – This looks fibrous
structure.
and appears as wisps cotton in the
blue sky. It indicates fair weather vii. Stratus (St): This is very low cloud,
and gives brilliant sun set. uniformly grey and thick, appears
like highland fog. It brings dull
ii. Cirro Cumulus (Cc) – This appears
weather and light drizzle. It reduces
as white globular masses, forming
the visibility and is a hindrance to
a mackerel sky.
air transportation.
iii. Cirro Stratus (Cs) – This resembles
viii. Nimbostratus (Ni-St): This is dark
a thin white sheet. The sky looks
dull cloud, clearly layered, as it
milky and the sun and moon shines
brings rain, snow and sleet and it is
through this clouds and form a ‘halo’.
called as rainy cloud.
b. Middle Clouds: Mainly Alto (Alt)
d. Clouds with vertical extent: These
clouds at 2 km to 6 km above the
are mainly cumulus clouds whose
ground.
166
 Condensation

precipitation
Su
rfa
ce
ru

Transpiration
no
ff

Evaporation
Percolation Lake
Water Streamflow
table
Ocean

Groundwater flow

Figure 6.24 Hydrological cycle

heights extend from 2 km to 10 km

approximately.
ix. Cumulus (Cu): This is vertical
cloud with rounded top and
horizontal base, associated with
convectional process in the
tropical region. It also called as
‘fair weather cloud’.
x. Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): This
is over grown cumulus cloud
Figure 6.23 Smog at New Delhi
with great vertical extent, with
black and white globular mass.
The cauliflower top spreads like Student Activity
an anvil. This is formed due to Collect the information regarding the
heavy convection in the tropical smog in the cities of London (Great
regions. It is accompanied by London Smog), Bhopal, Beijing and
lightning, thunder and heavy New Delhi.
rainfall. Identify the precautionary steps to
be followed in the regions of smog.

167
6.5.3 Fog, Mist and Smog which is more hazardous to the health
• ‘Fog’ is defined as almost microscopic of the people.
droplets of water condensed from 6.5.4 Hydrological Cycle
super saturated air and suspended over
or near the surface of the earth. Fogs Continuous movement of water among the
reduce the visibility to less than 1 km. three spheres is known as Hydrological
Fog occurs during calm or light wind Cycle. Hydrological cycle involves
conditions. It is more common in the evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
areas near to the ocean due to the supply advection, interception, evapo-
of more moisture by sea breeze. In the transpiration, infiltration, percolation
interior of the continents fog is formed and runoff to the ocean (Figure 6.24).
due to reduction of temperature to Evaporation is the process by
extreme low during the winter nights. which water in liquid state changes into
vapour state using heat energy from
• If the fog has higher visibility due to
Sun. Evaporation is maximum when the
lesser water drops near the surface it is
temperature is high, on the large expanse
termed as ‘mist’.
of water and when dry winds blow over
• In large industrial areas the air is more water surface.
polluted. If the fog forms in that area Condensation is the process by which
it mixes with the pollutants and turns water vapour cools to form water droplet
into smog (smoke 1 fog 5 smog) by loosing temperature. The condensation
occurs when dew point is reached in the
atmosphere.

W E

Not to scale

Figure 6.25 Types of air masses

168
 Warm air
Cold air Warm air

Cold air

Figure 6.26 Types of fronts

Precipitation is the process by which Sahara desert, Siberia, the Great Plain
all forms of water particles fall from the of North America, Northern Plain of
atmosphere and reach the ground. Europe, Western Australia, Antarctica,
Green Land, Arctic Ocean, Northern and
The rain drop Southern Pacific, Atlantic Oceans are
that falls may get favourable locations as source region for
evaporated before it air masses.
reaches the ground in
6.6.1 The air masses can be classified
an extremely arid region.
based on the following factors;
a. Latitude - Tropical(T) and Polar (P)
6.6 Air Masses and Fronts air masses
The study of air mass is very important b. Nature of the surface – Continent (c)
part of Meteorology. Air always takes and marine (m) air masses
some of the properties of the area over c. Temperature – warm (w) and Cold (k)
which it lies. This parcel of air may remain air masses
stationary for several days and develops d. Stability – stable (s) and unstable (u)
its own characteristics. Under this air masses
situation, the air becomes recognisable as
Air masses normally migrate from their
an air mass.
source region to other regions, which have
An air mass is defined as ‘an immense different surface properties, mostly along
body of air several kilometres in length with primary winds. As the air masses move
and breadth and thickness which is out from their source regions, they not only
characterised by homogeneous physical modify the weather of the areas they occupy,
properties (like temperature, moisture) in but also modify themselves according to
horizontal direction at any level’. the surface over which it moves.
Such an extensive portion of the
surface area over which air mass has 6.6.2 Fronts
acquired its qualities is called as ‘Air
mass source region’. The source region When two air masses with different
may be land or water body. For example, physical characters meet, there is usually

169
the earth. In order to fall as rain drop or Fact File
snow, the tiny drop lets in a cloud must
Cloud Seeding or Artificial
grow larger. The droplets accumulate
Rainfall
over the nuclei and combine to grow large
enough to fall and reach the surface of the People have always wanted to create
earth due to gravity. rain, so that they would not suffer from
drought. Modern science has been
If the drop is smaller it falls slowly so that
successful in causing rain in a limited
it evaporates before it reaches the ground.
way through cloud seeding. This
Ice crystals in cloud also cause precipitation.
method is based on the knowledge of
Each ice crystal grows by cooling so that they
growing ice crystals in clouds.
become large in size and fall to the ground.
They melt on the way due to friction with One method to cause rainfall from
the atmosphere and fall as rain. clouds is to introduce particles of dry
ice (solid CO2) into the cloud from
6.7.1 Forms of Precipitation an air plane. The dry ice causes ice
The precipitation has various forms crystals to form in the cloud. These
based on the condition of occurrence ice crystals coalesce, grow, melt and
(Figure 6.27). The various forms are; fall as rain. Cloud seeding will not be
successful unless the cloud is already
Rainfall: When water droplets of
saturated with water vapour.
more than 0.5 mm diameter falls from
the atmosphere to the ground it is called
as ‘Rainfall’. If the diameter is less than Snow: Precipitation occurs at below
0.5mm, it is called as ‘Drizzle’. freezing point and falls as thin ice flakes
or powdery ice, called as ‘Snow’.
COLD AIR Dew: Condensation of water droplets
WARM AIR on the objects at the surface of the earth
(above freezing)

such as leaves and grasses are called

COLD AIR
as ‘Dew’.
SNOW SLEET FREEZING RAIN RAIN

6.7.2 Types of Precipitation (Rainfall):

Figure 6.27 Form of precipitation
Precipitation can be classified based on
Hail: When precipitation occurs at the causes for the rising up of air,
sub zero temperature, the water droplets 1. Convectional rainfall
crystallise and fall as ice pellets with the 2. Orographic or Relief rainfall
size of 5 to 50 mm or some times more.
3. Cyclonic or Frontal rainfall
This is called as ‘Hail’.
Convectional Rainfall: As a result of
Sleet : Precipitation occurs as falling of
heating of the surface air, the warm
raindrop along with ice pellets less than 5
moist air expands and is forced to rise to
mm diameter or snow, called as ‘Sleet’.
a great height. As the air rises, it cools,
reaches dew point and condenses to

171
form clouds. This process influences
the upper tropospheric circulation. By The air drops down
over the high ground,
further cooling, precipitation takes losing temprature and
increasing the amount
of water it can hold.
place as rainfall. This rainfall occurs Warm air forced This means there is
to rise, cools, little or no rain.
throughout the year near the equator in condenses and rain
occurs.
the afternoon. It is called as 4 ‘O’ clock
rainfall region. In middle latitudes,
Moist, warm air
convectional rainfall occurs in early from the sea.

summer in the continental interiors

(Figure 6.29).

Convectional
precipitation Figure 6.30 Orographic Rainfall

When altitude
Cooled Air
Condenses increases, the rainfall
also increases in
orographic pattern.
But the rainfall decreases with
Moist Air Moist Air altitude, once the amount of moisture
reduces in the air after a point where
Figure 6.29 Convectional rainfall it reaches maximum rainfall which
is called as ‘Maximum Rainfall Line’.
Orographic or Relief Rainfall This condition where the rainfall
It occurs when large mass of air is forced decreases with altitude is called
to rise across land barriers, such as high ‘Inversion of Rainfall’.
mountain ranges, plateaus, escarpments,
or over high hills. On the windward Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
side of the region the warm moist air This type of precipitation is associated
raises, temperature of the air falls below with a cyclonic activity (Tropical and
its dew point, forming clouds which Temperate) and also occurs along the
give subsequent rainfall. As the wind frontal zone. Cyclonic rainfall is associated
moves to the leeward side it has emptied with Cumulo Nimbus (CuNi) clouds. The
itself of moisture and thus descends rainfall is very heavy and accompanied
the slope as warm dry winds. The with lightning and thunder and high
leeward side of the mountain therefore speed winds which has the potential to
is called as the rain shadow region cause damage.
(Figure 6.30). ‘Frontal rainfall’ is associated with fronts
which form due to collision of different
air masses. Warm front is formed due to
advent of warm air masses which leads to
moderate rainfall. In the same way cold
172
 6.8 Atmospheric Disturbances
An isohyets or
(Cyclone and Anti Cyclone)
isohyetal line is a
line joining points of The atmospheric disturbances which
equal rainfall on a involve a closed circulation of air around
map in a given period. A map with a low pressure at centre and high pressure
isohyets is called an isohyetal map. at periphery, rotating anticlockwise in
northern hemisphere and clockwise in
front is formed due to advent of cold air southern hemisphere is called ‘Cyclones’
mass which leads to heavy rainfall with (Figure 6.31). Cyclones may be classified
lightning and thunder. into two types based on latitude of
its origin.
6.7.3 Cloud Burst
A ‘cloud burst’ is a sudden aggressive
rainstorm falling in a short period of
time limited to a small geographical area.
Meteorologists say that the rain from
a cloud burst is usually of the heavier
rain with a fall rate equal to or greater
than 100 mm (3.94 inches) per hour.
Generally cloudbursts are associated with
thunderstorms. The air currents rushing
up words in a rain storm hold up a large
amount of water. For example cloud
bursts in the region of Uttarkhand (2013)
and Chennai (2015).
Figure 6.31 Cyclone
They are:
Lightning and A. Tropical cyclone B. Temperate
Thunder are caused cyclone.
by differences in the
electrical charge of A. Tropical Cyclone
different parts of the cloud. The top of Cyclone formed in the low latitudes is
the cloud becomes positively charged called as Tropical cyclone. They form
and the bottom is mostly negatively over warm ocean waters in the tropical
charged. When the difference is great regions. The warm air rises, and causes
lightning occurs. Differences in the an area of low air pressure.
charge between cloud and the earth
surface also cause lightning. 6.8.1 Stages of Development of Tropical
Thunder is caused by rapid Cyclone
expansion of the air that is heated as
As per the criteria adopted by the World
the lightning passes through it.
Meteorological Organisation (W.M.O.),
India Meteorological Department
173
 Figure 6.33 Track of Tropical cyclone

classifies the low pressure systems in to A source of warm, moist air derived
vary classes based on wind speed. from tropical oceans with sea surface
1. Tropical Disturbances temperature normally near to or in excess
2. Tropical depressions Low winds with a of 27 °C (Figure 6.32)
speed between 31 and 61 km ph. Wind near the ocean surface is blowing
3. Tropical cyclone wind speed from from different directions converging and
62 to 88 km ph and it is assigned a causing air to rise and storm clouds to form.
name. Winds which do not vary greatly with
4. Severe Cyclonic Storm (SCS) wind height are known as low wind shear. This
speed is between 89 to 118 km ph allows the storm clouds to rise vertically
to high level;
5. Very SCS wind speed between 119 to
221 km ph and
6. Super Cyclonic Storm when wind
exceeds 221 km ph.

6.8.2 Origin of Tropical Cyclone

Tropical cyclones have certain mechanism
for their formation. These are Figure 6.32 Structure of
Tropical Cyclone
174
 Tropical cyclone distribution N

W E

Hurricanes Typhoons

Hurricanes

Equator Cyclones

Willy
Not to scale Willy

Figure 6.35 Distribution of Tropical Cyclone

Coriolis force is induced by the Tropical cyclones mostly move along

rotation of the Earth. The mechanisms with the direction of trade wind system.
of formation vary across the world, but So they travel from east to west and
once a cluster of storm clouds starts to make land fall on the eastern coast of the
rotate, it becomes a tropical depression. continents (Figure 6.33).
If it continues to develop it becomes a Landfall: The condition at which the
tropical storm, and later a cyclone/ super eye of the tropical cyclone crosses the
cyclone. land is called ‘Land fall’ of the cyclone
(Figure 6.34).
Characteristics of the Tropical Cyclone
The centre of the cyclone where the wind
system converges and vertically rises is
called as Eye. The eye is a Calm region
with no rainfall and experiences highest
temperature and lowest pressure within
the cyclonic system (Figure 6.32).
Cyclone wall is made up of Cumulo
Nimbus clouds with no visibility, higher
wind velocity and heavy rain fall with
lightning and thunder.
Figure 6.34 Landfall of tropical cyclone

175
Names Location of Landfall Date of Land fall
Hurricanes

Typhoons

Cyclones

Naming of Tropical Cyclones member countries to submit a list of their

The practice of naming storms (tropical own eight names for the cyclones.
cyclones) began years ago, in order to
help in the quick identification of storms Condition of Super Cyclone
in warning messages because names are Formation
presumed to be far easier to remember 1. Longer travel or stay of low pressure
than numbers and technical terms system over warm ocean water.
(Figure 6.35).
2. The speed of jet stream may influence
In the pursuit of a more organized and the formation of super cyclone.
efficient naming system, meteorologists
later decided to identify storms using
names from a list arranged alphabetically. Student Activity
Since 1953, Atlantic tropical storms Students have to collect the recent
have been named from lists originated names of the hurricanes, typhoons
by the National Hurricane Centre. They and cyclones and date and location of
are now maintained and updated by an landfall in last 5 years.
international committee of the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO). 6.8.3 Tornado and Water Spouts
Large scale destruction caused by
It is a very small intense, funnel shaped
Odisha cyclone in 1999, triggered the issue
very speed whirl wind system. Its speed
of naming tropical cyclones developed in
and direction of the movement are erratic
the North Indian ocean. As a result, naming
(Figure 6.36). The winds are always as
conventions for storms that develop in
fast as 500 km ph. The fast moving air
the Indian Ocean began in 2004. WMO
converges in the middle and rises up. The
(World Meteorological Organisation)had
uplift is capable of rising dust, trees and
informed each of the eight South Asian
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 Direction of storm Movement

Cumulonimbus
Clouds
Cold
Stratus Clouds
Air Cool
Air
Warm Air

A Heavy
Showers
Moderate to Light
Showers
B
Cold Warm
Front Front

1000
Cool
Air Warm Front
Cold 996
992 Cold Front
Air
Precipitation
B

1004
Warm Air

Figure 6.37 Sector structure of Temperate cyclone

other weaker objects in its path. South

Web link for Water spout at Chennai,
and western part of Gulf States of USA
Tamil Nadu https://www.youtube.
experiences frequent tornados.
com/watch?v=v0RubwHxlgM
Water spouts are formed over water body
similar to tornados in the formation and B. Temperate Cyclone
structure. This sometimes leads to fish rain, if
The cyclone formed in the mid latitudes
the mass of fish comes under the water spout.
is called as temperate cyclone. As they
are formed due to movement of air
masses and front, they are called as
‘Dynamic cyclone’ and ‘Wave cyclone’.
This cyclone is characterised by the four
different sectors, which are varied with
their weather patterns (Figure 6.37).

Figure 6.36 Tornado

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 Cold air Cold air Cold air

Cool air
nt
ld fro Wa
rm
Co fron nt W
t f ro arm
l d
Co fro
nt

Warm air
Warm air Warm air
a) b) c)

Cool air Cool air

Cold air Cold air

W Cool air
ar
m
fro
nt W Front
nt nt ar
fro fro m
ld ld fro
Co Co nt Warm air
Warm air
Figure 6.40 Development of Temperate cyclone

6.8.4 Stages in the Formation of Temperate Anti Cyclones

Cyclone Anti cyclone is a whirlwind system in which
a. Frontogenesis –Formation of front due high pressure area at the centre and surrounded
to collision of two contrasting air masses by low pressure at periphery rotating clockwise
(Figure 6.38). in northern hemisphere and anti clock wise in
b. Cyclone genesis – Formation of cyclone southern hemisphere(Figure 6.39).
due to conversion of fronts into various This is the largest among the whirl wind
sectors. systems. Normally, they are associated with
c. Advancing Stage – The stage where cold high pressure belts of sub tropical and polar
front advances towards warm front. region.
d. Occlusion stage - The stage where the cold
front over takes warm front
e. Frontalysis – The last stage where fronts
disappear and cyclone ends its life.
Characters
Unlike tropical cyclone, temperate cyclone
forms over both land and water in all seasons.
It covers larger area than tropical cyclone and
stays for a longer period.
Track
Temperate cyclone moves along with the
westerly wind system from west to east. Figure 6.39 Anticyclone

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 Anti cyclones are classified as warm core Hygroscopic: Tending to observe moisture
and cold core, based on their temperature, from air.
which are resulted in aridity and cold waves Insolation: Amount of solar radiation reaching
respectively. a given area.
Meteorology: is a branch of the atmospheric
sciences which includes atmospheric physics
and chemistry, with a major focus on weather
forecasting.
Buoyant: Able to keep afloat on the top of air Molecules: A group of atoms bonded together.
or liquid. Permeable: Allowing liquids or gases to pass
Collision: Hit by accident when moving. through it.
Equilibrium: A balanced state of molecules Subsistence: The gradual movement of air
where the acting forces are equal. molecules from higher altitude to lower
Escarpment: A long, steep slope especially one altitude.
of the edge of a plateau or surface. Torrid: Region of Very hot and dry condition.
Expansion: The action of becoming larger or Vortex: A whirling or rotating mass of fluid or
more extensive. air.
Funnelling: Guided through the area that has
widening at front and narrow at the end.

Evaluation c. Thermosphere d. Exosphere

I Choose the best 4. An imaginary line connecting the
answer places having equal atmospheric
1. Which of the temperature is called
following a. Isotherm b. Isohytes
atmospheric layer c. Isobar d. Contour
known as the weather layer? 5. Speed of the wind is measured by
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere a. Barometer b. Hygrometer
c. Thermosphere d. Mesosphere c. Thermometer d. Anemometer
2. Which is the most suitable layer for 6. What happens to atmospheric pressure
flying Jet air craft? with increase in altitude?
a. Troposphere b. Stratosphere a. It remains constant
c. Mesosphere d. Exosphere b. It increases
3. Which of the following atmospheric c. It decreases
structure absorbs the ultra violet rays
d. It constantly fluctuates
of the sun and protect the earth from
intense heating? 7. Which one of the following winds is
the example of secondary winds?
a. Troposphere b. Ozonosphere
a. Trade winds b. Westerlies
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 c. Polar easterlies d. Monsoon IV Detailed Answer.
8. Albedo means 1. Elucidate the types of clouds.
a. Amount solar radiation reflected 2. Discuss the mechanism of Asian
by the surface monsoon.
b. Amount moisture absorbed by the 3. How is the cyclone different from
surface anticyclone?
c. Amount moisture present in air
d. Amount of molecules present in References
air
1. Alan Strahler, Introducing Physical
9. Which instrument is used to measure
Geography (2016), John Wiley & Sons,
the relative humidity in air?
New Jersey, USA.
a. Hygrometer b. Barometer
2. Critchfield, General Climatology
c. Thermometer d. Altimeter (2008), Pearson Publications, London,
10. Convectional rainfall mostly occurs United Kingdom.
in ? 3. Goh Cheng Leong, Certificate
a. Temperate region Physical and Human Geography
b. Equatorial region (2002), Oxford University Press, New
c. Tundra region Delhi, India.
d. Desert region 4. Johnson E. Fairchild, Principles of
Geography (1964), Holt, Rinehart and
II Very short Answer.
Einston Inc, New York, USA.
1. Define lapse rate.
5. Lal. D.S., Climatology(2014), Sharda
2. What is mountain wind? Pustak Bhavan, Allahabad, India.
3. Draw and label the pressure belts on 6. R. Knowles and J. Wareing,
the globe. Economic and Social Geography
4. Differentiate rainfall and snow. Made Simple Paperback(1990), Rupa
5. What are the stages of formation of Publications India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi,
temperate cyclone? India.
III Short Answer. 7. Savindra Singh, Physical Geography
(2016), Pravalika Publications,
1. Why is ozone layer depleting?
Allahabad, India.
2. Draw the diagram for heat budget and
8. Woodcock. R.G., Weather and Climate
mark the radiation emit.
(1976), Macdonald and Evens Ltd,
3. How is an urban heat island formed? Estover, Plymouth, United Kingdom.
4. Differentiate between sea breeze and
land breeze.
Web References
5. List the forms of precipitation.
1. http://www.imd.gov.in/
2. https://glovis.usgs.gov/

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 ICT CORNER
Atmosphere Vital Blanket

Through this activity you will

explore atmosphere system.

Steps
• Use the URL to reach ‘Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere’ page. Click launch to
start the interactive atmosphere page.
• Click begin and select ‘Objects’ check box to observe the vertical content of the
atmosphere.
• Select ‘Temperature’ and ‘Pressure’ check boxes to study physical properties of the
atmosphere.
• Use https://www.windy.com to observe live wind flow of any place on the earth.

Step 1 Step 2

Step 3 Step 4

Interactive Atmosphere’s URL:

https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.vertical/vertical
structure-of-the-atmosphere/#.Wq-xD8OuzIU

Pictures are indicative only.

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