1

LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPES PROCESSES

ROCKS AND WEATHERING.
Definition of key terms.

Rock-The term refers to a collection or aggregation of minerals for example granite is a rock that is made
up of minerals such as quartz, feldspar and mica.
Mineral-It refers to the naturally occurring substances made up of elements each of which is composed
of atoms.
Rock jointing-It refers to the cracks or openings that are found in the rocks.

Types of rocks
-There are three main types of rocks depending on how they were formed.
-The three main types of rocks are igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
A. IGNEOUS ROCKS.
-The word igneous was derived from the word ‘ignis’ which means fire.
-The rocks are so called because they are formed from molten rocks that moves from deep the earth’s
crust, cools and solidifies within the crust or on the earth’s surface.
-When the molten rock cools and solidifies in the crust the rocks are referred to as intrusive.
-When the molten rock cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface the rocks are referred to as extrusive.
-The igneous rocks can be further divided into three groups depending on the level at which the molten
rock cools and solidifies.
1. Plutonic. –These are formed deep inside the earth.
-The rocks cool slowly thus producing a coarse texture with large crystals.
-Examples of plutonic rocks are granite and gabbro.
-The rocks generally cover large areas and may be exposed to the surface by erosion.
2. Hypabyssal- These are intermediate rocks found between the plutonic and volcanic.
-They cool more quickly than the plutonic but more slowly than the volcanic.
-These rocks usually form dykes and sills.
-An example of such a rock in Zimbabwe is dolerite.
3. Volcanic-These are the rocks formed when molten magma cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface.
-The magma cools rapidly producing rocks with very fine and glossy in appearance.
-The example of a volcanic rock is basalt and rhyolite.

Characteristics of igneous rocks.

1.They are crystalline-This means that the rocks are made of shiny or glittering crystals
2.They are geometric-This means that the rocks have a definite regular shape.
3.They are also heavy as compared to other rocks.

B. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
-The word sedimentary comes from the Latin word ‘sedeo’ which means to sit or settle down.
-Sedimentary rocks are therefore formed from sediments of eroded materials that have been carried by
water, wind or ice and laid down at different locations.
-The particles are laid down one upon another and the rock becomes hard when a cementing substance
is present.
 2

Nature of sedimentary rock structure

Formation of sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are formed in three different ways which give the three different types.
1. Mechanically formed.
-The rocks are formed when remains of older rocks are laid down by wind, water or ice and then
cemented by smaller particles or other materials.
-Examples of mechanically formed rocks are sandstone, shale, clay, conglomerate, siltstone and branded
ironstone.
2. Organically formed
-These are formed from the remains of plants and animals which lived millions of years ago.
-These remains have been transported and deposited in layers.
-Examples of organically formed sedimentary rocks are coal, chalk, peat and coral.
-Coal is formed when vegetation decaying in the absence of oxygen in swamps is compacted by
sediments.
-Chalk and coral are formed from the remains of animals.
3. Chemically formed.
-These are formed when chemical sediments are precipitated from solutions, usually oceans.
-An example is limestone which is formed by the precipitation and deposition of calcium carbonate in
water.
-Other rocks that are chemically formed are rock salt and gypsum.
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
-They contain layers or strata which are of different amounts of sediments.
-They are separated by bedding planes.
-They are secondary rocks which from other rocks.
-They often contain fossil fuels.
-They are non-crystalline.
C. Metamorphic Rocks.
-These are tertiary or third stage rocks which were either igneous or sedimentary.
-The term metamorphic means to ‘change form’.
-The term metamorphism refers to the process of changing the physical and chemical make-up of
existing rocks to produce an entirely different rock.
-These rocks are changed in appearance and character because of intense heat and pressure as well as
chemical reactions.
-Metamorphic rocks are often coarser and denser than the original rocks.
Common metamorphic changes.
Granite (igneous) Gneiss
Quartz (igneous) Schist
Clay (sedimentary) Slate
Shale (sedimentary) Schist
Limestone (sedimentary) Marble
 3

Coal l (sedimentary) Graphite

Sandstone (sedimentary) Quartzite
WEATHERING
-The term weathering refers to the physical disintegration or chemical decomposition of rocks in situ.
-The term ‘in situ’ means the broken fragments settle on or around the rock without being moved to
other areas.
-The process occurs when rocks are exposed to weather or climate elements such as temperature and
rainfall.
-The weathered materials that accumulates at the base of the rock is referred to as scree.
Mass wasting-It refers to the process by which weathered material moves downslope due to the force
of gravity.
Erosion-It is the process or removal of weathered material from one place to another by agents of
erosion such as water, wind and ice.
Deposition-It refers to laying down of weathered material which would have been transported from one
place to another.
-Deposition may result in the formation of new landforms.
Factors affecting weathering.
-The rate at which weathering takes place is affected by a number of factors such as climate, vegetation
cover, rock jointing, rock hardness and relief.
1. Climate
-The two major aspects of climate, rainfall and temperature affect weathering on a global scale.
-Physical weathering is common in arid regions such as the deserts where temperatures are high rainfall
low.
-The process is also common in cold regions where temperatures fluctuate below 0 0C.
-On the other hand, chemical weathering is common in humid regions where there are high
temperatures and high rainfall.
-The high temperatures and high rainfall facilitate chemical reactions.
2. Rock Jointing.
-The cracks and other lines of weaknesses that are found in a rock facilitate the process of weathering.
-This is so because these joints allow water to enter them and also allow tree roots to get into the rock.
-The roots and availability of water necessitate the widening and deepening of rock cracks.
-Eventually due to deepening and widening of cracks the rock may split.
3. Vegetation cover.
-In densely vegetated areas, water infiltrates into the soil, thus allowing for chemical weathering to take
place.
-Some plants may also facilitate weathering when the roots penetrate lines of weaknesses causing rocks
to split.
-On bare areas however, there is soil compaction and high surface runoff which promote physical
weathering.
4. Slopes.
-Physical weathering is common on steep slopes which promote surface runoff at the expense of
infiltration.
-Gentle slopes on the other hand allow for more water to penetrate deeper, thus promoting chemical
weathering.
-Therefore under gentle slopes there are fine soils than on steep slopes.
5. Time
 4

-The rocks that have been exposed more to agents of weathering are more weathered than those tha
have been exposed for a limited time.
-Newly formed rocks have a thin layer of soil than older rocks.
6. Human activities
-Human activities may either promote or retard the process of weathering.
-Activities like dam construction and irrigation allow water to sink deep into the soil, thus promoting
chemical weathering.
-Activities such as quarrying and road construction expose rocks to agents of weathering.
TYPES OF WEATHERING.
-There are three types of weathering, that is, physical, chemical and biological.
A. Physical weathering.
-It refers to the breaking down of rocks without any change in the chemical or mineral composition of
the rock.
-Basically there are four types of physical weathering, which are frost action, exfoliation, pressure
release and salt crystallization.
1. Frost action.
-The process is also referred to as freeze-thaw.
-It is common in areas which experience alternate freezing and thawing, either from summer to winter
or between day and night temperatures.
-When it rains, water collects in lines of weaknesses such as cracks and also in pore spaces of rocks.
-When temperatures drop to below 00C, water freezes and its volume increase by 10%.
-The change of water to a solid state exerts pressure upon the rock forcing the crack to expand.
-When the water melts, it penetrates deeper.
-The repeated process of freezing and thawing widens and deepens the lines of weaknesses.
-Eventually the rock slabs break apart, or smaller ones may fall at the base of the rock.
-When the process occurs along joints it is referred to as ice wedging while when it occurs in pore spaces
it is known as crystal growth.
A diagram illustrating the process of freeze-thaw.

BEFORE AFTER

2. Salt crystallization.
-The process is also referred to inter pore crystal growth.
-It occurs when water which has a lot of dissolved minerals accumulates in the pore spaces as saline
water.
-When the water evaporates, the minerals accumulate and aggregate as crystals in the pore spaces.
 5

-Eventually the crystals become so big that they exert pressure on the lines of weakness and the rock.
-This eventually leads in the breaking down of the rock.
-The process is common in arid regions where solutions are brought to the surface by capillary action.

3. Pressure release.
-It is also known as dilation and applies to rocks that are formed deep underground.
-The intrusive igneous rocks that are formed deep underground are in a state of compression due to the
pressure of overburden upon them.
-As the process of erosion takes place the overlying material is removed and this relieves pressure on
the rock allowing it to expand outwards.
-As the rock expands outwards, curvilinear and vertical joints are formed.
-With time the rock is exposed even more to the agents of weathering it disintegrates.
-The process is dominant in semi-arid lands of limited vegetation and where there is very active erosion.

BEFORE AFTER

4. Thermal fracturing.
-The process is common in areas such as the arid and semi-arid regions where there is a large diurnal
temperature range.
-The process is also known as exfoliation.
-During the day the outer layers of the rock are heated by insolation and they expand.
-At night these outer layers cool as they lose heat and this makes them to contract.
-Alternate expansion of the outer layers of the rock leads to the formation of sheer joints which are
parallel to the rock surface while the contraction leads to the formation of vertical joints almost at right
angles to the rock surface.
-The repeated processes of expansion and contraction leads to outer layers falling off as scree.
-The outer layers are peeled off much like onion layers hence the name onion peeling.
-The process usually produces smooth and rounded exfoliation domes.
 6

B. CHEMICAL WEATHERING.
-It is the gradual decomposition or decaying of rocks which involves chemical reactions resulting in
changes in the mineral composition of the rock.
-The process of chemical weathering is facilitated by the mineral composition of the rock, the presence
of water and warm to hot temperatures which facilitate chemical reactions.
-The processes of chemical weathering are carbonation, oxidation, hydrolysis and solution.
1. Carbonation.
-The process is common in limestone region or rocks whose chemical composition is mainly calcium
carbonate.
-When the rain falls through the atmosphere, it dissolves carbon dioxide and mixes with it to form a
weak solution called carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2O H2CO3

Carbon + water carbonic acid.
-It is the carbonic acid that reacts with the calcium carbonate found in the rock resulting in the
formation of calcium carbonate.
H2CO3 + CaCO3 Ca (HCO3)2
-Calcium bicarbonate quickly dissolves and is carried away in solution form.
-The Chinhoyi Caves are a results of carbonation.
- The process is also common in rocks such as chalk and dolomite.
2. Oxidation.
-The process occurs in the rocks that contain iron which reacts with oxygen found in water to produce
iron oxide.
-The formation of iron oxide wakens the rocks and makes it to be washed away.
-The oxidation process causes the outer parts of the rock to take a reddish colour like rust.
-The process occurs in the following conditions:
 the presence of iron in the rock.
 the presence of oxygen and water.
 high temperatures that speed up the chemical reactions.
3. Hydrolysis.
-The process mainly affects rocks such granite, basalt. Gabbro and gneiss which contains feldspar.
-Feldspar that is found in the rock reacts with water to form clay.
-The other mineral (quartz and mica) lack cohesion and may fall off from the mother rock.
-The process may occur deep underground through deep weathering which results in fine regolith.
4. Solution.
-The process of weathering occurs when soluble minerals dissolve in water.
-Rainwater may contain weak acids, which in contact in water, dissolves the minerals.
-These are easily washed away in solution.

C. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING.
-It refers to the breaking down of rocks due to the action of leaving organisms such as plants and
animals.
-The three types of biological weathering are root action, animal action and acid weathering.
1. Root action.
 7

-Plant roots may grow in lines of weaknesses such as cracks and joints.
-As the roots get bigger, they force the cracks to widen and deepen.
-Eventually the rock is forced to break up and the process is known as root wedging.

2. Animal action.
-Burrowing animals such as rabbits, moles and worms also assist in weathering.
-They mix up the soil and physically prise rock pieces apart.
-This also enables water to percolate to deeper levels to promote deep weathering.
3. Acid weathering.
-Animal excretions, humic acids from plants and animals may react with some rock minerals which may
lead to chemical rock decay.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL WEATHERING.

Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering

-mainly requires force/ pressure or heat. -mainly requires water, heat and acids.
-operates on rocks -operate deep within the rock.
-produces shallow regolith -produces deep regolith
-produces large or coarse end products -produces fine products such as clay.
-produces angular products -produces rounded products.
-common in arid areas as well as cold regions. -common in humid regions such as the rainforests.
-the end products are chemically similar to parent. -the end product is differs chemical from parent rock.

Landforms due to weathering.

1.Batholiths
-These are large masses of more 1ookm2 of granite that have been exposed after the removal of the
overlying strata.
2. Dwala
-A dwala is a dome shaped landform which is smaller than a batholith.
-It is also referred to as a whaleback because they are shaped like the back of a whale.
-These are a result of pressure leases and exfoliation and they are oval or circular at the top.
3. Castle kopjes.
-These are piles of rocks that are formed form well jointed rocks.
-They are formed by selective weathering of well jointed granite rocks.
-They display a balancing rock scenery or piles of rocks.
-The castle kopjes may rest on a massive granite rocks.
4. Tors.
-These are rock boulders that lie on the ground.
-Their formation is similar to that of castle kopjes but they are made of small piles of rocks or rock
rubble.
-At times they are occupied by vegetation along the vertical joints.
-Examples of castle kopjes and tors are found in Matopo.
5. Tafoni.
-It is a result of differential weathering which results in strange cavernous structures.
-They form on the face of some granular granite rock.
-They vary in shape and form, ranging from single depressions to complex honeycomb structures.
 8

LANDFORMS IN LIMESTONE REGION

-Limestone is a well jointed rock and has a complex system of bedding planes usually horizontal linked
by vertical joints.
-Carbonation is the chief weathering process operating in limestone region which has resulted in the
formation of karst features.
-Limestone features could be surface or underground.
A. Surface features.
1. Grikes and Clints.
-These are the ridges and the furrows formed as a result of carbonation along joints.
-The permeability of the surface allows rainwater to soak into it easily, resulting in joints widening and
deepening.
-This results in the surface being become criss-crossed by elongated gullies or furrows called grikes
which are separated by ridges by ridges called clints.
2. Swallow holes
-These are depression or holes by which surface streams disappear to give rise to underground rivers.
-They are also known as sink holes.
-The swallow holes may join to form large depressions called dolines
-The dolines may also join to form larger depressions called uvalas.
3. Dry valley
-It is the surface stream that is no longer occupied by water after disappearing through the swallow
holes.
4. Resurgent streams.
-It is formed when underground streams re-emerge on the surface where limestone give way to other
rocks.
5. Gorges.
-These represent collapsed underground caves and former underground stream channels.
B. Underground features.
-The process of carbonation opens up hollow passages that result in the formation of underground
caves.
-Different features are formed in the cave.
Stalagmites, stalactites and pillars.
-Water containing calcium hydrogen carbonate constantly drips from the roof of the cave.
-As the water evaporates, it leaves calcium carbonate which as it continues to accumulate, forms need
shaped features which hang from the roof.
-The feature is referred to as the stalactites.
-Some of the water may fall to the floor of the cave and result in the formation of similar features.
-The features that develop from the floor are known as stalagmites.
-The stalagmites and the stalactites may join to form pillars or columns.
Benefits of limestone
-Limestone features are tourist attractions.
-Limestone caves are habitat for bats and research can be done in these caves.
-Limestone rock is used for building purposes.
 9

-Limestone rock can be used as a raw material in making cement.

Problems of limestone
-Surface is stony and broken, difficult to carry activities such as farming and building.
-The soil are shallow and support limited farming activities.
-Lack of grazing due to limited vegetation.
-Inadequate water due to lack of surface water.
-Water is salty in limestone region.

The benefits of weathering to man.

-It leads to the formation of soil which are used for various purposes.
-Landforms formed by weathering could be tourist attractions.
-It produces stones which are used for building purposes.
-The process may help to expose minerals therefore promoting mining.
The problems of weathering to man.
-The process produces poor and thin soils less suitable for farming.
-The landforms take up land that could be used for settlement and farming.
-The landforms could be habitat for dangerous animals.
-The landforms promote runoff thus causing soil erosion downslope.
The Internal Structure of the Earth.
-The internal structure of the earth is made up of three layers, the crust, the mantle and the core.

1. The Crust.
-It is the outermost layer which is divided into two; the oceanic crust and the continental crust.
-The continental crust is made up of lighter rocks mostly of granite origin.
-It is made up of silica and aluminium, hence it is known as the sial.
-Its thickness varies from 40km in valley and 7okm in mountainous regions.
-The oceanic crust is made heavier rocks mostly of basalt origin.
-It is made of silica and magnesium, hence it is known as the sima.
-Its thickness averages 5km.
2. The Mantle
-It is the second layer which is about 2900km thick and is made up of iron and magnesium.
-It is separated from the crust by a layer of discontinuity known as the Mohorovic or ‘M’ layer.
3. The Core.
-It is the innermost layer which is mainly composed of iron and nickel hence it is referred to as ‘NIFE’.
- It is made up of the inner and the outer core.
 10

-The outer core lies beneath the mantle, it is about 2000km and has very high temperatures of over
20000C.
The inner core is the center of the earth, is 1400km and has slightly higher temperatures than the outer
core.