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An Introduction to the Concept of Landscape in Geography

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 The Asian Review of Civil Engineering
ISSN: 2249-6203 Vol. 10 No.1, 2021, pp.20-25
© The Research Publication, www.trp.org.in

An Introduction to the Concept of Landscape in Geography

P. Ratheesh Mon
HSST (Jr) Geography, Department of General Education, Kerala, India
E-mail: ratheesh.panampatta@gmail.com

Abstract - The diversity of landscape concepts and definitions of land, especially in country” (Hornby and Wehmeier,
often perplexes researchers who are new to landscape 2000). Landscape is an important area of study in subjects
studies, this is the most common challenge faced by most like Art, Aesthetics, Architecture and Geography. Each of
of such researchers. In terms of meaning and application the these subjects has perceived the concept of landscape in
term “landscape” is highly diverse. Different disciplines, such
as art, architecture, archaeology, ecology, and geography have
different manner. Landscapes are generally divided into two
developed and defined the concept of landscape in different as Natural and Cultural Landscapes. As per the general
ways. Even within geography, the concept is confusing due to notion, natural landscapes are collection of landforms such
differences in its application by different paradigms in as hills, mountains, forests and are naturally formed.
different manner. Different schools of thought or paradigms Cultural landscape represents the combined work of man
of geography had differently perceived the concept of and nature and they are the places of people’s identities,
landscape. At a general level landscape is divided as natural beliefs, and livelihood (UNESCO, 2003). The term used by
and cultural, at the same time this distinction appears to be UNESCO in 2005, reflected an astounding confusion, and
fading in more specialised academic engagements. Humanistic the conflation of landscape with other terms, often deployed
geographers consider landscape as a social product, whereas
historical geographers focus on the origins of landscapes.
as synonyms fashion: terms such as area, region or even
Cultural geographers take a more qualitative approach to humanized or natural scape (UNESCO, 2005). Even today
landscape, seeing it as a symbolic representation of values and the concept of landscape is confusing in geography, it is
meanings. This paper is an endeavor to address the cardinal being differently perceived and conceived by different
genres of landscape engagements in geography. people according to the difference in their material and
Keywords: Production of Landscapes, Landscape as Text, intellectual interaction with the landscapes.
Marxist Geography
II. LANDSCAPE IN ART
I. INTRODUCTION
As an interdisciplinary idea, the development of the concept
The etymology of landscape is a complex one, the idea of of landscape in painting is important in understanding the
landscape is differently defined and perceived in different geography of landscapes. Visual arts in the form of
disciplines. The term “landscape” derived from the paintings contributed considerably to the development of
Germanic languages Dutch and German. The term the concept of landscape. By distinguishing itself from
landscape is believed to have originated from the Dutch Kantian notions of landscape as garden or agricultural area,
term ‘lantscap’, and the German word ‘Landschaft’ which the concept of landscape in visual arts has achieved multiple
means land region or environment (Antrop, 2013). layers of meaning over time (Balık 2019).The landscape in
Landscape as an idea and ideology has its origin in visual arts became an expression of ideas, thoughts, beliefs,
renaissance Italy, it emerged as a way of representing and feelings in the 15th century, coinciding with the
certain relationship between landowners and their landed appearance of a new type of garden design and urban
property during the transition from feudalism to capitalism lifestyle (Antrop 2013).Until the 17th century, the landscape
in Europe (Mitchell, 2000). The term landscape has become was mostly used as a backdrop paintings and epic scenes
popular among the general public as a synonym for scenery. (Balik and Balik 2019). In the 17th century, it began to be
Its meaning as ‘scenery' is younger and dates back to depicted independently as a subject and an artistic narrative
seventeenth-century Dutch painting (Antrop 2013). Though through numerous metaphors (McTighe, 1996).
the earliest realistic representations of landscape can be
found in renaissance paintings from the fifteenth century As a result of industrialization, exploration of new
(Vos 2000). It is believed that the emergence of landscape territories, and advances in technology, botany, and
paintings in the renaissance period give birth to the geography, the scope of the concept of landscape began to
landscape consciousness among English speaking world expand in the nineteenth century (Balik and Balik 2019). In
(Troll 1950). the early twentieth century, movements to protect nature,
landscapes, and sites arose in a number of Western
In most of the English dictionaries, landscape is defined as a countries as a result of environmental degradation and the
piece of land that can be seen at a glance or eye. As per the loss of traditional rural landscapes (Antrop, 2013). During
definition given by Oxford Dictionary Landscape means this time, the concept has grown to include immaterial
“Everything you can see when you look across a large area constituents as well as technological, cultural, and social

TARCE Vol.10 No.1 January-June 2021 20

 An Introduction to the Concept of Landscape in Geography

developments, paving the way for the integration of The concept of landscape became a prominent area of study
experience and representation into the landscape concept in geography since the begging of 20th century (Freitas,
(Cosgrove, 2008). Rather than referring solely to gardens 2003). The term Landscape came into the Anglophonic
and agricultural areas, the contemporary understanding of geographical discussions through Carl Sauer's explanations
the landscape is recognised as an interdisciplinary and (Anderson, et al., 2003). He popularised the German
collaborative production with myriad layers of meaning, it concept of landscape in the United States, making it a
has evolved into a social construct, as a means of expressing cornerstone of cultural geography (Antrop 2013). As per the
ideas, memories, imagination, and feelings (Balik and Balik opinion of Sauer, the role of Geography is to scientifically
2019). Landscape became an expression of human ideas, examine “the phenomenology of Landscapes” (Sauer 1925).
thoughts, beliefs, and feelings through painting. Thus he states that geography is the systematic study
concerning the production and modification of landscapes.
III. LANDSCAPE IN GEOGRAPHY He believed that, landscape is the product of the interaction
between human culture and bio physical environment
The meaning and definition of landscape in geography has (Anderson, et al., 2003). In his morphological analysis of
evolved significantly over time. As per the definition given landscape he focused on the material imprint of nature
by the Dictionary of Human Geography (2000), landscape is culture interaction. Thus landscape became a core area of
a cardinal term of human geography, it is considered as the study in geography and was seen as a unique synthesis
central object of investigation (Gregory et al., 2017). between the natural and cultural elements of a region. Both
Landscape as an important area of geographical inquiry has qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted to study
at least a hundred years history. The use of the exact landscape in geographical perspective. Methods were
meaning and the scientific definition of the word landscape developed to analyse and interpret the qualitative and
was a feature of early stages of geographical research. The quantitative characteristics of landscapes by twentieth
scientific study of landscapes was started with the century.
naturalistic explorers (Antrop, 2013). In the early stages of
geographical engagements, landscape was considered as a IV. QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION AND
complex phenomenon that could be studied using objective LANDSCAPE STUDIES
scientific methods (Antrop 2013). Landscape was
traditionally viewed as a physical and objective external Following second World War, significant changes occurred
world that could be empirically engaged and analysed in all areas of human life, including technology,
(Bellentani, 2016). Alexander von Humboldt and Vidal de transportation, economy, humanities, and science (Nir,
la Balche were the two pioneering geographers who 1990). These changes can be seen in the field of geography
contributed to the developed the concept of landscape in as well. By the 1950s, some geographers were dissatisfied
geographical studies (Mathewson 1986; Antrop, 2000). with the regional paradigm of geography, which was more
descriptive rather than formulating general laws, as is
Humboldt widely regarded as the “founding father” of popular in other areas of scientific inquiry. A significant
modern geography, attempted to bring together various number of geographers eagerly followed the quantification
branches of scientific knowledge into a unified perspective trend in the social sciences, they quickly established as the
on landscapes in his book Kosmos (Walls 2009).Through dominant group and the quantitative approach was accepted
his naturalistic explorations, he pioneered the holistic as the mainstream geographical engagement (Nir, 1990).
perception of the landscape by emphasising the human and
cultural aspects of the landscape (Malcolm,1995). Vidal de By the 1960s, a new orientation in geography based on
la Blache also mentioned the importance of landscape in theory building and modelling had laid the groundwork for
explaining the lifestyle of people living in particular region new techniques of spatial analysis through geostatistics,
(Preston and Geoffrey, 1981) He had a literary and which temporarily undermined regional and landscape
historical approach, although he perceived landscape as a studies in geography (Antrop, 2013). The rise in popularity
holistic unity like Humboldt. He emphasised the of quantitative techniques, combined with the consequent
significance of local society and its way of life in the loss of significance of theoretical engagements, has resulted
landscape's organisation (Paulo 2004). During the turn of in a crisis in landscape studies in geography. Landscape
Humboldt and other romantic naturalists, the term landscape studies again gained traction in the field of geography by
was applied to relatively large areas of space visually 1970s. The formation of the Landscape Research Group
distinguished by physical and cultural features that were (LRG) in 1967 was an pivotal event in landscape research's
sufficiently homogeneous to assume individuality (Holzer, resurgence after the quantitative revolution (Antrop, 2013).
1999). As per the traditional notion, landscape indicates a
distinctive portion of physical earth (Mitchel, 2000), and it In Netherlands, the Working Community Landscape
seems more closely associated with Physical Geography. Ecological Research (WLO) was founded in 1972 and
Richard Hartshorne considered landscape as a geographic or launched the Landscape journal as part of a resurgence of
territorial concept as an alternative of region or space (Muir landscape study (Zonneveld 2000). Experts and scientists
1999), which caused confusions among geographers in the from a wide range of fields, including geography, planning,
first half of the twentieth century. landscape architecture, archaeology, and ecology, make up

21 TARCE Vol.10 No.1 January-June 2021

P. Ratheesh Mon

the LRG. The Landscape Research Group worked to “The production of landscape morphology is an essential
advance interdisciplinary landscape research. At the same moment in the production of surplus value (profit) in
time, the Berkeley school of thought in the United States capitalism” (Mitchell 1994). According to Mitchell the
and many British geographers developed a philosophical nature, form, inherent meanings and represented values of a
approach to landscape. They emphasised the significance of landscape is the reflection of the interest of its makers.
landscape perception as a social construct with narratives “Landscape has some meanings, representation and form
and symbolic meanings (Tuan, 1974). The International all this is result of cultural imperatives of those who makes
Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE), founded in 1988 & represent the landscapes”. In his materialist analysis of
with the goal of promoting interdisciplinary research in landscape, he identified that “landscape is a matter of
landscape studies, added new dimensions to landscape ongoing struggle and conflict between different social and
research (Navh and Libermann, 1994). In 1988, the IALE economic groups within the capitalist network of violence,
launched two international journals, Landscape and Urban inequality, and profit” Mitchell (1994). He brought the
Planning and Landscape Ecology. The founding of IALE political-economic aspects which work in the production
and its journals had a significant impact on the development and modification of landscapes. In the article Writing
of landscape discourse in geography and other related Western: New Western histories encounter with landscape
disciplines. he states that, “Social political and economic conditions are
the key processual element that both produces and propels
The development of geo spatial technology can be read in landscape forms” (Mitchell, 1998).
connection with the positivistic turn in geography. The use
of aerial photographs satellite imageries and GIS has The critical landscape geographies developed by Mitchell
considerably influenced the landscape research in and others focused on the social and economic realities at
geography. The application of spatial technology detached work in the production of landscapes, through this he states
the human experiences from the landscapes up to some that landscape is a social product which fetishes all the
level. The bird’s eye view of aerial photographs and realities behind its production. “If we think of landscape
satellites considered landscapes more or less as a synonym and its products simply ‘natural’ then they can easily
of land use. Such engagements obscured the possibilities of appear to our eyes as innocent, untouched and
theoretical engagements on landscapes in geography up to unproblematic entities, objects without broader context,
certain levels. Even though in recent years human they seems to simply exist as a part of ‘nature’, once we
geographers also began to use geo spatial technology in began to think about the forces that produces the landscape
landscape research in more promising ways. things such as systems of agriculture labour, production,
transnational commodity chains, buyers sellers
Marxian theory and Marxist geography made significant transportation and storage providers, advertisers,
contributions to the advancement of landscape studies in supermarkets, then it quickly become a apparent that these
geography. Geographers addressed landscape in Marxian are social and economic as much as natural products.
landscape discourse as a social/cultural entity, the distinct (Mitchell, 2003). “Landscapes are reflections of social,
product of human engagement with nature in the form of political and economic circumstances so we can have a
Labour, or as the product of the exploitation of the poor for critical understanding of landscape, therefore we study
the production of surplus value. The works of John Berger landscapes for what may reveal about the nature of human
and Marxist critic Raymond Williams (1972) focused on the social and economic relations” (Mitchell,2003).
critical examination of the ideological function of landscape
images. They argue in their works that landscape is a He also mentioned about the pass over of the role of human
political entity that reflects socio-political realities. labour in landscape studies by the power under which the
Landscapes, in their opinion, are not value neutral; they are landscape is produced. In his book The lie of the Land
capable of producing and reproducing the values and norms (1996) He examines the production of beautiful Californian
of the powerful actors in society who produce the landscapes. His work proceeds through the labour history of
landscape. (Williams, 1972). As per the opinion of California, he investigates the human engagements as
Contemporary Marxist Geographer David Harvey, labour behind the construction of the famous and beautiful
landscapes are an outcome and medium of capitalistic Californian landscapes. He states that landscapes are not
relations of production, explicitly it is a commodity naturally formed but socially produced. “The construction
produced under capitalism (Harvey, 1982). of Californian landscape has been the work of steelworkers,
paver's, chip assemblers, dam builders, drywall nailer,
Cultural geographer Don Mitchell emphasises the material textile workers and quite importantly army upon army of
process of labour in making landscapes under capitalistic migratory workers planting crops, repairing railroads and
power relations. He illustrates the materialistic highways, chopping trees, mixing cement and harvesting
understanding of landscape production in capitalistic cantaloupes” (Mitchell, 1996). Thorough his analysis of
production system. In an article entitled “Landscape and Californian landscapes, Mitchell give an answer for the
surplus value” Mitchell shows an example from Californian important question like “how does the geographically
labour history to reveal the process through which configured space of landscapes contribute to the survival of
landscape is produced in the process of surplus production. capitalism?”. His work on Californian landscapes reveals

TARCE Vol.10 No.1 January-June 2021 22

 An Introduction to the Concept of Landscape in Geography

the linkage between landscapes with the long histories of piece of land with manicured bushes and trees. In the
struggles, oppression and alienation of human labour. following section, he states that human made landscapes
Mitchell raises several political questions against the has several cultural meanings, landscapes are capable of
production of specific landscapes through this study. reflecting the taste, values, aspirations and even fears of
Landscapes are predominantly the product of human labour, people who worked on it (Lewis,1979). Meinig denied the
and the nature of the landscape is determined by the mode martial interpretation of landscape as a piece of land over
of production under which the labour is employed. the surface. He observed that “any landscape is composed
Landscape is the product of material or mental interaction of not only of what lies before our eyes but what lies within
man with the physical environment. our heads.” he analyses various reasons behind the
difference in people’s perception of the same landscapes.
Denis Cosgrove was another major figure who adopted He states that while observing a landscape, people
explicit Marxist critical approach to landscape studies. incorporate their socially constructed ideas and
Denis Cosgrove (1992) observed that the landscapes are the understandings to interpret it. As per his observation, the
result of capitalist engagements in the society. He argued same landscape will be perceived by different viewers
that landscapes are not produced according to the interests differently according to their personal traits. He suggested
of an individual policy or of a state, rather it is the function ten different ways of viewing and perceiving the same
of corporate decisions. As per His observation, landscape landscape (Meinig, 1979).
will help to uncover the hidden meanings represented in it.
Landscapes are not value neutral but are loaded with the Duncan and Duncan (1988) defined landscape as a text,
dreams and desires of the power under which they are which should be critically read via the principles of the
produced. Denis Cosgrove (1998) In his monumental work, structuralist semiotics. Duncan attempted to analyse the
Social formation of Symbolic Landscape provided a more dialectic relationship between landscape and power in his
subjective understanding of the concept of landscape. He work “the city as text. His study on the Kandy highlands of
examined the history of the idea of landscape from Sri Lanka aided in elucidating the political economy of
Renascence Italy to the modern world. He provided a landscape production in the region. For him “the landscape
definition of the idea of landscape as a way of seeing and is one of the central element in a cultural system, for an
representing the world. “Landscape is a way of seeing that ordered assemblage of objects, a text, it act as a signifying
has its own history, but a history that can be understood system through which social systems communicated,
only as part of a wider history of economy and society” reproduced, experienced and explored” (Duncan, 1990).
(Cosgrove, 1998). Marxist approach to geography aided to
reinforce the interdisciplinary characteristics of landscape He explained, Landscapes as the result of powerful actors'
research. deliberate interventions based on their goals. In addition, the
textual turn in geography associated with landscape studies
V. LANDSCAPE AS TEXT saw landscape as a “communicative device” (Duncan 1990)
created by an “author” to communicate information to a
A new perspective in landscape approach has developed in variety of “readers.” Duncan and Duncan in an article
Geography under the influence of the structuralism in entitled “Doing landscape interpretation” published in the
cultural geography. By 1980s human geographers Sage handbook of qualitative Geography examined the idea
extensively began to use the metaphor of 'text” to interpret of landscape at different levels. He analysed the contrasting
landscapes (Bellentani, 2016). The landscape began to be ways through which the concept of landscape is defined and
addressed as 'text' which carries multiple meanings. The redefined in Aglo-American geography. They revealed
consideration of landscape as text in landscape different ways of conceptualizing landscape in geography
interpretation helps to expose the hidden meanings (Duncan & Duncan, 2009).
represented in landscapes to interpret the unrepresented
meanings (Bellentani, 2016). In this approach landscape VI. REDEFINING THE TEXTUALITY OF
was viewed as a cultural construction, a unique way of LANDSCAPE
organising and representing the world. (Watts, 1957) in his
work “Reading the landscape of America” pinioned that, Post-structural geographic research restructured the notion
“we can read any landscape as we might read a book”. of landscape as text after the 1980s. The scholars who
Jewish geographer Marwyn Samuels observed landscape as advocating for this new turn in landscape studies forwarded
an intentionally shaped entity. According to him, every the idea that “there is something outside the text!” (Peet,
landscape will reflect the builder’s dreams and desires, 1996). They criticized the objective or material
landscapes can be considered as their own individual understanding of landscape as text. As a result a group of
biographies (Samuels, 1979). cultural geographers began to uncover the hidden meaning
of landscapes as text (Bellentani, 2016). Famous humanist
Pierce Lewis in his article 'Axioms for reading the Geographer Yi Fu Tuan forwarded this idea in his article
landscapes' defined landscape as 'our unwritting “Thought and landscape” in 1979 that, landscapes are not
biography'. In the first part of his article, he deals with the only material entities, but are also the work of the mind. He
very common American notion of landscape as a prettified states that Landscapes are realities ordered from different

23 TARCE Vol.10 No.1 January-June 2021

P. Ratheesh Mon

directions, from each direction the landscape reflect VIII. CONCLUSION

different meaning (Tuann, 1979). After the 1990s, the role
of the author in interpreting landscape as text was The Concept of Landscape has evolved greatly over years
challenged due to the influence of post modern literary through its transdisciplinary engagements. Landscape
theories (Cf Duncan, Duncan, 1998; Duncan, 1990). This research in geography opens up various interpretative
method of landscape research reduced the rigidity of options ranges from material to more subjective
landscape interpretive possibilities by considering all interpretations based on the nature and the theoretical
possible ways of landscape interpretations. To put it another position of the research. Different theoretical positions
way, landscape began to be thought of as a polysemic provide different frameworks to look upon the dynamics of
concept. In recent decades this conception of landscape as a landscape production and modifications. The
simple material object has changed and began to read transdisciplinary character of the concept made it difficult to
landscape as text, as the expression of something to provide standardised definition to landscape in all times.
interpret, something that lies beyond, to be lived, practiced The postmodern turn, which rejects all grand narratives,
and experienced. (Minca, 2013). contributes to the re-emergence of landscape research in
various fields of geography in a very subjective and
The humanist geographers of the second half of the 20th specialised manner.
century adopted a more people oriented approach to study
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