Case For Comprehensible Input

The Case for Comprehensible Input
Stephen Krashen
www.sdkrashen.com, skrashen (twitter)
Published in Language Magazine, July 2017.
The work of the last 40 years is the result of a war between two very
different views about how we acquire language and develop literacy.
The Comprehension Hypothesis says that we acquire language when we

understand what we hear or read. Our mastery of the individual components
of language ("skills") is the result of getting comprensible input.
The rival hypothesis, The Skill-Building Hypothesis, says that the causality
goes in the other direction: We learn language by first learning grammar
rules and memorizing vocabulary, we make these rules of new words
"automatic" by producing them in speech or writing, and we fine-tune our
(conscious) knowledge of grammar and vocabulary by getting our errors
corrected.
In this paper, I briefly present some of the data that supports the
Comprehension Hypothesis as well as research that demonstrates the limits
of Skill-Building in the area of second language acquisition.
Evidence for the Comprehension Hypothesis
Comparison of Comprehension-Based Methods and Traditional Methods
When comprehensible input-based methods are compared to methods that

demand the conscious learning of grammar, comprehensible input methods
have never lost.
Krashen (2014a) includes studies of beginning and intermediate language

teaching, the latter including content-based (sheltered) instruction and
classes that include time set aside for self-selected reading. Several reviews
have confirmed the effectiveness of sheltered subject matter teaching
(Krashen, 1991; Dupuy, 2000) as well as in-class self-selected reading on
tests of vocabulary development and reading comprehension (Jeon & Day,
2014; Nakanishi, 2014) Mason (benikomason.net) includes a number of
studies showing that CI-based methods, such as hearing interesting stories
(Storylistening) and pleasure reading are more efficient than "study," that is,
more language is acquired per unit time.
Correlational and Multivariate Studies
Correlational studies are valuable but interpretation is not always clear: If A

is correlated with B, we do not know if A caused B, B caused A, or if some
other predictor caused both of them. Multivariate studies help deal with the
third situation: With multiple regression, a researcher can determine the
impact of one variable while holding the effect of other variables constant. It
allows us to assume that the predictors are not correlated with each other.
A number of multiple regression studies show that pleasure reading in the

L2 is a more consistent predictor of L2 proficiency than Skill-Building.
This was case in the following studies:

• The acquisition of the subjunctive among adult acquirers of Spanish
(Stokes, Krashen and Kartchner (1998),
• For students of English as a foreign language, for grades in composition
classes (Lee and Krashen, 2002)
• For students of English as a foreign language, for scores on a test of
writing (Lee, 2005)
The amount of pleasure reading done in English was a better predictor of

performance on standardized tests of English than predictors related to skill-
building (Gradman and Hanania, 1991) or were just as strong (Constantino,
Lee, Cho & Krashen, 1997).
Case Histories
Case histories are a valid source of research data if we examine a lot of

them, see what is common to cases of success and failure, and determine
whether the commonalities are consistent with current hypotheses about
language acquisition.
I examined a number of case histories in Krashen (2014b). including a

famous polyglot (Lomb Kato), a super-student of grammar whose failure to
progress in German changed the course of language education (Francois
Gouin), a famous archeologist (Heinrich Schliemann), a former president of
Singapore (Lee Kuan Yew) and his efforts to acquire Mandarin, and
Armando, an immigrant to the US from Mexico, who acquired an impressive
amount of Hebrew in addition to English from working in a restaurant
owned by Israelis. I concluded that comprehensible input was the common
factor in all of the successful cases.
In a series of case histories, Beniko Mason documented the progress of adult

acquirers of EFL who did self-selected reading in English for different
durations, from a few months to three years. Krashen and Mason (2015)
concluded that Mason's subjects gained an average of a little more than a
half-point on the TOEIC test for each hour of reading they did.
In another series of case histories, Kyung-Sook Cho documented progress

made by adult ESL acquirers living in the US as a result of reading novels
from the Sweet Valley High series (e.g. Cho and Krashen, 1994).
Rival Hypotheses
As noted earlier, the major rival to the Comprehension Hypothesis is the

Skill-Building hypothesis, which depends on conscious learning, output
practice, and correction.
In Krashen (1981), I hypothesized that the conscious learning and

application of rules of grammar is subject to strict conditions: The learner
has to: 1) know the rule, a daunting challenge in light of the number of
grammatical rules and their complexity and ambiguity; 2) has to be thinking
about correctness; 3) needs to have time to retrieve and apply the rules. In
studies claiming that grammar study has a positive effect, these conditions
were met, and the results reported have been very modest and fragile
(Krashen, 2003).
Output Hypotheses
There are several versions of the hypothesis that we acquire language by

producing it. All suffer from the finding that both spoken and written output
are too infrequent for output to be a major source of language development
(Krashen, 1994). "Comprehensible output," that is, output adjustments that
are in response to the conversational partner's lack of comprehension, is also
not frequent enough to make a substantial contribution to competence
(Krashen, 2005). In addition, there is as yet no evidence that adding output
to effective self-selected reading programs in the form of writing results in
greater language acquisition (Mason, 2004; Smith, 2006).
Correction
The conditions for the efficacy of error correction appear to be similar if not
identical to the conditions for the learning and use of conscious grammar.
Truscott has documented the limited impact of correction in a series of
analyses (e.g. Truscott, 1999, 2007).
Other Areas
A clear indication that a hypothesis is of value is when it successfully

explains phenomena in areas that it was not originally intended to cover: The
Comprehension Hypothesis has been useful in areas outside of second
language acquisition, such as bilingual education (McField and McField,
2014), first language literacy development (e.g. Krashen, 2004), and animal
language (Krashen, 2013).
This article is based on a presentation delivered at IFLT (International

Foreign Language Teaching Conference), Denver, July 2017. I thank Carol
Gabb for helpful suggestions.
Many of the self-citations included here, as well as others, are available for
free download at www.sdkrashen.com.
Works Cited
Cho, K.S. and Krashen, S. (1994). Acquisition of vocabulary from the Sweet
Valley Kids series: Adult ESL acquisition. Journal of Reading, 37, 662-667.
Constantino, R., Lee, S.Y., Cho, K.S., and Krashen, S. (1997). Free
voluntary reading as a predictor of TOEFL scores. Applied Language
Learning, 8, 111-118.
Dupuy, B. (2000). Content-based instruction. Can it help ease the transition

from beginning to advanced foreign language classes? Foreign Language
Annals, 33:2, 205-223.
Gradman, H. and Hanania, E. (1991) Language learning background factors

and ESL proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 75, 39-51.
Jeon, E-Y., and Day, R. (2016). The effectiveness of ER on reading
proficiency: A meta-analysis. Reading in a Foreign Language, 28(2), 246-
265. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language

learning. New York: Prentice-Hall. (Available at www.sdkrashen.com, free
download).
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use: The

Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. (1991). Sheltered subject matter teaching. Cross Currents, 18,

183-188.
Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. Ellis (Ed.)
Implicit and explicit learning of languages. London: Academic Press (pp.
45-77).
Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading. Libraries Unlimited. Second

edition.
Krashen, S. (2013). The comprehension hypothesis and animal language..

József Horváth, and Péter Medgyes (Eds.). Studies in honor of Marianne
Nikolov. Pécs: Lingua Franca Csoport (pp. 243-258)
Krashen, S. (2014a). Comprehensible input-based methods versus traditional

methods.
http://skrashen.blogspot.com/2014/08/comprensible-input-based-methods-
vs.html
Krashen, S. (2014b). Case histories and the comprehension hypothesis.

TESOL Journal, (www.tesol-journal.com) June, 2014.
Krashen, S. and Mason, B.M. (2015). Can second language acquirers reach
high levels of proficiency through self-selected reading? An attempt to
confirm Nation's (2014) results. International Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 10 (2), 10-19.
Lee, S. Y. (2005). Facilitating and inhibiting factors on EFL writing: A

model testing with SEM. Language Learning, 55 (2), 335-374
Lee, S.Y. and Krashen, S. (2002). Predictors of success in writing in English
as a foreign language: reading, revision behavior, apprehension, and writing.
The College Student Journal, 36 (4), 532-543.
Mason B. (2004). The effect of adding supplementary writing to an

extensive reading program. The International Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 1 (1), 2–16.
McField, G. & McField, D. (2014). The consistent outcome of bilingual

education programs: A meta-analysis of meta-analyses. In G. McField (Ed.)
The miseducation of English learners. Charlotte: Information Age
Publishing (pp. 267-299).
Nakanishi, T. (2014). A meta-analysis of extensive reading research. TESOL

Quarterly, 49 (1), 6-37.
Smith, K. (2006). A comparison of ‘pure’ extensive reading with intensive

reading and extensive reading with supplementary activities. The
International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2 (2), 12–15.
Stokes, J., Krashen, S. & Kartchner, J. (1998). Factors in the acquisition of

the present subjunctive in Spanish: The role of reading and study. ITL:
Review of Applied Linguistics, 121-122, 19-25.
http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles.php?cat=6
Truscott, J. (1999). What’s wrong with oral grammar correction. Canadian

Modern Language Review, 55, 437–456.
Truscott, J. (2007) The effect of error correction on learners' ability to write

accurately. Journal of Second Language Writin,g 16, 235-272.

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The Case for Comprehensible Input

The Comprehension Hypothesis says that we acquire language when we

Evidence for the Comprehension Hypothesis

Comparison of Comprehension-Based Methods and Traditional Methods

When comprehensible input-based methods are compared to methods that

Krashen (2014a) includes studies of beginning and intermediate language

Correlational and Multivariate Studies

Correlational studies are valuable but interpretation is not always clear: If A

A number of multiple regression studies show that pleasure reading in the

This was case in the following studies:

The amount of pleasure reading done in English was a better predictor of

Case histories are a valid source of research data if we examine a lot of

I examined a number of case histories in Krashen (2014b). including a

In a series of case histories, Beniko Mason documented the progress of adult

In another series of case histories, Kyung-Sook Cho documented progress

As noted earlier, the major rival to the Comprehension Hypothesis is the

In Krashen (1981), I hypothesized that the conscious learning and

There are several versions of the hypothesis that we acquire language by

A clear indication that a hypothesis is of value is when it successfully

This article is based on a presentation delivered at IFLT (International

Dupuy, B. (2000). Content-based instruction. Can it help ease the transition

Gradman, H. and Hanania, E. (1991) Language learning background factors

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language

Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use: The

Krashen, S. (1991). Sheltered subject matter teaching. Cross Currents, 18,

Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading. Libraries Unlimited. Second

Krashen, S. (2013). The comprehension hypothesis and animal language..

Krashen, S. (2014a). Comprehensible input-based methods versus traditional

Krashen, S. (2014b). Case histories and the comprehension hypothesis.

Lee, S. Y. (2005). Facilitating and inhibiting factors on EFL writing: A

Mason B. (2004). The effect of adding supplementary writing to an

McField, G. & McField, D. (2014). The consistent outcome of bilingual

Nakanishi, T. (2014). A meta-analysis of extensive reading research. TESOL

Smith, K. (2006). A comparison of ‘pure’ extensive reading with intensive

Stokes, J., Krashen, S. & Kartchner, J. (1998). Factors in the acquisition of

Truscott, J. (1999). What’s wrong with oral grammar correction. Canadian

Truscott, J. (2007) The effect of error correction on learners' ability to write

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