10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.

2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts

19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness

The Functionalist Perspective

In the functionalist model, Parsons argued that illness is a
form of deviance that disturbs the social function of a society.

Learning Objectives
Discuss the functionalist perspective on illness in society,
specifically the role the sick play in a specific society and
how that role affects others

Key Points
Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the
function of its constituent elements (namely norms,
customs, traditions, and institutions ), much like the Herbert Spencer: Herbert Spencer was a prominent
interacting organs within the human body. functionalist sociologist, who likened the functioning parts of
society as organs within a body.
Prominent functionalist theorists include Auguste Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Talcott Parsons, Kingsley Davis and Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the
Wilbert E. Moore, Robert Merton, and Gabriel Almond function of its constituent elements; namely norms, customs,
and Bingham Powell. traditions, and institutions. A common analogy, popularized
Functionalism is a framework that sees society as a by Herbert Spencer, presents these parts of society as
complex system whose parts work together to promote “organs” that work toward the proper functioning of the
solidarity and stability. “body” as a whole. For Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), an
Functionalists argue that a sick individual is not a American sociologist, “structural-functionalism” came to
productive member of society; therefore this deviance describe a particular stage in the methodological development
needs to be policed. This is the role of the medical of social science, rather than a specific school of thought.
profession. The Sick Role
Structural functionalism reached the peak of its influence
Sick role is a term used in medical sociology regarding
in the 1940s and 1950s, and by the 1960s was in rapid
sickness and the rights and obligations of the affected. It is a
decline, replaced by conflict-oriented approaches in
concept created by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons in
Europe and more recently by structuralism.
1951. Parsons was a functionalist sociologist who argued that
Key Terms being sick means that the sufferer enters a role of “sanctioned
deviance: Actions or behaviors that violate formal and deviance”. This is because, from a functionalist perspective, a
informal cultural norms, such as laws or the norm that sick individual is not a productive member of society.
discourages public nose-picking. Therefore this deviance needs to be policed, which is the role
structuralism: A theory of sociology that views elements of of the medical profession.
society as part of a cohesive, self-supporting structure.
In the functionalist model, Parsons argued that the best way
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a to understand illness sociologically is to view it as a form of
framework for building theory that sees society as a complex deviance that disturbs the social function of the society. The
system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and general idea is that the individual who has fallen ill is not only
stability. This approach looks at society through a macro-level physically sick, but now adheres to the specifically patterned
orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures social role of being sick. “Being Sick” is not simply a
that shape society as a whole. This approach looks at both “condition”; it contains within itself customary rights and
social structure and social functions. Prominent functionalist obligations based on the social norms that surround it.
theorists include Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Talcott The theory outlined two rights of a sick person and two
Parsons, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore, Robert obligations. The sick person’s rights are twofold: the first one
Merton, and Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powell. is being exempt from normal social roles; the second one is
not being responsible for their condition. Conversely, the sick
person’s obligations included trying to get well and
cooperating with the medical professionals. Parsons
concluded that there are three versions of the sick role:

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 1/6
10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts
conditional, unconditional legitimate, and illegitimate (a Conflict theory is most often associated with Marxism, but
condition stigmatized by others). may also be associated with other perspectives such as
critical theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory, queer
Critics of the Functionalist Perspective
theory, and race -conflict theory.
Critics of Parsons and the functionalist perspective point to
Key Terms
different flaws they see with his argument. The model
assumes that the individual voluntarily accepts the sick role. functionalism: Structural functionalism, or simply
It also assumes that the individual may not comply with functionalism, is a framework for building theory that sees
expectations of the sick role, may not give up social society as a complex system whose parts work together to
obligations, may resist dependency, and may avoid the public promote solidarity and stability.
sick role if their illness is stigmatized. The model also blames military-industrial complex: The armed forces of a nation
the sick, where “rights” do not always apply. together with the industries that supply their weapons and
materiel.
Structural functionalism reached the peak of its influence in
capitalism: A socio-economic system based on private
the 1940s and 1950s, and by the 1960s was in rapid decline. By
property rights, including the private ownership of
the 1980s, its place was taken in Europe by more conflict-
resources or capital, with economic decisions made largely
oriented approaches, and more recently by “structuralism”.
through the operation of a market unregulated by the
While some of the critical approaches also gained popularity
state.
in the United States, the mainstream of the discipline has
instead shifted to a myriad of empirically-oriented middle- Conflict theories are perspectives in social science that
range theories with no overarching theoretical orientation. To emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a
most sociologists, functionalism is now obsolete. social group, that critique the broad socio-political system, or
that otherwise detract from structural functionalism and
The Conflict Perspective ideological conservatism. Sociologists in the tradition of
Conflict theory argues that the economic and political conflict theory argue that the economic and political
structures of a society create social divisions, inequalities, and structures of a society create social divisions, classes,
conflicts. hierarchies, antagonisms and conflicts that produce and
reproduce inequalities. Certain conflict theories set out to
Learning Objectives highlight the ideological aspects inherent in traditional
Examine the differing views on conflict theory from thought. While many of these perspectives hold parallels,
various sociologists, such as Karl Marx and C. Wright conflict theory does not refer to a unified school of thought,
Mills and should not be confused with, for instance, peace and
conflict studies.
Key Points Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is
Conflict theories are perspectives in social science that most commonly associated with Karl Marx (1818–1883). Based
emphasize the social, political, or material inequality of a on a dialectical materialist account of history, Marxism
social group. posited that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems,
Of the classical founders of social science, conflict theory is would inevitably produce internal tensions leading to its own
most commonly associated with Karl Marx, who posited destruction. Marx ushered in radical change, advocating
that capitalism would inevitably produce internal tensions proletarian revolution and freedom from the ruling classes. At
leading to its own destruction. the same time, Karl Marx was aware that most of the people
Marx advocated for the rejection of false consciousness living in capitalist societies did not see how the system
(explanations of social problems as the shortcomings of shaped the entire operation of society. Just like how we see
individuals rather than the flaws of society ) and the private property, or the right to pass that property onto our
claiming of class consciousness (workers’ recognition of children as natural, many of members in capitalistic societies
themselves as a class unified in opposition to the capitalist see the rich as having earned their wealth through hard work
system). and education, while seeing the poor as lacking in skill and
The Polish-Austrian sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz and initiative. Marx rejected this type of thinking and termed it
the American sociologist Lester F. Ward approached false consciousness, which involves explanations of social
conflict from a comprehensive anthropological and problems as the shortcomings of individuals rather than the
evolutionary point-of-view. flaws of society. Marx wanted to replace this kind of thinking
C. Wright Mills has been called the founder of modern with something Engels termed class consciousness, which is
conflict theory. In Mills’s view, social structures are created when workers recognize themselves as a class unified in
through conflict between people with differing interests opposition to capitalists and ultimately to the capitalist
and resources. system itself. In general, Marx wanted the working class to

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 2/6
10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts

rise up against the capitalists and overthrow the capitalist Constructivist grounded theory emphasizes the
system. development of an interactive relationship and mutual
image construction of knowledge between researcher and
participants.
Medicalization of deviance refers to the process that
changes “bad” behavior into “sick” behavior.
Demedicalization refers to the process when “sick”
behavior is normalized again.

Key Terms
medicalization of deviance: The medicalization of
Healthcare reform supporter: Karl Marx wanted to replace
deviance refers to the process that changes “bad” behavior
false consciousness with class consciousness, in which the into “sick” behavior.
working class would rise up against the capitalist system. demedicalization: Demedicalization refers to the process
Two early conflict theorists were the Polish-Austrian when “sick” behavior is normalized again.
sociologist and political theorist Ludwig Gumplowicz (1838– symbolic interactionist: Symbolic interactionist
1909) and the American sociologist and paleontologist Lester researchers investigate how people create meaning during
F. Ward (1841–1913). Although Ward and Gumplowicz social interaction, how they present and construct the self,
developed their theories independently, they had much in and how they define situations of co-presence with others.
common and approached conflict from a comprehensive According to theorists working in the symbolic interactionist
anthropological and evolutionary point-of-view as opposed to perspective, health and illness are socially constructed.
Marx’s rather exclusive focus on economic factors. Symbolic interactionist researchers investigate how people
C. Wright Mills has been called the founder of modern create meaning during social interaction, how they present
conflict theory. In Mills’s view, social structures are created and construct the self (or “identity”), and how they define
through conflict between people with differing interests and situations of co-presence with others. One of the perspective’s
resources. Individuals and resources, in turn, are influenced central ideas is that people act as they do because of how they
by these structures and by the “unequal distribution of power define situations.
and resources in the society. ” Mills argued that the interests Constructivist grounded theory emphasizes the development
of the power elite of American society (for example, the of an interactive relationship and mutual construction of
military-industrial complex) were opposed to those of the knowledge between researcher and participants. Symbolic
people. He theorized that the policies of the power elite interactionists believe that objects have meaning only through
would result in the “increased escalation of conflict, people’s interactions with them in the environment, that the
production of weapons of mass destruction, and possibly the meanings people have for things develops through social
annihilation of the human race. ” interaction and that those meanings are handled and
Conflict theory is most commonly associated with Marxism, modified by a constant and ongoing interpretive process by
but as a reaction to functionalism and the positivist method, it individuals.
may also be associated with a number of other perspectives, An example of the social construction of health the the Rate of
including critical theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory, Perceived Exertion, or RPE. This scale measures the intensity
post-structural theory, postcolonial theory, queer theory, of a person’s workout on a scale of 0 to 10. This scale was
world systems theory, and race-conflict theory. developed by Gunnar Borg, and it is used by medical
professionals to assess a person’s health in a variety of ways.
The Interactionist Perspective
According to theorists working in the symbolic interactionist In essence, interactionists focus on the specific meanings and
perspective, health and illness are socially constructed. causes people attribute to illness. The term “medicalization”
of deviance” refers to the process that changes “bad” behavior
Learning Objectives into “sick” behavior. A related process is “demedicalization”,
in which “sick” behavior is normalized again. Medicalization
Explain and give examples of social constructions of
and demedicalization affect who responds to the patient, how
health according to the symbolic interactionist perspective
people respond to the patient, and how people view the
Key Points personal responsibility of the patient.
Symbolic interactionist researchers investigate how people An example of medicalization is illustrated by the history of
create meaning during social interaction, how they present how our society views alcohol and alcoholism. During the
and construct the self, and how they define situations of 19th century, people who drank too much were considered
co-presence with others. “bad, lazy people. ” They were called drunks, and it was not

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 3/6
10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts
uncommon for them to be arrested or run out of a town. society.
Drunks were not treated in a sympathetic way because, at that Labeling theory was first applied to the term “mentally ill”
time, it was thought that it was their own fault that they could in 1966 when Thomas J. Scheff published Being Mentally Ill.
not stop drinking. During the latter half of the 20th century, Scheff challenged common perceptions of mental illness by
however, people who drank too much were increasingly claiming that mental illness is manifested solely as a result
defined as people with a disease or a genetic predisposition to of societal influence.
addiction. With alcoholism defined as a disease and not a Hard labeling refers to those who argue that mental illness
personal choice, alcoholics came to be viewed with more does not exist. They note the slight deviance from the
compassion and understanding. Thus, “badness” was norms of society that cause people to believe in mental
transformed into “sickness”. illness.
Soft labeling refers to people who believe that mental
illnesses do, in fact, exist. Unlike the supporters of hard
labeling, soft labeling supporters believe that mental
illnesses are not entirely socially constructed.
Key Terms
self-fulfilling prophecy: a prediction that, by being
voiced, causes itself to come true
social construction: A concept or practice that is the
construct (or artifact) of a particular group, meaning that
the concept or practice is understood differently by various
groups and institutions.
deviance: Actions or behaviors that violate formal and
informal cultural norms, such as laws or the norm that
discourages public nose-picking.

Alcoholism: In this engraving from the 19th century, “King Labeling Theory on Health and Illness
Alcohol” is shown with a skeleton on a barrel of alcohol. The Labeling theory is closely related to social-construction and
words “poverty,” “misery,” “crime,” and “death” hang in the
air behind him. symbolic-interaction analysis. Developed by sociologists
during the 1960s, labeling theory holds that deviance is not
While interactionism does acknowledge the subjective nature
inherent to an act. The theory focuses on the tendency of
of diagnosis, it is important to remember who benefits the
majorities to negatively label minorities or those seen as deviant
most when a behavior becomes defined as illness.
from standard cultural norms. The theory is concerned with
Pharmaceutical companies make billions of dollars treating
how the self-identity and behavior of individuals may be
illnesses such as fatigue, insomnia, and hyperactivity that
determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or
may not actually be illnesses in need of treatment, but
classify them. It is associated with the concepts of self-
opportunities for companies to make more money.
fulfilling prophecy and stereotyping.
The Labeling Approach
The labeling approach to health and illness claims that mental
illness is manifested solely as a result of societal influence.

Learning Objectives
Analyze the pros and cons of labeling theory, especially
the implications it has for the “mentally ill” and
HIV/AIDS patients

Key Points
Developed by sociologists during the 1960s, labeling
theory holds that deviance is not inherent to an act. The
theory focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively
label minorities or those seen as deviant from standard
cultural norms.
The social construction of deviant behavior plays an
important role in the labeling process that occurs in

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 4/6
10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts
image
Labels, while they can be stigmatizing, can also lead those
who bear them down the road to proper treatment and
recovery. The label of “mentally ill” may help a person seek
help, such as psychotherapy or medication. If one believes
that being “mentally ill” is more than just believing one
should fulfill a set of diagnostic criteria, then one would
probably also agree that there are some who are labeled
“mentally ill” who need help. It has been claimed that this
could not happen if society did not have a way to categorize
them, although there are actually plenty of approaches to
these phenomena that don’t use categorical classifications and
diagnostic terms (for example, spectrum or continuum
1857 Lithograph by Armand Gautier: Shows personifications models). Here, people vary along different dimensions, and
of dementia, megalomania, acute mania, melancholia, idiocy,
everyone falls at different points on each dimension.
hallucination, erotic mania and paralysis in the gardens of the
Hospice de la Salpêtrière. A mental disorder or mental illness
is a psychological pattern, potentially reflected in behavior, Contributors and Attributions
that is generally associated with distress or disability, and Curation and Revision. by: Boundless.com. CC BY-SA
which is not considered part of normal development of a CC licensed content, Specific attribution
person’s culture.
Sick role. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_role)
The social construction of deviant behavior plays an Functionalist perspective. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalist_perspective)
important role in the labeling process that occurs in society. Functionalist perspective. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
This process involves not only the labeling of criminally en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalist_perspective)
deviant behavior—behavior that does not fit socially structuralism. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/structuralism)
constructed norms—but also labeling that reflects stereotyped deviance. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deviance)
or stigmatized behavior of the “mentally ill.” Hard labeling Herbert Spencer. (Public Domain; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg)
refers to those who argue that mental illness does not exist; it BMC Health Services Research | Full text | Employment status and
is merely deviance from the norms of society that cause differences in the one-year coverage of physician visits: different needs or
people to believe in mental illness. Mental illnesses are unequal access to services?. (CC BY; BioMed Central via
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/6/123)
socially constructed illnesses and psychotic disorders do not Healthcare in the united states. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
exist. Soft labeling refers to people who believe that mental en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_united_states)
Sociology of health and illness. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
illnesses do, in fact, exist, and are not entirely socially en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness)
constructed. Conflict perspective. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_perspective)
Labeling theory was first applied to the term “mentally ill” in capitalism. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via
1966 when Thomas J. Scheff published Being Mentally Ill. en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capitalism)
functionalism. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
Scheff challenged common perceptions of mental illness by en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/functionalism)
claiming that mental illness is manifested solely as a result of military-industrial complex. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/military-industrial_complex)
societal influence. He argued that society views certain
Herbert Spencer. (Public Domain; Wikipedia via
actions as deviant. In order to come to terms with and en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg)
understand these actions, society often places the label of Health care reform supporter 2 at town hall meeting in West Hartford,
Connecticut, 2009-09-02. (CC BY; Wikimedia via
mental illness on those who exhibit them. Certain commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Health_care_reform_supporter_2_at_
expectations are placed on these individuals and, over time, town_hall_meeting_in_West_Hartford,_Connecticut,_2009-09-02.jpg)
(CC BY; Rice University via
they unconsciously change their behavior to fulfill them.
bread.cnx.rice.edu:9680/content/m10414/1.5/)
Criteria for different mental illnesses, he believed, are not BMC Women's Health | Full text | Becoming the best mom that I can:
consistently fulfilled by those who are diagnosed with them women's experiences of managing depression during pregnancy - a
qualitative study. (CC BY; BioMed Central via
because all of these people suffer from the same disorder. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/7/13)
Criteria are simply fulfilled because the “mentally ill” believe User:Ceplm/Symbolic Interactionism. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Ceplm/Symbolic_Interactionism)
they are supposed to act a certain way—over time, they come
Boundless. (CC BY-SA; Boundless Learning via
to do so. www.boundless.com//sociology/definition/medicalization-of-deviance)
Boundless. (CC BY-SA; Boundless Learning via
Another issue involving labeling was the rise of HIV/AIDS www.boundless.com//sociology/definition/symbolic-interactionist)
cases among gay men in the 1980s. HIV/AIDS was labeled a Boundless. (CC BY-SA; Boundless Learning via
www.boundless.com//sociology/definition/demedicalization)
disease of the homosexual and further pushed people into Herbert Spencer. (Public Domain; Wikipedia via
believing homosexuality was deviant. Even today, some en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg)
people believe contracting HIV/AIDS is punishment for Health care reform supporter 2 at town hall meeting in West Hartford,
Connecticut, 2009-09-02. (CC BY; Wikimedia via
deviant and inappropriate sexual behaviors.

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 5/6
10/17/22, 2:03 PM 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness - Social Sci LibreTexts
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Health_care_reform_supporter_2_at_ commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Health_care_reform_supporter_2_at_
town_hall_meeting_in_West_Hartford,_Connecticut,_2009-09-02.jpg) town_hall_meeting_in_West_Hartford,_Connecticut,_2009-09-02.jpg)
(CC BY; Rice University via (CC BY; Rice University via
bread.cnx.rice.edu:9680/content/m10414/1.5/) bread.cnx.rice.edu:9680/content/m10414/1.5/)
Labeling theory. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via Mental disorder. (Public Domain; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Labeling_theory%23The_.22mentally_ill.22) en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorder)
social construction. (CC BY-SA; Wikipedia via
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/social%20construction) This page titled 19.2: Sociological Perspectives on Health and Illness
deviance. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deviance)
self-fulfilling prophecy. (CC BY-SA; Wiktionary via is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed,
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/self-fulfilling_prophecy) and/or curated by Boundless via source content that was edited to
Herbert Spencer. (Public Domain; Wikipedia via the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg) history is available upon request.
Health care reform supporter 2 at town hall meeting in West Hartford,
Connecticut, 2009-09-02. (CC BY; Wikimedia via

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Solano_Community_College/SOC_002%3A_Social_Issues_and_Problems/19%3A_Health_and_Illness/19.02%… 6/6