Ethics Module

Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology
COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

General Tinio Street, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
2020
Ethics
GE 8
Module in Ethics | 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction
Moral and Non-Moral Standards
Moral dilemmas
Foundation of Morality: Freedom and Responsibility
Reason and Impartiality
Chapter 2 The Moral Act

Cultural Relativism
Why is Cultural Relativism Not Tenable in Ethics?
Morality: An Asian understanding
Morality: A Filipino Understanding
What is Moral Character?
Determinants of a Moral Character
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of moral Development
Chapter 3 The Act

Feelings and Moral Decision Making
Feelings and Moral Judgements
A Review of Reason and Impartiality
Moral Courage
Chapter 4 Framework and Principles Behind Our Moral dispositions.

Virtue Ethics
Aristotle
Telos
Happiness as Telos
St. Thomas Aquinas
The natural law
Categorical Imperatives
Right Theories
Difference between Legal and Moral Rights
Characteristics of Moral rights
Human Rights
Utilitarianism
Distributive Justice
Justice Fairness
Division of Labor
Socialism
Taxation
Chapter 5 Ethics through Thick and Thin and Cyber Ethics

Globalization and Pluralism
Cyber Ethics
Chapter 1
Introduction
This Module provides a brief introduction to the concepts of ethics. It is designed to be used by
lecturers who wish to provide their students with conceptual clarity and expose them to ethical
dilemmas and ethical decision-making. They allow us to move beyond discussions about the
difference between right and wrong, in order to focus on relationships and behaviour as well.
Throughout the Module, students will be introduced to concepts and thrown in at the deep end by
being asked to make decisions on what they would regard as the most ethical solutions to
dilemmas. Students will be guided through three major ethical theories, and challenged to agree
or disagree with them. Students should not be afraid to take a stance, as this will enhance their
learning and enjoyment of the Module.
Learning outcomes
1. Understand and define the concepts of ethics
2. Identify ethical dilemmas and apply different theoretical approaches
3. Understand the concept of moral and non-moral in the context of this Module
4. To apply ethical principles to real situations.
Ethics and Moral Reasoning in Everyday Life this by asking whether or not morality is
objective or subjective, or by posing questions about the assumption of a moral theory such as
‘What is your justification for claiming in your theory that pleasure is good?’ The study of ethics
and morality entails an analysis of both the individual human person acting as a free moral agent
and his/her society with its social rules and sanctions that set limitations on individual behavior.
Individual behavior is governed by a sense of what is the right thing to do, which is based on the
customs or mores of a particular society. For example, the way parents raise their children is
governed by the mores of their society. 1.1 The Role of Society and the Individual in the
Emergence of Mores William Graham Sumner, a well known sociologist and anthropologist,
claims that our notion of what is ‘right’ stems from our basic instinct to survive. That is, human
beings formed groups in order to meet the task of survival, and from living in groups they ob-
served best practices and developed the most practical way of doing things. From these practices
emerged traditions and notions of the right thing to do. For example, for each group of people
there is a right way of catching game, a right way of treating guests, and a right way of dressing
up. Sumner refers to these notions of ‘right’ and ‘true’ as ‘folkways
Video Materials: Why do ethics matter? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yesE4mcv4CM
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZIaHxC7BT0A
Moral and Non-Moral standard
Morality may refer to the standards that a person or a group has about what is right and wrong, or
good and evil. Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human
behavior, especially the distinction between good and bad (or right and wrong) behavior.
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally
right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally
good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral
principles.
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Either
these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense. Basic
examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games,
and various house rules.
According to Jensen DG. Mañebog 2018, Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal
statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-moral principles, though they can be ethically relevant
depending on some factors and contexts.
Vido Materials: https://study.com/academy/lesson/why-be-moral-sociological-psychological-
theological-reasoning.html
https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824#:~:text=Moral%20standards%20involve%20the
%20rules,morally%20good%20and%20morally%20bad.&text=Non-moral%20standards
%20refer%20to,to%20moral%20
https://study.com/academy/lesson/moral-dilemma-definition-examples-quiz.html
Moral Dilemmas
Ethical dilemmas also known as a moral dilemmas, are situations in which there is a choice to be
made between two options, neither of which resolves the situation in an ethically acceptable
fashion. In such cases, societal and personal ethical guidelines can provide no satisfactory
outcome for the chooser.
Ethical dilemmas assume that the chooser will abide by societal norms, such as codes of law or
religious teachings, in order to make the choice ethically impossible.
Ethical Dilemma Situations
Personal Friendships
Michael had several friends including Roger and Daniel. Roger has recently met and started
dating a wonderful lady named Phyllis. He is convinced this is a long term relationship.
Unknown to Roger, Michael observed them at a restaurant several days ago and realized Phyllis
is the wife of his other friend Daniel.
Michael is deciding whether to tell Roger that Phyllis is married when he receives a call from
Daniel. Daniel suspects his wife is having an affair and since they and Michael share many
friends and contacts, he asks if Michael has heard anything regarding an affair.
To whom does Michael owe greater friendship to in this situation? No matter who he tells, he is
going to end up hurting one, if not both friends. Does he remain silent and hope his knowledge is
never discovered?
Additional readings: https://examples.yourdictionary.com/ethical-dilemma-examples.html
Student assessment
This section provides a suggestion for a post-class assignment for the purpose of assessing
student understanding of the Module. Suggestions for pre-class or in-class assignments are
provided in the Exercises section.
Case study (Baby Theresa)
This full case is included in The Elements of Moral Philosophy (Rachels and Rachels, 2012).
The following is a summary of the case:
Summary: Baby Theresa was born in Florida (United States of America) in 1992 with
anencephaly, one of the worst genetic disorders. Sometimes referred to as "babies without
brains", infants with this disease are born without important parts of the brain and the top of the
skull is also missing. Most cases are detected during pregnancy and usually aborted. About half
of those not aborted are stillborn. In the United States, about 350 babies are born alive each year
and usually die within days. Baby Theresa was born alive. Her parents decided to donate her
organs for transplant. Her parents and her physicians agreed that the organs should be removed
while she was alive (thus causing her inevitable death to take place sooner), but this was not
allowed by Florida law. When she died after nine days the organs had deteriorated too much and
could not be used.
Answer the following questions:
1. How do we put a value on human life?
2. What should one do when there is a conflict between the law and one's own moral
position about an issue?
3. If you were in a position to make the final decision in this case, what would it be and
why?
As a variation, students could be asked to assume different roles, e.g. parents, physicians and
lawmakers, and have a class debate.
The following assignment is proposed to be completed within two weeks after the Module:
Select a media article that addresses an issue related to integrity and / or ethics. Examples might
include migration, inequality or privacy, or any topic that would be deemed appropriate and
relevant within the specific context. Describe the issue in your own words and clearly
demonstrate what the relevant integrity / ethical issues are. Select an ethical theory (e.g.
utilitarianism or deontology) and apply this theory to the issue in order to identify a preferred
way to guide decision-making. Maximum length: 300 words.
Additional teaching tools
This section includes links to relevant teaching aides such as PowerPoint slides, video material
and case studies, that could help the lecturer teach the issues covered by the Module. Lecturers
can adapt the slides and other resources to their needs.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

Moral dilemmas may vary based on the level in
which they occur. Since moral choices do not
occur independent of other factors, levels may
impact on each other which may consequently
further complicate the choices that will be made.
( Manuel et.al)
Micro-level: At the personal level, human
values, including their preferable modes of
behaviors and outcomes, would affect their views
on how and what should be achieved through his
or her behaviors.
Meso-level: At the professional level,
judgements could be affected by what guides
their values in terms of what is seen as being
accepted by the organizations and the professions
they are in.
Macro-level: At the societal/environmental level, one’s personal networks, including family,
friends and community would affect the extent to which practices are considered ethical or
unethical. And such predispositions could be reinforced over time. In particular, country-specific
factors, including changing political, economic and socio-cultural conditions, could influence the
way public relations is practiced.
Learning Activities
Discussion of ethical dilemmas in small groups (45 minutes)
Students break into small groups: for the first five minutes each student works individually by
writing down an example of an ethical dilemma that he / she has faced in their own personal
environment. For the next 20 minutes the students get the opportunity to share their dilemmas in
the small group - this is not compulsory and not everyone has to share. Students are requested to
respect privacy issues and to acknowledge the stress that might be involved when sharing
something very personal.
The final 20 minutes are spent on feedback from the groups: again - on an entirely voluntary
basis - groups are invited to share one example with the class as a whole. The lecturer uses the
board or a flip-chart to capture keywords from the example, leads discussion and wraps up with
his / her own views on the examples that have been shared.
Foundation of Morality: Freedom and Responsibility

How is the responsible agent related to her actions; what power does she exercise over them?
One (partial) answer is that the relevant power is a form of control, and, in particular, a form of
control such that the agent could have done otherwise than to perform the action in question.
This captures one commonsense notion of free will, and one of the central issues in debates
about free will has been about whether possession of it (free will, in the ability-to-do-otherwise
sense) is compatible with causal determinism (or with, for example, divine foreknowledge—see
the entry on foreknowledge and free will).
The Reactive Attitudes Approach
“Freedom and Resentment”
P. F. Strawson’s 1962 paper, “Freedom and Resentment”, is a touchstone for much of the work
on moral responsibility that followed it, especially the work of compatibilists. Strawson’s aim
was to chart a course between incompatibilist accounts committed to a free will requirement on
responsibility, and forward-looking compatibilist accounts that did not, in Strawson’s view,
appropriately acknowledge and account for the interpersonal significance of the affective
component of our responsibility practices. In contrast with forward-looking accounts such as J. J.
C. Smart’s and Moritz Schlick’s (§2.1), Strawson focuses directly on the emotions—the reactive
attitudes—that play a fundamental role in our practices of holding one another responsible.
Strawson’s suggestion is that attending to the logic of these emotional responses yields an
account of what it is to be open to praise and blame that need not invoke the incompatibilist’s
conception of free will. Indeed, Strawson’s view has been interpreted as suggesting that no
metaphysical facts beyond our praising and blaming practices are needed to ground these
practices.
Part of the novelty of Strawson’s approach is its emphasis on the “importance that we attach to
the attitudes and intentions towards us of other human beings” (1962 [1993: 48]) and on how
much it matters to us, whether the actions of other people…reflect attitudes towards us of
goodwill, affection, or esteem on the one hand or contempt, indifference, or malevolence on the
other. (1962 [1993: 49])
For Strawson, our practices of holding others responsible are largely responses to these things:
that is, “to the quality of others’ wills towards us” (1962 [1993: 56]).
The “Faces” of Responsibility
Attributability versus Accountability
Do our responsibility practices accommodate distinct forms of moral responsibility? Are there
different senses in which people may be morally responsible for their behavior? Contemporary
interest in these possibilities has its roots in a debate between Susan Wolf and Gary Watson.
Among other things, Wolf’s important 1990 book, Freedom Within Reason, offers a critical
discussion of “Real Self” theories of responsibility. According to these views, a person is
responsible for behavior that is attributable to her real self, and
an agent’s behavior is attributable to the agent’s real self…if she is at liberty (or able) both to
govern her behavior on the basis of her will and to govern her will on the basis of her valuational
system. (Wolf 1990: 33)
The basic idea is that a responsible agent is not simply moved by her strongest desires, but also,
in some way, approves of, or stands behind, the desires that move her because they are governed
by her values or because they are endorsed by higher-order desires. Wolf’s central example of a
Real Self view is Watson’s (1975). In an important and closely related earlier paper, Wolf (1987)
characterizes Watson (1975), Harry Frankfurt (1971), and Charles Taylor (1976) as offering
“deep self views”. For more on real-self/deep-self views, see §3.3.3; for a recent presentation of
a real-self view, see Chandra Sripada (2016).
Additional readings: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-responsibility/

Reason is the basis or motive for an action decision or conviction. As a quality , it refers to the
capacity for logical, rational and analytic thought; for consciously making sense of things,
establishing and verifying facts, applying common sense and logic, and justifying and if
necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on existing or new existing or new
existing information.
It also spells the difference of moral judgements from mere expressions of personal preference.
In the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. Thus, reason commends what it
commends, regardless of our feelings, attitudes, opinions and desires.
Impartiality involves the idea that each individuals interests and point of view are equally
important. It is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on objective rather
than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over another for
improper reasons.
It is all too easy to assume that the word impartiality must denote a positive, unitary concept –
presumably a concept closely linked with, if not identical to, morality. This, however, is simply
not the case. Rather, there are various sorts of behavior that may be described as ‘impartial,’ and
some of these obviously have little or nothing to do with morality. A person who chooses an
accountant on the basis of her friends’ recommendations may be entirely impartial between the
various candidates (members of the pool of local accountants) with respect to their gender, their
age, or where they went to school. Yet if her choice is motivated solely by rational self-interested
considerations then it is clear that the impartiality she manifests is in no way a form of moral
impartiality. To take a more extreme case, consider an insane serial killer who chooses his
victims on the basis of their resemblance to that some celebrity. The killer may be impartial with
respect to his victims’ occupations, religious beliefs, and so forth, but it would be absurd to
regard this as a form of moral impartiality.
Additional readings: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impartiality/
Powerpoint : https://www.slideshare.net/SarahCruz2/rachels-ch-1-what-is-morality-77090436
Chapter 2 THE MORAL ACT
Learning Outcomes After studying this module, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the nature of moral act in ethics;
2. To understand the role of culture in human behavior
3. Differentiate between a moral judgment and a moral decision; and 4. Explore the difference
between intellectual choice and practical choice.
Only humans are moral

According to Mothershead, conduct refers to deliberate human action. It is a result of the process
of reflection based on the idea that the human person is endowed with the capaci-ty to think and
plan his/her own life using his/her rationality and to weigh the consequences of his/her actions.
In general, we do not ascribe morality to animals or to natural calamities like typhoons,
earthquakes or tsunamis, for example. Even if typhoon Yolanda claimed around 8,000 lives, it
would be nonsensical to declare that typhoon Yolanda was immoral. Animals are not capable of
the act of deliberation or reflection. If your cat or your dog eats your fried chicken, this is not an
action based on reflection and deliberation but on instinct — for example, the cat or dog does not
think about whether it would be depriving its master of food for dinner. Animal behavior is
instinctive whereas human behavior is a matter of conduct. While some animals have been
recognized to have the ability to solve simple problems and the ability to connect events like
cause and effect, they develop these through the process of conditioning, where positive and
negative reinforcement are used for the animal to learn the behavior. An example is Skinner’s
pigeon which was conditioned or trained to peck five times for food to be given. Another
example is a chimpanzee, shown to have the capacity to solve simple problems by using simple
instruments or devices in order to reach his food, like using a stick to get the food placed in an
area not near enough for his bare hands or to use a stool to reach and pull the string to turn on the
light.
Culture and Its Moral Behavior Explained
Dr. Emma Butchel in her work, Challenging the concept of Morality, explained a comparison of
morality between Chinese and Western cultures. Both cultures have their perspective sense of
morality that even conflicts the other. Her study also focused on the moral and social concepts
these two societies abide. One factor that polarized these civilizations is their behavior that
helped mold their people to what they are now, as they are now, as they say tradition outlasts a
lifetime so they can no longer after moralist and they are already used to. Both civilizations once
immersed with their own, classify “odd” behavior reprehensible they branded them as either
major offense, minor offense or at least tolerable however there are behavior that may be
integrated to their civilization.
How is culture defined?
What if someone told you their culture was the internet? Would that make sense to you? Culture
is the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics shared by groups of people. Given this,
someone could very well say that they are influenced by internet culture, rather than an ethnicity
or a society! Culture could be based on shared ethnicity, gender, customs, values, or even
objects. Can you think of any cultural objects? Some cultures place significant value in things
such as ceremonial artifacts, jewelry, or even clothing. For example, Christmas trees can be
considered ceremonial or cultural objects. They are representative in both Western religious and
commercial holiday culture.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism (CR) says that good and bad are relative to culture. What is "good" is what is
"socially approved" in a given culture. Our moral principles describe social conventions and
must be based on the norms of our society.
Have you ever seen or eaten food from another country, such as dried squid or fried crickets and
think of it as weird and gross? This is an example of ethnocentrism! That means you use your
own culture as the center and evaluate other cultures based on it. You are judging, or making
assumptions about the food of other countries based on your own norms, values, or beliefs.
Thinking “dried squid is smelly” or “people shouldn’t eat insects” are examples of ethnocentrism
in societies where people may not eat dried squid or insects.
Cultural relativism holds that "good" means what is "socially approved" by the majority in a
given culture. Infanticide, for example, isn't good or bad objectively; rather it's good in a society
that approves of it but bad in one that disapproves of it.
Cultural relativists see morality as a product of culture. They think that societies disagree widely
about morality and that we have no clear way to resolve the differences. They conclude that there
are no objective values. Cultural relativists view themselves as tolerant; they see other cultures,
not as "wrong," but as "different.
VideoMaterial:https://www.coursera.org/lecture/business-ethics/3-1-3a-the-issue-s-of-
relativism-part-1-C7nNl
Powerpoint : https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/moral-agent#:~:text=A%20moral
%20agent%20is%20a,held%20responsible%20for%20their%20actions
Why is Cultural relativism is not Tenable in Ethics?
Because Ethics is a useless, pointless study if it does not tell us how to act in real life. Or at least
give us guidance as we choose our words and actions.
In our world today, individuals from many varied cultures and even whole masses of people are
mingling, observing and doing business with each other constantly. Cultural relativism tells us
that all moral ideals and values are only relevant inside the culture in which they are subscribed
to. But that means that in real-life, inter-cultural dealings, debates, and disputes, there are no
ethical principles we can use to help us in mediating the disputes and coming to fair resolutions.
The only way to settle disputes between nations, for the cultural relativists, is by force. War.
We may have done exactly that for centuries in the past, in all parts of the world, but we have
nuclear weapons now. We can’t use that ugly method of resolving disputes anymore. Either we
end war or it ends us.
That’s why moral relativism is a useless, pointless waste of time.
Morality: An Asian Understanding

Hinduism Origins are unknown Hindu texts such as the Vedas and Bhagavad Gita suggest that:
Hinduism is at least 3 000 years old and is the oldest religion in India. It developed slowly over
many centuries through a mixing of the beliefs of the Aryans and the Indus people.
Reincarnation nd the Caste System Reincarnation is the rebirth of the human in a new body after
death Impact of Hinduism Affected almost every aspect of life — the belief in reincarnation
explained the caste system, around which ancient Indian society was organised Almost 83 per
cent of the people in
Buddhism Began over 2000 years ago Developed from the teachings of Gautama Siddhartha.
Gautama’s Enlightenment Saw scenes of illnesses, death, old age and asceticism Left his palace
to search for an answer to “Why is human life full of sorrow and pain?” Realised the suffering
was caused by craving, hatred and ignorance Enlightenment — found the answers to his
question Now known as the Buddha, “The Enlightened One” The Four Noble Truths Life is full
of suffering Human beings suffer sorrow and pain because they desire pleasure, wealth and fame
Human beings can stop their sorrow and pain if they stop wanting these things The way to stop
having these desires is to follow the
Eightfold Path
right understanding right thought right speech right action right livelihood right effort right
mindfulness right meditation
Impact of Buddhism Influenced several Hindus, especially those from the lower castes to
convert Powerful kings converted too, helped to spread Buddhism throughout India and rest of
Asia Example is Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty (269–232 BCE)
A universal spirit is present within all living things—Brahman. This is thought to be the mighty
spirit that creates and destroys life – The Brahman is One but expresses itself as Many –
Everything in nature is tied together by Brahman – Because all living things are considered a part
of Brahman, Hindus forbade the killing of animals The Upanishads teach that….
One aspect of Brahman is the Self, or the Soul, called Atman – The Atman is everywhere,
though you can’t see it •Nothing that lives ever dies entirely – When a living thing dies, it is
reborn in another form---a process known as reincarnation
All wise Hindus must seek to reach a state of perfect understanding called moksha. At this point
the self will disappear and merge with Brahman • The authors of the Upanishads taught that
forms of self denial—such as fasting, helped achieve union with Brahman.
What is the symbol of Hinduism? Aum is the main symbol of Hinduism. It is the sound heard in
deepest meditation and is said to be the name most suited for God
Also, they encouraged the practice of yoga— which combines physical and mental exercises to
reach a state of tranquility
Hinduism includes a complicated set of divisions between groups of people known as the caste
system - Consists of many varnas, or classes - According to the Rig- Veda, four different groups
of people were created from the body of a Hindu god Caste System
Created from the god’s mouth---they became the priestly class and the highest group in Indian
society Brahmin (Not to be confused with Brahman!)
Created from the god’s arms---they became the rulers and the warriors Kshatriyas
Created from the god’s legs---they became the landowners, merchants, artisans, and herders
Vaishyas
Created from the god’s feet--- they became the laborers, farm workers, and servants Shudras
-The lowest “caste” of untouchables - People who performed jobs considered unclean Pariahs
To earn good rebirth a person had to be a good member of his or her caste - Each caste had its
particular duty or set of obligations called dharma - The individual’s wishes did not matter - It
was better to do your duty badly than to do someone else’s duty well DHARMA
Hindus believed in an ethical law of cause and effect called karma - Moral behavior in one life
guaranteed rebirth in a higher caste - Immoral behavior automatically dropped a reborn soul to a
lower caste KARMA. Hindus believed in an ethical law of cause and effect called karma - Moral
behavior in one life guaranteed rebirth in a higher caste - Immoral behavior automatically
dropped a reborn soul to a lower caste
Confucianism Founded by Confucius Taught codes of conduct of living in peace and harmony
Teachings – proper social behaviour, others before self and filial piety “Let the ruler be a rule,
the minister be a minister, the father be a father, and the son be a son” Teachings found in the Six
Classics and Analects Chapter 6 Slide 18 An illustration o
ASSESSMENT/REFLECTIONS
WHICH TEACHINGS DO THE FOLLOWING QUOTATIONS COME FROM?
Which teachings do the following quotations come from?
1. “The strength of a nation derives from the integrity of the home.”
2.“Better than a thousand hollow words, Is one word that brings peace. ”
3.“O God Beautiful, O God beautiful !! In the forest Thou art Green In the mountains Thou art
High In the river Thou art Restless In the ocean Thou art Grave ”
4.“Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting brings us to the door of His palace, and alms-
giving procures us admission.”
5.If I have no physical body, if I have obtained the Way and become naturally so, I shall lightly
lift myself and raise into the clouds. Coming and going between empty space, I become one in
spirit with the Way. What trouble could I have?
6. But the wisdom of the people is useless: They have the minds of little infants! If an infant's
head is not shaved, its sores will spread, and if its boil is not opened, it will become sicker. Yet
while its head is being shaved and its boil opened, one person has to hold it tight so that the
caring mother can perform the operation, and it screams and wails without end. Infants and
children don't understand that the small pain they have to suffer now will bring great benefit
later.
The Moral Agent: Developing virtue as a Habit

What is Moral Character
The development of moral character may take a whole lifetime. But once it is firmly established,
one will act consistently, predictably and appropriately in a variety of situations.
Moral character is perhaps best described as the totality of a person’s dispositions or
characteristics that play a role in how the person, morally speaking, behaves. To put it another
way, to have a particular moral character is to have (or to lack) certain virtues and vices of
character.
In the Western philosophical tradition, the concept of moral character is most often associated
with Virtue Ethics, dating back to Aristotle, but also including such figures as Augustine and St.
Thomas Aquinas. The concept of moral character and its importance in moral life is not,
however, a uniquely Western phenomenon. Non-Western philosophers – notably Confucius –
have also emphasized the importance of character (and, indeed, the virtues).
Since a person’s character consists in his or her dispositions to act in certain ways, the
development of good habits (both habits of thought and action) is essential to the formation of
good character. For this reason moral education is emphasized in connection with moral
character.
Video presentation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NJbTkXp8PKw
Determinants of a Moral Character
Moral Development
Moral development is one of the most significant aspects of the personality development. It is
thus a major task of society and education. Moral- development proceeds along with social
development. A person whose social development has been disturbed due to some, or the other
reason, a person who is socially maladjusted develops immoral behaviour.
Meaning of Moral Development:
Hemming, in his book. ‘The Development of Children’s Moral Values’ writes, “Moral
development is the process in which the child acquires the values esteemed by his
community…………. acquires a sense of right and wrong in terms of these values…. learns to
regulate his personal desires and compulsions so that, when a situational conflict (arises, he does
what he ought to do rather than what he wants to) do …. Moral development is the process by
which a community seeks to transfer the egocentricity of the baby into the social behaviour of
the mature adult.”
Moral development includes moral behaviour and moral concepts:
1. Moral behaviour:
Moral behaviour means behaviour in conformity with the moral code of the social group. The
term ‘Moral’ comes from the Latin word ‘mores’ meaning manners, customs and folkways.
Moral a companied by a feeling of responsibility for one’s acts. It involves giving primary
consideration to the welfare of the group and considering personal gain or desires as having
secondary importance.
2. Moral concepts:
Moral concepts are the rules of behaviour to which the members of a culture become accustomed
and which determine the expected behaviour patterns of all group members.
Lawrence Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral development in principle
but wanted to develop his ideas further.
He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each
case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority
and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz who lived
somewhere in Europe.
The Six Stages of Moral Reasoning are grouped into 3 Major Levels:
- Each level represents a significant change in the social - moral reasoning or perspective of the
person.
- Stressed that the goal of moral education, is to encourage individuals to develop to the next
stage of moral reasoning. The most common tool for doing this is to present a "moral dilemma"
and have students in groups determine and justify what course the actor in the dilemma should
take.
- "Just Community" - schools approach towards promoting moral development. Fundamental
goal is to enhance students' moral development by offering them the chance to participate in a
democratic community.
- DEMOCRACY - is more than casting a vote. It entails full participation of community
members in arriving at consensual rather than "majority rules" decision making.
- COMMUNITY MEETING - the center of the approach implementation in which issues related
to life and discipline in the schools are discussed and democratically decided, with an equal
value placed on the voices of students and teachers.
- The goal is to establish collective norms which express fairness for all members of the
community.
- A primary advantage to the just community approach is its effectiveness in affecting students'
actions, not just their reasoning. Students are expected to "practice what they preach".
Additional Readings: https://prezi.com/renk0j1ebnlj/module-6-kohlberg-stages-of-moral-

development/
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/psychology/moral-development/moral-development-in-
children-psychology/2441
Assessment/reflections
Explain and expound the problems in Kohlberg Moral development
1. Are there distinct stages to moral development?
2. Does moral judgement match moral behavior?
3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?
Explain and evaluate the role of conscience in moral decision-making.

Conscience can be defined as something within each of us that tells us what is right and
what is wrong. In Latin ’Con’ means with and ’science’ means knowledge. Therefore we should
surely use our conscience when we are making decisions as we should be being told what is the
right thing to do and what is wrong. This however doesn’t always seem to be the case.
The problem with using your conscience is that it is not consistent. We can see this when
claims have been made after someone made the wrong choice. For example at the time he was
Prime minister Tony Blair took the choice to go to war with Iraq. It is widely regarded as being
the wrong choice to have made and Tony Blair said in response that he was following his
conscience.
There are religious and secular (non-religious) views on the conscience. The religious views
have been developed from biblical teaching and the divine command theory. However there is
more than one interpretation about the conscience. Thomas Aquinas for example believed that
people should follow their conscience totally as long as your principles are right because it is the
voice of reason. On the other hand Butler argued the conscience comes form intuition.
Fromm on the other hand had two approaches and didn’t think there was stages in moral
development but saw that all humans are influenced by external authorities like parents, teachers
and church leaders. He thought that a guilty conscience is a result of displeasing these
authorities. The example of the Nazi government in Germany in the 1930’s was very successful
about manipulating the conscience’s of its people to encourage them not to help the Jews. But
that was his authoritarian approach and he had a humanistic approach. This was that our
conscience is our real self and leads us to realise our full potential using our experiences not
slavish obedience.
It appears the conscience should take a large role in how we make moral decisions.
However for both Secular and Religious views on the conscience we have seen that mistakes can
be made. These mistakes are the products of wrong principles or bad nurturing as a child
growing up or manipulations and bad influences. Therefore conscience should take a big role in
making moral decisions but one should also consider the fact that they may be wrong and should
compare the choice they want to make to another to see if one is greater.
Video presentation: https://study.com/academy/lesson/kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-
development.html
Further Readings
https://www.slideshare.net/arvi_bernardo/conscience-9319884
Chapter 3. THE ACT
Stand up for what is right even if you stand alone" -Anonymous
Lesson 1 Feelings and Moral decision Making

Learning Objectives
At the end of the study the students will be able to:
1.Interpret and apply ethical principles of teaching to analyze and propose solutions for a variety
of ethical dillemmas.
3. Adopt and existing model of professionalism to create an action plan for your own
professional development
3. Articulate and contrast your own value set
4.Evaluate the circumstances to establish whether moral courage is needed in the situation
5.Determine what moral values and ethical principles are at risk or in question of being
compromised
6. Continue to develop moral courage through education, training, and practice
Feelings and Decision Making

This module reflects a growing research field on decision making, giving you insight into the
thinking processes that underlie your own and others’ judgment and decision making, the errors
and biases that can arise in thinking, and some ways to improve decisions. The module does not
assume any prior knowledge and can give insight into decision making that is useful in both
personal and professional contexts. Decision research has influenced policy worldwide to help
people to make better decisions in different applied domains, including finance, health , and
sustainability.
People love to characterize emotion and feelings as toxic to rational, objective decision making.
"Be cool and dispassionate," they say. While there's some truth to that, there is also evidence to
suggest that emotions are crucial in rational decision making (Antonio Damasio, author of
Descartes' Error, is an influential proponent of the latter, as he presents neurobiological examples
to show that we make better decisions when feelings are part of the reasoning process).
So, how do you find a balance between being passionate and emotional around a decision while
also being able to step back and look at it as a dispassionate spectator, weighing benefits and
costs objectively?
We can't turn off any part of our brain or chemical processes, but we can consciously emphasize
certain parts. -- is that different stages of the decision making process require different emphases.
Say you're trying to decide whether or not to pursue a new idea (perhaps a new business).
Stage 1: Initial conception. This requires passion and emotion. You need to be fired up about the
possibilities and not shut off any possible creative circuit by "reality checking".
Stage 2: Reality check. This is when detachment is helpful. Step back and really weigh costs and
benefits. Be as rational and objective as possible.
Stage 3: Action. Assuming you pursue the idea, passion and emotion are again required. The
only way your idea will work is if you pour your heart into it. As Jack Welch has said, "You
can't behave in a calm, rational manner. You've got to be out there on the lunatic fringe." By this
stage, you will be so attached to your baby that it's impossible be objective. You need to recruit
independent advisors who can do the reality checking.
STAR Vision Decision Making Model

This decision-making model will be used to help you think through the “sticky situation”
reviewed in class and in small groups. The STAR Vision Decision Making model will help you
make a deceiosn in a particular situation.
STOP Step back from the situation. Give yourself some time to think.
THINK What are my options? What are the consequences? What’s my decision?
ACT Do what you decided to do. And tell the other person about it.
REVIEW What happened? How else could I have handled it? Can I live with the consequences?
VISION Is this decision in line with my values and future goals? How does this decision impact
my future.
WHGH has adopted IDEA Ethics Decision-Making Tool and a Ethical Decision Making
Worksheet:
I – Identify the facts
D – Determine the ethical principles in
conflict
E – Explore options
A – Act on your decision and evaluate
Learning Activites:
1.Write a few words describing the
role-play situation. What would you do
for each STAR Vision step in that
situation?
2. After class a student approaches you
to complain about your use of the term “homosexual” when referring LGBTQ individuals*
Answer this WHGH has adopted IDEA Ethics Decision-Making
The Trolly Dilemmas

The Trolley Problem, the classic problem involved an out-of-control trolley headed to kill 5
people. You are standing at the lever, and can redirect the trolley onto a track that will kill 1
person. Would you and should you pull the lever?
Video: https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/cyanideandhappiness/trial-by-trolley
Moral Emotions
Emotions – that is to say feelings and intuitions – play a major role in most of the ethical
decisions people make. Most people do not realize how much their emotions direct their moral
choices. But experts think it is impossible to make any important moral judgments without
emotions.
Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people to
act ethically.
Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. For example,
people often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted unethically. This
discourages others from behaving the same way.
Positive emotions like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they see another
acting with compassion or kindness, can prompt people to help others.
Emotions evoked by suffering, such as sympathy and empathy, often lead people to act ethically
toward others. Indeed, empathy is the central moral emotion that most commonly motivates
prosocial activity such as altruism, cooperation, and generosity. religious
values, in truth our emotions play a significant role in our ethical decision-making.
Video: https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/moral-emotions

It is all too easy to assume that the word impartiality must denote a positive, unitary concept –
presumably a concept closely linked with, if not identical to, morality. This, however, is simply
not the case. Rather, there are various sorts of behavior that may be described as ‘impartial,’ and
some of these obviously have little or nothing to do with morality. A person who chooses an
accountant on the basis of her friends’ recommendations may be entirely impartial between the
various candidates (members of the pool of local accountants) with respect to their gender, their
age, or where they went to school. Yet if her choice is motivated solely by rational self-interested
considerations then it is clear that the impartiality she manifests is in no way a form of moral
impartiality. To take a more extreme case, consider an insane serial killer who chooses his
victims on the basis of their resemblance to that some celebrity. The killer may be impartial with
respect to his victims’ occupations, religious beliefs, and so forth, but it would be absurd to
regard this as a form of moral impartiality.
Developing Will and Moral Courage:

The following are some tips or suggestions on how to develop will and moral courage
1. Develop and practice self-discipline.
One way to develop moral courage and will is to develop and practice self-discipline. The
concept self-discipline involves the rejection of instant gratification in favor of something better.
Ethically applied, it may refer to the giving up of instant pleasure and satisfaction for a higher
and better goal such as executing a good rational moral decision.
Developing will and moral courage involves developing self-control. It includes nurturing the
ability to stick to actions, thoughts, and behavior, which lead to moral improvement and success.
It encompasses endowing the inner strength to focus all the energy on a moral goal and persevere
until it is accomplished.
2. Do mental strength training.
This method is never reserved for a few special people. One of the most simple and effective
methods under this mental strength training involves declining to satisfy unimportant and
unnecessary desires.
Saying no to useless, harmful or unnecessary desires and deeds, and behaving contrary to one’s
(bad) habits, fortify and refine a person’s mindset. By persistent practice, one’s inner power
grows, in the same way working out one’s muscles at a gym increases one’s physical strength. In
both cases, when a person needs inner power or physical strength, they are available at his/her
disposal.
3. Draw inspiration from people of great courage.
People usually admire and respect courageous persons who have won great success by
manifesting self-discipline and will power. These include people in all walks of life, who with
sheer will power and moral courage, overcame difficulties and hardships, have improved their
moral life, advanced on the spiritual or moral path, and became worthy of imitation.
4. Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will.
Practice makes perfect. If one wishes to nurture the moral courage and will in him, he must strive
doing the acts that manifest them whenever opportunity allows it. The following are some
examples (“Moral Courage,” n.d.):
5. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will.
This involves evading acts that show irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy, rashness, imprudence,
ill will, and wickedness. Here are some examples (“Moral Courage,” n.d.):
Inhibitors of Moral Courage

A number of factors can thwart moral courage – can you identify some inhibitors that might
prevent you or someone else from acting in accordance to their ethical principles?
1.Organizational cultures that stifle discussion regarding unethical behaviors and tolerate
unethical acts.
2.Willingness to compromise personal and professional standards in order to avoid social
isolation from peers or to secure a promotion/favoritism within the organization
3.Unwillingness to face the tough challenge of addressing unethical behaviors
4.Indifference to ethical values
5.Apathy of bystanders who lack the moral courage to take action
6.Group think that supports a united decision to turn the other way when unethical behaviors are
taking place
7.Tendency to redefine unethical behaviors as acceptable (Kidder, 2005)
Assessment/Reflections
Activity : Moral Courage in Your Context
To begin this activity, brainstorm an ethical dilemma you have faced in the past in relation to
university teaching. If you’re having difficulty identifying a situation of your own, consider
borrowing one of the scenarios from Activity #1 that resonates with you.
Complete the table provided in below for applying the critical checkpoints for moral
courage to the ethical dilemma identified.
Step Checkpoint Reflections

1  Evaluate the circumstances of your
identified dilemma. Was moral
courage needed in the situation?
2  What moral values and ethical
principles were at risk or in
question of being compromised?
3  Of the principles identified in step
2, which principles were in need of
being expressed and defended the
most? Pick 1-2
4  What adverse consequences/risks
did you associate with taking
action?
5  At the time, did you feel the
adversity of facing such
risks/challenges could be endured?
What support/resources were
available?
6  What were the stumbling blocks
that might have restrained your
moral courage?
7  How can you continue to develop
moral courage in this area? i.e.
what education, training, and
practice might you engage in?
CHAPTER 4 FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND OUR MORAL
DISPOSITIONS
This Module provides a brief introduction to the concepts of integrity and ethics. It is designed to
be used by lecturers who wish to provide their students with conceptual clarity and expose them
to ethical dilemmas and ethical decision-making. The concept of integrity has been added in
order to broaden the focus from the more traditional field of ethics. Combined, the concepts of
integrity and ethics provide a more comprehensive perspective – they allow us to move beyond
discussions about the difference between right and wrong, in order to focus on relationships and
behavior as well.
Throughout the Module, students will be introduced to concepts and thrown in at the deep end by
being asked to make decisions on what they would regard as the most ethical solutions to
dilemmas. Students will be guided through three major ethical theories, and challenged to agree
or disagree with them. Students should not be afraid to take a stance, as this will enhance their
learning and enjoyment of the Module.
Learning outcomes
At the end of the discussion the students will be able to:
1.Understand and define the concepts of virtue ethics
2.Understand some of the main concepts, principles, and positions in moral philosophy
3.Understand the different principles of moral dispositions in the context of this Module
4. To apply the arguments in professional ethics to complex decisions where judgment and
justification are required;
5.To have the ability to critique judgments made by others;
Virtue Ethics
The basic premise of virtue ethics is that morality depends on perfecting one’s character.
Different from utilitarianism (consequences) or deontology (duty), the emphasis is on the virtues
of the individual. Based on the ancient contribution of Aristotle (384 to 322 BC), virtue ethics
provides a more holistic approach to ethics.
Stewart highlights the following characteristics of virtue ethics:
• It is concerned with the person or agent behind the actions, rather than the actions themselves.
• It considers aspects like emotions, attitudes, habits and lifestyle as morally relevant – the way
you are, rather than simply what you do, can be classified as good or bad.
• It argues that life is too complex to be guided by strict rules that dictate how we should act.
• It is holistic – it examines the purpose of life rather than individual moments.
1. Aristotle
Standard interpretations of Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics usually maintain that Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.E.) emphasizes the role of habit in conduct. It is commonly thought that
virtues, according to Aristotle, are habits and that the good life is a life of mindless routine.
He emphasized that we must understand first how nature works before we begin to make
theories.
Main Points of Aristotle's Ethical Philosophy
1.The highest good and the end toward which all human activity is directed is happiness,
which can be defined as continuous contemplation of eternal and universal truth.
2.One attains happiness by a virtuous life and the development of reason and the faculty of
theoretical wisdom. For this one requires sufficient external goods to ensure health, leisure,
and the opportunity for virtuous action.
3.Moral virtue is a relative mean between extremes of excess and deficiency, and in general
the moral life is one of moderation in all things except virtue. No human appetite or desire is
bad if it is controlled by reason according to a moral principle. Moral virtue is acquired by a
combination of knowledge, habituation, and self-discipline.
4.Virtuous acts require conscious choice and moral purpose or motivation. Man has personal
moral responsibility for his actions.
TELOS
The Greek word telos refers to the fulfillment, completion, or perfection of something, and
these ideas are involved in the notion of teleology. On Aristotle’s view, all creatures, things,
and activities have a final end, goal, or purpose, and each thing aims at some good. There are
different goods, corresponding to the different creatures, arts, or sciences, and some ends are
subordinate to other, more ultimate ends. For example, the immediate end of a particular
medicine might be to reduce a fever, but the ultimate end or good at which the physician
aims is health. Likewise, the manufacture of equipment for cavalry horses is the end of a
certain craft, but this end is subordinate to the more comprehensive end of conducting
warfare efficiently and effectively.
For human beings in general, Aristotle suggests that the ultimate end or good is happiness,
and that happiness itself is living in accordance with reason and virtue. He arrives at this
conclusion by differentiating the function of human beings from the function of all other
living things. Because growth, nutrition, and sensation are also experienced by plants
(growth and nutrition) and nonhuman animals (growth, nutrition, and sensation), these
activities cannot be considered representative of human function in particular. Only human
beings, however, have a rational principle, and so Aristotle concludes that the function of
human beings is an activity of the soul in accordance with–or at the very least not lacking–
this rational principle. Moreover, in Aristotle’s view, the good resides in the function itself
(e.g. a physician and a good physician have a function that is the same in kind, with
excellence being added to the latter).
Virtue:
In part, Aristotle examines the behavior and moral judgments of men who would be
considered not only good and virtuous, but the most qualified to judge in matters of this kind,
and he attempts to both supplement and justify the natural judgments of such persons.
Overall, Aristotle speaks of moral virtue as a mean, and he describes the virtuous person as
one whose behavior is neither excessive nor deficient in regard to the emotions, desires, and
appetites. Excellence is concerned with passions and actions, on his view, and the character
of an agent is thought to be revealed by the voluntary choices that s/he makes. Human choice
aims at the good, or at the perceived good, and the ability to make excellent choices requires
accurate knowledge of a particular situation, good practical reasoning skills, and a well-
developed and virtuous character.
Happiness:
According to Aristotle, happiness is the only end or good that we desire for its own sake, and
it is for the sake of happiness that we desire all other ends or goods. Happiness, however, is
not merely a pleasurable feeling of contentment or satisfaction, but an activity of human
beings, and one that is understood in terms of the function of human beings in particular (see
Teleology). Only the rational principle is particular to human beings, and a human life, in
order to be happy, must be lived in accordance with reason. Such a life is one in which
reason and emotion are properly balanced and harmonized, and in which reason is the
guiding principle. Since it is the function of all human beings to live a certain sort of life--and
this life is an activity or action of the soul (think mind and spirit, here) implying a rational
principle--then the function of good human beings is the excellent and noble performance of
these activities or actions. Thus happiness, for Aristotle, is an activity of the human soul in
accordance with excellence and virtue, and it is manifested over an entire lifetime.
2. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

The first principle of Aquinas’s moral thought is that good should be done or pursued,
and evil (or badness) avoided. Without this principle, other moral rules would have no
force. The maxim “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” is also quite
fundamental, and sometimes interpreted as a rephrasing of the first principle. Others have
interpreted it as an orientation to the fulfilment of everyone, now and in the future.
Aquinas’ basic principle is unpacked into a range of specific imperatives based partly on
knowledge of human life. Moral thought should aim towards six basic human goods:
life, knowledge, fellowship or friendship, marriage and child-raising, religion, and
practical reason (These are surprisingly concrete compared to modern lists of primary
goods, such as Rawls’s: income and wealth, state-recognised rights, and social bases of
self-respect). The use of a list of basic goods sidesteps utilitarian maximising dynamics,
instead focusing on concrete beings with diverse needs. It is easy to see how the latter
move towards abstract views of human goods as aggregate utility or welfare are effects of
the commodity fetish, with its conflation of diverse needs, products and types of labour
into a single economic calculus
What Is Natural Law?
Natural law is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says that human beings possess
intrinsic values that govern our reasoning and behavior. Natural law maintains that these
rules of right and wrong are inherent in people and are not created by society or court
judges.
 The theory of natural law says that humans possess an intrinsic sense of right and
wrong that governs our reasoning and behavior.
 The concepts of natural law are ancient, stemming from the times of Plato and
Aristotle.
 Natural law is constant throughout time and across the globe because it is based
on human nature, not on culture or customs.
IMMANUEL KANT
Kant, unlike Mill, believed that certain types of actions (including murder, theft, and
lying) were absolutely prohibited, even in cases where the action would bring about more
happiness than the alternative. For Kantians, there are two questions that we must ask
ourselves whenever we decide to act: (i) Can I rationally will that everyone act as I
propose to act? If the answer is no, then we must not perform the action. (ii) Does my
action respect the goals of human beings rather than merely using them for my own
purposes? Again, if the answer is no, then we must not perform the action. (Kant
believed that these questions were equivalent).
Kant’s theory is an example of a deontological moral theory–according to these theories,

the rightness or wrongness of actions does not depend on their consequences but on
whether they fulfill our duty.
Kant believed that there was a supreme principle of morality, and he referred to it as The
Categorical Imperative. The CI determines what our moral duties are.
the following is an exerpt from the notes of Professor Eric Barnes...
Morality and imperatives: What does it mean for one's duty to be determined by the
categorical imperative?
What is an imperative? An imperative is a command. So, "Pay your taxes!" is an

imperative, as are "Stop kicking me!" and "Don't kill animals!"
Hypothetical Imperatives: these imperatives command conditionally on your having a

relevant desire. E.g. “If you want to go to medical school, study biology in college.” If
you don’t want to go to medical school, this command doesn’t apply to you. Another
example, your father says, "if you are hungry, then go eat something!" - if you aren't
hungry, then you are free to ignore the command.
Categorical Imperatives: These command unconditionally. E.g. “Don’t cheat on your

taxes.” Even if you want to cheat and doing so would serve your interests, you may not
cheat.
What is the connection between morality and categorical imperatives? Morality must be
based on the categorical imperative because morality is such that you are commanded by
it, and is such that you cannot opt out of it or claim that it does not apply to you.
How does the categorical imperative work? The categorical imperative has three
different formulations. That is to say, there are three different ways of saying what it is.
Kant claims that all three do in fact say the same thing, but it is currently disputed
whether this is true. The second formulation is the easiest to understand, but the first one
is most clearly a categorical imperative. Here is the first formulation.
1) First formulation (The Formula of Universal Law): "Act only on that maxim through
which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law [of nature]
a) What is a maxim? A maxim is the rule or principle on which you act. For example, I
might make it my maxim to give at least as much to charity each year as I spend on
eating out, or I might make it my maxim only to do what will benefit some member
of my family.
b) Basic idea: The command states, crudely, that you are not allowed to do anything
yourself that you would not be willing to allow everyone else to do as well. You are not
allowed to make exceptions for yourself. For example, if you expect other people to keep
their promises, then you are obligated to keep your own promises.
c) More detail: More accurately, it commands that every maxim you act on must be such
that you are willing to make it the case that everyone always act on that maxim when in a
similar situation. For example, if I wanted to lie to get something I wanted, I would have
to be willing to make it the case that everyone always lied to get what they wanted - but if
this were to happen no one would ever believe you, so the lie would not work and you
would not get what you wanted. So, if you willed that such a maxim (of lying) should
become a universal law, then you would thwart your goal - thus, it is impermissible to lie,
according to the categorical imperative. It is impermissible because the only way to lie is
to make an exception for yourself.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEGAL AND MORAL RIGHTS
Though it’s possible to have morality without law, or law without morality, the two
usually go together. Therefore, we suggest that law codifies morality. In other words, the
law formulates the culture’s morality into legal codes. Again, not every legal code refers
to a moral issue, but most laws do have some moral significance. Though a connection
between the moral and legal exists, they clearly aren’t the same things.
Article 1 Right to Equality

Article 2 Freedom from Discrimination
Article 3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
Article 4 Freedom from Slavery
Article 5 Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment
Article 6 Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law
Article 7 Right to Equality before the Law
Article 8 Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal
Article 9 Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest and Exile
Article 10 Right to Fair Public Hearing
Article 11 Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty
Article 12 Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home and
Correspondence
Article 13 Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country
Article 14 Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution
Article 15 Right to a Nationality and the Freedom to Change It
Article 16 Right to Marriage and Family
Article 17 Right to Own Property
Article 18 Freedom of Belief and Religion
Article 19 Freedom of Opinion and Information
Article 20 Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association
Article 21 Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections
Article 22 Right to Social Security
Article 23 Right to Desirable Work and to Join Trade Unions
Article 24 Right to Rest and Leisure
Article 25 Right to Adequate Living Standard
Article 26 Right to Education
Article 27 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community
Article 28 Right to a Social Order that Articulates this Document
Article 29 Community Duties Essential to Free and Full Development
Article 30 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights
UTILITARIANISM
Utilitarian ethics is a normative ethical system that is primarily concerned with the consequences
of ethical decisions; therefore it can be described as a teleological theory or consequentialist
theory, which are essentially the same thing, both having a notion that the consequence of the
act is the most important determinant of the act being moral or not. Teleological reasoning takes
into consideration that the ethical decision is dependent upon the consequences (“ends”) of the
actions. In teleological reasoning, a person will do the right thing if the consequences of his or
her actions are good. Additionally, if an action by a person was an act that was “not good,” but
the consequences turned out to be “good,” under some theories of teleological reasoning, the act
may be deemed a good ethical act. This is also referred to as “consequentialist moral reasoning,”
where we locate morality in the consequences of our actions.
As a result of the consequentialist nature of utilitarianism, the means to get to the ethical decision
(“end”) are secondary; the end result is that which must be considered before determining the
morality of the decision.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) developed the principles of utility by defining it as a measure of

maximizing pleasure while minimizing pain. Bentham wrote that everyone prefers pleasure over
pain. It is with this belief that utilitarian moral principles are founded (Sandel, 2010). In
developing the theory of utilitarianism, Bentham may have meant pleasure as in “happiness” and
pain as in “sadness”; however, Bentham’s rendering of utilitarianism sounded hedonistic, as if
sensuality was the measure Bentham associated with pleasure (Hinman, 2013).
John Stuart Mill reconsidered the principles of utilitarianism and suggested that pleasure should
not merely refer to sensual pleasure but also to mental pleasure, such as music, literature, and
friendship. Mill sought to make intellectual pleasures preferable to sensual ones.
Hinman (2013) suggests there are four principle differences between pleasure and happiness:
1. Happiness is related to the mind, whereas pleasure is related to the body (for example sexual
pleasure, eating, drinking)
2. Pleasure is of shorter duration than happiness. Happiness is long-term, focusing on the
satisfaction of living well, or achieving life goals.
3. Happiness may encompass pleasure and pain.
4. There is an evaluative element in happiness versus pleasure.
There are two formulations of utilitarianism: act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. Act
utilitarianism concerns the consequences of the first instance, where the utility of that act is all
that is regarded.
The second formulation of utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism, concerns the consequences of the
majority of people following a certain rule that is immoral, which would be negative. With rule
utilitarianism, to determine the ethics of an act, the questions to ask are “What would happen if
there was a universal rule that condones this action?” and “Would such a rule promote the
consequences that would best serve a moral society?” Rule utilitarianism operates as a check and
balance for utilitarian principles, assuring that decisions that may be utilitarian in principle are
qualified with the notion of universality, asking “what would the result be if everyone followed a
rule that allowed this act?”
VIDEO MATERIAL: https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/utilitarianism

Five Sources of Ethical Standards
The Utilitarian Approach
Some ethicists emphasize that the ethical action is the one that provides the most good or
does the least harm, or, to put it another way, produces the greatest balance of good over
harm. The ethical corporate action, then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does
the least harm for all who are affected -- customers, employees, shareholders, the
community, and the environment. Ethical warfare balances the good achieved in ending
terrorism with the harm done to all parties through death, injuries, and destruction. The
utilitarian approach deals with consequences; it tries both to increase the good done and to
reduce the harm done.
The Rights Approach
Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that the ethical action is the one that best protects
and respects the moral rights of those affected. This approach starts from the belief that
humans have a dignity based on their human nature per se or on their ability to choose freely
what they do with their lives. On the basis of such dignity, they have a right to be treated as
ends and not merely as means to other ends. The list of moral rights -- including the rights to
make one's own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured,
to a degree of privacy, and so on -- is widely debated; some now argue that non-humans have
rights, too. Also, it is often said that rights imply duties -- in particular, the duty to respect
others' rights.
The Fairness or Justice Approach
Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all equals should be
treated equally. Today we use this idea to say that ethical actions treat all human beings
equally-or if unequally, then fairly based on some standard that is defensible. We pay people
more based on their harder work or the greater amount that they contribute to an
organization, and say that is fair. But there is a debate over CEO salaries that are hundreds of
times larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge disparity is based on a
defensible standard or whether it is the result of an imbalance of power and hence is unfair.
The Common Good Approach
The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that life in community is a good in
itself and our actions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the
interlocking relationships of society are the basis of ethical reasoning and that respect and
compassion for all others -- especially the vulnerable -- are requirements of such reasoning.
This approach also calls attention to the common conditions that are important to the welfare
of everyone. This
Utilitarianism holds that the amount of happiness and suffering created by a person’s actions
is what really matters. Thus, acting rightly involves maximizing the amount of happiness and
minimizing the amount of suffering around you. Sometimes you may even need to break
some of the traditional moral rules to achieve such an outcome.
Kantianism emphasizes the principles behind actions rather than an action’s results. Acting
rightly thus requires being motivated by proper universal principles that treat everyone with
respect. When you’re motivated by the right principles, you overcome your animal instincts
and act ethically.
Consequentialism
The third approach to moral standards is consequentialism, the view that an action is morally
right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. It is common for
us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the consequences of our actions.
Donating to charity is the right thing to do because of all the good that it does. Stealing is
morally wrong because of the harm that it causes. According to consequentialism, correct
moral conduct is determined solely by this type of cost-benefit analysis. Consequentialism
requires that we first tally both the good and bad consequences of an action. Second, we then
determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the
good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are
greater, then the action is morally improper. Consequentialist theories are sometimes called
teleological theories, from the Greek word telos, which means end or goal.
Consequentialist theories became popular in the 18th century by philosophers who
wanted a quick way to morally assess an action by appealing to experience, rather than by
appealing to gut intuitions or long lists of questionable duties. In fact, the most attractive
feature of consequentialism is that it appeals to publicly observable consequences of actions.
There are three main types of consequentialist theories:
Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.
Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
Of the three consequentialist theories, utilitarianism is the most accepted one among
philosophers, and it is often summarized with the expression “the greatest good for the
greatest number.” British philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) presented one of the
earliest systematic accounts of utilitarianism. According to Bentham, we should determine
whether an action is right or wrong by calculating the total amount of pleasure and pain
resulting from the action as everyone is affected. Two features of his theory are important.
First, he proposed that we tally only the pleasure and pain which results from our actions
since, he argued, pleasure and pain are the guiding forces of human nature:
1. EGALITARIAN THEORY
Egalitarianism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes equality and equal treatment
across gender, religion, economic status, and political beliefs. Egalitarianism may focus on
income inequality and distribution, which are ideas that influenced the development of
various economic and political systems. Karl Marx used egalitarianism as the starting point
in the creation of his Marxist philosophy, and John Locke considered egalitarianism when he
proposed that individuals had natural rights.
Justice as Fairness
Rawls called his concept of social justice "Justice as Fairness." It consists of two principles.
Since he first published A Theory of Justice, he changed the wording of these principles several
times. He published his last version in 2001.
The First Principle of social justice concerns political institutions:
Each person has the same and indefeasible [permanent] claim to a fully adequate scheme of
equal basic liberties, which scheme is compatible with the same scheme of liberties for all.
This principle means that everyone has the same basic liberties, which can never be taken away.
Rawls included most of the liberties in the U.S. Bill of Rights, such as freedom of speech and
due process of law. He added some liberties from the broader area of human rights, like freedom
of travel.
The Second Principle of social justice concerns social and economic institutions:
Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:
first, they are to be attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality
of opportunity; and
second, they are to be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the
Difference Principle).
Finally, Rawls ranked his principles of social justice in the order of their priority. The First
Principle ("basic liberties") holds priority over the Second Principle. The first part of the Second
Principle ("fair equality of opportunity") holds priority over the
second part (Difference Principle). But he believed that both the
First and Second Principles together are necessary for a just
society.
2. CAPITALISM
Capitalism is an economic system that allows for and

encourages the private ownership of businesses that
operate to generate profit. Also known as the market
system, capitalism is characterized by private land
ownership rights, competitive markets, the stable rule of
law, freely operating capital markets, low corruption, a
price discovery process, and competitive markets. In
other words, it is the opposite of communism, in which
the means of production are owned by and controlled by
the government.
Smith never uses the term “capitalism;” it does not enter into widespread use until the
late nineteenth century. Instead, he uses “commercial society,” a phrase that emphasizes
his belief that the economic is only one component of the human condition
The heart of the issue is this: Capitalism is only as good as capitalists.
For any system to be sustained — political, governmental, social or economic — its

leaders must be rooted in ethics. So what does this mean? Ethical Capitalism has at least
two essential ingredients: A focus on creating long-term economic and social value, and
a commitment by business to act as stewards of the full spectrum of its constituencies —
customers, employees, suppliers, investors and society. Ethical Capitalism seeks to build
deep, trust-based relationships in the service of society as well as the bottom line. In
other words, it is a business model with a “higher purpose.”
DIVISION OF LABOR
The main focus of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations lies in the concept of economic
growth. Growth, according to Smith, is rooted in the increasing division of labor. This
idea relates primarily to the specialization of the labor force, essentially the breaking
down of large jobs into many tiny components.
3. SOCIALISM
Socialism is best defined in contrast with capitalism, as socialism has arisen both as a
critical challenge to capitalism, and as a proposal for overcoming and replacing it. In the
classical, Marxist definition (G.A. Cohen 2000a: ch.3; Fraser 2014: 57–9), capitalism
involves certain relations of production. These comprise certain forms of control over the
productive forces—the labor power that workers deploy in production and the means of
production such as natural resources, tools, and spaces they employ to yield goods and
services—and certain social patterns of economic interaction that typically correlate with
that control. Socialists have deployed ideals and principles of equality, democracy,
individual freedom, self-realization, and community or solidarity. Regarding equality,
they have proposed strong versions of the principle of equality of opportunity according
to which everyone should have “broadly equal access to the necessary material and social
means to live flourishing lives” This is introduced by Karl Marx.
4. TAXATION
Taxation is by and large the most important source in nearly all countries. According to the most
recent estimates from the International Centre for Tax and Development, total tax revenues
account for more than 80% of total government revenue in about half of the countries in the
world – and more than 50% in almost every country.
Taxation patterns around the world today reveal large cross-country differences, especially
between developed and developing countries. In particular, developed countries today collect a
much larger share of their national output in taxes than do developing countries; and they tend to
rely more on income taxation to do so. Developing countries, in contrast, rely more heavily on
trade taxes, as well as taxes on consumption.
ETHICS OF TAX COLLECTION

Tax ethics concern the values, practices, and consequences of taxation as a means of distributing
the benefits and burdens of citizenship, including evaluation of the conduct of taxpayers and
their accountants and financial advisers in determining and taking responsibility for their fair
share of the tax burden. The moral framework for evaluating taxation considers both ends and
means in the apportioned tax burden, an accounting of the economic distortions caused by
taxation itself, and an assessment of the impact on the economy of public goods and services,
their impact on the larger economy, and their impact on social equity. Ethical concerns about
taxation center on the proper integration of competing claims: social justice, individual freedom,
economic productivity, and efficiency applied to the tax system itself ...
STUDY QUESTIONS
Please answer all of the following questions.
1.What is Kant’s categorical imperative?
2. Define hedonistic utilitarianism, act-utilitarianism, and rule utilitarianism.
3. Define social contract theory, libertarianism, and welfare liberalism.
4. Explain and contrast capitalism and socialism
Reflection/Assessment
Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:
1.Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (The Utilitarian
Approach)
2.Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights Approach)
3.Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The Justice Approach)
4.Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue Approach)
Act and Reflect on the Outcome
1.How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care and attention to the concerns
of all stakeholders?
2.How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from this specific situation?
CHAPTER 5 ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN CYEBER ETHICS
Learning Objectives
At the end of the discussion the students must be able to:
1. Students will gain digital literacy (media literacy, information literacy) skills by
considering the human and legal consequences of poor choices others have made online.
2. Students will recognize that even when online expression is protected by the First
Amendment, it still can result in legal consequences.
3. Students also will discuss the concepts of “netiquette” and “cyber ethics” and then
brainstorm a set of guidelines for appropriate online behavior
GLOBALIZATION AND PLURALISM

Globalization brings a culture of pluralism, meaning religions “with overlapping but distinctive
ethics and interests” interact with one another.[15] Essentially, the world’s leading religious
traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as human
dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity.[16] More specifically, religions maintain the
Golden Rule: “what you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.”[17] Therefore,
through such religious values, globalization engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as
politics, economics, and society.
In short, globalization allows for religions previously isolated from one another to now have
regular and unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to the light the fact that since
religions have similar values, not one of them is “correct” and, therefore, can be changed.[29]
But as the next section shows, the same process that engenders greater religious tolerance also
creates a backlash of religious parochialism.
CYBER ETHICS
The term "cyber ethics" refers to a set of moral rules or a code of behaviour applied to the online
environment. As a responsible netizen, you should observe these rules to help make cyberspace a
safe place.
The Government has taken an active role in making resources for parents and children to learn
about cyberethics. This is a growing problem and without parents and teachers using the
resources available nothing can be done to prepare future generations on internet users from
being safe online. The main issues that surround cyberethics are: Copyright/Downloading,
Hacking and Cyberbullying. These three issues are increasing daily and mostly due to children
using the internet improperly.
The cyber libel charges that the
Department of Justice (DOJ) filed
against Rappler CEO Maria Ressa now
makes it possible for online publishers
to be sued for the crime within 12 years
of publication.
Copyright/Downloading
This has become a major problem due
to programs like Napster and LimeWire
which allow users to download music,
programs and videos for free. Many
people, especially children, do not
realize that this behavior has major
consequences.
Hacking:
Is the intentional damage that a person
inflicts onto another computer or
computer network. This can include stealing classified information, stealing passwords to get
into a site and also changing a website without permission. Since the world is run on computers
it is important that hackers are stopped. They could create viruses that could shut down
important websites or computer systems. Cybercitizenship.org gives a chilling example: "If a
virus were to disable the computer network of a hospital, it could shut down medical
instrumentation systems that control life support and monitoring functions-all of which could
cost a patient his or her life." Children need to be aware of these extreme consequences.
Cyberbullying:
Bullying does not only happen in real life anymore. Cyberbullying is growing and people are
becoming aware of its effects on children. The Megan Meier case shed light on this issue that
was thought of by many people as harmless bullying. This teenage girl was bullied on the
internet through e-mail and myspace which is said to ultimately lead to her suicide.
Some people may have a lower standard of ethics in cyberspace as they thought there is no law
governing the virtual world and their anonymity will save them from being detected. In fact,
these are all misconceptions. The law also governs the Internet and you may attract legal
liabilities if you perform the following activities:
 posting obscene and indecent content on the Internet;

 obtaining property or services online by deception;
 spreading viruses or malicious
codes; and
 gaining unauthorized access to
computers, etc.
Therefore, you should learn to be a

responsible netizen so that you will
not commit any technology crimes
unknowingly or cause harm to others.
 Do not store, send or disseminate

any content which is likely to be
offensive or obscene to a
reasonable person.
 Do not access any data, systems
or networks without authority or
permission.
 Do not spread computer viruses or malicious codes, or conduct any hacking activities on
other computers.
 Respect all other Internet users. Do not threaten, harass, stalk or abuse anyone.
Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
1. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Harm Other People.
2. Thou Shalt Not Interfere With Other People’s Computer Work.
3. Thou Shalt Not Snoop Around In Other People’s Computer Files.
4. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Steal.
5. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Bear False Witness.
6. Thou Shalt Not Copy Or Use Proprietary Software For Which You have Not Paid.
7. Thou Shalt Not Use Other People’s Computer Resources Without Authorization Or Proper
Compensation.
8. Thou Shalt Not Appropriate Other People’s Intellectual Output.
9. Thou Shalt Think About The Social Consequences Of The Program You Are Writing Or The
System You Are Designing.
10. Thou Shalt Always Use A Computer In Ways That Insure Consideration And Respect For
Your Fellow Humans.
Cyber Crime Law
With the proliferation of online platforms, the Department of Justice (DOJ) has to deal with the
increasing number of cyber-libel cases being filed with the agency, often with people familiar
with each other as opposing parties.
Records obtained by the Business mirror from the DOJ-Office of Cybercrime showed that there
are a total of 127 cyber-libel cases filed before the agency last year. Of the 127 cyber-libel cases,
38 have been dismissed for lack of evidence. Libel is one of the cybercrime offenses punishable
under Republic Act (RA) 10175, or the Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 .
Section 4 (c) (4) of RA 10175 renders unlawful or prohibited acts of libel those mentioned
under Article 355 of the Revised Penal Code (RPC), as amended, if such acts are committed
through a computer system or any other similar means that may be devised.
Under Article 355 of the RPC, the crime of libel is committed when a person makes, against
another, a public and malicious imputation of a crime, or of a vice or defect, real or imaginary, or
any act,omission, condition, status or circumstance tending to cause the dishonor, discredit or
contempt of a natural or juridical person, or to blacken the memory of one who is dead.
While the DOJ does not entertain cyber-libel cases, Uy noted that the government prosecutors
are still the ones tasked to conduct preliminary investigation and prosecute such cases.
“Usually complainants suspect that authors of these libelous posts are people they somehow
know because the information is so nonpublic, in a sense that only people close to them or
known to them would have such information,” Uy noted.
FakeNewsandCyberPropaganda:TheUseandAbuseofSocialMedia
When the term “fake news” comes up, people usually think of social media posts with rather
fantastic, implausible stories. While posts shared on social media is its most visible aspect, there
is so much more to fake news than exaggerated article titles on social media feeds.
Fake News and Cyber Propaganda
Fake news may seem new, but the platform used is the only new thing about it. Propaganda has
been around for centuries, and the internet is only the latest means of communication to be
abused to spread lies and misinformation.
The fire triangle represents the three elements a fire needs to burn: oxygen, heat, and a fuel.
Similarly, fake news requires three different items to succeed. These collectively represent the
Fake News Triangle: without any one of these factors, it is unable to spread and reach its target
audience.
Countermeasures
Governments, companies, and users are all waking up to how serious public opinion
manipulation—as manifested in “fake news”—can be.
Governments are starting to recognize that fake news is something that must be actively fought.
Various government agencies are now setting up services to debunk stories that they consider to
be false. They are also considering imposing regulations and punishing sites that do publish
misinformation.
The targets of these new regulations would include social networking services. This would make
fake news very bad for business indeed, and so they’re taking steps to fight it. The steps being
taken include the suspension of bot/suspicious accounts, adding features to allow users to report
fake news, and hiring more personnel to help deal with these reports.
VIDEO MATERIALS Maria Ressa found guilty of cyber libelhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=AIcYsHtXia8
Cyber libel, nanguna sa mga reklamong natanggap ng PNP anti-cybercrime group ngayong
taon---https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ZQG1YKhtno
16 Cybercrimes covered under Cybercrime Prevention

Act – Republic Act 10175
1. Illegal access--Unauthorized access (without right) to a

computer system or application.
2. Illegal interception---Unauthorized interception of any

non-public transmission of computer data to, from, or within
a computer system.
3. Data Interference---Unauthorized alteration, damaging, deletion or deterioration of computer
data, electronic document, or electronic data message, and including the introduction or
transmission of viruses.
4. System Interference--Unauthorized hindering or interference with the functioning of a

computer or computer network by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating,
altering or suppressing computer data or program, electronic document, or electronic data
messages, and including the introduction or transmission of viruses
5. Misuse of devices--The unauthorized use, possession, production, sale, procurement,

importation, distribution, or otherwise making available, of devices, computer program designed
or adapted for the purpose of committing any of the offenses stated in Republic Act 10175.
6. Cyber-squatting--Acquisition of domain name over the Internet in bad faith to profit, mislead,
destroy reputation, and deprive others from the registering the same.
7. Computer-related Forgery--Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer data

resulting to inauthentic data with the intent that it be considered or acted upon for legal purposes
as if it were authentic, regardless whether or not the data is directly readable and intelligible.
8. Computer-related Fraud--Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer data or

program or interference in the functioning of a computer system, causing damage thereby with
fraudulent intent..
9. Computer-related Identity Theft--Unauthorized acquisition, use, misuse, transfer, possession,

alteration or deletion of identifying information belonging to another, whether natural or
juridical.
10. Cybersex---Willful engagement, maintenance, control, or operation, directly or indirectly, of

any lascivious exhibition of sexual organs or sexual activity, with the aid of a computer system,
for favor or consideration.
11. Child PornographY---Unlawful or prohibited acts defined and punishable by Republic Act
No. 9775 or the Anti-Child Pornography Act of 2009, committed through a computer system.
12. Libel---Unlawful or prohibited acts of libel as defined in Article 355 of the Revised Penal
Code, as amended committed through a computer system or any other similar means which may
be devised in the future.Revised Penal Code Art. 355 states Libel means by writings or similar
means. —
13. Aiding or Abetting in the commission of cybercrime – Any person who willfully abets or
aids in the commission of any of the offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable.
14. Attempt in the commission of cybercrime Any person who willfully attempts to commit any
of the offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable.
15. All crimes defined and penalized by the Revised Penal Code, as amended, and special laws,
if committed by, through and with the use of information and communications technologies shall
be covered by the relevant provisions of this Act.
Although not exactly a cybercrime, I am including this here as penalties are also imposed
by the law.
16. Corporate Liability. (Section 9)---When any of the punishable acts herein defined are
knowingly committed on behalf of or for the benefit of a juridical person, by a natural person
acting either individually or as part of an organ of the juridical person, who has a leading
position within, based on:(a) a power of representation of the juridical person provided the act
committed falls within the scope of such authority;(b) an authority to take decisions on behalf of
the juridical person.
Additional Readings
https://digitalfilipino.com/introduction-cybercrime-prevention-act-republic-act-10175/
ASSESSMENTS/REFLECTIONS
1.How can you implement Ethics in the 21st century?
2. Think of a controversial practice involving cybertechnology that has not yet has not identified
as an ethical issue, but which might eventually be recognized as one that has moral implications..
Are you also able to identify any morally opaque or morally nontransparent features affecting
that practice? Explain
Reference
https://www.harryhiker.com/et/et-01-00.htm#:~:text=Cultural%20relativism%20holds%20that
%20%22good,as%20a%20product%20of%20culture.
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/a/cultural-relativism-
article
https://www.quora.com/Why-is-cultural-relativism-not-tenable-in-ethics
https://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/glossary/moral-character/
https://www.queensu.ca/teachingandlearning/modules/ethics/
08_s3_00_intro_professionalism.html
https://aspira.org/sites/default/files/U_III_M_2_dms.pdf
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-role-of-feelings-and-emotion-in-decision-making/
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impartiality/
https://ourhappyschool.com/node/825
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decision-making/a-framework-for-ethical-
decision-making/
https://community.plu.edu/~nelsoned/Courses/115/StudyGuides/Aristotle.html
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/natural-law.asp#:~:text=What%20Is%20Natural%20Law
%3F,by%20society%20or%20court%20judges.
https://www.csus.edu/indiv/g/gaskilld/ethics/kantian%20ethics.htm
http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part-5/8_udhr-abbr.htm
https://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/chapter/2-2-utilitarian-ethics/
https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-23-3-c-justice-as-fairness-john-rawls-and-
his-theory-of-justice
https://ourworldindata.org/taxation
http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/ethics/n788.xml
https://www.kean.edu/~schandle/Students/DCuento/Issues.htm#:~:text=The%20main%20issues
%20that%20surround,children%20using%20the%20internet%20improperly.
http://computerethicsinstitute.org/publications/tencommandments.html
https://www.gov.hk/en/residents/communication/infosec/cyberethics.htm
https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/03/19/cyber-libel-cases-rising-as-friends-turn-into-foes-via-
online-platforms/

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Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 2 The Moral Act

Chapter 3 The Act

Chapter 4 Framework and Principles Behind Our Moral dispositions.

Chapter 5 Ethics through Thick and Thin and Cyber Ethics

Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

Foundation of Morality: Freedom and Responsibility

Reason and Impartiality

Only humans are moral

Morality: An Asian Understanding

The Moral Agent: Developing virtue as a Habit

Lawrence Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development

Additional Readings: https://prezi.com/renk0j1ebnlj/module-6-kohlberg-stages-of-moral-

Explain and evaluate the role of conscience in moral decision-making.

Lesson 1 Feelings and Moral decision Making

Feelings and Decision Making

STAR Vision Decision Making Model

The Trolly Dilemmas

Reason and Impartiality

Developing Will and Moral Courage:

Inhibitors of Moral Courage

Step Checkpoint Reflections

2. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

What Is Natural Law?

Kant’s theory is an example of a deontological moral theory–according to these theories,

What is an imperative? An imperative is a command. So, "Pay your taxes!" is an

Hypothetical Imperatives: these imperatives command conditionally on your having a

Categorical Imperatives: These command unconditionally. E.g. “Don’t cheat on your

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEGAL AND MORAL RIGHTS

Article 1 Right to Equality

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) developed the principles of utility by defining it as a measure of

VIDEO MATERIAL: https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/utilitarianism

The First Principle of social justice concerns political institutions:

Social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions:

Capitalism is an economic system that allows for and

The heart of the issue is this: Capitalism is only as good as capitalists.

For any system to be sustained — political, governmental, social or economic — its

ETHICS OF TAX COLLECTION

GLOBALIZATION AND PLURALISM

 posting obscene and indecent content on the Internet;

Therefore, you should learn to be a

 Do not store, send or disseminate

Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics

1. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Harm Other People.

2. Thou Shalt Not Interfere With Other People’s Computer Work.

3. Thou Shalt Not Snoop Around In Other People’s Computer Files.

4. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Steal.

5. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Bear False Witness.

8. Thou Shalt Not Appropriate Other People’s Intellectual Output.

Cyber Crime Law

VIDEO MATERIALS Maria Ressa found guilty of cyber libelhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?

16 Cybercrimes covered under Cybercrime Prevention

1. Illegal access--Unauthorized access (without right) to a

2. Illegal interception---Unauthorized interception of any

4. System Interference--Unauthorized hindering or interference with the functioning of a

5. Misuse of devices--The unauthorized use, possession, production, sale, procurement,

7. Computer-related Forgery--Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer data

8. Computer-related Fraud--Unauthorized input, alteration, or deletion of computer data or