COMPUTER NETWORKS

Syllabus:
Evolution of networking: introduction to computer networks, evolution of networking (ARPANET,
NSFNET, INTERNET)

● Data communication terminologies: concept of communication, components of data communication

(sender, receiver, message, communication media, protocols), measuring capacity of
communication media (bandwidth, data transfer rate), IP address, switching techniques (Circuit
switching, Packet switching)
● Transmission media: Wired communication media (Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, Fiber-optic
cable), Wireless media (Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared waves)
● Network devices (Modem, Ethernet card, RJ45, Repeater, Hub, Switch, Router, Gateway, WIFI card)
● Network topologies and Network types: types of networks (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN), networking
topologies (Bus, Star, Tree)
● Network protocol: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
● Introduction to web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), Extensible Markup
Language (XML), domain names, URL, website, web browser, web servers, web hosting

Evolution of networking:

What is Network?
It is a collection of Inter-connected computers and other devices that are able to communicate with
each other i.e. it is a collection of hardware and software components that are connected together for
effective information interchange wherein, one system/device is the sender and the other is the
receiver.

Advantages of Computer Network:

a. Resource sharing
b. Remote access
c. Cost saving
d. Collaborative user interaction
e. Time saving
f. Enhanced storage
Drawbacks
a. Poor handling can cause chaos
b. If the files are stored centrally, it may sometimes become impossible to carry out any task
c. File security becomes high priority task in case of shared network
d. One may need specified staff to ensure data security
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Evolution of Networking

Network Communication dates back to the earliest times since the evolution of human race on earth.
All the living organisms communicate with each other on one way or the other. The early man used to
communicate using the symbolic language, then with the development of modern languages and
intelligence, the communication media came into picture. And, with the advent of computer systems,
the data communication became important so as to take necessary decisions and pass the messages
quickly.
In year 1967, the very first network came into existence, namely-ARPANET.

ARPANET

(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) that was designed to survive any nuclear threat. It was the
first system to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite and was based on Client-Server architecture.

NSFNet

National Science Foundation Network, was started in 1980 with a view to enhance Academic and
Scientific Research. It connected its server with the ARPANET in year 1986. In the year 1990, the
NSFNet, ARPANET and other smaller networks clubbed together to form the INTERNET
(Interconnected Networks) and hence the foundation of modern INTERNET was laid down.

Internet:

It is the global network of interconnected devices that may/may not follow same set of rules, and connect
together for sharing information and establishing communication. It is made up of two parts:
a. IntraNet:
The word Intra means inside or within. Therefore, Intranet means
the network within an organization. It is created using the
protocols of LANs and PANs. Example: Wipro uses internal
network for business development
b. Extranet:
It is the network that lies outside the limits of the IntraNet. Dell
and Intel use network for business related operation.
c. Interspace:
It is the client-server software program that allows multiple users to communicate with each
other using real-time audio, video and text in a dynamic 3D environment.

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 Data communication terminologies:

COMMUNICATION

The exchange of information between two or more networked or interconnected devices is called
communication. These devices must be capable of sending /receiving data over a communication
medium.
Data:
It is raw facts and figures that are yet to get a defined meaning. Examples: 11, A123x@r67Y, etc.
Information:
The processed form of data that had a defined meaning is known as the information. Examples: Roll No.
11, Password: A123x@r67Y, etc.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The five main components of data communication are as follows:

SENDER: Sender is a device which is capable of sending data over a communication network. In data
communication Sender is also called Source.
RECEIVER: Receiver is a device which is capable of receiving data over a communication network. In
data communication Receiver is also called Destination.
MESSAGE: message is the information being exchanged between a sender and a receiver over a
communication network.
COMMUNICATION MEDIUM: Communication medium is the path or channel through which the
information is moved from the sender to the receiver. A communication medium can be either
wired/guided or wireless/unguided.

PROTOCOLS: The set of standard rules which are followed in data communication are known as Data
Communication Protocols. All the communicating devices like sender receiver and other connected
devices in the network should follow these protocols.
Why Protocols are needed? The communicating devices may be in different geographical areas. The
speed of these devices may be different. Also, the data transfer rates of different networks may be
different. These complexities make it necessary to have a common set of rules to ensure the secure
communication of data.
Examples of some commonly used Protocols in data communication are given below:
∙Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
∙Internet Protocol (IP)
∙File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
∙Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP)
∙Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

MEASURING CAPACITY OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Capacity of a communication channel means the maximum quantity of signals that a communication
channel can carry. The capacity of a communication medium is measured by its bandwidth and data
transfer rate.
Data Channel:
It is a medium to carry information or data from one point to another.
Baud:
It is the measurement of the data transfer rate in a communication channel.
Bits per Second:
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It is the rate by which the data transfer is measured. It is used to measure the speed of information
through high-speed phone lines or modems. It is denoted ad Bps, kbps, Mbps, Gbps, etc.
Bandwidth:
It is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in a channel. The high bandwidth
channels are known as Broadband Channels, and the low bandwidth channels are called as the
Narrowband Channels.
Data Transfer Rate:
It is the amount of data transferred per second by a communication channel or a computing storage
device. When applied to the data transmission rate, the abbreviations like K, M, G, T are added to the
data rate that denote Kilo, Mega, Giga, and Tera respectively. They work in the power of 1024.
Example 1 GB = 1024 MB, 1 TB = 1024 GB.

IP ADDRESS

IP address or Internet Protocol address is a unique numeric address assigned to every device
connected to a network. It uniquely identifies every node connected to a local network or internet. An
IP address allows computers to send and receive data over the internet. They can also be used to track
down a user's physical location.
There are two versions for IP address IPV4 and IPV6. IP addresses are binary numbers but are typically
expressed in decimal form (IPv4) or hexadecimal form (IPv6) to make reading and using them easily.
The commonly used IP address is IPV4. An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of which
contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each set of digits. Each of the four numbers
can range from 0 to 255. Example IP address: 24.171.248.170

Switching Techniques:

These are used for transmitting data across the networks. The various switching techniques are:
a. Circuit Switching:
Here, the connection between the sender and receiver is established first, and then the data is transmitted
from the source computer to destination computer. Before transferring the data, a call setup is required
for establishing connection between sender and receiver. It is best for connections that require consistent
bit rate for communication.
Advantages:
1. Since a dedicated communication channel is set up before communicating the message, the data
transmission is reliable and is suitable for long and continuous communication.
2. Circuit switching uses fixed bandwidth as well as data rates.
3. As the data is communicated continuously, no need of sequencing or re ordering it at the receiving
end.
Disadvantages:
1. Time required to setup a physical connection between the sender and the receiver makes delay in
communication
2. Since a communication channel is dedicated for a particular transmission, it cannot be utilized for
other communication, even if the channel is free.
3. More expensive since connection has to be established every time before communication.
b. Packet Switching:
It is the most efficient data communication technique used to send and receive data over the internet.
Instead of using the dedicated circuit for data communication, the data is independently routed through
the network and reassembled at the destination computer system. Data is divided into fixed size packets
before transmission. Each packet contains a fraction of data along with addressing information.
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Advantages:
1. Packet switching is effective type of data transmission technique as it effectively utilizes the
communication channel. Multiple users can share the channel simultaneously utilizing the bandwidth
effectively.
2. It is cost effective and easy to implement compared to circuit switching.
3. As the messages are sent as small sized packets, the data transmission is quick and easy.

Disadvantages:
1. In packet switching the movement of packets may not be in correct order. Hence it is not suitable for
voice communication.
2. Unorganized movement of packets makes it necessary to implement proper sequencing and reordering
techniques.
3. As the packets flow through multiple paths from the source to the destination, complex security
protocols are required to ensure reliable communication.
c. Message Switching:
In this technique, the message is sent to the switching office first that stores the data in the buffer, and
then the switching office finds the free link to the receiver, and then sends the data to the receiver. There
is no limit to the size of the message block to be transmitted over the network.

Transmission media:
All the computers or connecting devices in the network, must be connected to each other by a
Transmission Media or channel. The selection of Media depends on the cost, data transfer speed,
bandwidth anddistance.Transmission media may be classified as-
Guided Media (Wired )
Twisted Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber
Unguided Media (Wireless)
Microwave
Radio wave
Satellite
Others (Blue tooth, Infrared and Laser etc.)

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1. Twisted Pair Cables
It is most common type of media consisting insulated pairs of wires twisted around each other. Twisting
helps to reduce crosstalk and Electro Magnetic Interference.
It comes in Shielded (STP) or Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) types. In UTP, pairs are covered by an
extra insulation to further reduce the signal interference.
CAT 5 and CAT 6 are commonly used in the networking.
Advantages:
It is simple, flexible, low weight and inexpensive.
It is easy to install and maintain and requires RJ-45 Connector.
Disadvantages:
Suitable for short distance (up to 100 mt.). For long distance Repeater is required.
It supports low bandwidth and offers up to 100 Mbps speed.

2. Coaxial cable

This types of cable consists a solid insulated wire core surrounded by wire mesh or shield, each
separated by some find of foil or insulator. The inner core carries the signal and mesh provides the
ground. Co-axial Cable or coax, is most common in Cable TV transmission. Generally it is used in Bus
topology network.
It is two type- Thinnet (185 mt), Thicknet(500 mt)
A connector known as a vampire tap or BNC connector to connect network devices.
Advantages:
• It offers high bandwidth and better speed than other cables.
• Suitable for Broadband transmission (cable TV) and can be used in shared cable
network.
Disadvantages:
• It is expensive compared to Twisted Pair cable.
• Not compatible with modern cables like UTP and STP

3. Fiber Optic

Optical Fiber consists of thin glass or glass like material and carry light. Signal are modulated and
transmitted in light pulses from source using Light Emitting Diode (LED) or LASER beam.
The Fiber cable consists Core (Glass or Plastic) covered by Cladding, which reflects light back to the
core. Also a Protective cover including Buffer Jacket is used for extra protection.
Two types of transmission i.e. Single mode (LESER) and Multimode (LED) is possible.
Advantages:
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 • It is free from EMI since no electrical signal are carried.
• Offers secure and high speed transmission up to a long distance.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive and quite fragile.
• Complicated Installation procedure and difficult to join two fiber or broken fiber.
• Not suitable for domestic purposes due to high maintenance cost.

Wireless Transmission Media

∙ In wireless communication technology, information travels in the form of electromagnetic signals
through air. ∙ Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available for
wireless communication.
∙ Radio Waves
1. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz
2. Omni-directional, these waves can move in all directions
3. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distance
4. Susceptible to interference
5. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate walls
6. These waves are used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones.

Microwaves
1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
2. Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or
mountains.
4. Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating
antenna must be in the direction of each other.
5. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication such as radar and
satellite.
6. Provide very large information-carrying capacity.

Infrared waves
1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz.
2. Very high frequency waves.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls.
4. Used for short-distance point-to-point communication such as mobile-
to mobile, mobile- to-printer, remote-control-to-TV,

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Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology commonly used for
connecting devices like smartphones, laptops, and peripherals (e.g., wireless
keyboards, mice, and headphones). It
operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and supports relatively low data transfer
rates compared to Wi-Fi.

Satellite Communication:
Satellite communication involves transmitting data to and from
Earth through communication satellites. It is used for long-distance
communication in remote areas or where traditional wired
communication is not feasible.

Network devices
For smooth functioning of computer network, other than computers and wirings, many devices play an
important role. These devices are known as the Network Devices.

Modem:
Modulator-Demodulator allows us to reach the global network with ease. It is used to send and receive
the data over the telephone lines or cable connections. Since, the ordinary telephone lines cannot carry
the digital information, a modem changes the data from analog to digital format and vice versa.
Modems are of two types:
• Internal modems: The modems that are fixed in the computer systems are Internal Modems.
• External Modems: The modems that are connected externally are called External Modems.

Registered Jack-45 (RJ-45):

Registered Jack-45 of Rj-45 is an 8-wire connector that is
commonly used on computers in a local area network. It looks
similar to a standard phone connector (RJ-11), but is wider than
the RJ-11 connector, as it uses 8 wires instead of 4. These are
used to connect computers in Ethernet LAN.
NIC:
Network Interface Card (NIC) is a device used to connect the network with the Internet. It is sometimes
called ad the TAP (Terminal Access Point). Since different manufacturers give different names to this
device, hence, it is sometimes referred to as NIU (Network Interface Unit).
The NIC has a unique physical address to each card, and it is known as MAC (Media Access Control)
Address.
MAC Address:
It is a b-byte address assigned to each NIC card and is separated by a colon. Example:
10 : E8 : 05 : 67 : 2A : GS
Manufacturer ID Card No.

Ethernet Card:
It is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp along with the DEC
and Intel. It uses a bus or star topology for data transfer and can attain a

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speed of up to 10 Gbps. It can connect devices in both wired and wireless
LAN or WAN.
Router:
It is responsible for forwarding data from one network to another. The main purpose of router is sorting
and distribution of the data packets to their destination based on the IP address. The router uses the
Logical address scheme.

Hub:
It is a device that connects several devices to a network and transmits the information to all the connected
devices via broadcast mode.
The hubs are of two types:
Active hubs: these electrically amplify the signal as it moves from one
connected device to another.
Passive hubs: these allow the signals to pass from one device to another
without any change.

Switch:
It is a device that is used to divide network into smaller networks
called subnets or LAN segments. This helps to avoid network traffic
as it divides the traffic into smaller parts. It is responsible for
filtering of data packets and then transmission over the network.

Repeaters:
A repeater is a network device that amplifies, restores and re-broadcasts signals for long-distance
transmission.

Bridge:
It is a device that links two networks. It is smart system that knows which system lies on which side and
in which network. These can handle the networks that follow different protocols.

Gateway:
It connects two dissimilar networks and establishes an intelligent connection between local and external
networks with completely different architecture. It is also known as protocol translator.

Wi-Fi Card:
It is the LAN adapter whether external or internal with a built-in antenna and
wireless radio. Its main benefit is that it allows a computer to setup the system
as workstation without considering the availability of hard- line access.

Network topologies and Network types:

Network Topologies
The term topology means the way of connecting different systems to form a network. Some of the
commonly used topologies are as follows:
Bus Topology:
• In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication line called the bus or
backbone.

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 • Data is transmitted from one end of the bus to the other, and all devices receive the data
simultaneously.
• It is relatively easy to implement and works well for small networks. However, a single break in
the bus can disrupt the entire network.
Star Topology:
• In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or
switch.
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection to the
central hub.
• If one device or cable fails, only that specific connection is
affected, and the rest of the network remains operational.
• It is straightforward to add or remove devices, making it scalable.
Ring Topology:
• In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop,
forming a ring.
• Each device is connected to exactly two other devices, creating
a continuous circular pathway for data transmission.
• Data travels in one direction around the ring until it reaches the
intended recipient.
• Failure of any single device or connection can disrupt the entire
network.
Mesh Topology:
• In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device
in the network. It provides multiple redundant paths for data
transmission, ensuring high reliability and fault tolerance.
• Mesh topologies are commonly used in critical applications where
network uptime is crucial. However, the extensive cabling and
complex connections can be expensive and challenging to manage.

Hybrid Topology:
• A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more basic topologies
(e.g., star- bus or star-ring).
• It leverages the advantages of different topologies and can be
designed to suit specific networking needs.
• Hybrid topologies are commonly used in large networks or in
scenarios with diverse connectivity requirements.

Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a network design where devices are organized in a hierarchical structure, resembling a
tree with a root node at the top and branches of nodes extending downward.

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The root node acts as the central hub, and devices are connected to it directly or through intermediary
devices like switches or hubs.

This creates a multi-level structure, with each level representing a different generation of devices. Tree
topology is commonly used in wide area networks (WANs) to interconnect different local area networks
(LANs) or subnets in a hierarchical manner. It is also found in some enterprise networks and
telecommunications networks.

Advantages of Tree Topology:

Scalability: The network can be easily expanded by adding more devices or branches.
Centralized Management: The root node allows for centralized control and easy network
management.
Fault Isolation: Issues in one branch do not affect the rest of the network, simplifying troubleshooting.
Point-to-Point Connections: Devices have dedicated connections, reduced data collisions and
improving performance.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
Dependency on Root Node: The network's functionality relies on the root node, and its failure can
disrupt the entire network.
Cost: Implementing tree topology can be expensive, especially for larger networks.
Complex Cabling: As the network grows, the cabling can become more complex and difficult to
manage.

Types of Networks:

The computer networks are divided into the following parts based on the network span and number of
systems connected.
1. PAN - Personal Area Network
2. LAN - Local Area Network
3. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
4. WAN - Wide Area Network
PAN – Personal Area Network:
A personal area network (PAN) is designed for interconnection between devices typically located
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within the range of 10 meters approx. These are used to connect personal use devices like
smartphones, laptops, tablets, wearable devices and other peripherals.
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are the commonly used technologies for establishment of PANs. PANs find
applications in various scenarios, such as:
• Wireless Headsets: For establishing connections between computers/smart phones with
headsets/head phones.
• Personal health Devices: For pairing fitness related trackers/ smart phones for monitoring
health and workout timings.
• Home automation: For connecting home use and safety devices
to a central controller such as smart phone.
• File Transfer: For ensuring smooth and fast transfer of files
between laptops, tablets etc.
• Security: To enhance and implement security protocols like
encryption to ensure data privacy and prevent unauthorized
access to the connected devices.
• Ad-Hoc Networking: These are often used as Ad-Hoc networks for use as and when required.
These networks are established and disbanded as per the requirement. Also, the devices can
quickly connect to the network and disconnect whenever they are in or out of range.
LAN – Local Area Network
A local area network (LAN) is designed for implementation between devices that are located within a
limited geographical area generally within the range of approximately 1 – 10 KM. this network can be
setup using wired or wireless transmission medias, and can be controlled by an individual or an
organization. It is also known as Intranet as it is a network within an organization.
• These can use various topologies such as star, bus, ring, or mesh. The most commonly used
topology for LANs is the Star topology, where all the devices are connected to a central switch
or hub.
• LANs offer high data transfer rates as the network has a limited span enabling fast
communication and resource sharing.
• The network administrator can easily manage and monitor
devices in a LAN.
• The LANs are commonly used in offices, homes, and
educational institutions.
• LANs implement security measure such as Firewalls, access
controls, and encryption to protect data and unauthorized
access to the network at a much cheaper cost.
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network:
It is a network infrastructure that covers a larger geographical area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but
smaller than the Wide area Network (WAN). These use various connectivity technologies including
fiber-optic cables, microwave links and wireless technologies to interconnect devices and networks
within the area of a city and ranges between 5 – 100 KMs.
• MANs often use high speed technologies like fiber- optic
cables, microwave links to provide fast and reliable data
transmission between network nodes.
• These are often used by government agencies and large
educational institutions to interconnect LANs and share
resources like files, databases, and applications.
• They often use different Internet Service Providers
• (ISPs) for effective data communication thereby strengthening the backbone of the Internet.
• These can be either privately owned, cooperative, or government owned to provide services to

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 the public.
• These networks have grown rapidly in the past few years as the spans of cities have increased
rapidly.
• The network security plays a crucial role in the MANs and increases the cost incurred due to
wide area coverage.
• They play a significant role in interconnecting local networks within a city, enabling efficient
data exchange and facilitating communication among various entities in the metropolitan
region.
WAN – Wide Area Network:
It is a type of computer network that covers a vast geographical area spanning among cities, countries,
or even continents.
• These use various technologies like leased lines, fiber optic cables,
and satellite links.
• Since it is the expanded form of MAN, it is considered as the
backbone.

• These allow the efficient transfer of data, voice, and videos between different nodes thereby
enabling communication and resource sharing between devices at far away distances.
• These are designed with redundancy and backup links to ensure high fault tolerance thereby
minimizing disruptions and maintaining connectivity even if some network segment fails.
• Data Security becomes the key issue as it becomes essential to protect data from unauthorized
access and cyber threats. Thus encryption, firewalls and virtual
• private Networks (VPNs) play an important role in ensuring data security.
• These may have varying speeds and bandwidth depending upon the technology used and the
distance between network nodes.
Note:
Virtual Private Network: It is used to access the public network as a private network.
It ensures enhances security, and safety of data.
Difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN

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 NETWORK PROTOCOL:
A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network. Protocols define standardized formats for
data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors etc.
HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
• HTTP is used to transfer data across the web. HTTP specifies how to transfer hypertext (linked
web documents) between two computers.
• It allows users of the World Wide Web to exchange information found on web pages.
• When accessing any web page entering http:// in front of the address tells the browser to
communicate over HTTP.
• Clients (web browsers) send requests through request object of http to web servers for web
pages, resources etc

FTP- (File Transfer Protocol)

It is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from one host to
another. It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts
as a server for other computers on the internet. It is also used for downloading the files to computer from
other servers.
PPP- Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) is protocol that is used to connect one computer system to another. Computers use PPP to
communicate over the telephone network or the Internet. A PPP connection exists when two systems
physically connect through a telephone line. You can use PPP to connect one system to another.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.)
SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an electronic mail over the
internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers, and it also
supports:
• It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
• Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
• It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.
• The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between servers.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)
• It is a set of standardized rules that uses a client-server model of communication in which a user
or machine (a client) requests a service by a server in the network.
• The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is assigned an IP
address, which is used to identify each node independently.
• TCP ensures that the message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP packets. Each of
these packets are routed (transmitted) through the Internet, along a path from one router to the
next, until it reaches the specified destination. TCP guarantees the delivery of packets on the
designated IP address. It is also responsible for ordering the packets so that they are delivered in
sequence.
POP3
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail protocol used to receive emails from a remote
server to a local email client. POP3 allows you to download email messages on your local computer and
read them even when you are offline
HTTPS
The more secure and advanced version is HTTPS. It is used for secure communication over a computer
network.
HTTPS provides,
• Encryption: Encrypting the exchanged data to keep it secure from eavesdroppers.
• Data integrity: Data cannot be modified or corrupted during transfer.
• Authentication: Proves that your users communicate with the intended website.

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Telnet
• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users want to run
different application programs at the remote site and transfers a result to the local site. This
requires a client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us to create a
specific program for each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user access any
application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a program that allows a user to log on to a
remote computer
VoIP
VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. It is also referred to as IP telephony, internet telephony, or
internet calling. It's an alternative to a public switched telephone network (PSTN)

INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES

World Wide Web (WWW):

It is a global system of interconnected documents and resources that are accessible over the internet.
It operates on the basis of hypertext links which allows the users to navigate between different
documents and multimedia content.

Hypertext:
The web is built on the concept of hypertext where documents are linked to each other through
hyperlinks. These allow the users to navigate from one place to another.
URL:
Each web page and the resource on the web can be accessed using the unique address called as the URL
(Uniform Resource Locator).

Web Browser:
To access and view web pages on the internet (WWW), we need to have an application named as Web
Browser. There are many web browsers available on the internet like Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge,
and Mozilla Firefox etc.

Web Servers:
These are the computers that host websites and web applications. These respond to requests from
web browsers, and provide the requested web pages and resources back to the users.

Weblinks:
These are the links available within the web pages that allow the users to access the pages that contain
the topic related content.

HTML:
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) was developed with a view to structure and organize the static
web pages. These are the symbols and codes that allow the used to develop web pages that can run
over the internet. These define the layout, format, and linking of text, multimedia, and other elements
within a web page. It uses tags for presentation of content.

XML:
Extensible Markup Language (XML) is designed to carry and store data in a structured and platform-
independent format. These use the user-defined custom tags to represent specific data fields and
structures. These are self-descriptive and make it easier for different applications to understand and
interpret data.
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Websites:
These are the collections of various web pages and data that are accessible for all, and are available on
the internet. Many types of restrictions such as screenshot protections, copying of data can be
implemented on the websites for data protection.

Web Hosting:
This refers to the service of providing storage space, server resources, and internet connectivity to
make websites and web applications accessible to users over the internet. It allows individuals,
businesses, and organizations to publish their websites on the World Wide Web, making them
available to visitors and users worldwide.
• Web hosting companies maintain powerful servers designed to store website files, databases,
and other contents required for website operations.
• These typically handle the maintenance tasks of the registered websites.
• These ensure proper backup and recovery of the lost data (if any) while accessing it, and cope
up with potential threats that can destroy data.

Domain Name Service (DNS):

It is a vital internet infrastructure that converts domain names into IP addresses, thereby enabling the
users to navigate the web using easily recognizable and memorable names instead of numerical IP
addresses.

Internet Protocol (IP) Address:

It is a unique serial number assigned to devices on a network, facilitating communication and data
exchange between them over the internet, and other IP based networks. These are of two types:
• IPv4:
These are the addresses that consist of 32-bit addressing scheme. Example:
192.168.0.24
IPv6:
This uses 128 bit addressing scheme represented by eight groups of hexadecimal digits separated
by colons. Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0f00:00a0:8a2e:0370:7334.

The potential growth of internet-connected devices led to exhaustion of available IPv4 addresses. To
cope up with this problem, the IPv6 addressing scheme was introduces that provides a significantly
large pool of IP addresses to accommodate the expansion of internet.