Study Guide: Unit2: The Internet

1. Computing Device
Definition: A machine that can run a program.
2. Computing System
Definition: A group of computers working together for a common purpose.
3. Computing Network
Definition: A group of connected computers that can send or receive data.
4. Path
Definition: A sequence of direct connections.

Protocols are open standards, which means they are publicly available and are designed to ensure
compatibility across devices on the Internet. The goal is to enable communication and data
exchange across different systems.

Data on the Internet is routed through a sequence of connected devices (routers, switches, etc.),
not through a single direct connection. This allows for multiple pathways and redundancy in the
network.

To prevent Communication between devices, a minimum of paths need to be broken (depending

on the specific network structure). These paths represent critical connections that data must
follow in the network.

The Internet is designed with redundancy, meaning there are multiple routes data can take. The
exact path data takes depends on various factors like routing protocols, network traffic, and
device availability.

• Computing Devices: These are individual machines (such as computers, smartphones,

servers) capable of running programs or applications.
• Computing Networks: Refers to groups of connected devices that communicate with
each other. The devices might be connected via wired or wireless means.
• Paths in Networks: Data doesn't travel in a straight line from source to destination.
Instead, it follows a path through multiple devices (routers, switches) in the network.
• Protocols: These are standardized rules that define how devices communicate over the
Internet, ensuring that different devices and systems can interoperate.
• Redundancy: Networks are built with multiple paths to ensure reliability. If one path
fails, the data can take another path to reach its destination.
• Routing and Addressing: Data is routed through various devices in the network, and
each device has a unique address that helps direct the data to the correct destination.

• Fault-Tolerant Networks: Networks are built to handle failures. This is why breaking a
single path in a network may not necessarily disrupt communication entirely.
• Hands-On Practice: Using network-building simulators can help you visualize how data
is routed and the concept of redundant paths.
By understanding these core concepts, students will have a better grasp of how networks and the
Internet function to support communication across devices globally.

Internet protocols, like TCP and IP, are designed to scale with the growing number of devices.
This means that as more devices are added to the network, the protocols continue to support
reliable communication, allowing the Internet to handle increasing traffic and devices.

Packet metadata contains essential information for routing the packet to its destination, such as
source and destination IP addresses, the packet's position in the sequence, and other data required
to ensure that packets arrive intact and in the correct order.

Packets may take different routes to reach their destination, which means they could arrive out of
order. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures that packets are reassembled in the
correct order once they arrive at the destination.

An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to each device on the Internet. It ensures that data
can be correctly routed to and from the device, similar to how a street address ensures that mail
reaches the correct house.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is responsible for ensuring reliable data transmission. It
breaks data into packets, sends them to their destination, and reassembles them. If any packets
are lost, TCP requests that those packets be retransmitted to ensure the complete and accurate
message.

Internet Protocols and Scaling

• Protocols: Internet protocols are standardized rules that define how data is sent and
received over the Internet. Examples include TCP, IP, UDP, and HTTP.
• Scalability: The protocols used on the Internet are designed to scale, meaning they can
handle the increasing number of devices that connect to the network without breaking
down. This allows new devices and technologies to be added to the Internet while
maintaining performance and reliability.

Packet Switching and Metadata

• Packets: Data sent across the Internet is broken into smaller pieces called packets. Each
packet contains part of the message as well as metadata (information about the packet,
such as the source and destination addresses).
• Routing Packets: The metadata helps routers determine how to route the packet from its
source to its destination.
• Reassembly: Once all packets arrive at their destination, TCP ensures that they are
reassembled in the correct order.

IP Addresses
 • IP Address: An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to every device connected to
the Internet. It allows devices to send and receive data by specifying both the source and
destination addresses of the data.
o IPv4: The most common version, using a 32-bit address format (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).
o IPv6: A newer version designed to address the limited number of available IPv4
addresses, using a 128-bit format.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• Reliability: TCP is essential for ensuring data reliability across the Internet. It guarantees
that all packets are received and reassembled correctly.
• Flow Control: It also manages data flow to prevent congestion by controlling how much
data is sent before receiving an acknowledgment.

Summary of Key Concepts

1. Scalability of Internet Protocols: Internet protocols, such as TCP, are built to scale,
ensuring that the growing number of devices can communicate reliably.
2. Role of Packets: Data is split into packets, which are routed independently across the
Internet. Metadata in each packet helps direct it to its destination and ensures that packets
are reassembled in the correct order.
3. IP Addresses: Each device on the Internet has a unique IP address, which is used to route
data to and from that device.
4. TCP and Data Integrity: TCP is the protocol used to ensure that packets are reliably
delivered and reassembled in the correct order, even if they arrive out of sequence.

By mastering these concepts, you'll better understand how the Internet functions to send and
receive data efficiently, even as the number of connected devices continues to grow.

HTTP is the protocol used for transferring web pages and files over the World Wide Web. When
you visit a website, your browser uses HTTP to request web pages and other resources from a
web server.

This situation demonstrates fault-tolerance — the ability of a network to continue functioning

smoothly even if one part of it fails. Redundant paths in the network ensure that if one path is
disrupted (like by the squirrel), traffic can be rerouted through another path.

Redundant connections help ensure that the network remains functional even when certain paths
fail or experience congestion. Redundancy increases the reliability of the network by providing
alternative routes for data to travel.

The digital divide refers to the gap between people who have access to technology and the
internet, and those who do not. Requiring individuals to access services like voter registration
only through a website could disproportionately affect people who lack reliable internet access,
exacerbating inequalities.
The digital divide is often driven by socioeconomic, geographic, and demographic factors,
leading to unequal access to technology. People from certain racial or ethnic groups may have
limited access to computing resources and the internet, contributing to social and economic
inequalities.

HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

• Purpose: HTTP is the protocol used to transfer hypertext (web pages) over the internet.
When you access a website, HTTP governs how data is requested from a server and how
it is transmitted back to your device.
• Example: When you type a website address in your browser (e.g.,
https://www.example.com), your browser uses HTTP to request the web page from the
server hosting that website.

Fault-Tolerance in Networks

• Definition: Fault-tolerance refers to the ability of a network to continue functioning

even when parts of it fail. This is achieved through redundancy — having multiple paths
or systems that can take over in case of failure.
• Real-World Example: If a part of the network (like a wire or router) fails, the network
automatically uses a different path, ensuring that communication continues without
interruption.

Redundancy in Network Design

• Purpose: Redundancy refers to the practice of adding extra connections or routes in a

network to ensure reliability and availability. By designing networks with redundancy, an
ISP or company can ensure that service is not interrupted if a path fails.
• Benefit: Redundant connections increase network reliability and reduce downtime,
making the network more robust to failures, delays, or disruptions.

The Digital Divide

• Definition: The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to
modern technology (such as the internet and computers) and those who do not, often due
to factors like geographic location, income, education, and race.
• Consequences: The digital divide can lead to inequalities in education, job opportunities,
and access to essential services. For example, people without reliable internet access may
struggle to complete tasks like applying for jobs, attending online classes, or accessing
government services.
• Impact: Policies or situations that require internet access (e.g., online voting,
telemedicine, online education) can exacerbate the digital divide, limiting access for
individuals without reliable technology.

Summary of Key Concepts

 1. HTTP is used for communication between web browsers and web servers, allowing you
to request and view web pages.
2. Fault-tolerance ensures that networks can continue to function even if one part fails, by
using redundant paths for communication.
3. Redundancy improves the reliability of networks by ensuring that alternate paths or
systems are available in case of failure.
4. The Digital Divide is the gap in access to technology and the internet, which can create
inequalities in opportunities, services, and social participation.

By understanding these core concepts, you will have a better grasp of how the internet and
networks work, how they ensure reliability, and how unequal access to technology can impact
society.