UNIT-3

THINKING
Thinking or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”) can be defined as
mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and
attempting to understand information and communicating information to
others.
CONCEPT FORMATION
Concepts: concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects,
events, or activities.
People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to think
about all the specific examples of the category. For example, a person can think
about “fruit” without thinking about every kind of fruit there is in the world,
which would take far more effort and time.
Concepts not only contain the important features of the objects or events
people want to think about, but also they allow the identification of new objects
and events that may fit the concept. For example, dogs come in all shapes, sizes,
colours, and lengths of fur. Yet most people have no trouble recognizing dogs as
dogs, even though they may never before have seen that particular breed of
dog.
NATURE OF CONCEPTS:

1. Superordinate concept: The most general form of a type of concept, such as

“animal” or “fruit”. They display a high degree of generality and provide only
very abstract information.
2. Basic level type: An example of a type of concept around which other similar
concepts are organized, such as “dog”, “cat”, or “pear”.
3. Subordinate concept: The most specific category of a concept, such as one’s
pet dog or a pear in one’s hand. Subordinate level categories display low degree
of generality.
4. Formal concepts: Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features.
Ex. very strict science and mathematics are full of these. For a shape to be a
square it must be 2D with four equal sides and four equal angles equalling 360
degrees.

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5. Natural concepts: Concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the
real world. Ex.- a whale might be considered a fish because it shares in many of
the same qualities of that of a fish, but is actually a mammal.
6. Prototypes: An example of a concept that closely matches the defining
characteristics of a concept. They are typical, highly representative examples of
a concept. Ex- if someone were to say "fruit" many people would visualize an
apple, pear, or orange; not so likely would they picture a guava, papaya.

PROBLEM SOLVING
Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and
behaving in certain ways.
Steps in problem solving:
Preparation  Production  Judgement

1. PREPARATION:

a) Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step,

identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases,
people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will
make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Kinds of problems:

Arrangement Problems: These kinds of problems require that a group of

elements be rearranged or recombined in a way that will satisfy a certain
criterion. Eg: jigsaw puzzles and anagrams.

Problems of inducing structure: A person must identify the relationships that

exist among the elements presented and construct a new relationship among
them. it requires people to discover the relations among numbers, words,
symbols, or ideas. In such problem, it is necessary to determine not only the
relationships among the elements, but the structure and size of the elements
involved. Eg: (14-24-34-44-54-64)

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Transformation problems: It consists of an initial state, a goal state, and a series
of methods for changing the initial state into the goal state.

b) Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is

important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved.
A well defined problem: Both the nature of the problem itself and the
information needed to solve it are available and clear. Eg: Mathematical
equation.
An ill-defined problem: The specific nature of the problem be unclear, but
the information required to solve the problem could be even less obvious.
Eg: How to bring peace to the Middle East.

2. PRODUCTION: GENERATING SOLUTIONS

a) Heuristics: A heuristic or “rule of thumb” is a mental shortcut that may

lead to a solution. An educated guess based on prior experiences that
helps narrow down possible solutions for a problem. This method is faster
that using an algorithm, but has a lower success rate. trying to find guava
juice in the grocery store, instead of searching row after row (algorithm
approach) you go to were you think it would be (like the organic food aisle
or the fruit juice aisle).
b) Means-end-analysis: A heuristic in which the difference between starting
situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce
that difference. So you create a new sub-goal.
c) Trial and error: Problem solving method in which one possible solution
after another is tried until a successful one is found.
d) Algorithm: A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a
problem. Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving for solving
certain types of problems.
e) Availability heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their
availability in memory. Ex: after columbine (school shooting) we thought
the likelihood of school shootings were going to rise but actually
decreased
f) Working-forward approach: In the working-forward approach, as the
name implies, the problem solver tries to solve the problem from
beginning to end.
g) Working-backward approach: In the problem solver starts at the end and
works toward the beginning.

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 h) Forming subgoals: A heuristic; break problem into smaller, more
manageable pieces; example: When you've reached a subgoal, you've
solved part of the problem.
i) Insight: When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind,
it is called insight.

3. JUDGMENT

a) Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their

progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good
progress toward reaching their goal, they will re-evaluate their approach
or look for new strategies.
b) Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important
to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to
the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the
results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be
delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several
months of treatment.

OBSTACLES IN PROBLEM SOLVING

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS: A block to problem solving that comes from thinking

about objects in terms of only their typical functions. (Literally, fixed on the
function).
MENTAL SETS: The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving
patterns that have worked for them in the past. Solutions that have worked in
the past tend to be the ones people try first, and people are often hesitant or
even unable to think of other possibilities.
CONFIRMATION BIAS: The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s
beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. This is
similar to a mental set, except that what is “set” is a belief rather than a
method of solving problems.
Eg: Believers in ESP (telepathy) tend to remember only the few studies that
seem to support their beliefs and the psychotic predictions that worked out
white at the same time neglecting to take into account all the studies that
disprove ESP and the psychotic predictions that failed to come true. They
remember only that confirms their bias toward a belief in the existence of ESP.

REASONING
Reasoning is cognitive activity in which we transform information in order to
reach specific conclusions.

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 INDUCTIVE REASONING: inductive reasoning is reasoning from specific to the
general. That is, it consists of drawing conclusions about all members of a
category based on observing only some members.
For example, in a literature class after reading a few of Shakespeare’s plays,
you might draw some likely conclusions about his general ways of using
language. Psychological research is often inductive as well, studying a sample
of participants in order to draw conclusions about the population from which
the sample is drawn. However, than an inductive conclusion is never entirely
certain-that is, it may be inconclusive. And although an inductive conclusion
may be a likely possibility, there is always a chance that is wrong, perhaps
because the specific sample does not perfectly represent its general
population.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING: reasoning from the general to the specific. When you
learn a general rule and then understand how it applies in some situations but
not in others, you are engaging in deductive reasoning. When psychologists
and other scientists use theories and intuitions to make predictions and then
evaluate their predictions by making further observations, deductive
reasoning is at work.
Deductive reasoning is always certain in the sense that, if the initial rules or
assumptions are true, then the conclusion will follow directly as a matter of
logic. For example, if you know the general rules that dogs bark and cats
meow (and if they are always true), you can deduce whether your neighbour’s
strange looking pet is a dog or a cat on the basis of the specific sound it makes.
When psychologists develop a hypothesis from a theory, the hypothesis is a
specific, logical extension of the general theory. And if the theory is true, then
the hypothesis will be true as well.

SYLLOGISTIC REASONING: Formal reasoning in which people draw a

conclusion from a set of assumptions.
A major technique for studying syllogistic reasoning involves asking people to
evaluate a series of statements that present a series of two assumptions, or
premises, that are used to derive a conclusion. Syllogisms are deductive
arguments that are written in the form:
A is B
C is A
Therefore, C is B

For example:

All men are mortal.

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 Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

CREATIVITY

It is the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new

ways.

CONVERGENT THINKING: Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having

only one answer and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single
answer, using previous knowledge and logic. Ex: "What is a pencil used for?"
answer: “only to write”.

DIVERGENT THINKING: A thinking in which a person starts from one point and
comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point. It is the
reverse of convergent thinking. People diverge from the original point, coming
up with many different ideas or possibilities are less prone to some of the
barriers to problem solving, such as functional fixedness. ex.- "What is a pencil
used for?" infinite answers: poking holes, a weapon, a walking stick for a Barbie
doll, etc.
Stimulating divergent thinking
Brainstorming: Generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time,
without judging each idea’s merits until all ideas are recorded.
Keeping a Journal : Carry a journal to write down ideas as they occur or a
recorder to capture those same ideas and thoughts.
Freewriting: Write down or record everything that comes to mind about a topic
without revising or proofreading until all of the information is written or
recorded in some way. Organize it later.
Mind or Subject Mapping : Start with a central idea and draw a “map” with lines
from the centre to other related ideas, forming a visual representation of the
concepts and their connections.

According to Csikszentmihalyi (1997),

1. Creative people usually have a broad range of knowledge about a lot of

subjects and are good at using mental imagery.
2. Creative people aren’t afraid to be different—they are more open to new
experiences than many people, and they tend to have more vivid dreams and
daydreams than others do.
3. Creative people value their independence.

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4. Creative people are often unconventional in their work, but not otherwise.

UNIT-4
EMOTIONS
Emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain
physical arousal, a certain behaviour that reveals the emotion to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of feelings.
THE THREE ELEMENTS OF EMOTION
The Latin root word mot, meaning “to move,” is the source of both of the words
we use in this chapter over and over again—motive and emotion. Emotion can
be defined as the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by three
elements: a certain physical arousal, a certain behaviour that reveals the feeling
to the outside world, and an inner awareness of the feeling.
PHYSIOLOGY OF EMOTION
Physically, when a person experiences an emotion, an arousal is created by
the sympathetic nervous system.
Direct observation using recording instruments has given scientists a great deal
of information about the bodily events in emotion. Psycho physiologists, who
study such events, are able to measure the heart rate, blood pressure, blood
flow to various parts of the body, activity of the stomach and gastrointestinal
system, levels of various substances such as hormones in the blood, breathing
rate and depth, and many other bodily conditions in emotion.

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THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Many of the bodily changes that occur in emotion are produced by the activity
of a part of the nervous system called the autonomic system. The ANS has two
parts:
The sympathetic system is active during aroused states and prepares the body
for extensive action by increasing the heart rate, raising the blood pressure,
increasing the blood sugar levels and raising the levels of certain hormones in
the blood. In emotion, the sympathetic system causes the discharge of the
hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine affects many structures
of the body. In the liver, it helps mobilize glucose into the blood and thus makes
energy available to the brain and muscles. Epinephrine also causes the heart to
beat harder. In the skeletal muscles, epinephrine helps mobilize sugar resources
so that muscles can use them rapidly. The major effect of norepinephrine is to
constrict peripheral blood vessels and so raise blood pressure.
The another system of the ANS, called the parasympathetic system, tends to be
active when we are calm and relaxed. It decreases the heart rate, reduces blood
pressure.
BRAIN STRUCTURES

A number of structures in the core of the brain are directly involved in emotions.
These core parts of the brain include the hypothalamus and a complex group of
structures known as the limbic system. The term limbic comes from the Latin
word meaning “border”. Experimenters have found that damage to some of the
structures of the limbic system produces great changes in the emotional
behaviour of animals, making tame animals wild or wild animals tame. In
addition, electrical stimulation of portions of the limbic system and
hypothalamus, as well as other brain regions, is rewarding to animals and
pleasurable for human beings.
The aroused state that is part of many emotions is due in part to increased
activation of brain cells in the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and hypothalamus.
ASCENDING RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (ARAS): The reticular formation reach out
almost all the brain areas involved in regulating emotion. Since the activating
fibres from the reticular formation must go upward, or ascend, to reach the
higher brain areas involved in emotion, the activating portion of the reticular
formation is called the ascending reticular activating system.

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 THE BEHAVIOUR OF EMOTION
The behavioural component of emotion can be verbal or non verbal.
Facial feedback hypothesis: This states that facial expressions can influence
emotions, as well as reflect them. Facial muscles send signals to the brain, which
help individuals to recognize the emotion they are experiencing. For example,
we feel happier when we smile and sadder when we frown. Facial expressions
can vary across different cultures, although some aspects of facial expression
seem to be universal and there is a universal nature to at least seven basic
emotions.
In the research of Ekman and Friesen, they found that people of many different
cultures (including Japanese, European, American, and the Fore tribe of New
Guinea) can consistently recognize at least seven facial expressions: anger, fear,
disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, and contempt. Although the emotions and
the related facial expressions appear to be universal, exactly when, where, and
how an emotion is expressed may be determined by the culture.
Display rules: Learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings.
Display rules that can vary from culture to culture are learned ways of
controlling displays of emotion in social settings. For example, Japanese people
have strict social rules about showing emotion in public situations— they simply
do not show emotion, remaining cool, calm, and collected, at least on the
outside. But if in a more private situation, as a parent scolding a child within the
home, the adult’s facial expression would easily be recognized as “angry” by
people of any culture. The emotion is universal and the way it is expressed on
the face is universal, but whether it is expressed or displayed depends on the
learned cultural rules for displaying emotion.
Display rules are different between cultures that are individualistic (placing the
importance of the individual above the social group) and those that are
collectivistic (placing the importance of the social group above that of the
individual). Whereas the culture of the United States is individualistic, for
example, the culture of Japan is collectivistic.
Non-verbal cues: Outward signs of other’s internal emotional states shown in
their facial expressions, body posture, and other behaviours.

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First, frequent body movements, especially ones in which a particular part of the
body does something to another part, such as touching, scratching, or rubbing,
suggest emotional arousal. The greater the frequency of such behaviour, the
higher a person’s level of arousal or nervousness.
Gestures: body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture.
THE SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE OF EMOTION
The third element of emotion is interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a
label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, and so on.
Another way of labelling this element is to call it the “cognitive element,”
because the labelling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous
similar experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with
a solution—a label.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
JAMES-LANGE THEORY: Theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the
labelling of an emotion. It suggests that subjective emotional experiences are
actually the result of physiological changes within our bodies. In other words,
you feel frightened when making your speech because you notice that your
heart is racing, your mouth is dry.

CANNON-BARD: Walter Cannon objected to the assumption in the James-Lange

theory that each emotional experience has its own particular set of physiological
changes. He suggested, people can experience physiological reactions linked to
emotions without actually feeling those emotions. For example, your heart
might race because you have been exercising and not because you are afraid.
Theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to
occur at the same time. This theory suggests that various emotion-provoking
events induce simultaneously the subjective experiences we label as emotions
and the physiological reactions that accompany them.
Cannon first proposed his theory in the 1920s and his work was later expanded
on by physiologist Philip Bard during the 1930s. According to the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion, we feel emotions and experience physiological reactions

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such as sweating, trembling, and muscle tension simultaneously. People do not
need feedback from those organs to experience emotions.
More specifically, it is suggested that emotions result when the thalamus sends
a message to the brain in response to a stimulus, resulting in a physiological
reaction. At the same time, the brain also receives signals triggering the
emotional experience. Cannon and Bard’s theory suggests that the physical and
psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time and that one
does not cause the other.

SCHACHTER-SINGER (TWO FACTOR THEORY): Schachter’s cognitive arousal

theory is similar to the James-Lange theory, but adds the element of cognitive
labelling of the arousal. this theory maintains that the emotion we feel is due to
our interpretation of an aroused, or “stirred up”, bodily state. Since the bodily
changes are ambiguous, the theory says, any number of emotions can be felt
from a stirred up bodily condition. People are said to have different subjective,
or felt, emotions because of differences in the way they interpret or label the
physiological state.
In their cognitive arousal theory, Schachter and Singer (1962) proposed that
two things have to happen before emotion occurs.
a. Perception of a potential emotion producing situation
b. An aroused bodily state which is ambiguous.
c. Interpretation of the bodily state that fits the perceived situation.
d. labelling of the bodily state.

LAZARUS AND THE COGNITIVE –MEDIATIONAL THEORY: Theory of emotion in

which a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result
in a physical response and an emotional reaction.

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Cognitive mediational theory was proposed by American psychologist Richard
Lazarus (1922-2002). In 1991, psychologist Richard Lazarus built on appraisal
theory to develop cognitive-meditational theory. This theory still asserts that our
emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus, but it suggests that
immediate, unconscious appraisals mediate between the stimulus and the
emotional response. According to appraisal theory, our interpretation of a
situation causes an emotional response that is based on that interpretation.
This theory attempts to explain the relationship between cognition, emotion,
and stress and focuses on the role of "appraisal". Appraisal is the tendency of
the human mind to make automatic and unconscious assessments of not only a
situation, but also what that situation means to them. When an individual
perceives a stimulus cognitive properties elicit arousal and emotion which are
associated with that stimulus. The cognitive appraisal of the stimulus is what
causes future emotional responses like stress or fear to be associated with the
stimulus.
The theory states that (1) physiological arousal takes place, (2) a cognitive
interpretation is made to help make sense of the physiological arousal at which
point the emotion is identified. The Lazarus theory, on the other hand, suggests
that the cognitive component occurs first, then the emotion is experienced, then
the physiological response follows.
For example, the Schachter-Singer theory suggests that a person may
experience (1) a pounding heart and sweaty palms, and then (2) think about and
explain that the reason for the pounding heart and sweaty palms is that he/she
is due up next to give an oral presentation, and then link those first two
components with the notion that nervousness (the emotion) has set in.

The Lazarus theory would suggest that a person might first think about the oral
presentation he/she is about to give (cognitive component), then feel nervous
(the emotion), and then experience a pounding heart and sweaty palms (the
physiological arousal) in response to the first two components.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY MOVEMENT

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 Martin Seligman, American psychologist, established in January 1998 the
conceptual basis of positive psychology at the time he assumed the presidency
of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Seligman points out that positive psychology emphasizes the study of positive
emotion, the personal strengths and skills of the human being, as well as the
positive institutions, which are institutions that allow the experience and
expression of positive emotions such as the family and the community to
enhance mental health and promote wellness. According to Sin &
Lyubormirsky, extending the positive emotion in daily life of patients is one of
the main goals of positive psychology. Positive emotions as joy, gratitude,
serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe and love play a
central role in the treatment and can function as a kind of protection against
stress and depression. He pointed out the importance of positive emotions on
psychological well-being. Also shown that positive automatic thoughts and
optimistic style of thinking also offers protection against depression and are
indicators of happiness and well-being.
He pointed an important aspect studied by positive psychology: resilience and
how to make people more resilient in when facing adversity. Resilience refers
to the capacity for successful adaptation or change in the face of adversity.
Studies suggest several ways to achieve this goal. These authors noted the
importance of developing resilience to manage depression and that it is
supported by social support, affective ties and expansion of positive emotions.
He stressed the role of positive cognitive triad in the development of resilience
in life satisfaction and depression and reinforcing the positive cognitions are
important factors to promote resiliency and well-being.
Professor Martin Seligman spent many years developing a theory of happiness.
He wanted to identify the building blocks of well-being. He drew up a five-sided
model of well-being called the PERMA model. These are the five elements
Seligman found essential to human well-being:

P. When you are feeling positive, you can look back on the past with gladness;
look into the future with hope; and enjoy and cherish the present.
E. We don’t thrive when we are doing nothing. We get bored and feel useless.
But when we engage with our life and work, we become absorbed. We gain

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momentum and focus, and we can enter the state of being known as ‘flow’. In
Positive Psychology, ‘flow’ describes a state of utter, blissful immersion in the
present moment.
R. Humans are social animals. We have a need for connection, love, physical
and emotional contact with others. We enhance our own well-being by building
strong networks of relationships around us, with family, friends, co-workers,
neighbours and all the other people in our lives.
M. We are at our best when we dedicate our time to something greater than
ourselves. This could be religious faith, community work, family, a political
cause, a charity, a professional or creative goal.
A. To achieve well-being and happiness, we must look back on our lives with a
sense of accomplishment: ‘I did it, and I did it well’.

UNIT-5
PERSONALITY

Personality is the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel
and behave.
It should not be confused with character. Character refers to value judgments
made about a person’s morals or ethical behaviour; nor should it be confused
with temperament, the enduring characteristics with which each person is
born.
According to Gordon Allport, personality is “the dynamic organization within
the individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment.”
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
SIGMUND FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS

According to psychoanalytic theory, unconscious forces act as determinants of

personality. He argued that much of our behaviour is motivated by the
unconscious, a part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge,

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beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not
aware.
THE DIVISIONS OF THE MIND

THE CONSCIOUS MIND: Level of the mind that is aware of immediate

surroundings and perceptions. Consciousness involves:
a) Monitoring: processing information from the environment is the main
function of the body’s sensory systems, leading to awareness of what’s
going on in our surroundings as well as within our own bodies.
b) Controlling: another function of consciousness is to plan, initiate, and guide
our actions.
THE PRECONSCIOUS MIND: Level of the mind in which information is available
but not currently conscious. They include specific memories of personal
events, as well as the information accumulated over a lifetime, such as one’s
knowledge of the meaning of words, the location of a particular country etc.
they also include knowledge about learned skills like the procedures involved
in driving a car.

THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND: Level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings,

memories, and other information are kept that is not easily or voluntarily
brought into consciousness. According to the psycho analytic theories of
Sigmund Freud and his followers, some memories, impulses, and desires are
not accessible to consciousness. Freud believed that some emotionally painful
memories and wishes are repressed- that is, diverted to the unconscious,
where they may continue to influence our actions even though we are not
aware of them. They can affect us in indirect or disguised ways. The term
Freudian slip is commonly used to refer to unintentional remarks that are
assumed to reveal hidden impulses. Eg: saying “I’m sad you’re better”, when
intending to say “I’m glad you’re better”.

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This iceberg represents the three levels of the mind. The part of the iceberg
visible above the surface is the conscious mind. Just below the surface is the
preconscious mind, everything that is not yet part of the conscious mind.
Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious mind, feelings, memories,
thoughts, and urges that cannot be easily brought into consciousness. While
two of the three parts of the personality (ego and superego) exist at all three
levels of awareness, the id is completely in the unconscious mind.

THE DIVISIONS OF THE PERSONALITY

ID: Part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious. It is the
first and primitive part of the personality. Freud called this need for
satisfaction the pleasure principle, which can be defined as the desire for
immediate gratification of needs with no regard for the consequences. The
pleasure principle can be summed up simply as “if it feels good, do it.”
It is the amoral part of the personality that exists at birth, containing all of the
basic biological drives: hunger, thirst, self preservation, and sex. When these
drives are active, the person will feel an increase in not only physical tension
but also in psychological tension that Freud called the libido. Libido is the
instinctual energy that may come into conflict with the demands of a society’s
standards for behaviour.

EGO: According to Freud, to deal with reality, mostly conscious, rational and
logical, a second part of the personality develops called the ego. The ego, from

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 the Latin word for “I,” is mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical, and
cunning than the id. The ego works on the reality principle: the satisfaction of
the demands of the id only when the negative consequences will not result.

SUPEREGO: Part of the personality that acts as a moral centre. According to

Freud, the third and final personality structure to develop; it represents the
rights and wrongs of society as handed down by a person’s parents, teachers,
and other important figures. There are actually two parts to the superego.
1. The ego ideal: part of the superego that contains the standards for moral
behaviour.
2. Conscience: part of the superego that produces pride or guilt, or moral
anxiety, when they do the wrong thing.

So, the id makes demands, the superego puts restrictions on how those
demands can be met, and the ego has to come up with a plan that will quiet the
id but satisfy the superego. Sometimes the id or the superego does not get its
way, resulting in a great deal of anxiety for the ego itself. This constant state of
conflict is Freud’s view of how personality works; it is only when the anxiety
created by this conflict gets out of hand that disordered behaviour arises.
STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
For Freud, the three parts of the personality develop in a series of stages.
Because he focused heavily on the sex drive, he believed that the stages were
determined by the developing sexuality of the child. At each stage, a different
erogenous zone, or area of the body that produces pleasurable feelings,
becomes important and can become the source of conflicts. Conflicts that are
not fully resolved can result in fixation, or getting “stuck” to some degree in an
earlier stage of development. The child may grow into an adult but will still
carry emotional and psychological “baggage” from that earlier fixated stage.
Fixation: a disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a
particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behaviour
associated with that earlier stage.
Psychosexual stages: five stages of personality development proposed by
Freud and tied to the sexual development of the child.
Oral stage: Oral Stage – Is the first stage because the erogenous zone is the
mouth. The infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation. This
stage spans the period of birth through about 12 to 18 months of age. Too
much gratification at this stage may lead to oral fixations in adulthood such

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as smoking, overeating, talking too much, nail biting etc. Too little
gratification may lead to a clinging dependence, too aggressive, or may have
a pessimistic outlook.
Anal stage: This stage occurs by about the age of 18 months thru about
age 3. During this stage, sexual gratification (erogenous zone) is centred on
processes of elimination (retention and release of bowel contents). Anal
fixations reflect either too harsh or too lenient toilet training. Training that
is too harsh may lead to traits associated with “anal-retentive personality”
such as perfectionism and extreme needs for self-control, orderliness, and
neatness. Extremely lax training may lead to “anal-expulsive personality
such as messiness, lack of self-discipline, and carelessness. They see
messiness as a statement of personal control and who is somewhat
destructive and hostile.
Phallic stage: third stage occurring from about 3to 6 years of age, in which
the child discovers sexual feelings. As the child grows older, the erogenous
zone finally shifts to the genitals. Children have discovered the differences
between the sexes by now, and most have also engaged in perfectly normal
stimulation of the genitals.
Oedipus and Electra Complex
To deal with this anxiety two things must occur by the time the phallic stage
ends.
The conflict in the phallic stage centres on the awakening sexual feelings of
the child. Freud believed that boys develop both sexual attraction to their
mothers and jealousy of their fathers during this stage, a phenomenon
called the Oedipus complex and that the complex in females is called the
Electra complex.
Identification
It’s a defence mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone
else to deal with anxiety.
The boy will repress his sexual feelings for his mother and identify with his
father. Likewise, the girl will repress her sexual feelings fir her father and
identify with her mother.
Identification with the parent of the same sex leads to the development of
gender-based behaviours.

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 Latency stage: Latency Stage spans the years between about 6 to 12 years.
It is named because of the belief that sexual impulses remain latent
(dormant) yielding to a time when the child’s psychological energies are
focused on other pursuits such as school and play activities, and acquiring
skills. In this stage, children grow and develop intellectually, physically, and
socially but not sexually.
Genital stage: Genital Stage is the final stage of psychosexual
development from about puberty to adulthood; where there is the
forsaken incestuous desires for the parent of the opposite sex that give rise
to yearnings for more appropriate sexual partners of the opposite gender.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that reduce stress
and anxiety.
These defense mechanisms were mainly outlined and studied by Freud’s
daughter, Anna Freud, who was a psychoanalyst Freud. In order for the three
parts of the personality to function, the constant conflict among them must be
managed, and Freud assumed that the defense mechanisms were one of the
most important tools for dealing with the anxiety caused by this conflict.
 Denial: Psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses to
acknowledge or recognize a threatening situation. Ex: Ben is an alcoholic
who denies being an alcoholic.
 Repression: Psychological defense mechanism in which the person refuses
to consciously remember a threatening or unacceptable event, instead
pushing those events into the unconscious mind. Ex: Elise, who was
sexually abused as a child, cannot remember the abuse at all.
 Rationalization: Psychological defense mechanism in which a person
invents acceptable excuses for unacceptable behaviour. Ex: “If I don’t
have breakfast, I can have that piece of cake later on without hurting my
diet.”
 Projection: Psychological defense mechanism in which unacceptable or
threatening impulses or feelings are seen as originating with someone
else, usually the target of the impulses or feelings. Ex: Keisha is attracted
to her sister’s husband but denies this and believes the husband attracted
to her.

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  Reaction formation: Psychological defense mechanism in which a person
forms an opposite emotional or behavioural reaction to the way he or she
really feels to keep those true feelings hidden from self and others. Ex:
Matt is unconsciously attracted to Ben but outwardly voices an extreme
hatred of homosexuals.
 Displacement: Redirecting feelings from a threatening target to a less
threatening one. Ex: Sandra gets reprimanded by her boss and goes home
to angrily pick a fight with her real target onto a less threatening husband.
 Regression: Psychological defense mechanism in which a person falls back
on childlike patterns of responding in reaction to stressful situations. Ex:
Four-year-old Jeff starts wetting his bed after his parents bring home a
new baby.
 Identification: Defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like
someone else to deal with anxiety. Ex: Marie really admires Suzy, the
most popular girl in school, and tries to copy her behaviour and dress.
 Sublimation: Channeling socially unacceptable impulses and urges into
socially acceptable behaviour. Ex: Alain, who is very aggressive, becomes a
professional hockey player.
 Compensation (substitution): Defense mechanism in which a person
makes up for inferiorities in one area by becoming superior in another
area. Ex: Reggie is not good at athletics, so he puts all of his energies into
becoming an academic perceived by becoming superior in some scholar.

CARL ROGER’S APPROACH

Humanism focuses on the things that make people uniquely human, such as
subjective emotions and the freedom to choose one’s own destiny.
Self actualizing tendency:
Carl Rogers believed that all humans have the striving to fulfil one’s innate
capacities and capabilities that he called self actualizing tendency.
Self concept:

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Self is an individual’s awareness of his or her own personal characteristics and
level of functioning.
Rogers taught that an important tool in human self-actualization is the
development of an image of oneself that develops from interactions with
important, significant people in one’s life.
Two important components of the self-concept are the:
1. The real self is one’s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and
abilities.
2. The ideal self is the perception of what one would like to be.
Conditional and unconditional positive regard:
Unconditional positive regard refers to valuing another person as having
intrinsic worth, regardless of the person’s behavior at the particular time. It is
giving positive regard without strings attached. Rogers believed that
unconditional positive regard, or love, affection, and respect with no strings
attached, is necessary for people to be able to explore fully all that they can
achieve and become.
Conditional positive regard is when you value a person only when that person’s
behavior meets certain expectations or standards. Some parents, spouses, and
friends give conditional positive regard, which is love, affection, respect, and
warmth that depend, or seem to depend, on doing what those people want.
Fully functioning person:
Fully functioning person is a person who is in touch with and trusting of their
deepest, innermost urges and feelings. Fully functioning people are in touch
with their own feelings and abilities and are able to trust their innermost urges
and intuitions. To become fully functioning, a person needs unconditional
positive regard.
Congruence:
A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life
and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a
person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.
Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar,
a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence
exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence.

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Humanistic theory is also very difficult to test scientifically. Little research
support exists for this viewpoint, which could be considered more a
philosophical view of human behavior than it is a psychological explanation. Its
greatest impact has been in the development of therapies designed to promote
self-growth and help people better understand themselves and others.
THE TRAIT THEORIES

GORDON ALLPORT: TRAIT THEORY

Trait theorists look within the personality to explain behavior; they endeavor to
describe the characteristics that make up human personality in an effort to
predict future behavior. They believe that personality consists of a distinctive
set of relatively stable or enduring characteristics or dispositions called traits.

A Hierarchy of Traits: Dr. Allport argued that personality traits are physical
entities embedded in the brain that come to influence our behavior; that the
traits are literally wired into the nervous system to guide one’s behavior across
many different situations and that each person’s constellation of traits are
unique. He also believed that traits are inherited but are also influenced by
experience. At the highest level of his hierarchy of traits are cardinal traits,
which are pervasive characteristics that influence a person’s behavior in most
situations.
Trait situation interaction: In which the particular circumstances of any given
situation are assumed to influence the way in which a trait is expressed. An
outgoing extravert, for example, might laugh, talk to strangers, and tell jokes at

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a party. That same person, if at a funeral, would still talk and be open, but the
jokes and laughter would be less likely to occur.
1. Cardinal Traits

For sure you have heard the words "Christ-like", "Freudian" and "Narcissist". The
origins and meanings of these traits are very easy to determine. A person may
be called "Christ-like" if he sacrifices his own good for the benefit of others.
Cardinal traits, therefore, are the ones that dominate the entirety of a person's
life such that a person carrying such trait may even become famous and have
their name become synonymous with these traits.

2. Central Traits

These are general characteristics that you use to describe another person are
called central traits. Examples include kind, sincere, cool and jolly.

3. Secondary Traits

These traits are those that only come out under certain situations. For example,
you become uneasy when a pop quiz is announced.

RAYMOND CATTELL: SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR

Raymond Cattell: Mapping the Personality He believed that there are two basic
levels of traits: Surface traits and Source traits.
Surface traits are personality traits that lie on the surface of ones personality
that can be gleaned from the observations of behavior.
Source traits are those traits at a deep level of personality that are not apparent
in observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships
among surface traits.
THE BIG FIVE
The Five-Factor Model refers to a model of personality traits that describes five
basic trait dimensions; a model that is the most widely adopted trait model of
personality in use today. The Five traits are: Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism or OCEAN:
Openness - Imaginative, curious vs. conforming, practical - People who like to
learn new things and enjoy new experiences usually score high in openness.
Openness includes traits like being insightful and imaginative and having a wide
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variety of interests. They also tend to have broad interests and to be curious,
imaginative and creative.
Extraversion- Outgoing, friendly vs. solitary, shy; People who prefer solitude
and dislike being the center of attention. Extraverts get their energy from
interacting with others, while introverts get their energy from within
themselves. Extraversion includes the traits of energetic, talkative, and assertive.
They tend to be higher overall job performers than introverts and that they are
also more likely to be attracted to jobs based on personal relationships, such as
sales and marketing positions.
Conscientiousness- Reliable, self-disciplined, vs. disorganized, unreliable, and
careless. The care a person gives to organization and thoughtfulness of others;
dependability.It refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses. People
who focus on relatively few goals at one time are likely to be organised,
systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, and self disciplined as they work to
pursue those goals. People that have a high degree of conscientiousness are
reliable and prompt. Traits include being organized, methodical, and thorough.
Agreeableness- Sensitive, concerned with other’s feelings and needs, vs. cold,
suspicious, hostile; Agreeableness refers to the basic emotional style of a
person. These individuals are friendly, cooperative, and compassionate. People
with low agreeableness may be more distant. Traits include being kind,
affectionate, and sympathetic. High agreeable people will be better able to
develop good working relationships with co-workers, subordinates, and higher
level managers, whereas less agreeable people will not have particularly good
working relationships.
Neuroticism -Prone to anxiety vs. being relaxed - Neuroticism is also sometimes
called Emotional Stability. This dimension relates to one’s emotional stability
and degree of negative emotions. People that score high on neuroticism often
experience emotional instability and negative emotions. Traits include being
moody and tense. People that score high on neuroticism often experience
emotional instability and negative emotions.
Costa and McCrae (2000) have recently revised their original Neuroticism/
Extraversion/Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), which is based on the
five factor model of personality traits.

THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF PERSONALITY

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Learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging,
memory, and imitation of models. Social cognitive learning theorists emphasize
the importance of both the influences of other people’s behaviour and of a
person’s own expectancies of learning. In the social cognitive view, behaviour
is governed not just by the influence of external stimuli and response patterns
but also by cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging, and memory as
well as learning through the imitation of models.
BANDURA’S RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM AND SELF-EFFICACY
One of the more well-researched learning theories that include the concept of
cognitive processes as influences on behaviour is the social cognitive theory of
Albert Bandura. In the social cognitive view, behaviour is governed not just by
the influence of external stimuli and response patterns but also by cognitive
processes such as anticipating, judging, and memory as well as learning through
the imitation of models.
This theory emphasizes the influence of a person’s cognitions-thoughts, feelings,
expectations, and values-as well as observation of others’ behaviour, in
determining personality.
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: Bandura (1989) believes that three factors influence
one another in determining the patterns of behaviour that make up personality:
the environment, the behaviour itself, and personal or cognitive factors that
the person brings into the situation from earlier experiences. These three
factors each affect the other two in a reciprocal, or give-and-take, relationship.
Bandura calls this relationship reciprocal determinism.
Eg: Richard walks into a classroom filled with other students, but no teacher is
present at this time. (This is the environment.) Part of Richard’s personal
characteristics includes the desire to have attention from other people by talking
loudly and telling jokes, which has been very rewarding to him in the past (past
reinforcements are part of his cognitive processes, or expectancies of future
rewards for his behaviour). Also in the past, he has found that he gets more
attention when an authority figure is not present. His behaviour will most likely
be to start talking and telling jokes, which will continue if he gets the reaction he
expects from his fellow students. If the teacher walks in (the environment
changes),his behaviour will change. If the other students don’t laugh, his
behaviour will change. In the future Richard might be less likely to behave in the
same way because his expectations for reward (a cognitive element of his
personal variables) are different.

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SELF-EFFICACY: Belief in one’s personal capabilities. Self efficacy underlies people’s
faith in their ability to carry out a particular behaviour or produce a desired
outcome.
People’s sense of self-efficacy can be high or low, depending on what has
happened in similar circumstances in the past (success or failure),what other
people tell them about their competence, and their own assessment of their
abilities. For example, if Fiona has an opportunity to write an extra-credit paper
to improve her grade in psychology, she will be more likely to do so if her self-
efficacy is high: She has gotten good grades on such papers in the past; her
teachers have told her that she writes well, and she knows she can write a good
paper. According to Bandura, people high in self-efficacy are more persistent
and expect to succeed, whereas people low in self-efficacy expect to fail and
tend to avoid challenges.
ROTTER’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: EXPECTANCIES
Julian Rotter devised a theory based on a basic principle of motivation derived
from Thorndike’s law of effect: People are motivated to seek reinforcement and
avoid punishment. He viewed personality as a relatively stable set of potential
responses to various situations. If in the past, a certain way of responding led to
a reinforcing or pleasurable consequence, that way of responding would
become a pattern of responding, or part of the “personality” as learning
theorists see it.
One very important pattern of responding in Rotter’s view became his concept
of locus of control, the tendency for people to assume that they either have
control or do not have control over events and consequences in their lives.
People who assume that their own actions and decisions directly affect the
consequences they experience are said to be internal in locus of control,
whereas people who assume that their lives are more controlled by powerful
others, luck, or fate are external in locus of control.
Rotter associated people high in internal locus of control with the personality
characteristics of high achievement motivation (the will to succeed in any
attempted task). Those who give up too quickly or who attribute events in their
lives to external causes can fall into patterns of learned helplessness and
depression.
Like Bandura, Rotter also believed that an interaction of factors would
determine the behavioural patterns that become personality for an individual.

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For Rotter, there are two key factors influencing a person’s decision to act in a
certain way given a particular situation: expectancy and reinforcement value.
Expectancy is fairly similar to Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy in that it refers
to the person’s subjective feeling that a particular behaviour will lead to a
reinforcing consequence. A high expectancy for success is similar to a high sense
of self-efficacy and is also based on past experiences with successes and failures.
SKINNER’S BEHAVIOURISM
The classic theory does not take mental processes into account when explaining
behaviour, nor does it give weight to social influences on learning. For the
behaviourist, personality is nothing more than a set of learned responses or
habits. In the strictest traditional view of Watson and skinner, everything a
person or animal does is a response to some environmental stimulus that has
been reinforced or strengthened by reward in some way.
Think about how a traditional behaviourist might explain a shy personality.
Beginning in childhood, a person might be exposed to a parent with a rather
harsh discipline style (stimulus). Avoiding the attention of that parent would
result in fewer punishments and scoldings, so that avoidance response is
negatively reinforced—the “bad thing” or punishment is avoided by keeping out
of sight and quiet. Later, that child might generalize that avoidance response to
other authority figures and adults, such as teachers. In this way, a pattern (habit)
of shyness would develop. Of course, many learning theorists today do not use
only classical and

MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
1. QUESTIONNAIRES
Personality inventory: Standard list of questions, often with “yes/true” or “no/
false” answers, typically more objective and reliable, many have validity and
reliability scales built in; problems—still able to provide false answers and,
although difficult, can “fake bad” or “fake good”.
Paper and pencil or computerized test that consists of statements that require
a specific, standardized response from the person taking the test. The standard
nature of the questions (everyone gets the same list) and the lack of open-
ended answers make these assessments far more objective and reliable than
projective tests, although they are still a form of self report.
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
This inventory is based on the ideas of Carl Jung and looks at four personality
dimensions.
The sensing/intuition (S/I): This dimension includes people who prefer to rely
on what they can see, hear, and so on through their own physical senses
(sensing) and, on its opposite end, those who look for patterns and trust their
hunches (intuition). Sensing people are very detail oriented, preferring to work
only with the known facts, whereas intuitive people are more willing to use
metaphors, analogies, and look for possibilities.
The thinking/feeling (T/F): Dimension runs from those who prefer to use logic,
analysis, and experiences that can be verified as facts (thinkers) to those who
tend to make decisions based on their personal values and emotional reactions
(feeling).
Introversion/ extraversion (I/E) is the same classic dimension that began with
Jung and is represented in nearly every personality theory, including the Big
Five.
Perceiving/judging (P/J) describes those who are willing to adapt and modify
decisions, be spontaneous, and who are naturally curious and tend to put off
making a final decision so that all possibilities are covered (perceiving) as well as
those who are the opposite: the action-oriented, decisive, get-the-task-done-
and-don’t-look-back type (judging).These four dimensions can differ for each
individual, resulting in 16 (4 ×4) possible personality types: ISTJ,ISTP, ISFP, ISFJ,
and so on.
The MMPI-2( Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Version II)
By far the most common personality inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory, Version II, or MMPI-2, which specifically tests for
abnormal behaviour patterns in personality. This questionnaire consists of 567
statements such as “I am often very tense” or “I believe I am being plotted
against.”The person taking the test must answer “true,” “false,” or “cannot
say.”The MMPI has 10 clinical scales and 8 validity scales in addition to
numerous subscales. Each scale tests for a particular kind of behaviour. The
behaviour patterns include relatively mild personality problems such as
excessive worrying and shyness as well as more-serious disorders such as
schizophrenia and depression.
Validity scales, which are built into any well-designed psychological inventory,
are intended to indicate whether or not a person taking the inventory is
responding honestly. Responses to certain items on the test will indicate if

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people are trying to make themselves look better or worse than they are, for
example, and certain items are repeated throughout the test in a slightly
different form, so that anyone trying to “fake” the test will have difficultly
responding to those items consistently. For example, if one of the statements is
“I am always happy” and a person responds “true” to that statement, the
suspicion would be that this person is trying to look better than he or she really
is. If several of the validity scale questions are answered in this way, the
conclusion is that the person is not being honest.
Other common personality tests include the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire,
the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II , the California Psychological Inventory and
the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire.
Problems with personality inventories: .The validity scales, for example, are a
good check against cheating, but they are not perfect. Some people are still able
to fake their answers and respond in what they feel are the socially appropriate
ways. Other problems have to do with human nature itself: Some people may
develop a habit of picking a particular answer rather than carefully considering
the statement, whereas others may simply grow tired of responding to all those
statements and start picking answers at random.

2. RATING SCALE
Assessment in which a numerical value is assigned to specific behaviour that is
listed in the scale. In a rating scale, a numerical rating is assigned, either by the
assessor or the client, for specific behaviours. Educators make use of both rating
scales to diagnose behavioural problems such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) and aspects of personality such as social-skill level through the
various grade levels. Problems with these assessments can include the observer
effect (when a person’s behaviour is affected by being watched) and observer
bias, which can be controlled by having multiple observers and correlating their
observations with each other.
3. PROJECTIVE TESTS
Projection is a defense mechanism involving placing, or “projecting”, one’s own
unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts actually belonged to
those others and not to oneself.
Projective tests are personality assessments that present ambiguous visual
stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind.
The hope is that the client will project those unconscious concerns and fears
onto the visual stimulus, revealing them to the analyst. Although such tests can

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be used to explore one’s personality, they are most commonly used as a
diagnostic tool to uncover problems in personality.

THE RORSCHACH INKBLOTS

One of the more well known projective tests is the Rorschach inkblot test,
developed in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (ROR-shok). There
are 10 inkblots, five in black ink on a white background and five in coloured inks
on a white background.
People being tested are asked to look at each inkblot and simply say whatever it
might look like to them. Using predetermined categories and responses
commonly given by people to each picture, psychologists score responses on key
factors, such as reference to colour, shape, figures seen in the blot, and
response to the whole or to details.
Rorschach tested thousands of inkblots until he narrowed them down to the 10
in use today. They are still frequently used to describe personality, diagnose
mental disorders, and predict behaviour.
THE TAT

First developed in 1935 by psychologist Henry Murray and his colleagues, the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 20 pictures, all black and white,
that are shown to a client. The client is asked to tell a story about the person or
people in the picture, who are all deliberately drawn in ambiguous situations.
The story developed by the client is interpreted by the psychologist, who looks
for revealing statements and projection of the client’s own problems onto the
people in the pictures. The examiner then scores the test based on the needs,
motivations and anxieties of the main character as well as how the story
eventually turns out.
Problems with projective tests: Projective tests are by their nature very
subjective (valid only within the person’s own perception), and interpreting the
answers of clients is almost an art. It is certainly not a science and is not known
for its accuracy. Problems lie in the areas of reliability and validity. Projective
tests, with no standard grading scales, have both low reliability and low validity.
A person’s answers to the Rorschach, for example, might be quite different from
one day to the next, depending on the person’s mood.

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