SECTION A: (Each question carries 1 mark but explained like 3 marks)

Q. What is a System Call?

A system call is a mechanism that allows user-level programs to request services from the
operating system's kernel. Since user programs typically run in a restricted environment (user
mode), they cannot directly access hardware or critical resources (such as file systems, memory
management, or process control). To interact with the system resources, they need to switch to
kernel mode through system calls.

Q. What is Hit Ratio?

Hit Ratio is a performance metric used in caching systems to measure how often requested data is
found in the cache. It represents the proportion of cache "hits" (when the data is successfully
retrieved from the cache) to the total number of data access attempts (hits + misses).

Formula:

Hit Ratio=Number of Cache Hits/Total Accesses (Hits + Misses)

Example:

• If a cache system is accessed 100 times, and the data is found in the cache 80 times, the hit
ratio is 80100=0.8\frac{80}{100} = 0.810080=0.8 or 80%.

Why It’s Important:

A higher hit ratio indicates better cache performance, as more data is retrieved from the cache
rather than the slower main memory or storage.

Q.What is Dual Mode Operation?

Dual Mode Operation is a feature in modern computer systems that enables the operating system
to protect critical resources and ensure system stability by running in two distinct modes:

1. User Mode:

o In this mode, user applications are executed.

o The CPU has limited access to hardware resources to prevent errors or malicious
actions from harming the system.

o If a program needs to access protected resources (like memory or I/O devices), it

must request this via a system call to switch to kernel mode.

2. Kernel Mode:

o The operating system runs in this privileged mode with full access to hardware
resources.

o It handles tasks like process management, memory allocation, and I/O operations.

Importance:

Dual mode operation helps protect the system by distinguishing between trusted (kernel) and
untrusted (user) operations, preventing user programs from performing unauthorized actions that
could crash or harm the system
Q.Benefits of Multithreading

Multithreading allows a program to execute multiple threads (smaller, independent tasks)

concurrently, leading to several key benefits:

1. Increased Efficiency:

o Threads can share the same memory space, reducing the overhead associated with
creating and managing multiple processes. This leads to better CPU utilization.

2. Faster Execution:

o By executing multiple threads in parallel, especially on multi-core processors, tasks

can be completed more quickly compared to executing them sequentially.

3. Improved Responsiveness:

o In interactive applications (like GUIs), multithreading allows the system to remain

responsive by performing background tasks (e.g., file loading) while still interacting
with the user.

Overall, multithreading enhances performance and responsiveness, making it ideal for

multitasking environments.

Q. What is Mutual Exclusion?

Mutual Exclusion is a concept used in concurrent programming to prevent multiple processes or

threads from accessing a shared resource (like a file, memory, or variable) at the same time. It
ensures that only one process or thread can use the critical section (the part of the program where
shared resources are accessed) at any given moment.

Why It's Important:

• It avoids race conditions, where the outcome of a program depends on the order of
execution of threads.

• It ensures data consistency and prevents conflicts when multiple threads try to modify
shared data simultaneously.

Example:

In a banking system, mutual exclusion ensures that when one process is updating an account
balance, no other process can read or write to that balance until the update is complete.

Q. What is a Critical Section?

A Critical Section is a part of a program where shared resources (such as variables, files, or
memory) are accessed by multiple processes or threads. Since these resources are shared, the
critical section must be executed in such a way that only one process or thread uses it at a time to
avoid conflicts.

Key Features:

• Exclusive Access: Only one thread or process can execute the critical section at a time to
ensure data consistency.
 • Potential for Problems: Without proper synchronization (like using locks or semaphores),
multiple threads might enter the critical section simultaneously, leading to issues like race
conditions.

Example:

If two threads try to update a shared bank account balance simultaneously, one update could
overwrite the other, causing incorrect results. A critical section ensures that the updates happen
one after the other.

Q. What is Spooling?

Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operations On-Line) is a process where data is temporarily

stored in a buffer or disk to be processed by a device at a later time. It allows slower devices, like
printers, to work efficiently by queuing multiple tasks in a buffer and processing them one by one.

How It Works:

• The CPU sends multiple print jobs to a spool (temporary storage).

• The printer then accesses the spool at its own pace and prints the jobs in order, without
holding up the CPU.

Benefits:

• Efficient resource utilization: The CPU can continue working on other tasks while the
printer processes queued jobs.

• Job management: Allows multiple tasks (like print requests) to be organized and executed
smoothly.

This is commonly used in printing, where several print requests can be spooled and handled by the
printer sequentially.

Q. What is an Operating System (OS)?

An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources and provides common services for computer programs. It acts as an intermediary
between the user and the hardware, making it easier to execute programs and manage tasks. The
OS handles essential functions like process management, memory management, file systems, and
I/O operations, allowing users to interact with the computer in a user-friendly manner.

Evolution of Operating Systems

The development of operating systems can be categorized into distinct phases, from simple
systems to the sophisticated, multi-functional operating systems we use today.

1. Early Operating Systems (1950s)

• Batch Processing Systems:

o The earliest operating systems were batch processing systems, designed to run a
series of jobs in a queue without user interaction. Programs (jobs) were prepared
on punch cards and submitted to the computer for sequential execution.
 o Example: IBM's early systems.

o Limitations: No interactivity, no multi-tasking, and manual job scheduling.

2. Simple Batch Systems (1960s)

• Introduction of Monitors and Supervisors:

o The evolution of batch systems introduced simple monitors or supervisors,

programs that controlled the sequence of jobs.

o These systems began to automate job sequencing, allowing the CPU to process
jobs in batches without constant human intervention.

o Example: IBM OS/360.

o Limitations: Still no multi-tasking or user interaction.

3. Multiprogramming Systems (1960s-1970s)

• Introduction of Multiprogramming:

o In multiprogramming, the OS keeps multiple jobs in memory simultaneously and

switches between them to maximize CPU utilization. While one job waits for I/O,
the CPU can work on another.

o Advancements:

▪ Reduced CPU idle time.

▪ Enhanced system efficiency by managing multiple tasks.

o Example: IBM OS/360 with multiprogramming capability.

4. Time-Sharing Systems (1970s)

• Interactive Systems:

o Time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to interact with the computer

simultaneously by dividing the CPU time into small slices (time slices). This created
the illusion that each user had their own machine.

o These systems made computing more interactive, allowing multiple terminals to be

connected to a single mainframe.

o Example: UNIX.

o Benefits:

▪ Multi-user environment.

▪ Real-time interaction with computers.

5. Personal Computing (1980s)

• Introduction of Personal Operating Systems:

o With the rise of personal computers (PCs) like the Apple II and IBM PC, there was a
shift towards OSs designed for single-user machines.

o Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating System) and Mac OS emerged as the first operating
systems for personal use.

o Advancements:

▪ Single-tasking systems designed for personal, rather than shared,

computing.

▪ User-friendly interfaces, but still command-line based.

o Limitations: Limited multitasking and graphical user interfaces.

6. Graphical User Interface (GUI) (1980s-1990s)

• Introduction of GUI:

o The development of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) made operating systems far
more accessible by allowing users to interact with the system through visual
elements like windows, icons, and menus rather than text-based commands.

o Examples:

▪ Windows: Microsoft introduced Windows 1.0 (1985), evolving into the

hugely popular Windows 95 and subsequent versions.

▪ Mac OS: Apple introduced the Macintosh in 1984 with a GUI-based OS.

o Advancements:

▪ Easier interaction via mouse and icons.

▪ User-friendly desktop environments.

7. Modern Operating Systems (2000s - Present)

• Multi-Tasking, Networking, and Security:

o Modern OSs support preemptive multitasking, where the OS can interrupt and
manage multiple processes efficiently, along with networking capabilities, allowing
multiple devices to communicate and share resources.

o Enhanced security features like user permissions, encryption, and firewalls became
standard to protect against modern threats.

o Popular Modern OSs:

 ▪ Windows 10/11: A popular OS for personal computers with a user-friendly
interface, wide software support, and robust security features.

▪ macOS: Known for its sleek design, integration with Apple’s ecosystem, and
security.

▪ Linux: Open-source and used extensively for servers, cloud computing, and
even personal desktops with distributions like Ubuntu and Fedora.

▪ Android: Based on Linux, it’s the dominant OS for smartphones and

tablets.

▪ iOS: Apple’s mobile operating system known for its security and
optimization for Apple hardware.

8. Mobile Operating Systems (2000s - Present)

• Rise of Mobile OSs:

o As smartphones and tablets became widely adopted, OSs optimized for mobile
devices emerged, focused on touch-based interfaces, mobility, and app
ecosystems.

o Examples:

▪ Android: An open-source OS used in most smartphones today.

▪ iOS: Apple’s mobile operating system known for its smooth user
experience and strict app ecosystem.

o Advancements:

▪ Touchscreen support, mobile-specific UI/UX, app stores.

▪ Focus on power efficiency and battery management.

Key Features of Modern Operating Systems

1. Multitasking and Multi-threading:

o Ability to run multiple processes or threads simultaneously, improving overall

efficiency.

2. Security:

o Features like user authentication, encryption, and access control to protect system
integrity.

3. Networking:

o Supports connectivity and resource sharing between devices over the internet or
local networks.

4. Virtualization:
 o Allows the creation of virtual machines, enabling multiple OSs to run on the same
physical machine.

5. User Interface (UI):

o Intuitive graphical interfaces that provide easy access to system functionalities.

Conclusion

Operating systems have evolved from simple batch processing systems to complex, multitasking,
multi-user systems with graphical user interfaces. Today’s popular OSs like Windows, macOS,
Linux, Android, and iOS are feature-rich, focusing on multitasking, security, networking, and user-
friendliness, reflecting the needs of modern computing environments ranging from personal
computers to mobile devices. The evolution of OSs continues with trends like cloud computing, AI
integration, and edge computing, shaping the future of how we interact with technology.

Q.

1a. What is a RAG?

A Resource Allocation Graph (RAG) is a graphical representation used to describe the state of a
system with respect to resource allocation in operating systems. In this graph:

• Processes are represented as circles (nodes).

• Resources are represented as squares (nodes).

• Edges represent allocation or requests:

o A directed edge from a process to a resource shows a request.

o A directed edge from a resource to a process shows that the resource is allocated to
that process.

If the graph has no cycles, no deadlock exists. However, a cycle may indicate the possibility of
deadlock.

1b. Define starvation.

Starvation in operating systems occurs when a process is perpetually denied access to necessary
resources. This can happen in scheduling algorithms where higher-priority processes continuously
prevent lower-priority ones from executing. In other words, a process waits indefinitely, unable to
execute because other processes are continuously given preference.

1c. What do you mean by deadlock?

A deadlock is a situation in which a group of processes are stuck in a state where each process is
waiting for a resource that another process in the group holds, leading to a cycle of dependencies.
None of the processes can proceed, and all are blocked.

For a deadlock to occur, four key conditions must hold simultaneously:

1. Mutual Exclusion:

o At least one resource must be held in a non-shareable mode, meaning only one
process can use the resource at a time. If another process requests the resource, it
must wait.

2. Hold and Wait:

o A process is holding at least one resource while waiting to acquire additional

resources that are currently being held by other processes.

3. No Preemption:

o Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process. They must be released
voluntarily by the holding process.

4. Circular Wait:

o A set of processes form a circular chain where each process is waiting for a resource
held by the next process in the chain.

These four conditions together result in a deadlock situation, where none of the processes can
proceed.

1d. What do you mean by context switch?

A context switch is the process where the operating system saves the state (context) of a currently
running process and restores the state of another process. It occurs during multitasking when the
CPU switches between processes. The saved state includes register values, program counters, and
memory information. Context switching is essential for time-sharing in OS but incurs overhead.

1e. What are the characteristics of deadlock?

The characteristics of deadlock are derived from the four necessary conditions for its occurrence:

1. Mutual Exclusion: Resources are non-shareable.

2. Hold and Wait: Processes hold allocated resources while waiting for others.

3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken from a process.

4. Circular Wait: There exists a circular chain of processes, each waiting for a resource held by
the next.

2a. What do you mean by a real-time operating system? Explain details about each of its types
with an appropriate example.

A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is designed to serve real-time applications that process data
as it comes in, typically without buffer delays. These systems ensure that responses to inputs are
made within strict time constraints. If a system doesn’t meet these timing constraints, it could result
in system failure. Real-time systems are crucial in applications where timing and precision are vital,
such as in aviation, medical devices, and industrial control systems.

RTOS are generally classified into two main types:

1. Hard Real-Time Systems:

o Definition: In hard real-time systems, completing tasks within a defined time frame
is critical, and missing deadlines can lead to catastrophic consequences.

o Example: An aircraft autopilot system. If the autopilot system doesn’t respond to

sensor input within milliseconds, the plane’s stability and passengers’ safety could be
compromised.

o Use Cases: Medical devices like pacemakers, industrial robotics, nuclear power
plants.

2. Soft Real-Time Systems:

o Definition: Soft real-time systems are more flexible. Missing a deadline may not
result in system failure but could degrade the quality of the system's output.

o Example: Video streaming systems. If frames are delayed, it might result in slight
lags, but the video will still play.

o Use Cases: Multimedia systems, online transaction systems, mobile communications.

Key Differences Between Hard and Soft Real-Time Systems:

• Hard systems have stringent deadlines, and failure is critical.

• Soft systems allow some leniency in meeting deadlines.

2b. What is PCB? Discuss PLC in detail.

A Process Control Block (PCB) is a data structure in the operating system that contains information
about a specific process. Every process is assigned a PCB, which the OS uses to track process
execution.

The PCB typically contains the following information:

1. Process ID (PID): A unique identifier assigned to each process.

2. Process State: The current state of the process (new, ready, running, waiting, terminated).

3. Program Counter: The address of the next instruction that the process will execute.

4. CPU Registers: Values of the CPU’s registers for the process.

5. Memory Management Information: Information about the process’s memory allocation

(page tables, base and limit registers).

6. I/O Status Information: Information on the I/O devices allocated to the process.

7. Accounting Information: Data on CPU usage, process execution time, and process priority.
Process Lifecycle (PLC)

The Process Lifecycle (PLC) consists of the following stages:

1. New: When a process is first created.

2. Ready: After creation, the process is moved to the ready queue, waiting for CPU allocation.

3. Running: The process is assigned the CPU and is actively executing instructions.

4. Waiting: If the process needs to wait for a resource (like I/O), it moves to the waiting state.

5. Terminated: After the process finishes execution, it is terminated and removed from
memory.

A context switch occurs when the CPU transitions from one process to another. During this, the
process’s state is saved in its PCB, allowing it to resume execution from the point where it was
interrupted.

2c. Describe the difference among short-term, medium-term, and long-term scheduling.

In operating systems, scheduling determines the order in which processes are executed. There are
three types of scheduling based on how long a process remains in a queue and its state:

1. Short-Term Scheduling:

o Purpose: Determines which process in the ready queue should be executed next by
the CPU.

o Function: Occurs frequently, as the CPU needs to assign processes as soon as it

becomes idle.

o Example: Round Robin, FCFS, and SJF are commonly used in short-term scheduling.

o Timeframe: Short-term decisions are made in milliseconds or microseconds.

2. Medium-Term Scheduling:

o Purpose: Temporarily removes processes from memory (also called swapping),

reducing the degree of multiprogramming.

o Function: Deals with processes that have been waiting for a long time (I/O
completion, memory swap-in) and places them back into the ready queue when
appropriate.

o Example: If too many processes are running, some can be swapped out to disk until
more memory becomes available.

o Timeframe: Medium-term scheduling occurs less frequently compared to short-term

scheduling.

3. Long-Term Scheduling:

o Purpose: Controls the admission of new processes into the system.

 o Function: Determines the number of processes in memory at a given time, which
influences the degree of multiprogramming.

o Example: A batch system might decide to load only a certain number of jobs into
memory to maintain system performance.

o Timeframe: Long-term scheduling happens at longer intervals (e.g., several seconds

or minutes).

2d. Differentiate between multilevel queue and multilevel feedback queue scheduling.

1. Multilevel Queue Scheduling:

o Structure: The system is divided into multiple fixed queues, and each queue has its
own scheduling policy. Processes are permanently assigned to one queue based on
their type (e.g., system processes, interactive processes, batch jobs).

o No Movement: Once a process is assigned to a queue, it cannot move to another

queue. Different queues may have different priorities (e.g., system jobs might have
higher priority than user jobs).

o Example: A system where processes are divided into foreground (high priority, short
bursts) and background jobs (low priority, long bursts), each with its own scheduling
algorithm.

o Use Case: Where different categories of jobs are clearly separable.

2. Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling:

o Structure: Similar to multilevel queues but allows processes to move between

queues based on their execution history and behavior.

o Feedback Mechanism: A process that consumes too much CPU time might be
demoted to a lower-priority queue, while shorter processes may be promoted to
higher-priority queues. This system ensures a balance between high-priority tasks
and fair treatment of all processes.

o Flexibility: Provides more flexibility by dynamically adjusting process priority based

on their needs.

o Example: A long-running background job might start in a high-priority queue, but if it

uses up too much time, it can be demoted to a lower-priority queue.

o Use Case: Systems where you need to adaptively manage process priorities based on
their actual CPU usage.

2e. CPU Scheduling Problem (Solution)

We need to calculate the average turnaround time, waiting time, and response time for the
following scheduling algorithms:

1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS),

2. Shortest Job First (SJF),

 3. Shortest Remaining Time (SRT),

4. Priority Scheduling.

Given:

Process Arrival Time Burst Time Priority

P₀ 0 4 1

P₁ 1 3 2

P₂ 2 7 1

P₃ 3 5 3

1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)

Processes are executed in the order of their arrival.

Arrival Burst Start Completion Turnaround Waiting Time Response Time

Process
Time Time Time Time Time (CT - AT) (TAT - BT) (Start Time - AT)

P₀ 0 4 0 4 4 0 0

P₁ 1 3 4 7 6 3 3

P₂ 2 7 7 14 12 5 5

P₃ 3 5 14 19 16 11 11

• Average Turnaround Time = (4 + 6 + 12 + 16) / 4 = 9.5 ms

• Average Waiting Time = (0 + 3 + 5 + 11) / 4 = 4.75 ms

• Average Response Time = (0 + 3 + 5 + 11) / 4 = 4.75 ms

2. Shortest Job First (SJF) – Non-Preemptive

Shortest burst time is selected next.

Arrival Burst Start Completion Turnaround Waiting Time Response Time

Process
Time Time Time Time Time (CT - AT) (TAT - BT) (Start Time - AT)

P₀ 0 4 0 4 4 0 0

P₁ 1 3 4 7 6 3 3

P₃ 3 5 7 12 9 4 4

P₂ 2 7 12 19 17 10 10

• Average Turnaround Time = (4 + 6 + 9 + 17) / 4 = 9 ms

• Average Waiting Time = (0 + 3 + 4 + 10) / 4 = 4.25 ms

 • Average Response Time = (0 + 3 + 4 + 10) / 4 = 4.25 ms

3. Shortest Remaining Time (SRT)

This is a preemptive version of SJF where the process with the least remaining time is executed next.

Process Arrival Time Burst Time Completion Time Turnaround Time Waiting Time Response Time

P₀ 0 4 4 4 0 0

P₁ 1 3 7 6 3 3

P₂ 2 7 19 17 10 10

P₃ 3 5 12 9 4 4

• Average Turnaround Time = (4 + 6 + 17 + 9) / 4 = 9 ms

• Average Waiting Time = (0 + 3 + 10 + 4) / 4 = 4.25 ms

• Average Response Time = (0 + 3 + 10 + 4) / 4 = 4.25 ms

4. Priority Scheduling

Processes are executed based on priority (lower priority number = higher priority).

Arrival Burst Start Completion Turnaround Waiting Response

Process Priority
Time Time Time Time Time Time Time

P₀ 0 4 1 0 4 4 0 0

P₂ 2 7 1 4 11 9 2 2

P₁ 1 3 2 11 14 13 10 10

P₃ 3 5 3 14 19 16 11 11

• Average Turnaround Time = (4 + 9 + 13 + 16) / 4 = 10.5 ms

• Average Waiting Time = (0 + 2 + 10 + 11) / 4 = 5.75 ms

• Average Response Time = (0 + 2 + 10 + 11) / 4 = 5.75 ms

2f. What is an interrupt? Explain details about types of interrupt.

An interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that
needs immediate attention. It temporarily halts the CPU’s current activities, saves its state, and
transfers control to a predefined interrupt handler or service routine to address the event. Once the
interrupt is handled, the CPU resumes its previous tasks from where it was interrupted.

How Interrupts Work

1. Interrupt Generation: An interrupt is generated by either hardware or software when an

event occurs that requires immediate attention.
 2. Interrupt Handling: The CPU detects the interrupt, suspends its current activities, saves the
execution context (such as the program counter, registers, etc.), and invokes an appropriate
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) to handle the interrupt.

3. Resuming Operations: After the ISR has completed its task, the CPU restores the saved state
and continues with the interrupted task.

Interrupts play a crucial role in improving the efficiency of a system by allowing the CPU to manage
multiple tasks effectively without constantly polling devices or checking for input/output (I/O)
operations.

Types of Interrupts

Interrupts can broadly be categorized into hardware interrupts and software interrupts. These are
further classified into different types based on the source of the interrupt.

1. Hardware Interrupts

Hardware interrupts are generated by external hardware devices, which require the attention of the
CPU. The CPU halts its current execution and attends to the interrupt by invoking the appropriate ISR.

There are two types of hardware interrupts:

a. Maskable Interrupt

• Definition: A maskable interrupt can be delayed or ignored by the CPU if it is not ready to
handle the interrupt. These interrupts are usually lower priority and can be temporarily
"masked" or disabled.

• Example: I/O device interrupts (e.g., when a disk drive is ready to transfer data).

• Use Case: Maskable interrupts are used when it’s not critical to service the interrupt
immediately, such as in a system where data is being transferred from an I/O device.

b. Non-Maskable Interrupt (NMI)

• Definition: A non-maskable interrupt is one that the CPU must handle immediately, and it
cannot be ignored. These interrupts are critical and often indicate severe hardware failures
or important system events.

• Example: Power failure signals or memory parity errors.

• Use Case: NMIs are used in situations where the system must respond to the interrupt
immediately to prevent damage, such as when a power failure is detected, requiring the
system to initiate a shutdown sequence.

Key Differences:

• Maskable interrupts can be disabled by the CPU, but NMIs cannot.

• NMIs have higher priority and are more urgent.

2. Software Interrupts

Software interrupts are generated by executing a special instruction in the software (often called a
system call) that triggers an interrupt in the CPU. They are generally used for communication
between user programs and the operating system.

a. System Calls

• Definition: A system call is a request made by a program for a service provided by the
operating system, such as file management, process control, or device management.

• Example: open(), read(), write() system calls in an operating system.

• Use Case: A program may use a system call to request the OS to read data from a file. This
initiates a software interrupt to switch the CPU to kernel mode to handle the request.

b. Traps/Exceptions

• Definition: Traps or exceptions are software-generated interrupts that occur when an error
or specific condition is detected during program execution. These can be intentional or
unintentional.

• Example: Division by zero, invalid memory access (segmentation fault).

• Use Case: When a program attempts to divide by zero, the CPU raises a trap, halts execution,
and invokes the appropriate interrupt handler to address the error.

3. Classification of Interrupts Based on Event Type

Apart from the source of interrupts (hardware vs. software), interrupts can also be classified based
on the type of event they represent:

a. I/O Interrupts

• Definition: These interrupts occur when an input/output (I/O) operation is completed,

signaling that the CPU needs to process data.

• Example: A printer interrupting the CPU when it finishes printing a document.

• Use Case: I/O interrupts allow the CPU to perform other tasks while waiting for data from
I/O devices, improving system efficiency.

b. Timer Interrupts

• Definition: A timer interrupt is triggered by an internal system timer to indicate that a

specific amount of time has passed. This is often used for multitasking and process
scheduling.

• Example: In round-robin scheduling, a timer interrupt occurs periodically to switch between

tasks.

• Use Case: Timer interrupts are critical for maintaining system performance by ensuring that
the CPU switches between processes and handles tasks at regular intervals.

c. Power Failure Interrupts

 • Definition: These interrupts occur when a power failure is detected, prompting the system to
initiate an emergency shutdown or data-saving process.

• Example: The system receiving a signal that power is about to be lost and saving all unsaved
work.

• Use Case: Used in real-time systems and mission-critical applications where data loss could
be disastrous, ensuring minimal damage in case of a power outage.

d. Program Interrupts

• Definition: These are interrupts generated by errors or specific conditions in a running

program.

• Example: Division by zero or illegal memory access.

• Use Case: Program interrupts ensure the system handles errors gracefully by stopping the
erroneous program and preventing it from crashing the system.

4. Interrupt Handling Mechanism

The interrupt handling mechanism involves the following steps:

1. Interrupt Signal Detection: The CPU detects the interrupt signal sent by hardware or
software.

2. Saving the Current State: The CPU saves the current state (program counter, registers, etc.)
so that it can resume its work after handling the interrupt.

3. Invoking the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR): The CPU transfers control to a predefined ISR
based on the type of interrupt.

4. Handling the Interrupt: The ISR performs necessary operations (such as reading data from
an I/O device or processing an error) and clears the interrupt.

5. Restoring the CPU State: After the ISR has handled the interrupt, the CPU restores the saved
state and resumes the interrupted task.

5. Prioritization of Interrupts

In modern systems, there are often multiple interrupts occurring at the same time. To handle this,
interrupts are assigned priorities. Higher-priority interrupts can preempt lower-priority ones.

• Interrupt Priority: Each interrupt is assigned a priority level, and the CPU handles higher-
priority interrupts before lower-priority ones.

• Nested Interrupts: If an interrupt is triggered while another interrupt is being processed, the
new interrupt will be handled only if it has a higher priority than the current one.

6. Advantages of Interrupts
 • Efficient CPU Utilization: Interrupts allow the CPU to be more efficient by not wasting time
polling devices or waiting for events.

• Multitasking: Interrupts allow the CPU to switch between different tasks, improving
multitasking capabilities.

• Immediate Attention: Critical events can be handled immediately, ensuring the system
responds promptly to time-sensitive tasks (e.g., power failures).

7. Disadvantages of Interrupts

• Overhead: Handling an interrupt involves context switching, which adds overhead and can
slow down system performance.

• Complexity: Managing multiple interrupts, especially in systems with high interrupt

frequency, can be complex and requires careful design of the interrupt handling
mechanisms.

• Interrupt Latency: There is always some delay (latency) between when the interrupt occurs
and when it is serviced, which can be problematic in time-critical applications.

Conclusion

Interrupts are essential in modern computer systems, enabling efficient CPU management and real-
time responses to critical events. They allow a system to handle multiple tasks and events
simultaneously by temporarily suspending ongoing processes and attending to more urgent tasks.
However, careful management is required to ensure that the interrupt system doesn’t negatively
impact performance or cause excessive latency.