Lecture 5 Radiation Anomalies

2024 Radiometric Prospecting Method
Lecture 5: Radiometric Anomalies and Measurements
5.1 Data Acquisition:
5.1.1 Portable gamma ray spectrometers
For field measurements, with a surface portable gamma ray spectrometer, the detector may be carried
in a backpack, but it is usually placed on the ground surface during the measurement. The height of
the detector above ground affects the size of the sample volume. In any case, the measurement
method should be consistent so that changes in geometry do not change the results. Depending on the
objective of the survey, measurements may be made at a regular spacing along a survey line, or on a
regular grid, or as spot measurements on sources of interest such as in situ assays on rock outcrops.
Often in this case, a scintillometer is first used to quickly scan the outcrop for homogeneity, to locate
an area of average radioactivity for the assay, ensuring it is not a measurement on an anomaly. A
typical portable spectrometer would have a 76 mm x 76 mm NaI (Tl) detector with a volume of 350
cm3. Some smaller spectrometers use CsI detectors, which are more efficient than NaI. It may be a
four channel (window) spectrometer or a multichannel (e.g., 256) spectrometer from which the four
window counts are computed and displayed. Counting times for measurements are varied according
to the count rate, to obtain good counting statistics. In areas of low radioactivity, longer counting
times are used than in areas of high radioactivity.
A portable gamma-ray spectrometer with a multi-channel system is an advanced version of a

standard gamma-ray spectrometer used in geophysical prospecting and other applications. The key
feature of the multi-channel system is its ability to analyze the energy spectrum of detected gamma
rays with high resolution, enabling detailed identification and quantification of different radioactive
isotopes in a sample. The multi-channel analyser (MCA) is a crucial part of the spectrometer that
divides the incoming gamma-ray signals into different energy channels. Each channel corresponds to
a specific energy range. By sorting the detected gamma rays into many channels (often hundreds or
thousands), the MCA provides a detailed energy spectrum. This allows for precise identification of
the gamma-ray energies emitted by different radioactive isotopes.
Sorting into Energy Channels
Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): The electrical pulses generated by the PMT are sent to an
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). The ADC digitizes the amplitude of each pulse, converting it
into a numerical value that corresponds to the energy of the gamma ray.
Channel Assignment: The MCA then assigns each digitized pulse to one of many energy channels.
Each channel represents a specific range of gamma-ray energies. For example:
Channel 1 might represent gamma rays with energies between 0-10 keV (kilo-electron volts),
Channel 2 might represent energies between 10-20 keV, and so on.
 Number of Channels: The number of channels can range from a few hundred to several
thousand, depending on the resolution of the MCA. More channels mean finer energy
resolution and more detailed spectral information.
Building the Energy Spectrum
 Histogram Creation: As the MCA continues to process incoming gamma-ray events, it

tallies (counts) the number of pulses that fall into each energy channel. This tallying process
builds up a histogram, where each channel’s count represents the number of gamma rays
detected with energies within that channel’s range.
 Energy Spectrum: The resulting histogram is a graph, often called an energy spectrum, with
energy on the x-axis (increasing from left to right) and the count of gamma rays (intensity) on
the y-axis. Peaks in the spectrum correspond to specific gamma-ray energies, which are
characteristic of particular isotopes.
Isotope Identification and Quantification
 Peak Identification: Each peak in the spectrum corresponds to a known energy level
associated with a specific radioactive isotope. For example, a peak around 1460 keV might
indicate the presence of potassium-40.
 Quantification: By measuring the height and area under these peaks, the concentration of the
corresponding isotopes can be quantified.
Real-Time Analysis and Display
 Continuous Data Acquisition: As the spectrometer moves across a survey area, the MCA
continuously processes gamma-ray events, updating the energy spectrum in real-time.
 Visualization: Many MCAs are equipped with displays or can connect to external devices to
visualize the energy spectrum immediately, allowing field operators to make on-the-spot
interpretations and decisions.
5.1.2 Car-borne gamma ray spectrometers
Field measurements with a car-borne gamma ray spectrometer can be made with the detector inside
the vehicle or mounted on the roof if a larger sample volume is desired. In a recent environmental
survey, large-volume NaI(Tl) detector packs (as used in airborne surveys) were mounted on a
platform carried on the front lift of a small tractor. Again, depending on the objective of the survey,
measurements may be made at regular intervals along roads or on a regular grid of roads or off-road
to avoid having the roadbed materials dominate the measurement. In some environmental surveys
such as radioactive spill, the road itself may be the subject of investigation. Usually, the detector is
quite large, often of the type and size used in airborne spectrometers. Manufacturers have developed
multichannel systems with the flexibility to be easily installed in a helicopter or in a ground vehicle
and the data acquisition (recording) is much the same.
Background radiation in surface measurements
There are several ways in which the background can be determined for both car-borne and portable
gamma ray spectrometers. Ideally, a measurement can be made over water in the survey area using a
boat. This is relatively easy with a portable spectrometer. For a car-borne spectrometer, which
typically has a larger detector, it is suggested that the detector be connected to a portable
spectrometer to measure background from a boat. Another method is by driving the vehicle onto a
bridge (not stone or concrete) over a wide river or onto the ice of a lake. This will yield a background
value for the equipment itself, the vehicle, cosmic rays, and radioactivity in the atmosphere.
5.1.3 Airborne gamma ray spectrometric surveying
Airborne geophysical surveys are normally flown in a direction perpendicular to the main geologic
strike of the survey area. For AGRS surveying, the line spacing depends on the objectives of the
survey: In reconnaissance surveys, it may vary between 2000 and 5000 m; in regional surveys, it
may vary between 500 and 2000 m; and in detailed surveys flown for mineral exploration purposes,
flight line spacing can be as little as 100 or 200 m. The aboveground flight elevation (terrain
clearance) in fixed-wing spectrometric surveys is normally 120 m, although it may vary between 100
and 150 m. For helicopter-borne surveys, the detectors are mounted in the helicopter, and the
nominal terrain clearance varies between 60 and 120 m, depending on local terrain conditions and
the configuration of other survey equipment. Typically, aircraft fly at a speed of approximately 120
knots (190 km/h).

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2024 Radiometric Prospecting Method

Lecture 5: Radiometric Anomalies and Measurements

5.1 Data Acquisition:

5.1.1 Portable gamma ray spectrometers

A portable gamma-ray spectrometer with a multi-channel system is an advanced version of a

Sorting into Energy Channels

Channel 2 might represent energies between 10-20 keV, and so on.

Lecture 5: Radiometric Anomalies and Measurements

Building the Energy Spectrum

 Histogram Creation: As the MCA continues to process incoming gamma-ray events, it

Isotope Identification and Quantification

Real-Time Analysis and Display

5.1.2 Car-borne gamma ray spectrometers

Background radiation in surface measurements

Lecture 5: Radiometric Anomalies and Measurements

5.1.3 Airborne gamma ray spectrometric surveying

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