BASIC MATHEMATICS

FORM TWO
NOTES

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 EXPONENTS AND RADICALS

Exponents
Exponents tell how many times to use a number itself in multiplication. There are different laws
that guides in calculations involving exponents. In this chapter we are going to see how these
laws are used.

Indication of power, base and exponent is done as follows:

Solution:

To write the expanded form of the following powers:

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Solution

To write each of the following in power form:

Soln.

The Laws of Exponents

List the laws of exponents
First law:Multiplication of positive integral exponent

Second law: Division of positive integral exponent

Third law: Zero exponents

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Fourth law: Negative integral exponents

Verification of the Laws of Exponents

Verify the laws of exponents
First law: Multiplication of positive integral exponent

Generally, when we multiply powers having the same base, we add their exponents. If x is any
base and m and n are the exponents, therefore:

Example 1

Solution

If you are to write the expression using the single exponent, for example,(63)4.The expression
can be written in expanded form as:

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Generally if a and b are real numbers and n is any integer,

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

Generally, (xm)n = X(mxn)

Example 5

Rewrite the following expressions under a single exponent for those with identical exponents:

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Second law: Division of positive integral exponent

Example 6

Example 7

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Therefore, to divide powers of the same base we subtract their exponents (subtract the exponent
of the divisor from the exponent of the dividend). That is,

where x is a real number and x ≠ 0, m and n are integers. m is the exponent of the dividend and n
is the exponent of the divisor.

Example 8

solution

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Third law: Zero exponents

Example 9

This is the same as:

If a ≠ 0, then

Which is the same as:

Therefore if x is any real number not equal to zero, then X0 = 1,Note that 00is undefined (not
defined).

Fourth law: Negative integral exponents

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Also;

Example 10

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Exercise 1

1. Indicate base and exponent in each of the following expressions:

2. Write each of the following expressions in expanded form:

3. Write in power form each of the following numbers by choosing the smallest base:

a. 169

b. 81

c. 10,000

d. 625

a. 169 b. 81c. 10 000 d. 625

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4. Write each of the following expressions using a single exponent:

5. Simplify the following expressions:

6. Solve the following equations:

7. Express 64 as a power with:

1. Base 4

2. Base 8

3. Base 2

Base 4 Base 8 Base 2

8. Simplify the following expressions and give your answers in either zero or negative integral
exponents.

9. Give the product in each of the following:

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10. Write the reciprocal of the following numbers:

Laws of Exponents in Computations

Apply laws of exponents in computations
Example 11

Solution

Radicals
Radicals
Simplify radicals
Radicals are opposite of exponents. For example when we raise 2 by 2 we get 4 but taking square
root of 4 we get 2. The same way we can raise the number using any number is the same way we
can have the root of that number. For example, square root, Cube root, fourth root, fifth roots and
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so on. We can simplify radicals if the number has factor with root, but if the number has factors
with no root then it is in its simplest form. In this chapter we are going to learn how to find the
roots of the numbers and how to simplify radicals.

When a number is expressed as a product of equal factors, each of the factors is called the root of
that number. For example,25 = 5× 5;so, 5 is a square root of 25: 64 = 8× 8; 8 is a square root of
64: 216 = 6 ×6 ×6, 6 is a cube root of 216: 81 = 3 × 3 ×3 ×3,3 is a fourth root of 81: 1024 = 4 ×4
×4 ×4 ×4, 4 is a fifth root of 1024.

Therefore, the nth root of a number is one of the n equal factors of that number. The symbol for
nth root isn√ where√is called a radical and n is the index (indicates the root you have to find). If
the index is 2, the symbol represents square root of a number and it is simply written as√without
the index 2.n√pis expressed in power form as,

nth root of a number by prime factorization

Example 1, simplify the following radicals

Soution

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14
Basic Operations on Radicals
Perform basic operations on radicals
Different operations like addition, multiplication and division can be done on alike radicals as is
done with algebraic terms.

Simplify the following:

Solution

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Simplify each of the following expressions:

group the factors into groups of two equal factors and from each group take one of the factors.

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The Denominator
Rationalize the denominator
If you are given a fraction expression with radical value in the denominator and then you express
the expression given in such a way that there are no radical values in the denominator, the
process is called rationalization of the denominator.

Example 12

Rationalize the denominator of the following expressions:

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Example 13

Rationalize the denominator for each of the following expressions:

Solution

To rationalize these fractions, we have to multiply by the fraction that is equals to 1. The factor
should be considered by referring the difference of two squares.

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19
Exercise 2

1. Simplify each of the following by making the number inside the radical sign as small as
possible:

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Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers from Mathematical Tables
Read square roots and cube roots of numbers from mathematical tables
If you are to find a square root of a number by using Mathematical table, first estimate the square
root by grouping method. We group a given number into groups of two numbers from right. For
example; to find a square root of 196 from the table, first we have to group the digits in twos
from right i.e. 1 96. Then estimate the square root of the number in a group on the extreme left.

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In our example it is 1. The square root of 1 is 1. Because we have two groups, this means that the
answer has two digits before the decimal point. Our number is 196, read 1.9 in the table on the
extreme left. From our number, we are remaining with 6, now look at the column labeled 6. Read
the number where the row of 1.9 meet the column labeled 6. It meets at 1.400. Therefore the
square root of 196 = 14.00 since we said that the answer must have 2 digits before decimal
points. Note: If you are given a number with digits more than 4 digits. First, round off the
number to four significant figures and then group the digits in twos from right. For example; the
number 75678 has five digits. When we round it off into 4 digits we get 75680 and then grouping
into two digits we get 7 56 80. This shows that our answer has 3 digits. We start by estimating
the square root of the number to the extreme left, which is 7, the square root of 7 is between 2
and 3. Using the table, along the row 7.5, look at the column labeled 6. Read the answer where
the row 7.5 meets the column 6. Then go to where it is written mean difference and look at the
column labeled 8, read the answer where it meets the row 7.5. Take the first answer you got
where the row 7.5 met the column 6 and add with the second answer you got where the row 7.5
met the column 8 (mean difference column). The answer you get is the square root of 75680.
Which is 275.1

Transposition of Formula
Re-arranging Letters so that One Letter is the Subject of the Formula
Re-arrange letters so that one letter is the subject of the formula
A formula is a rule which is used to calculate one quantity when other quantities are given.
Examples of formulas are:

Example 14

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From the following formulas, make the indicated symbol a subject of the formula:

Solution

Transposing a Formulae with Square Roots and Square

Transpose a formulae with square roots and square
Make the indicated symbol a subject of the formula:

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Exercise 3

1. Change the following formulas by making the given letter as the subject of the formula.

2. Use mathematical tables to find square root of each of the following:

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 ALGEBRA
When we play games with computers we play by running, jumping and or finding secret things.
Well, with Algebra we play with letters, numbers and symbols. And we also get to find secret
things. Once we learn some of the „tricks‟ it becomes a fun challenge to work with our skills in
solving each puzzle. So, Algebra is all about solving puzzles. In this chapter we are going to
learn some of the skills that help in solving mathematics puzzles.

Binary Operations
The Binary Operations
Describe the binary operations
When two numbers are combined according to the instructions given and produce one number
we say that they are binary operations. For example, when we add 4 to 6 we get 10, or when we
multiply 4 by 3 we get 12. We see that addition of two numbers lead to one number and
multiplication of two numbers produce one number. This is binary operation. The instructions
can be given either by symbols like X,*,∇and so on or by words.

Performing Binary Operations

Perform binary operations
Example 1

Evaluate:

solution

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Example 2

Find

solution

Example 3

Solve

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Example 4

evaluate,

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Example 5

Calculate

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Brackets in Computation
Brackets are used to group items into brackets and these items inside the brackets are considered
as whole. For example,15 ÷(X + 2) ,means that x and 2 are added first and their sum should
divide 15. If we are given expression with mixed operations, the following order is used to
perform the operations: Brackets (B) are opened (O) first followed by Division (D) then
Multiplication (M), Addition (A) and lastly Subtraction (S). Shortly is written as BODMAS.

Basic Operations Involving Brackets

Perform basic operations involving brackets
Example 6

Simplify the following expressions:

1. 4 + 2b – (9b ÷3b)

2. 4z – (2x + z)
solution

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Algebraic Expressions Involving the Basic Operations and Brackets
Simplify algebraic expressions involving the basic operations and brackets
Example 7

Evaluate the following expressions:

solution

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Identities

For example, 3(2y + 3) = 6y + 9, when y = 1, the right hand side (RHS) and the left hand side
(LHS) are both equals to 15. If we substitute any other, we obtain the same value on both sides.
Therefore the equations which are true for all values of the variables on both sides are called
Identities. We can determine whether an equation is an identity or not by showing that an
expression on one side is identical to the other expression on the other side.

Example 8

Determine whether or not the following expressions are identities:

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solution

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Quadratic Expressions
A Quadratic Expression from Two Linear Factors
Form a quadratic expression from two linear factors
A quadratic expression is an expression where the highest exponent of the variable (usually x) is
a square (x2). It is usually written as ax2+bx+c.

Activity 1

Form a quadratic expression from two linear factors

The General Form of Quadratic Expression
Write the general form of quadratic expression
Quadratic expression has the general form of ax2 + bx + c where a ≠ 0 and a is a coefficient
of x2 , b is a coefficient of x and c is a constant. its highest power of variable is 2. Examples of
quadratic expressions are 2x2 + x + 1, 4y2 + 3, 3z2 – 4z + 1 and so on. In a quadratic expression
3z2 - 4z + 1, a = 3, b = -4 and c = 1. Also in quadratic expression 4y2 + 3, a = 4, b = 0 and c = 3

Example 9

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If you are told to find the area of a rectangle with a length of 4y + 3 and a width of 2y + 1.
Solution

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Example 10

3x items were bought and each item costs (4x – 3) shillings. Find total amount of money used.

Factorization
Linear Expressions
Factorize linear expressions
The operation of resolving a quantity into factors, when we expand expressions, is done by
removing the brackets. The reverse operation is Factorizing and it is done by adding brackets.

Example 11

Factorize the expression 5a+5b.

Solution

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In factorization of 5a+5b, we have to find out a common thing in both terms. We can see that the
expression 5a+5b, have got common coefficient in both terms, that is 5. So factoring it out we
get 5(a+b).

Example 12

Factorize 18xyz-24xwz
Solution

Factorizing 18xyz-24xwz, we have to find out highest common factor of both terms. Then factor
it out, the answer will be 9xz(2y-3w).

Quadratic Expressions
Factorize quadratic expressions
When we write the quadratic expression as a product of two factors we say that we have
factorized the expression. We are going to learn two methods used to factorize quadratic
expressions. These methods are factorization by Splitting the middle term and factorization by
Inspection.

Factorization by splitting the middle term

Example 13

factorize 3x2 - 2x – 8 by splitting the middle term.

Solution

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Example 14

factorize x2 + 10x + 25 by splitting the middle term.

Factorization by Inspection

Example 15

factorize x2 + 3x + 2 by inspection.

Example 16

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factorize 4x2 + 5x – 6 by inspection.

Exercise 1

Factorization Exercise;

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 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Solving quadratic equations can be difficult, but luckily there are several different methods that
we can use depending on what type of quadratic that we are trying to solve. The four methods of
solving a quadratic equation are factoring, using the square roots, completing the square and the
quadratic formula.

Solving Equations
The standard form of a Quadratic equation is ax2 + bx + c =0 whereby a, b, c are known values
and „a‟ can‟t be 0. „x‟ is a variable (we don‟t know it yet). a is the coefficient of x2 , b is the
coefficient of x and c is a constant term. Quadratic equation is also called an equation of degree 2
(because of the 2 on x). There are several methods which are used to find the value of x. These
methods are:

1. by Factorization

2. by completing the square

3. by using quadratic formula

The Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorization

Determine the solution of a quadratic equation by factorization
We can use any of the methods of factorization we learnt in previous chapter. But for simplest
we will factorize by splitting the middle term. For Example: solve for x, x2 + 4x = 0

solution

Since the constant term is 0 we can take out x as a common factor.

So, x2 + 4x = x(x + 4) = 0. This means the product of x and (x + 4) is 0. Then, either x = 0 or x + 4

= 0. If x + 4 = 0 that is x = -4. Therefore the solution is x = 0 or x = -4.

Example 1

Solve the equation: 3x2 =- 6x – 3.

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first rearrange the equation in its usual form.

that is:

3x2 = - 6x – 3

3x2 + 6x + 3 = 0

now, factorize the equation by splitting the middle term. Let us find two numbers whose product
is 9

and their sum is 6. The numbers are 3 and 3. Hence the equation 3x2 + 6x + 3 = 0 can be written
as:

3x2 + 3x + 3x + 3 = 0

3x(x + 1) + 3(x + 1) = 0

(3x + 3)(x + 1) (take out common factor which is (x + 1))

either (3x + 3) = 0 or (x + 1) = 0

therefore 3x = -3 or x = -1

x = -1 (divide by 3 both sides) or x = -1

Therefore, since the values of x are identical then x = -1.

Example 2

solve the equation 10 – 3y - 1 = 0 by factorization.

Solution

Two numbers whose product is -10 and their sum is -3 are 2 and -5.

Then, we can write the equation 10y2 – 3y - 1 = 0 as:

2y(5y + 1) – 1(5y + 1) = 0

(2y – 1)(5y + 1) = 0

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Therefore, either 2y – 1 = 0 or 5y + 1 = 0

Example 3

solve the following quadratic equation by factorization: 4x2 - 20x + 25 = 0.

Solution

We need to split the middle term by the two numbers whose product is 100 and their sum is -20.
The numbers are -10 and -10.

The equation can be written as:

4x2 -10x - 10x + 25 = 0

2x(2x - 5) – 5(2x -5) = 0

(2x – 5)(2x - 5) (take out common factor. The resulting factors are identical. This is a perfect
square)

since it is a perfect square, then we take one factor and equate it to 0. That is:

2x – 5 = 0

2x = 5 then, divide by 2 both sides.

Therefore

Example 4

solve the equation x2 - 16 = 0.

Solution

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We can write the equation as x2 - 42 = 0. This is a difference of two squares. The difference of
two squares is an identity of the form:

a2 - b2 = (a - b)(a + b).

So, x2 - 42 = (x - 4)(x + 4) = 0

Now, either x- 4 = 0 or x + 4 = 0

Therefore x = 4 or x = -4

The Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square

Find the solution of a quadratic equation by completing the square
Completing the square.

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Example 5

Add a term that will make the following expression a perfect square: x2 - 8x

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find a term that must be added to make the following expression a perfect square: x2 + 10x

Example 6

solve the following quadratic equation by completing the square: x2 + 4x + 1 = 0

Example 7

solve by completing the square: 3x2 + 7x – 6 = 0

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General Solution of Quadratic Equations
The Quadratic Formula
Derive the quadratic formula
The special quadratic formula used for solving quadratic equation is:

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Quadratic Equations using Quadratic Formula
Solve quadratic equations using quadratic formula
Example 8

solve 5x2 – 8x + 3 = 0 by using quadratic formula.

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Example 9

solve this quadratic equation by using quadratic formula: 3x2 = - 7x - 4

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Word problems leading to quadratic equations

Given a word problem; the following steps are to be used to recognize the type of equation.

Step1: choose the variables to represent the information

Step 2: formulate the equation according to the information given

Step 3: solve the equation by using any of the method you know

In order to be sure with your answers, check if the solution you obtained is correct.

Example 10

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the length of a rectangular plot is 8 centimeters more than the width. If the area of a plot is
240cm2, find the dimensions of length and width.
Solution

Let the width be x

The length of a plot is 8 more than the width, so the length of a plot be x + 8

We are given the area of a plot = 240cm2 and the area of a rectangle is given by length ×width

then (x + 8) × x = 240

x2 + 8x = 240

rearrange the equation

x2 + 8x – 240 = 0

then solve the equation to find the value of x

Solving by splitting the middle term, two numbers whose product is -240 and their sum is 8, the
number

are -12 and 20

our equation becomes; x2 + 20x – 12x – 240 = 0

x(x + 20) – 12(x + 20) = 0

either (x - 12) = 0 or (x + 20) = 0

x = 12 or x = -20

since we don‟t have negative dimensions, then the width is 12cm and the length is 12 + 8 = 20cm

Therefore the rectangular plot has the length of 20cm and the width of 12cm.

Example 11

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A piece of wire 40cm long is cut into two parts and each part is then bent into a square. If the
sum of the areas of these squares is 68 square centimeters, find the lengths of the two pieces of
wire.

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Exercise 1

1. Solve each of the following quadratic equations by using factorization method:

1. -6x2+ 23x – 20 = 0
2. X2– x -12 = 0

2. Solve these equations by completing the square:

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 LOGARITHMS
We always ask ourselves, how many of one number do we multiply to get another number? For
example; how many 3s do we multiply to get 81? All these kind of questions will be answered in
this unit. Make sure you understand. Start reading now……!

Standard Form
Standard Form is also called Scientific Notation. It is a way of writing a number into two parts.
For example

 Thedigits(with the decimal point placed after the first digit) followed by
 X 10 to a powerthat puts a decimal point where it should be (i.e. it shows how many
places to move the decimal point).

Numbers in Standard Form

Write numbers in standard form
How to write a number in standard form?

To figure out the power of 10, think of how many decimal places to move:

 When the number is 10 or greater, the decimal place has to move to the left and the
power of 10 will be positive. For example; 47 055 = 4. 7055 x 104

 When the number is smaller than 1, the decimal point has to move to the right and the
power of 10 will be negative. For example;

0.00025 will be written as 2.5 x 10-4

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For example; 4.5 would be written as 4.5 x100 we didn‟t have to move the decimal point, so the
power is 100. But now it is in standard form.

Note that: After putting the number in scientific notation make sure that the digits part is between
1 and 10 (it can be 1 but never 10). And the power part shows exactly how many places to move
the decimal point.

Computations which Involved Multiplication and Division of Numbers

Expressed in Standard Form
Perform computations which involved multiplication and division of numbers expressed in
standard form
Definition of a logarithm

A logarithm answers the question: How many of one number do we multiply to get another
number. For example; how many of 2s do we multiply to get 16? Answer: 2 x 2 x 2 x 2= 16 so
we needed to multiply 4 of the 2s to get 16. So the logarithm is 4.

How to write it?

We would write the number of 2s we need to multiply to get 16 is 4 as:

The two things are the same:

The number we are multiplying is called the base. So we can say „the logarithm of 16 with base 2
is 4‟ or „log base 2 of 16 is 4‟ or 'the base-2 log of 16 is 4‟.

Not that we are dealing with 3 numbers:

 The base (the number we are multiplying in our example it is 2)

 How many times to use it in multiplication (in our example it is 4 times, which is the
logarithm)

 The number we want to get (in our example it is 16)

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There is a relationship between the exponents and logarithms. The exponent says how many
times to use the number in a multiplication and logarithm tells you what the exponent is. See the
illustration below:

Generally: ax = y in logarithmic form is: LogaY = X

Example 1

write the following statements in logarithmic form:

Laws Of Logarithms
The Laws of Logarithms
State the laws of logarithms
There are several laws of logarithms which help in evaluating them. These laws are valid for
only positive real numbers. The laws are as follows:

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Verification of the Laws of Logarithms Using the Knowledge of Exponents
Verify the laws of logarithms using the knowledge of exponents
Activity 1

Verify the laws of logarithms using the knowledge of exponents

The Laws of Logarithms to Simplify Logarithmic Expressions
Use the laws of Logarithms to simplify logarithmic expressions
Example 2

Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate the following:

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Solution

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58
Change of base

This is a formula for change of base. For any positive a, b (a, b ≠0) we have

Given,

then find a number which is a common base to both 8 and 4

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Example 3

Solve.

Logarithms to Base 10

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Logarithmic Equation
Solve logarithmic equation
Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate the following:

Solution

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62
63
Laws of Logarithms to Find Products, Quotients, Roots and Powers of
Numbers
Apply laws of logarithms to find products, quotients, roots and powers of numbers
Here we deal with all 4 operations which are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
All operations are just as usual operations except division when we are given a negative
characteristic. For example;

Example 4

evaluate the following:

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Logarithmic Tables to Find Products and Quotients of Numbers Computation
Apply logarithmic tables to find products and quotients of numbers computation
Most of the logarithmic tables are of base 10 (common logarithms). When we want to read a
logarithm of a number from logarithmic table, we first check if the number is between 0 and 10
(but not 0 or 10) because the table consists only of logarithms of numbers between 0 and 1.

For example; what is the logarithm of 5.25 from the table. Our number is between 0 and 1. We
look at the most left column and find where 52 is (we ignore the decimal point). Then slide your
finger along this row to the right to find column of the next digit in our example is 5. Read the
number where the row of 52 meets the column of 5. The logarithm of 5.25 is 0.7202.

If the number has 4 digits like 15.27, we do the following. First of all, checking our number we
see that it is greater than 10. The number is between 10 and 100. And we know that the
logarithm of 10 is 1 and logarithm of 100 is 2. So logarithm of 15.27 is between 1 and 2,
normally less than 2 but greater than 1, hence 1.something. That something we need to find it in
a logarithm table. Look at the most left column the row labeled 15, then, slide your finger to the
right to find the column labeled 2. Read the number where the row of 15 meets the column of 2,
the number is 0.1818. We are remaining with one digit which is 7. If your log table has a part
with mean difference table, slide your finger over to the column in that table marked with the
next digit of the number you are looking up, in our example it is 7. Slide over to row 15 and
mean difference 7. The row of 15 meets mean difference column 7 at number 20. Add the two
numbers obtained (the mean difference number is added to the last digits of our first number we

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obtained) i.e. 0.1818 + 20 = 1838. Now add characteristic which is 1 since 15.27 is between 10
and 100. We get 1 +0.1838 = 1.1838. Therefore Log 15.27= 1.1838.

Note that if you are given a number with more than 4 digits, first round off the number to 4 digits
and then go on with similar procedures as explained in examples above.

To find the number whose logarithm is known, we can call it ant-logarithm the same logarithmic
table can be used. For example to find the number whose logarithm is 0.7597, look at the central
part of the log table find the number (mantissa) 7597. This is in the intersection of the row
labeled 57 and column 5. So the number is 575. But in order to get correct answer we have to
consider characteristic of our logarithm which is 0. This means our number is between 0 and 10
because the numbers whose logarithms are 0.something are between 0 and 10. Hence, we need to
place one decimal point from left to our number to make it be between 0 and 10. Therefore the
number will be 5.75 i.e. log 5.75 = 0.7597, thus antilog 0.7597= 5.75.

How to find the ant-log

Step1: Understand the ant-log table. Use it when you have log of a number but not the number
itself. the ant-log is also known as the inverse log.

Step 2: Write down the characteristic. This is the number before decimal point. If you are
looking up the ant-log of 2.8699, the characteristic is 2. Remove it from the number you are
looking up. But never forget it because it will be used later. So it is better if you write it
somewhere.

Step 3: Find the row in the most left column that matches the first two numbers of the mantissa.
Our mantissa is 8699. So run your finger down that column until you find .86.

Step 4: Slide your finger over to the column marked with the next digit of the mantissa. For
2.8699, slide your finger along the row marked .86 to find the intersection with column 9. This
reads 7396. Write this down.

Step 5: If your ant-log table has a table of mean difference, slide your finger over to the column
in that table marked with the next digit of the mantissa. Make sure to keep your finger in the

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same row. Considering our example, slide your finger over the to the last column in the table,
column 9. The intersection of row .86 and mean difference column 9 is 15. Write it down.

Step 6: Add the two numbers obtained from the two previous steps. In our example, these are
7396 and 15. Adding them i.e. 7396 + 15 = 7411.

Step 7: Use characteristic to place decimal point. Our characteristic is 2, which means our
answer is between 100 and 1000 because log 100 = 2 and log 1000 = 3. For the number 7411 to
fall between 100 and 1000, the decimal point should be placed after 3 digits. So, the final answer
is 741.1 therefore the ant-log of 2.8699 is 741.1.

Example 5

Find the product of 25.75 ×450.

Solution;

From Logarithmic laws we saw that multiplication of two numbers is the same as addition of two
the same two numbers. How to do it?

Let x = 25.75 ×450

log x = log (25.75 ×450)

which is the same as

now, you can read log of your numbers from the logarithmic table as we learnt in the previous
lesson, you will find:

log 25.75 = 1.4108 and log 450 = 2.6532

thus, log x = 1.4108 + 2.6532

log x = 4.0640

in order to obtain the value of x we have to find the inverse log of 4.0640 or ant-log of 4.0640

so, x = ant-log 4.0640

x = 11590

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therefore, 25.75 ×450 = 11590

always the logarithmic calculations are set out in tabular form to make the solution not too long
as above.

If we set our example in tabular form it will look like this:

Logarithmic Tables to Find Roots and Power of Numbers

Apply logarithmic tables to find roots and power of numbers
Example 6

Calculate using logarithms

Solution

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Exercise 1

1. Write each of the following in standard form:

1. 167200

2. 0.00235

3. 245.750

4. 45075

2. Write each of the following in decimal numerals:

3. Calculate value of x for each of the following:

69
4. Simplify each of the following without using logarithmic table:

5. Given that log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 and log 7 = 0.8451, find

6. Find log of each of the following numbers using logarithmic table:

1. 500

2. 0.00135

3. 52. 25

4. 895000

7. Find the value of x for each of the following numbers:

1. Log x = 2.8751

2. Log x = 1.8186

8. Find the value of each of the following expressions:

10. Determine the number whose

1. Logarithm in base 10 is -3

70
2. Logarithm in base 5 is 3

71
CONGRUENCE
I‟m sure you have seen some of the figure which in one way or another one of the shape can
become another using turns, flip or slide. These shapes are said to be Congruent. Study this notes
carefully to know different ways that can help you to recognize congruent figures.

In geometry two figures or objects are congruent if they have the same shape and size, or if one
has the shape and size as the mirror image of the other.

If one shape can become another using turns (rotation), flip (reflection), and/ or slide
(translation), then the shapes are Congruent. After any of these transformations the shape must
still have the same size, perimeters, angles, areas and line lengths.

Note that; the two shapes need to be the size to be Congruent i.e. only rotation, reflection and/ or
translation is needed.

Remember this:

 Two line segments are Congruent if they have the same length.

 Two angles are Congruent if they have the same measure.

 Two circles are Congruent if they have the same diameter.

Angles formed by the intersection of two straight lines

When two straight lines intersect, they form four angles. Each opposite pair are called vertical
angles and they are congruent. Vertical angles are also called opposite angles. See figure below
for more understanding:

72
Properties of vertical angles

 They are Congruent: vertical angles are always of equal measure i.e. a = b, and c = d.
 Sum of vertical angles (all four angles) is 3600 i.e. a + b + c + d =3600
 Sum of Adjacent angles (angles from each pair) is 1800 i.e. a + d =1800 ; a + c =1800 ; c +
b =1800 ; b + d =1800.

Congruence of Triangles
Two Triangles are Congruent if their corresponding sides are equal in length and their
corresponding angles are equal in size. The symbol for congruent shapes is ≅

The Conditions for Congruence of Triangles

Determine the conditions for congruence of triangles
The following are conditions for two Triangles to be Congruent:

 SSS (side-Side-Side): if three pairs of sides of two Triangles are equal in length, then the
Triangles are Congruent. Consider example below showing two Triangles with equal lengths of
the corresponding sides.

73
Example 1

Prove that the two Triangles (ΔABC and ΔBCD) below are Congruent.

Solution

Another condition;

 SAS (Side-Angle-Side): This means that we have two Triangles where we know two
sides and the included angles are equal. For example;

74
If the two sides and the included angle of one Triangle are equal to corresponding sides and the
included angle of the other Triangle, we say that the two Triangles are Congruent.

 ASA (Angle- Side-Angle): If two angles and the included side of one Triangle are equal
to the two angles and included side of another Triangle we say that the two Triangles are
congruence. For example

AAS condition;

 AAS (Angle-Angle-Side): If two angles and non included side of one triangle are equal to
the corresponding angles and non included side of the other Triangle, then the two triangles are
congruent. For example

 HL (hypotenuse-Leg): This is applicable only to a right angled triangle. The longest side
of a right angled triangle is called hypotenuse and the other two sides are legs.

75
It means we have two right angled triangles with:

 The same length of hypotenuse and

 The same length for one of the other two legs.

If the hypotenuse and one leg of one right angled triangle are equal to a corresponding
hypotenuse and one leg of the other right angled triangle, the two triangles are congruent. For
example

Important note: Do not use AAA (Angle-Angle-Angle). This means we are given all three angles
of a triangle but no sides. This is not enough information to decide whether the two triangles are
congruent or not because the Triangles can have the same angles but different size. See an
illustration below:

The two triangles are not congruent.

Without knowing at least one side, we can‟t be sure that the triangles are congruent.

Congruence of Triangle
Prove congruence of triangle

76
Example 2

Prove that the two Triangles (ΔABC and ΔBCD) below are Congruent.

Solution;

Theorems on Congruence of Triangles to Solve Related Problems

Apply theorems on congruence of triangles to solve related problems
Isosceles Triangle Theorem

The figure below illustrates an example of an isosceles triangle:

77
An isosceles triangle has two congruent sides (opposite sides) and two congruent angles. The
congruent angles are called base angles and the other angle is called vertex angle. The angles A
and B are base angles and angle C is the vertex angle.

The base angle Theorem

If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite to these sides are congruent

Required to prove: angle A = angle B

78
Therefore, the base angles i.e. angle CAS and angle BCS are equal (by the definition of a
congruence of triangles).

It states that, if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then sides opposite those angles are
congruent.

79
Exercise 1

1. In the isosceles triangle ABC, BA and BC are congruent. D and E are points on AC such that
AD is congruent to BD and BE is congruent to BC. Show that the triangles ABD and CBE are
congruent

2. ABCD is a parallelogram and BEFC is a square. Show that triangles ABE and DCF are
congruent.
80
3. Use the figure below to answer the following questions:

81
 SIMILARITY
Some Figures tend to have different size but exactly equal angles and their corresponding sides
always proportional. This kind of figures are said to be similar. Read the notes below to see
which shapes are said to be similar.

Similar Figures
Two geometrical figures are called similar if they both have the same shape. More precisely one
can be obtained from the other by uniformly scaling (enlarging or shrinking). Possibly with
additional translation, rotation and reflection. Below are similar figures, the figures have equal
angle measures and proportional length of the sides:

Angle A corresponds to angle A‟, angle B corresponds to B‟, angle C corresponds to C‟ also
each pair of these corresponding sides bears the same ratio, that is:

82
Since all sides have the same ratio i.e. they are proportional and the corresponding angles are
equal i.e. angle A = angle A‟, angle B = angle B‟ and angle C = angle C‟, then the two figures
are similar. The symbol for similarity is '∼'

Note: all circles are similar to each other, all squares are similar to each other, and all equilateral
triangles are similar to each other. On the other hand rectangles are not all similar to each other,
isosceles triangles are not all similar to each other and ellipses are not all similar to each other.

Similar Polygons
Identify similar polygons
Two Triangles are similar if the only difference is size (and possibly the need to Turn or Flip one
around). The Triangles below are similar

(Equal Angles have been marked with the same number of Arcs)

Similar Triangles have:

 All their angles equal

 Corresponding sides have the same ratio

For example; Given similar triangles below, find the length of sides a and b

Solution

83
Since we know that, similar triangles have equal ratio of corresponding sides, finding the ratio of
the given corresponding sides first thing:

How to find if Triangles are Similar

Two Triangles are similar if:

 All their equals are angles

 The corresponding sides are in the same ratio

But we don‟t need to know all three angles and all three sides, even two or three are enough.

Intercept theorem

The theory is also called Side-Splitter theorem. Let ABC be any Triangle and DE is drawn
parallel to BC, then AD/DB = AE/EC.

To show this is true draw a line DF parallel to EC

84
The Triangles ADE and BD have exactly equal angles and so they are similar (recall that the two
Triangles are similar by AA).

Side AD corresponds to side DB and side AE corresponds to side DF, thus AD/DB = AE/DF But
DF = EC, so AD/DB = AE/EC

Similarity Theorems of Triangles

Prove similarity theorems of triangles
There are three ways to find that the two Triangles are Similar

1. AA (Angle-Angle): this means, Triangles have two of their Angles equal. See an illustration
below

If two of their Angles are equal then the third Angle must also be equal, because Angles of a
Triangle add up to1800. In our case, our third Angle will be:

1800 - (750 + 400) = 650

Therefore, AA can also be called AAA because when two angles are equal then all three Angles
must be equal.

2. SAS (Side-Angle-Side): Means we have two Triangles where:

85
 The ratio between two sides is the same as the ratio between the other two sides

 The included Angles are equal

For example:

From our example, we see that, the side AB corresponds to side XZ and side BC corresponds to
side YZ, thus the ratios will be:

AB:XZ = 15:10 = 3:2 and

BC:YZ = 21:14 = 3:2

Also, there is a matching angle of750in between them.

The information is enough to tell us that the Triangles are Similar.

3. SSS (Side-Side-Side): Means we have three pairs of sides in the same ratio. Then the
Triangles are Similar. For example;

86
In this example; the ratios of sides are:

a:x = 6:7.5 = 12:15 = 4:5

c:y = 4:5

b:z = 8:10 = 4:5

The ratios are all equal, so the Triangles are Similar.

Exercise 1

1. Use similarity to calculate side AB

2. ABC is a Triangle in which AC is produced to E and AB is Produced to D such that DE//BC.

Show that AD:AB = DE:CB

3. Given Triangles ABC and PQR which are similar. If the lengths of sides AC = 4.8cm, AB =
4cm and PQ = 9cm find the length of side PR if side AB corresponds to PQ and BC corresponds
to QR.

4. Prove that any two equilateral Triangles are similar.

5. Name two similar triangles in the figure below:

87
 READ TOPIC 7: Geometric And Transformations

88
 GEOMETRIC AND TRANSFORMATIONS

Reflection
The Characteristics of Reflection in a Plane
Describe the characteristics of reflection in a plane
A transformation in a plane is a mapping which moves an object from one position to another
within the plane. Think of a book being taken from one comer of a table to another comer.
Figures on a plane of paper can also be shifted to a new position by a transformation. The new
postion after a transformation is called the image. Examples of transformations are reflection,
rotation, enlargement and translation.

Different Reflections by Drawings

Represent different reflections by drawings
A reflection is a transformation which reflects all points of a plane in a line called the mirror-
line. The image in a mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror

Characteristics of Reflection

89
In the diagram, APQR is mapped onto ΔP'Q'R' under a reflection in the line AB. If the paper is
folded along the line AB, ΔPQR will fall in exactly onto ΔPQR. The line AB is the mirror-line.
which is the perpendicular bisector of PP', QQ' and ΔPQR and ΔP'Q'R are congruent.

Some characteristics observed under reflection are:

a. PP' is perpendicular to AB, RR' is perpendicular to AB and QQ is perpendicular to AB.

b. The image of any point on the Q' mirror line is the point itself.

c. PP' is parallel to RR' and QQ'

Reflection in the Line y = x

The line y = x makes an angle 45° with the x and y axes. It is the line of symmetry for the angle
YOX formed by the two axes. By using the isosceles triangle properties, reflection of the point
(1, 0) in the line y = x will be (0, 1).

The reflection of (0,2) in the liney = x will be (2,0). You notice that the co-ordinates are
exchanging positions. Generally, the reflection of the point (a,b) in the line y = x is (b,a).

90
The reflection of the point B(c,d) in the line y = -x is B' (-d, -c)

Exercise 1

1. Find the image of the point D(4,2) under a reflection in the x-axis.

2. Find the image of the point P(-2,5) under a reflection in the x-axis.

3. Point Q(-4,3) is reflected in the y-axis. Find the coordinates of its image.

4. Point R(6,-5) is reflected in the y-axis. Find the co-ordinates of its image.

5. Reflect the point (1 ,2) in the line y = -x.

6. Reflect the point (5,3) in the line y = x.

7. Find the image of the point (1 ,2) after a reflection in the line y=x followed by another
reflection in the line y = -x.

8. Find the image of the point P(-2,1) in the line y = -x followed by another reflection in the
line x = 0 ketch the positions of the image P and the point P, indicating clearly the lines involved.

9. Find the co-ordinates of the image of the point A(5,2) under a reflection in the line y = 0.

10. Find the coordinates of the image of the point under a reflection in the line x = 0.

91
11. The co-ordinates of the image of a point R reflected in the x axis is R(2, -9). Find the
coordinates of R.
Rotations
Characteristics of a Rotation on a Plane
Describe characteristics of a rotation on a plane
Rotation is a transformation which rotates all points on a plane about a fixed point known as the
centre of rotation through a given angle in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction

In order to describe a rotation, we give:

a. the centre of rotation,

b. the angle of rotation, and

c. the direction of rotation

Example 1

Copy the figure T and rotate 180° about the origin.

92
Different Rotation on a Plane by Drawings
Represent different rotation on a plane by drawings
When you turn a ruler at its end corner through an angle 0° it make a rotation. A rotation is
transformation which moves a point through a given angle about a fixed point.

A rotation is a transformation that turns a figure about a fixed point called a Centre of
Rotation.You can rotate the figure as much as 360 degrees. The transformation of Rotation is
usually denoted by R. The symbol R› means that an object is rotated through an angle 9. In the
xy plane, when is measured in the clockwise direction it is negative and when it is measured in
the anticlockwise direction it is positive.

P is on the x-axis

After a rotation through 90° about the origin it will be on the y-axis. Since P is 1 from O, P' is 1
from O, the coordinates of P are P'(O,I). Hence R90°( 1, O) = (O, 1)

93
Exercise 2

1. Find the image of the point (1, 2) under a rotation through 180° anti-clockwise about the
origin.

2. Find the rotation of the point (6, 0) under a rotation through 90° Clockwise about the
origin.

3. Find the rotation of the point (-2, 1) under a rotation through 270° clockwise about the
origin.

4. Point Q(5, -4) is rotated through 270° in the clockwise direction. Find the coordinates of
its image.

5. Find the image of (1, 2) after a rotation of -90°

6. Find the image of (-3, 5) after a rotation of -180°

7. Find the image of (-5, 0) after a rotation of -180°

8. Find the image of (-5, 0) after a rotation of 180° about the origin. Comment about the
results of questions 7 and 8.

9. The vertices of triangle OAB are O(0,0), A(2,3) and B(2,1). The triangle is rotated
through 90° anti-clockwise about the origin. Find the co-ordinates of its image.

10. The vertices of rectangle PQRS are P(0,0), Q(3,0), R(2,3), S(0,2). The rectangle is rotated
through 90° clockwise about the origin. a) Find the co-ordinates of its image b) draw the image.
Translation
Properties of Translations
State properties of translations
Translation is a transformation which moves all points, on a plane through the same direction

In the diagram, ΔABC slidesΔA'B'C' (A' is read as A prime) is the direction AA'. Note that AA'
are parallel and of equal length. We say that ABC is mapped onto A'B'C' by a translation.

94
A translation usually denoted by T. For example 1(1, 1) = (6, 1) means that the point 1(1,1) has
been moved to (6, 1) by a translation T. This translation will move theorigin (0,0) to (5,0) and is
written as T = 5/0.

Translations Drawings
Represent translations drawings
Translation drawings

95
If you cast a shadow of an object onto a plane surface, say a wall, by using a light source, the
shadow becomes bigger as the object moves closer to the light source.

In figure 7.40, AB casts a shadow CD. When AB moves to a new position and is renamed QP
(same size with AB) the shadow of QP becomes SR and it is greater than CD.

Enlargement
A Scale of Enlargement
Develop a scale of enlargement

96
Enlargement is a transformation in which a figure is made larger (magnified) or made smaller
(diminished). A photograph may be enlarged or diminished to suit a Certain purpose. Figures can
be drawn to scale where actual figures are diminished or enlarged. Enlarged shapes are
geometrically similar and have corresponding angles equal. The number that magnifies or
diminishes a figure is called the enlargement factor and is usually denoted by k. If k is less than 1
the figure is diminished and if it is greater that 1 the figure is enlarged k times.

In the case of closed figures, if the lengths enlarged by a factor of k then the area is enlarged
by k2.

Scale

Similarity can be used in enlarging of diminishing geometrical figures. For example in maps, a
large area of land is represented by a small area on paper by a scale. Scale is a ratio between the
measurement of a drawing to the actual measurement. It is normally stated in the form of 1 : n,
for example, if a scale of a map is 1.20000, then 1 unit on the map represents 20000 units on the
ground.

In the figure, triangle ABC is a scale measurement of triangle PQR, where the scale is 1:2.

Scale is measurement of drawing: Actual Measurement, that is,

Scale = Measurement of drawing/Actual measurement

Exercise 3

Find the length of a drawing that represents:

97
a. 15 km when the scale is 1:500000

b. 45 km when the scale is 1 km to 900 m.

A building2 50 metres high is representedb y a line segment of length 5 cm. Finc the scale of the
drawing.

A triangular plot of land has sides 152 metres and 208 metres meeting at an angle of 500. Find
by scale drawing the distance from the middle point of the longest side to the opposite corner

Enlargement of a Given Figures

Construct enlargement of a given figures
Consider two similar rectangles shown in the figure below with a scale factor k.

If AB = a and AD = a, then PO = ak and PS bk

Area of ABCD = a× a = ab

Area of PORS = ak x bk = abk2

Area of PORS/Area of ABCD = abk2/ab = k2

Therefore, if two polygons have a scale factor k then the ratio of their areas is k2. This is also
called the scale factor for the area.

Figures to Scale
Draw figures to scale
If we 'enlarge' a shape by a scale factor that is between -1 and 1, the image will besmallerthan
the object

98
Example 2

Enlarge triangleABCwith a scale factor1/2, centred about the origin.

Solution

The scale factor is1/2, so:

99
OA' =1/2OA

OB' =1/2OB

OC' =1/2OC

Since the centre is the origin, we can in this case multiply each coordinate by1/2to get the
answers.

A = (2, 2), so A' will be (1, 1).

B = (2, 6), so B' will be (1, 3).

C = (4, 2), so C' will be (2, 1).

Actual Distances Represented by a Scale Drawings

Find actual distances represented by a scale drawings
If two polygons are similar and the ratio of their corresponding sides of two similar polygons is
5:3, then the scale of enlargement is 5/3

Exercise 4

1. Two triangles are similar but not congruent. Is one the enlargement of the other?

2. The length of a rectangle is twice the length of another rectangle. Is one necessarily an
enlargement of the other? Explain.

3. In the figure below BC DE, AB 5 cm, BD = 3cm and EF = 4 cm

a. State which triangle is an enlargement of ΔABC

b. Calculate the scale factor of the enlargement.

100
Combined Transformations
Combined Transformations
Draw combined transformations
Combined Transformation means that two or more transformations will be Performed on one
object. For instance you could perform a reflection and then a translation on the same point

Example 3

What type of transform takes ABCD to A'B'C'D'?

Solution

The type of transform takes ABCD to A'B'C'D' is Reflection

101
Simple Problems on Combined Transformations
Solve simple problems on combined transformations
Exercise 5

What type of transform takes ABCD to A'B'C'D'?

The transformation ABCD → A'B'C'D' is a rotation around(-1, 2)by___°.Rotate P around(-1,

2)by the same angle. (You may need to sketch things out on paper.)P' = (__,__)

102
The transformation ABCD → A'B'C'D' is a rotation around(-1, -3)by__°Rotate P around(-1, -
3)by the same angle. (You may need to sketch things out on paper.)P' = (__,__)

 READ TOPIC 8: Pythagoras Theorem

103
 PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
Triangle with a Right angle i.e. 90° has an amazing property. Do you want to know what
property is that? Go on, read our notes to see the amazing property of a right angled triangle.

Pythagoras Theorem deals only with problems involving any Triangle having one of its Angles
with 900. This kind of a Triangle is called Right angled triangle.

When triangle is a right angled triangle, squares can be made on each of the three sides. See
illustration below:

The Area of the biggest square is exact the same as the sum of the other two squares put together.
This is what is called Pythagoras theorem and it is written as:

that is:

„c’ is the Longest side of the Triangle, is called Hypogenous and is the one that forms the biggest
square. a and b are the two smaller sides.

Proof of Pythagoras Theorem

104
The Pythagoras Theorem
Prove the pythagoras theorem
Pythagoras theorem states that: In a Right Angled Triangle, the sum of squares of smaller sides is
exactly equal to the square of Hypotenuse side (large side). i.e. a2 + b2 = c2

Take a look on how to show that a2 + b2 = c2

See the figure below:

The area of a whole square (big square)

A big square is the one with sides a + b each. Its area will be:

(a + b) ×(a + b)

Area of the other pieces

First, area of a smaller square (tilted) = c2

Second, area of the equal triangles each with bases a and height b:

But there are 4 triangles and they are equal, so total area =

105
Both areas must be equal, the area of a big square must be equal to the area of a tilted
square plus the area of 4 triangles

That is:

(a + b)(a + b) = c2 + 2ab

Expand (a +b)(a + b): a2 +2ab + b2 = c2 + 2ab

Subtract 2ab from both sides: a2 + b2 = c2 Hence the result!

Note: We can use Pythagoras theorem to solve any problem that can be converted into right
Angled Triangle.

Exercise 1

1. In a right triangle with given hypotenuse c and legs a and b, find:

1. c if a = 5 and b = 12

2. a if b = 8 and c = 12

3. b if a = 9 and c = 11

2. A rectangle has base 6 and height 10. What is the length of the diagonal?

3. A square has a diagonal with length 6. What is the length of the sides of the square?

4. The diagonals of a rhombus have lengths 6 and 8. Find the length of one side of the rhombus.

5. A ladder leans against a wall. If the ladder reaches 8m up the wall and its foot is 6m from the
base of the wall. Find the length of the ladder.

6. Find the value of the marked side.

106
Application of Pythagoras Theorem
The Pythagoras Theorem to Solve Daily Life Problems
Apply the pythagoras theorem to solve daily life problems
You may have heard about Pythagoras's theorem (or the Pythagorean Theorem) in your math
class, but what you may fail to realize is that Pythagoras's theorem is used often in real life
situations. For example, calculating the distance of a road, television or smart phone screen size
(usually measured diagonally).

Activity 1

Apply the Pythagoras theorem to solve daily life problems

107
 TRIGONOMETRY
Do you want to learn the relationships involving lengths and Angles of right-angled triangle?
Here, is where you can learn.

Trigonometric Rations
Trigonometry is all about Triangles. In this chapter we are going to deal with Right Angled
Triangle. Consider the Right Angled triangle below:

The sides are given names according to their properties relating to the Angle .

Adjacent side is adjacent (next to) to the Angle

Opposite side is opposite the Angle

Hypotenuse side is the longest side

Sine, Cosine and Tangent of an Angle using a Right Angled Triangle

Define sine, cosine and tangent of an angle using a right angled triangle
Trigonometry is good at finding the missing side or Angle of a right angled triangle. The special
functions, sine, cosine and tangent help us. They are simply one of a triangle divide by another.
See similar triangles below:

108
The ratios of the corresponding sides are:

Where by t, c and s are constant ratios called tangent (t), cosine (c) and sine (s) of Angle
respectively.

The right-angled triangle can be used to define trigonometrical ratios as follows:

The short form of Tangent is tan, that of sine is sin and that of Cosine is cos.

The simple way to remember the definition of sine, cosine and tangent is the
word SOHCAHTOA. This means sine is Opposite (O) over Hypotenuse (H); cosine
is Adjacent (A) over Hypotenuse (H); and tangent is Opposite (O) over Adjacent (A). Or

Example 1

109
Given a triangle below, find sine, cosine and Tangent of an angle indicated.

Solution

Example 2

Given that

110
Trigonometric Ratios of Special Angles
Determination of the Sine, Cosine and Tangent of 30°, 45° and 60° without
using Mathematical Tables
Determine the sine, cosine and tangent of 30°, 45° and 60° without using mathematical tables
The special Angles we are going to deal with are 300, 450, 600, 900. Let us see how to get the
Tangent, Sine and Cosine of each angle as follows:

First, consider an equilateral triangle ABC below, the altitude from C bisects at D.

AD = BD = 1 (bisection)

111
112
The results above can be summarized in table as here below:

Simple Trigonometric Problems Related to Special Angles

Solve simple trigonometric problems related to special angles
Example 3

Find the value of x if

Trigonometric Tables
The Trigonometric Ratios from Tables
Read the trigonometric ratios from tables
We can find the trigonometrical ratio of any angle by reading it on a trigonometrial table in the
same way as we did in reading logarithm of a number on a logarithimic table.

The angle is read from the extreme left hand column and then the corresponding value under the
corresponding column of minutes and seconds whenever there is seconds. If we are given angle
with zero minute (0‟), we read the corresponding value of an angle under the column labeled 0‟.

113
For example; if we are to find the sin560, we have to go to the column extreme to the left. Run
your finger down until you meet560, then slide your finger to the exactly same raw to the column
labeled 0‟. The answer will is 0.8290.

Another example: find cos 78045'. Read the angle780 to the column extreme to the left and then
slide your figure to the exactly same angle until you meet the column labeled 45‟. The table I‟m
using has no 45‟, so, I have to read the number near to 45‟. This number is 42‟. The answer of
cos78042'is 0.1959. the minutes remained, we are going to read them to the difference columns.
Slide your figure to the same column of degree780to the difference column labeled 3‟ (minutes
remained). The answer is 9. But the instructions says, „numbers to the difference columns to be
subtracted, not added‟. This means we have to subtract 9 (0.0009) from 0.1959. When we
subtract we remain with 0.1950. Therefore, cos78045'= 0.1950.

Note that, you can read in the same way the tangent of an angle as we read cosine and sine of an
angle. Make sure you read the tables of Natural sine or cosine and or tangent and not otherwise.

Problems involving Trigonometric Ratios from Tables

Solve problems involving trigonometric ratios from tables
Example 4

Use table to find the value of:

1. sin 550
2. cos 34.40
3. tan 60.20
Solution

1. sin 550 = 0.8192

2. To find the value of cos 34.40 , first change34.40 into degrees and minutes. Let us change
the decimal part i.e. 0.40 into minutes. 0.4 ×60 minutes = 24 minutes thus, cos 34024' = 0.8251
3. To find the value of tan 60.20, first change60.20 into degrees and minutes. Let us change
the decimal part i.e. 0.20 into minutes. 0.2 ×60 minutes = 12 minutes thus tan 60012' = 1.7461

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Important note: when finding the inverse of any of the three trigonometric ratios by using table,
we search the given ratio on a required table until we find it and then we read the corresponding
degree angle. It is the same as finding Ant-logarithm of a number on a table by searching.

Angles of Elevation and Depression

Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression
Demonstrate angles of elevation and angles of depression
Angle of Elevation of an Object as seen by an Observer is the angle between the horizontal and
the line from the Object to the Observer‟s aye (the line of sight). See the figure below for better
understanding

The angle of Elevation of the Object from the Observer is α0.

Angle of depression of an Object which is below the level of Observer is the angle between the
horizontal and the Observer‟s line of sight. To have the angle of depression, an Object must be
below the Observer‟s level. Consider an illustration below:

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The angle of depression of the Object from the Object is β0

Problems involving Angles of Elevation and Angles of Depression

Solve Problems involving angles of elevation and angles of depression
Example 5

From the top of a vertical cliff 40 m high, the angle of a depression of an object that is level with
the base of the cliff is350. How far is the Object from the base of the cliff?
Solution

We can represent the given information in diagram as here below:

Angle of depression = 350

Exercise 1

1. Use trigonometric tables to find the following:

1. cos 38.250
2. sin 56.50

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3. tan 750

2. Use trigonometrical tables to find the value of x in the following problems.

a. sin x0 = 0.9107
b. tan x0 = 0.4621

3. Find the height of the tower if it casts a shadow of 30 m long when the angle of elevation of
the sun is380.

4. The Angle of elevation of the top of a tree of one point from east of it and 56 m away from its
base is250. From another point on west of the tree the Angle of elevation of the top is500. Find
the distance of the latter point from the base of the tree.

5. A ladder of a length 15m leans against a wall and make an angle of300with a wall. How far up
the wall does it reach?

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 SETS
Forget everything you know about number and forget that you even know what a number is. This
is where mathematics starts. Instead of mathematics with numbers we will think about
mathematics with things.

The word set means collection of related things or objects. Or, things grouped together with a
certain property in common. For example, the items you wear: shoes, socks, hat, shirt, pants and
so on. This is called a set. A set notation is simple, we just list each element or member (element
and member are the same thing), separated by comma, and then put some curly brackets around
the whole thing. See an example below:

The Curly brackets are sometimes called “set brackets” or “Braces”.

Sets are named by capital letters. For example; A = {1, 2, 3, 4 …} and not a = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}.

To show that a certain item belongs to a certain set we use the symbol ∈.

For example if set A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and we want to show that 1 belongs to set A (is an element of
set A) we write 1∈A.

To show the total number of elements that are in a given set, say set A, we use the symbol n(A).
Using our example A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then, the total number of elements of set A is 4.
Symbolically , we write n(A) = 4

Description of a Set

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A Set
Define a set
We describe sets either by using words, by listing or by Formula. For example if set A is a set of
even numbers, we can describe it as follows:

1. By using words: A = {even numbers}

2. By listing: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10,...}

3. By Formula: A = {x: x = 2n, where n = 1,2,3,…} and is read as A is a set of all x such
that x is an even number.

Example 1

Describe the following set by listing: N is a set of Natural numbers between 0 and 11
Solution

N = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Example 2

Write the following named set using the formula: O is a set of Odd numbers:
Solution

O = {x: x = 2n – 1, whereby n = 1,2,3….}

Example 3

Write the following set in words: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Solution

W = {whole numbers} or W is a set of whole numbers.

The Members of a Set

List the members of a set
The objects in a set are called the members of the set or the elements of the set.

A set should satisfy the following:

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1. The members of the set should be distinct. (not be repeated)

2. The members of the set should be well-defined. (well-explained)

Example 4

In question 1 to 3 list the elements of the named sets.

1. A={x: x is an odd number <10 li="">

2. B={days of the week which begin with letter S}

3. C={prime numbers less than 13}

Solution

1. A={1,3,5,7,9}

2. B={Saturday,Sunday}

3. C={2,3,5,7,11}

Naming a Set
Name a set
To describe a small set, we list its members between curly brackets {, }:

 {2, 4, 6, 8}

 { England, France, Iran, Singapore, New Zealand }

 { David Beckham } {}

 (the empty set, also written ∅)

We write a ∈ X to express that a is a member of the set X. For example 4 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8}. a /∈ X
means a is not a member of X.

Differentiate Sets by Listing and by Stating the Members

Distinguish sets by listing and by stating the members
By Stating the members: A = {even numbers}

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By listing: A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10,...}

Types of Sets
A Universal Set and an Empty Set
Define a universal set and an empty set
Universal set

This is a set that contains everything that we are interested in. The symbol for universal set is μor
U. for example, the set of Integers contains all the elements of sets such as odd numbers, prime
numbers, even numbers, counting numbers and whole numbers. In this example the set of
integers is the Universal set.

Another example of a Universal set is a Set of all English Alphabets which contains all elements
of a set of vowels and set of Consonants.

Empty set or Null set: is a set with no elements. There aren‟t any elements in it. Not one. Zero
elements. For example; A set of Countries South of the South Pole.

It is represented by Øor {}.

The Difference Between Finite and Infinite Sets

Distinguish between finite and infinite sets
Finite sets: is a set which its elements can be counted. We can say how many members are
there. For example; a set B is a set of numbers between 1 and 7. When we list the elements, then
set B = {2,3,4,5,6}. So, there 5 elements. This set is called finite set.

Infinite set: this is a set whereby we cannot count the number of elements of the set. We cannot
tell how many members are there in a set. For example; A is a set of all real numbers. Real
numbers are all positive and negative numbers including fractions. We cannot count the
members of a set of real numbers. Another example; B = {1,2,3,…}. Three dots means go on or
infinite, we will go on with no end. This types of sets are called infinite sets.

The Difference Between Equivalent and Equal Sets

Distinguish between equivalent and equal sets

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Equivalent sets: Two sets are said to be equivalent if their members match exactly. For
example; if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {w, x, y, z} the two sets match like this:

Generally, two sets are equivalent if n(A) = n(B). Symbolically we write A ≡B which means A is
equivalent to B.

Equal sets: If two sets are equivalent and their members are alike, then the two sets are said to
be equal. For example; if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, a, b, d} then the two sets are equal since a
is in set A and in set B, b is in set A and in set B, c is in set A and in set B and d is in set A and in
B. Also, numbers of elements of the both sets are equal. Therefore A = B (set A is equal to set B)

Subsets
A Subset
Define a subset
When we define a set, if we take piece of that set, we can form what is called a subset. For
example; if we have a set {a, b, c, d, e}, a subset of this is {b, c, d}. Another subset is {a, b} or
even another subset is {e} or {d} and so on. However {a, f} is not a subset since it contains an
element (f) which it is not in the parent set.

Generally, A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is in B. symbolically we write

A⊂B (means A is a subset of B).

Subsets of a Given Set

List subsets of a given set
For example; if A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4} then, B is a proper subset of A
i. e. B⊂A and C is an improper subset of A i.e. C⊆A.

Important note: an Empty set is a subset of any set.

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The Difference between Proper and Improper Subsets
Distinguish between proper and improper subsets
If every element in A is also in B, and there exist at least one element in B that is not in A, we
say that A is Proper subset of B.

And if every element in A is in B, and there is no element in B that is not in A, we say that A is
an improper subset of B and we write A = B or symbolically we write A⊆B or B⊆A.

The Number of Subsets in a Set

Calculate the number of subsets in a set
Consider an example below:

When you look at the table, you will see that the number of subsets can be obtained by 2 raised
to the number of elements of the set under consideration. Therefore, the formula for finding the
number of subsets of a set with n elements is given by 2n, n is a number of elements of a set.

Example: How many subsets are there in set A = {Red, White, Yellow}. List them.

Solution: case 1, number of subsets

Set A has 3 elements. But

Number of subsets = 2n, so number of subsets of set A = 23 = 8

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Therefore set A has 8 subsets

Case 2: list of subsets.

The subsets of set A are: {

},{Red},{White},{Yellow},{Red,White},{Red,Yellow},{White,Yellow}, {Red,White,Yellow}.

Operations With Sets

Union of Two Sets
Find union of two sets
When elements of two or more sets are put together with no repetition, we get another set which
is a union set. The symbol for union is ∪.

For example; if A = {a,b} and B = {a,b,c,d,e}, then A∪B = {a,b,c,d,e}.

Another example; if A = {a,b,c} and B = {5,6,2,4}, find A∪B.

Solution

A∪B = {a,b,c,5,6,2,4}

The Compliment of a Set

Find the compliment of a set
Complement means „everything that is not‟. For example; if A is a subset of a universal set,
the elements of a universal set that are not in A are the complements of set A. complement of a
set is denoted by C. So complement of set A is written as Ac. Or A′.

For example; if ∪= {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,} and A = {1,3,5,7,9}. Find Ac.

Solution

We are required to find elements which are not in A but are in ∪.

Therefore, Ac= {2,4,6,8}.

The Number of Elements in the Union and Intersection of two Sets

Find the number of elements in the union and intersection of two sets

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If A = {a,b,c} and B = {5,6,2,4}, find A∪B.

Solution

A∪B = {a,b,c,5,6,2,4}

Intersection

If we have two sets A and B and we decide to form a new set by taking only common elements
from both sets i.e. elements which are found both in A and B. This new set is called intersection
of set A and B. the symbol for intersection is ∩. Intersection of sets A and B is denoted by A∩B.
for example; if A = {a,b,d,e} and B = {a b,d,f,g} then, the common elements are: a, b and d.
Therefore, A∩B = {a,b,d}. Another example; if A = {1,3,5,7,9} and B = {2,4,6,8}. Find A∩B.

Answer

When you take a look at our sets, you will notice that there is no even a single element which is
in common. Therefore, intersection of set A and B is an Empty set i.e. A∩B = or { }.

Venn Diagrams
Reprsenting Sets by using Venn Diagrams
Represent a sets by using venn diagrams
The diagrams are oval shaped. They we named after John venn, an English Mathematician who
introduced them. For example A = {1,2,3} in venn diagram can be represented as follows:

is a universal set which can be a set of counting numbers and A is a subset of it.

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If we have two sets, say Set A and B and these sets have some elements in common and we are
supposed to represent them in venn diagrams, their ovals will overlap. For example if A =
{a,b,c,d,e,} and B = {a,e,i,o,u} in venn diagrams they will look like this:

If the two sets have no elements in common, then the ovals will be separate. For example; if A =
{1,2,3} and B = {5,6}. In venn diagram they will appear like here below:

If we have two sets, A and B and set A is a subset of set B then the oval for set A will be inside
the oval of set B. for example; if A = {b,c} and B = {a,b,c,d} then in venn diagram it will look
like this:

If we have to represent the union or intersection of two or more sets using venn diagrams, the
appearance of the venn diagrams will depend on whether the sets under consideration have some
elements in common or not.

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Information from Venn Diagrams
Interpret information from venn diagrams
Case 1: sets with elements in common.

Example 1: If A = {5,6,7,9,10} and B = {3,4,7,9,11} represent A union B and A intersection B in

venn diagrams.

Solution

Case 1: A union B

Case 2: A intersection B

Example 2: A = {a,b,c,d,e,f}, B = {a,e} and C = {b,c,e,d}. Represent in venn diagrams A∪B∪C

and A∩B ∩C.

Solution: case 1. A∪B∪C

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Case 2: A ∩B∩C

Case 2: sets with no elements in common:

For example; A = {a,b,c,}, B = {d,f}, C = {h,g} on venn diagram will appear like this:

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Number of elements in two sets say set A and B i.e. n(A∪B) is given by: n(A∪B) = n(A) +
n(B) – n(A ∩B)

proof: consider the venn diagram below:

From our venn diagram:

n(A) = x + y, n(B) = y + z, n(A∩B) = y and n(A∪B) = x + y + z thus;

n(A) + n(B) = (x + y) + (y + z)

= (x + y + z) + y

but x + y + z = n(A ∪B) and n(A∩B) = y

so,

n(A) + n(B) = n(A∪B) + n(A∩B)

make n(A∪B) be the subject of the formula

For example; if n(A) = 15, n(A∩B) = 3 and n(A∪B) = 24. Find n(B)

Soln;

Recall that: n(A∪B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A∩B)

n(B) = n(A∪B) + n(A∩B) – n(A)

= 24 + 3 – 15

n(B) = 12

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Therefore, n(B) = 12

Word problems

For example; at Mtakuja primary school there are 180 pupils. If 120 pupils like one of the sports,
either netball or football and 50 pupils likes netball while 30 pupils likes both netball and
football. How many pupils

1. likes football.

2. Likes neither of the sport

Solutions.

Let be the universal set

N be the set of pupils who likes netball

F be the set of pupils who likes football

Thus,

n(F) = ?

n(N∩F) = 30

n(N∪F) = 120

n(μ) = 180

But we know that n(N∪F) = n(N) + n(F) – n(N∩F)

Thus, n(F) = n(N∪F) + n(N∩F) – n(N)

= 120 + 30 – 50

n(F) = 100

Therefore there are 100 pupils who likes football.

2. We have a total of 180 pupils at Mtakuja primary school

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But only 120 pupils likes one of either the sport. so, those who likes neither of the sport will be
180 – 120 = 50

Therefore 50 pupils likes neither of the sport.

Alternatively: by using venn diagram

n(F) only = 120 – 30 -20 = 70

n(F) = those who likes both netball and football + those who likes football only

n(F) = 30 + 70 = 100

Therefore, there 100 pupils who likes football.

Exercise 1

1. If A = {Red,White,Blue} show by using symbol that Red, White and Blue are members of set
A.

2. List the elements of set B if B is a set of counting numbers.

3. Which of the following sets are finite, infinite or empty sets.

1. A = {y:y is an odd number}

2. B = {1,3,7,…35}

3. C={}

4. D = {Maths,Biology,Physics,Chemistry}

5. E = {Prime numbers between 31 and 37}

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6. F = {….-2,-1,0,1,2,…}

4. If A = {1,4,9,16,25,36}, B = {1,4,9} and C = {1,3,4}, which of the following statement is true:

1. A⊂B

2. B⊂A

3. A⊆C

4. C⊆B

5. How many subsets are there in set A = {f,g,I,k,m,n}? List them all.

6.If A = {all letters of English Alphabets} and B = {c,d,g,h}.List the elements of B′.

7. Let B be a set of whole numbers and C a set of prime numbers found in a set of whole
numbers, using venn diagram show B∩C.

8. Draw a venn Diagram and show by shading the required region:

9. If n(A) = 90, n(B) = 120 and n(A∩B) = 45. Find:

1. n(A∪ B)

2. n(B) only.

3. n(A) only.

10. In a certain meeting 40 people drank juice, 25 drank soda and 20 drank both juice and soda.
How many people were in the meeting, assuming that each person took juice or soda?

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 STATISTICS
Statistics is the study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, presentation and organization of
data. Statistics helps to present information using picture or illustration. Illustration may be in the
form of tables, diagrams, charts or graphs.

Statistics helps to present information using picture or illustration. Illustration may be in the form
of tables, diagrams, charts or graphs.

Pictograms
Information by Pictograms
Display Information by pictograms
This is a way of showing information using images. Each image stands for a certain number of
things.

Interpretation of Pictograms
Interpret pictograms
For example here is a pictograph showing how many apples were sold over 4 months at a local
shop.

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Each picture of 1 apple means 10 apples and the half-apple means 5 apples.

Note that:

 The method is not very accurate. For example in our example we can‟t show just 1 apple
or 2 apples.

 Pictures should be of the same size and same distance apart. This helps easy comparison.

 The scale depends on the amount of data you have. If the data is huge, then one image
can stand for large number like 100, 1000, 10 000 and so on.

Bar Charts
They are also called bar graphs. Is a graphical display of information using bars of different
heights.

Horizontal and Vertical Bar Charts

Draw horizontal and vertical bar charts
For example; imagine you just did a survey of your friends to find what kind of movie they liked
best.
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We can show that on a bar graph as here below:

Scale: vertical scale: 1cm represents 1 kind of movie

Horizontal scale: 1 cm represents 1 movie they watched.

Interpretation of Bar Chat

Interpret bar chart
in a recent math test students got the following grades:

And this is a bar chart.

Scale: vertical scale: 1 cm represents 1 grade

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Horizontal scale: 1 cm represents 2 students

Line Graphs
These are graphs showing information that is connected in some way. For example change over
time.

Representing Data using Line Graphs

Represent data using line graphs
Example 1

you are learning facts about mathematics and each day you do test to see how Good you are.

Solution

We need to have a scale that helps us to know how many Centimeter will represent how many
facts that you were correct.

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Vertical scale: 1 cm represents 2 facts that you were right

Horizontal scale: 2 cm represents 1 day.

Interpretation of Line Graphs

Interpret line graphs
Example 2

The graph below shows the temperature over the year:

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From the graph we can get the following data:

1. The month that had the highest temperature was August.

2. The month with the lowest temperature was February.

3. The difference in temperature between February and may is (320-290)=30C.
4. The total number of months that had temperature more than 300C was 9.

Pie Chart
This is a special chart that uses “pie slices” to show relative size of data. It is also called Circle
graph.

Data using Pie Charts

Display data using pie charts
Example 3

The survey about pupils interests in subjects is as follows: 30 pupils prefer English, 40 pupils
refer French and 50 pupils prefer Kiswahili. Show this information in a pie chart.

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How to make them?

Step 1: put all you are data into a table and then add up to get a total.

Step 2: divide each value by the total and then multiply by 360 degrees to figure out how many
degrees for each “pie slice” (we call pie slice a sector) We multiply by 360 degrees because a full
circle has a total of 360 degrees.

Step 3: draw a circle of a size that will be enough to show all information required. Use a
protractor to measure degrees of each sector. It will look like the one here below:

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Interpretation of Pie Charts
Interpret pie charts
Example 4

Interpreting the pie charts.

How many pupils are between 121-130cm tall?

The angle of this section is 36 degrees. The question says there are 30 pupils in the class. So the
number of pupils of height 121 - 130 cm is:

36
/360 x 30 = 3

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Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency is how often something occurs. For example; Amina plays netball twice on Monday,
once on Tuesday and thrice on Wednesday. Twice, once and thrice are frequencies.

By counting frequencies we can make Frequency Distribution table.

Frequency Distribution Tables from Raw Data

Make frequency distribution tables from raw data
For example; Sam‟s team has scored the following goals in recent games.

2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 2, 2, 3.

How to make a frequency distribution table?

•Put the number in order i.e. 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5

•Write how often a certain number occurs. This is called tallying

1. how often 1 occurs? (2 times)

2. how often 2 occurs? (5 times)

3. how often 3 occurs? (4 times)

4. how often 4 occurs? (2 times)

5. how often 5 occurs? (1 times)

•Then, wrote them down on a table as a Frequency distribution table.

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From the table we can see how many goals happen often, and how many goals they scored once
and so on.

Interpretation of Frequency Distribution Table form Raw Data

Interpret frequency distribution table form raw data
Grouped Distribution Table

This is very useful when the scores have many different values. For example; Alex measured the
lengths of leaves on the Oak tree (to the nearest cm)

9, 16, 13, 7, 8, 4, 18, 10, 17, 18, 9, 12, 5, 9, 9, 16, 1, 8, 17, 1, 10, 5, 9, 11, 15, 6, 14, 9, 1, 12, 5,
16, 4, 16, 8, 15, 14, 17.

How to make a grouped distribution table?

Step 1: Put the numbers in order. 1, 1, 1, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 11, 12,

12, 13, 14, 14, 15, 15, 16, 16, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18,

Step 2: Find the smallest and the largest values in your data and calculate the range.

The smallest (minimum) value is 1 cm

The largest (maximum) value is 18 cm

The range is 18 cm – 1 cm = 17 cm

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Step 3: Find the size of each group. Calculate an approximate size of the group by dividing the
range by how many groups you would like. then, round that group size up to some simple value
like 4 instead of 4.25 and so on.

Let us say we want 5 groups. Divide the range by 5 i.e. 17/5 = 3.4. then round up to 4

Step 4: Pick a Starting value that is less than or equal to the smallest value. Try to make it a
multiple of a group size if you can. In our case a start value of 0 make the most sense.

Step 5: Calculate the list of groups (we must go up to or past the largest value).

In our case, starting at 0 and with a group size of 4 we get 0, 4, 8, 12, 16. Write down the groups.
Include the end value of each group. (must be less than the next group):

The largest group goes up to 19 which is greater than the maximum value. This is good.

Step 6: Tally to find the frequencies in each group and then do a total as well.

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Done!

Upper and Lower values

Referring our example; even though Alex measured in whole numbers, the data is continuous.
For instance 3 cm means the actual value could have been any were between 2.5 cm to 3.5 cm.
Alex just rounded numbers to whole numbers. And 0 means the actual value have been any
where between -0.5 cm to 0.5 cm. but we can‟t say length is negative. 3.5 cm is called upper
real limit or upper boundary while –0.5 cm is called lower real limit or lower boundary. But
since we don‟t have negative length we will just use 0. So regarding our example the lower real
limit is 0.

The limits that we used to group the data are called limits. For example; in a group of 0 – 3, 0 is
called lower limit and 3 is called upper limit.

See an illustration below to differentiate between Real limits and limits.

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Class size is the difference between the upper real limit and lower real limit i.e. class size =
upper real limit – lower real limit

We use the symbol N (capital N) to represent the total number of frequencies.

Class Mark of a class Interval

This is a central (middle) value of a class interval. It is a value which is half way between the
class limits. It is sometimes called mid-point of a class interval. Class mark is obtained by
dividing the sum of the upper and lower class limits by 2. i.e.

Class mark =

Referring to our example class marks for the class intervals are;

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Interpretation of Frequency Distribution Tables
Interpret frequency distribution tables
Example 5

interpretation of frequency distribution data:

total number of cars in the survey:

6 + 3 + 5 + 1 = 15

There are 6 cars with one person in, 3 cars with two people, 5 cars with three people, and 1 car
with four people.

the most likely number of people in a car:

Cars in the survey are most likely to have 1 person in them as this is the tallest bar - 6 of the cars
in the survey had one occupant.

Frequency Polygons
This is a graph made by joining the middle-top points of the columns of a frequency Histogram

Drawing Frequency Polygons from Frequency Distribution Tables

Draw frequency polygons from frequency distribution tables
For example; use the frequency distribution table below to draw a frequency polygon.

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Solution

In a frequency polygon, one interval is added below the lowest interval and another interval is
added above the highest interval and they are both assigned zero frequency. The points showing
the frequency of each class mark are placed directly over the class marks of each class interval.
The points are then joined with straight lines.

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Interpretation of Frequency Polygons
Interpret frequency polygons
The frequency polygon below represents the heights, in inches, of a group of professional
basketball players. Use the frequency polygon to answer the following questions:

the number of players whose heights were measured 100.

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Histograms
Is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights. It is similar to bar charts, but a
Histogram groups numbers into ranges (intervals). And you decide what range to use.

Drawing Histograms from Frequency Distribution Table

Draw histograms from frequency distribution table
For example; you measure the height of every tree in the orchard in Centimeters (cm) and notice
that, their height vary from 100 cm to 340 cm. And you decide to put the data into groups of 50
cm. the results were like here below:

Represent the information above using a histogram.

Solution

In order to draw histogram we need to calculate class marks. We will use class marks against
frequencies.

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Scale: vertical scale: 1 cm represents 5 trees

horizontal scale: 1 cm represents 50 cm (range of trees heigths).

Interpretation of Histograms
Interpret histograms
The histogram below represents scores achieved by 250 job applicants on a personality profile.

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1. Percentage of the job applicants scored between 30 and 40 is10%

2. Percentage of the job applicants scored below 60 is90%

3. Job applicants scored between 10 and 30 is100

Cumulative Frequency Curves

Cumulative means “how much so far”. To get cumulative totals just add up as you go.

Drawing Cumulative Frequency Curves from a Cumulative Frequency

Distribution Table
Draw cumulative frequency curves from a cumulative frequency distribution table
For example; Hamis has earned this much in the last 6 months.

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How to get cumulative frequency?

The first line is easy, the total earned so far is the same as Hamis earned that month.

But, for February, the total earned so far is Tsh 12 000 + Tsh 15 000 = Tsh 27 000.

for March, we continue to add up. The total earned so far is Tsh 12 000 + Tsh 15 000 + Tsh 13
000 = 40 000 or simply take the cumulative of February add that of March i.e. Tsh 27 000 + Tsh
13 000 = Tsh 40 000.

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The rest of the months will be:

April: Tsh 40 000 + Tsh 17 000 = Tsh 57 000

May: Tsh 57 000 + Tsh 16 000 = Tsh 73 000

June: TSh 73 000 + Tsh 20 000 = Tsh 93 000

The results on a cumulative frequency table will be as here below:

The last cumulative total should math the total of all earnings.

Graph for cumulative polygon is drawn with cumulative frequency on vertical axis and real
upper limits on Horizontal axis.

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Scale: Vertical scale: 1cm represents Tsh 20 000

Give number to months. i.e. January =2, February =3 and so on

Note: To draw an Orgive, plot the points vertically above the upper real limits of each interval
and then join the points by a smooth curve. Add real limit to the lowest real limit and give it
zero frequency.

Interpretation of a Cumulative Frequency Curve

Interpret a cumulative frequency curve
Interpretation:

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Its Cumulative Frequency Curve or Orgive will be:

Exercise 1

1. Represent the data in the table below using pictures (pictograms)

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2. The following table represent the number of pupils with their corresponding height.

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