Form 1: Geography: Weather & Climate (compiled by Mr Musona.

Kadoma Prison 2021 )

Geography

 Is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environment
 Exploring both the physical properties of earth’s surface and the human societies spread
across it
 It tries to understand where things are found, why they are there and how they develop and
change over time

Weather

 Is the daily condition of the atmosphere at a specific place, at any given time

Climate

 Is the average atmospheric condition of a specific place measured over a long period of time

Weather elements

 Cloud cover
 Humidity
 Pressure
 Rainfall
 Sunshine
 Temperature
 Wind speed
 Wind direction

Instruments used to measure weather elements

1. Temperature
 Is the level of hotness or coldness of a place from day to day
 It is measured using a thermometer
 The instruments are in different types:
 Maximum thermometer measuring highest temperature
 Minimum thermometer measuring lowest temperature
 Six’s thermometer measuring both minimum and maximum temperatures

Bulb
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Minimum thermometer
  Uses alcohol because it has low freezing point and can go as low as -70o C
 As temperature decreases the alcohol contracts and pulls the index towards the
bulb by the surface of alcohol meniscus
 When the temperature rises, alcohol flows over the index that remains stationary
 The end of the index nearest the meniscus indicates the minimum temperature
reading
 After taking the reading value, the metal index is reset to the proper position

Maximum thermometer

 Uses mercury because it is only liquid metal with high capacity to expand (a
slightest rise in temperature is notable in a thermometer using mercury)
 Its boiling point is 250o C
 When temperature rises mercury expands pushing the metal index through the
bulb up
 When temperature falls after reaching the maximum reading value, mercury
contracts leaving the metal index stationary due to constriction
 Maximum temperature reading is done by observing the side of the bulb closest
to mercury
 After taking the maximum reading value, the metal index is reset

Six’s thermometer / minimum and maximum thermometer

 Used to record extremes of temperature at any location

 Records both minimum and maximum temperatures at once
 Contains both mercury and alcohol
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 Before each reading the metal index should be reset to position

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  A magnet may be used to reset the metal index or using a button in modern thermometers on
the mercury section
 Minimum temperature recording is done on the left column and the maximum temperature
reading is done on the right column
 When temperature rises, the mercury is pushed up the tube towards the right column by
expansion of mercury
 As mercury expands towards the right glass tube column, the metal index is pushed to the
highest temperature recording point of the day
 When temperature drops, the metal index remains stationary at the maximum temperature
reading point of the day
 Minimum temperature reading is recorded
 When temperature falls alcohol contracts pulling the column of mercury back into the left
hand limb of the thermometer
 Alcohol pulls the metal index up the left glass tube side
2. Pressure
 Force exerted by any matter per unit area
 Atmospheric pressure: is the ‘weight’(force) of the air in the atmosphere which is applied on
the ground
 Measured using barometers (mercury barometer / aneroid barometer)
 Units of measurement are millibars
 Lines drawn on maps showing places of the same pressure are known as isobars
 Changes in atmospheric pressure are caused by the rise of warm air and the descent of cold
air (occurs in regions near water bodies)

Mercury Barometer

 Pressure-sensitive component of an aneroid barometer is a row of flexible, evacuated

cells mostly made of a beryllium-copper alloy supported by internal springs
 Any small changes in atmospheric pressure cause the assembly of the cells to expand
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or contract deflecting the pointer of the semi-circular gauge

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 3. Rainfall
 Measured using rain gauge
 Measured in millilitres (ml)
 The rain gauge consists of a funnel connected to a graduated cylinder marked in
millimetres
 The outer cylinder is 20cm in diameter and 50cm tall
 Rain water is collected in the glass tube
 It is water in the inner glass tube that is taken for measurements
 Rain gauges are placed at open areas where there are no obstacles such as buildings
or trees that may block the rain
 It also prevents water from the buildings and leaves of trees to fall into the rain
gauge after rain
 If that happens it results in inaccurate measurements

Precipitation
 Ìs any form of water (liquid, solid, rain or snow) that falls from the clouds and
reaches the ground
4. Wind speed
 Wind is the horizontal movement of air from high pressure areas to low pressure
areas
 Occurs due to rising hot air or sinking cold air
 Wind speed is the rate at which the air is moving
 It is determined by the difference between the high and low-pressure wind
 It’s speed is measured using a cup anemometer
 It is measured in knots (km/hr)
 It consists of three or four conical-shaped cups mounted on a vertical spindle
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 The cup anemometer

 Wind blowing into the cups causes the spindle to rotate

Symbols of measurements of wind speed

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  1 knot = 0.5144m/s
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
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1 knot = 1.8519km/hr
 5. Wind direction
 Is reported by the direction from which it originates
 It is done using cardinal points on a campus
 It is measured in degrees clockwise from due north e.g (wind blowing from north has a
wind direction of zero degrees, one from the East is 90 degrees(90o ) and one from the
South has a wind direction of 180o (degrees) )
 The arrow points in the direction from which the wind will be blowing from

Westerly wind

North-westerly wind

Southerly wind
South-easterly wind
6. Humidity
 Is the amount of water vapour in air
 Measured using a hygrometer/ dry and wet bulb thermometer
 Measured in percentage
 Usually explained on weather reports as Relative Humidity
 Relative Humidity is the amount of water actually in the air expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold at the same
temperature

 The piece of muslin is placed in a container of water


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When the air around the thermometer is dry, water in the muslin evaporates
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 Then, the muslin soaks up water from the container

  The soaked water then cools the thermometer bulb
 Mercury contracts and the temperature reading falls
 That causes a great difference in temperature between the dry and wet bulbs of the
thermometers
 A large difference between the two readings shows that the air is dry (humidity is low
)
 A small difference shows that the air is wet (humidity is high)
 No difference between the two readings shows that the air is saturated (full of
moisture) and rain may be falling or it will soon fall

7. Sunshine
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 is recorded using a Sunshine recorder

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 it records the amount of sunshine at a given location or region at any time

  it concentrates sunlight through the glass sphere onto a recording card at the focal point
 the length of the burn trace left on the card represents the sunshine duration
 focus shifts as the sun moves and a burn trace is left on the recording card at the focal
point

The sunshine recorder image

8. Cloud cover
 Refers to a mass of cloud covering parts or all of the sky
 They are visible masses of tiny water droplets
 The minute water droplets become visible after condensation
 Different types clouds means different weather conditions e.g. light clouds indicate little
to no precipitation, while dark heavy clouds indicates heavy rains or storms
 No instrument is used to measure cloud cover, but through observation

Symbols of cloud cover

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 Weather station
 Is a place where atmospheric/environmental data is collected
 It is where the instruments/devices used to record weather elements are found
 At the weather station, there is a Stevenson screen kept there where some instruments
are kept :maximum and minimum thermometers; hygrometer, barometer and the
Six’s thermometer

Characteristics of the Stevenson screen

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Functions of the Stevenson Screen

  To keep all the thermometers safe
 To have one central point of collection of weather information
 To provide standardised environment in which to measure temperature, humidity,
dew point and atmospheric pressure

Location of weather station

 Open space without buildings or trees

 It should be fenced to protect the area
 It has to be free of trees and buildings to avoid disturbances
 At an open space to avoid taking incorrect recordings

Weather data

 Is the numbers and information about the condition of weather for particular place and time
 Are the recordings of the weather elements
 Weather data are recorded on a synoptic chart
 Synoptic charts are maps that summarises atmospheric conditions using symbols

Weather tables and graphs

 Are used to represent data and produce a quick summary of visual trends of weather data
being presented
 Used to illustrate average temperature and rainfall experienced at a particular place over the
course of a year
 Allow us to easily identify and compare data as the result of study

Example of weather table:

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1. Calculating the average daily temperature

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Add : Daily maximum temperature= Ao C (let it be Ao C)

 + Daily minimum temperature =BoC (let it be Bo C )

Daily average temperature = Ao C + Bo C

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2. Calculating mean monthly temperature

Mean monthly temperature =sum of daily average temperature

Number of days in a month
3. mean monthly temperature for year (mean annual temperature)

= sum of mean monthly temperatures for year

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4. Daily temperature range =highest temperature of the day – lowest temperature of the day

5. Mean annual range of temperature = highest mean monthly temperature – lowest mean
monthly temperature

6. Relative humidity = weight of amount of water in the air

The maximum amount of water vapour the air can hold

Types of graphs

 There are two types of graphs:

1. Line graphs
2. Bar graphs

Line graphs

 Uses points to identify values

 The points are then connected with a line that represent variations in the data

Bar graphs

 Use vertical or horizontal rectangles (bars) to represent specific quantity of data

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 Precipitation

 Refers to any form of water either liquid or solid (rain or snow) that falls from the clouds and
reaches the ground

Types of precipitation

 Snow
 Hail
 Rain

Types of rainfall

 Convectional rainfall
 Relief rainfall
 Frontal rainfall

Processes of rainfall formation

1. Convectional rainfall
 Forms from warm, moist air rising
 As the warm, moist air rises, expands as it rises to levels of lower pressure
 It cools because temperature drops with an increase in height (temperature falls roughly
6,5 o C for every 1000m in altitude)

 Cooler air holds less moisture than warmer air

 As the water vapour rises some vapour condenses forming droplets
 As the droplets grow they form clouds that eventually fall as rain
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 This form of rainfall occurs all over Zimbabwe during the wet season ( November to March)
 Warm-moist air comes from the north-west (Congo Air) during the wet season
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  Other moist air streams that come over the country are, the south-east trades and the north-
east monsoons

2. Relief rainfall
 Forms when moist air is forced to rise over mountains or high ground such as
plateaus
 Falls on the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe and on the eastern slopes of the Central
watershed
 Usually falls as a light, steady rain or drizzle (Guti)

3. Frontal rainfall
 Forms when two air streams meet
 The cooler air pushes up the warm moist air
 The line drawn between the two air streams is called the Front
 The area between the two air streams may be as wide as 50km
 That zone may receive heavy thunderstorms
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 Weather Forecasting

 Is the predicting of how the weather would be at particular time and place

The importance of weather forecasting

 Helps to inform people of proper clothing for a particular atmospheric condition in 24- 48
hours (e.g. if raining put on rain coats, carry umbrella )
 Enables people to plan and take precautions against natural calamities such as floods and
typhoon to reduce their effects
 Torrential rains destroy life and property, therefore a prediction of bad weather helps to
protect property
 Helps farmers to adjust their farming activities
 Helps in air and water transport (air traffic landing and taking off is affected by weather and
strong rains and winds also affect water transport)
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 It guides tourists who may be visiting certain areas that may be affected by bad weather
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Weather forecasting using indigenous knowledge system

 Indigenous knowledge system (IKS)

 Is knowledge that is accumulated by an indigenous community over generations of living in

a particular environment

ways of predicting weather using indigenous knowledge system

 Temperature
 Wind patterns
 Behaviour of insects and animals
 Human ailments e.g. people whose bodies were operated on
 Shading and blooming of tree leaves

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Landforms and landscape processes

Landforms

 Are natural geographic features found on the earth’s surface that is part of the terrain

Examples of landforms

 Mountains
 Hills
 Plateaus
 Plains
 Buttes
 Valleys
 Canyons
 Basins
 Dwalas
 Kopjes
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o landforms are formed from natural processes (forces) such plate tectonic and erosion
 Landscapes

 Are all the visible features of an area of land including natural landforms and man-
made

Examples of landscapes

 Mountain
 Farm land
 Desert
 Forest
 Sea-coast
 Cliff
 Wetland
 Woodland
 Escarpment
o Landscapes are formed by both natural forces and through human activities

Difference between landforms and landscape

 Landscapes are made up of many landforms

 A landform is natural geographic feature that appears on the earth’s surface
 A landform is made by natural forces, while natural landscapes are made up of many
different landforms

Topography

 Is a specific terrain and the physical arrangement of landscapes

Landforms of Africa and the world

 Rift valleys
 Lakes
 River basins
 Mountains
 Valleys
 Tors/kopje/castle kopjes
 Waterfalls
 Hills
 Plains
 Plateaus

Rift valleys and lakes

o Distinctive landforms of Africa are in East Africa

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o It is where continental plates diverged and formed rift valleys like the East African
Rift Valley, lake Tanganyika is the world’s longest freshwater lake (420 miles long
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and 4700feet deep)

 o Lake Mutirikwi is 270 feet and is the world’s second largest freshwater lake , it is on
a shallow basin between two rift valleys

The rift valley

 Is a lowland region that forms where Earth’s tectonic plates move apart (diverge)

Diverging plate tectonics

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  The African Rift Valley stretches from Mediterranean Sea down through the horn of
the continent and ends at victoria falls
 It has two arms, the Eastern arm and the Western arm
 The Eastern arm is 400km long and 11 to 18km wide
 It is bounded by steep escarpments

Escarpment

 Is an area of the earth where elevation changes suddenly (bottom of a cliff or a steep
slope)
 Formed by erosion or faulting
 Example: the escarpments of Zimbabwe and Zambia along the might Zambezi river,
Livingstone escarpment in Malawi

Waterfall

 Form on river beds of rocks with different resistance to erosion


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Form when resistant rock lie on the river bed, abruptly ends, causing water falling
(waterfall)
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  May also form when a river flows down the edge of a plateau or where there is
faulting

River basins

Mountains

 Formed from geological processes such as folding, faulting and some volcanic
activities
 Folding forms fold mountains and faulting forms Horsts/Block mountains e.g. the
Kharas mountains in Namibia are formed from faulting and Block mountains;
Chimanimani mountains are an example of fold mountains in Zimbabwe
 Mount Kilimanjaro is the biggest mountain of Africa
 Mount Everest is the biggest mountain in the world
 Mount Inyangani is the biggest mountain in Zimbabwe located in Nyanga
 A passage on mountain range is called a pass / gap /saddle between two peaks
(highest points)

Benefits of landforms

1. Mineral wealth
 Some landforms resulting from volcanic activities like dykes are a source of various
important minerals (in Zimbabwe, Great Dyke; in South Africa, Bushveld Igneous
Complex
 The minerals are mined and brings in foreign currency to the country
 Towns and cities are established in these mining areas
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2. Rich Agricultural soils

 Volcanic rocks and ashes provide with rich fertile soils for agricultural purposes e.g.
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  In Zimbabwe, the basalts in the South-East low veld, are weathered into basaltic clay
where many crops are grown
 In Malawi, in Mulanje famous for tea and rice
3. Tourism development
 huge mountains like Kilimanjaro of Tanzania and Mount Everest of China (Nepal and
Tibet region) are a source tourism generating foreign currency
 the might Victoria Falls, one of the seven wonders of the world, is Zimbabwe and
Zambia source of tourism
 Chinhoyi caves are a source of tourism for Zimbabwe
4. Rainfall and Water
 Formation of Relief rainfall because of the peaks of mountains

Ecosystems

 Is a community where there is interaction between biotic (the living) and abiotic (the
none living things) organisms

Components of ecosystem

 Biotic component (biological)

 Abiotic component (physical)

Biotic component

 Micro-organisms
 Macro-organisms
 Plants

Abiotic component

 Sun
 Water
 Soil
 Humus
 Air
 Climate
 Physiographic factors (altitude, slope)
 The interaction comes in the form of interdependence between the living and the non-
living in an environment
 Plants as biotic part of ecosystem requires the sun which is an abiotic part to make
food during photosynthesis
 Oxygen is a product of photosynthesis which is an abiotic component also required by
the other biotic parts like the micro and macro-organisms for their sustenance
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 The interaction is within the food chains and food webs

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Food chain
  Is a feeding sequence of organisms
 It is the transfer of energy through the chain of feeding organisms in an environment
 It starts with the green plant as the producer of food
 All other organisms are consumers
 The sun is the source of energy in an ecosystem
 Primary producer primary consumers secondary consumers tertiary
consumers
 The point of the arrow indicates the direction of the feeding sequence (trend)

Examples of food chains

1. Grass Grasshopper bird snake

2. Tree caterpillars sparrow bird Hawk
3. Grass  impala lion  dung beetle
4. Plankton  planktonic organisms sardine fishmackerel fish

5.

Food web

 It is an inter linkage of food chains in an ecosystem

Lion Cheetah Falcon

Kudu Shrike (bird) Baboon

Locust Shrub Grass Hare

Food pyramid

 Is a diagram that shows the amount of food at each trophic level of a food chain in an
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ecosystem
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 Food Pyramid

 Its broad base represents large amount food (energy)

 The structure gets narrower as it goes up to represent the reduction in energy transfer
along food chains

Energy Flow in an ecosystem

 An ecosystem like any other system has inputs, processes and outputs involved for
their continuity

Inputs

 Are the abiotic components

 Solar energy
 Water
 Mineral chemicals
 Carbon dioxide
 Plant nutrients from humus

Processes
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 Photosynthesis
 Chemical reactions
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 Decomposition
  Respiration

Outputs

 Producers
 Consumers
 Energy
 Oxygen
 Humus

Micro ecosystem

 Is a small ecosystem

Examples of micro-ecosystems

 Garden
 A crop field
 Pond (small pool)
 A decaying tree trunk
 Small bush

Fish pond

Components of micro-ecosystem

1. Biotic
 Frogs
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 Fish
 Algae
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 Aquatic weeds
  Decomposers (fungi and bacteria)

2. Abiotic
 Water
 Soil
 Sunlight
 Air
 Humus

Inputs in the micro-ecosystem

 Sunlight
 Temperature
 Water
 Air (carbon dioxide)
 Humus (from dead and decayed aquatic organisms)

Processes of in the micro-ecosystem

 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Decomposition
 Chemical reactions

Outputs of the micro-ecosystem

o Oxygen
o Fish (consumers)
o Frogs (consumers)
o Energy
o Plants (producers / autotrophs)
o Skates (smaller aquatic organisms)

Interaction of micro-ecosystem components

 The components interact in trophic levels like in macro-ecosystems (bigger)

 They interact in food chains and food webs

Example of a food chain in a micro-ecosystem

Phytoplankton (algae)zooplankton Decomposers

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 Autotrophs

 Organisms that can make their own food from inorganic substances by using light

Food Web in a micro-ecosystem

Natural Resources

 Are materials occurring in nature which are useful to humans

 They occur due to natural forces than human effort
 They are classified into two classes

Types of natural resources

1. Renewable natural resources

 Are the natural resources which can be used and replenished (replaced)
2. Non-renewable natural resources
 Are the natural resources which become exhausted once used (cannot be
replaced)

Examples of renewable natural resources

 Soil
 Plants /forests
 Animals /wildlife (plants and animals in the wild)
 Wind / air
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 Water
 Solar energy
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 Examples of non-renewable natural resources

 Fossil fuels (coal and all products of crude oil)

 Minerals (Gold, copper, platinum, nickel e.t.c.)

Sustainable use of natural resources

Sustainable use

 Using for a reasonable long period of time

 Therefore, natural resources should be used sparingly in order to be available
for future generations

Sustainable ways of using natural resources

 Are conservative ways to prevent the extinction (disappearance) of natural resources

 It is being done through:
 Environmental education
 Legislation
 Substitution of minerals
 Use of alternative sources of energy
 Technology
 Recycling of some wastes (metal materials and plastics)
 Crop rotation to prevent erosion and land degradation
 Afforestation
 Reforestation
 Terracing
 Increasing security on national parks to arrest poaching
 Stop greenhouse gas emissions to avoid polluting the air
 Introduction of aquaculture (fish farming) to reduce overfishing
 The introduction of CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Programme for
Indigenous Resources)

Energy and Power

Energy

 Is the ability or capacity to do work

Power

 Is the rate of doing work or the amount of energy transferred per unit time

Types of energy
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1. Renewable types of energy

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Sources of energy
  Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Biogas
 Wood fuel
 Water
 Geothermal energy
2. Non-renewable types of energy

Sources of energy

Fossil fuels:

o Coal
o Petroleum
o Natural gas
o Nuclear energy

Uses of energy

 It is used in mining
 Used to power machines in industries
 Domestic uses like cooking and lighting houses
 Required in irrigation to power pumps
 Used in transport

Siting of Power Plants

1. Hydropower station

Factors that influence the site

 A large head of water, high dam or waterfall

 Plentiful continuous supply of water from a large dam, natural lake or perennial
river
 A narrow, deep gorge across
 Large capital to roll out initial operations
 Availability of market to use the electricity
 Land of hard rock that resist erosion to have a firm foundation for the dam wall

Kariba Hydropower station

 Availability of Kariba gorge

 Market for the electricity in Zambia and Zimbabwe
 Huge volume of water for continuous supply of water
 Geology of the land, made up of solid rock
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2. Thermal power station

 Factors that influence site

 Proximity (close to) to fuel supply

 Proximity to market for electricity
 Proximity to railway line

Hwange Thermal power station

 Large reserves of high grade coal

Power Generation

Types of power generation

1. Nuclear power generation

2. Geothermal power
3. Thermal power
4. Hydropower generation
5. Wind power generation
6. Solar power generation

Thermal power generation

 Source of heat energy is burnt (coal / oil/ gas / bagasse( a waste from sugarcane)
 The heat from the energy source then heats water in boilers to produce steam
 The steam is pressure-channelled through pipes to turn turbines
 Turbines rotate the generators as they turn
 The generator produces electric power
 Transformers are used to step the power up
 Power is now transmitted to consumers through power lines
 Before it goes to the consumers, power is then stepped down by other transforme rs
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 Hydropower generation station

 Water falls at high speed through the headrace

 It falls on turbines
 The turbines turn
 As the turbines turn, they turn generators
 The generators produce electric energy

Nuclear power generation

 It is done using uranium metal (mineral element)

Nuclear Fission (splitting into many parts)

 Neutrons are fired at a uranium nucleus in the reactor


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When the neutron hits the nucleus, the nucleus explodes

 As it explodes, it splits into many parts
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 The daughter nuclei move apart and away swiftly producing great heat
  The heat generated from the nuclear fission is used to heat water
 The heat is carried by the carbon dioxide to the heat exchanger that produces steam
 Steam from the boiling water then drives turbines to generate electric power
 The concrete casing protects from rays and neutrons

Geothermal power generation

 Geo means earth

 Thermal means heat
 Thus geothermal means heat from the earth
 Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure
 When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water
to turn into steam
 The steam spins a turbine which is connected to a generator that produces electricity
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 Solar power generation

 Is the form of energy produced from sunlight

 The main component of the system is the solar panel (photovoltaic/ pv Cells)
 It traps sunlight
 The solar panels are connected together into a solar array
 It is done to achieve high voltage and current
 The panels are connected to batteries being charged
 The batteries are connected to invertors
 Electricity from solar panels is DC
 Invertor changes it from DC to AC
 The invertors are connected to micro-grids

Wind power generation

 Possible in countries with wind speed of 3 to 6m/s

 It is generated through wind blades that are turned by wind
 The wind blades are linked to turbines
 The turbines produce electric power
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 Environmental Impact of Power Generation and Use of Energy

1. Thermal Power generation Impact on Environment

 Pollution
 Leads to land pollution (leaves a lot of mine dumps)
 Land degradation (leaves a lot of unwanted holes)
 Causes a lot of air pollution
 Leads to acid rain when water vapour reacts with polluted air
 Climate change
 Releases a lot of carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas that leads to global
warming (climate change)
2. Hydropower Generation Impact
 Deforestation
 Large land will be cleared of vegetation when constructing large water bodies
that sustain hydropower station
 Destruction of wildlife habitat ensures e.g. when lake Kariba was constructed
 Climate change
 Construction of huge water bodies leads to climate change on the surrounding
environment since humidity increases over the area
3. Nuclear Energy Generation
 Pollution
 Dangerous gamma rays are given off by pure uranium and fuel rods used in
the reactors
 The waste from Nuclear power remains harmful for about 400years
 Risky of the energy being used for destructive purposes as may be used to
make atomic bombs
4. Wind Power Generation
 Deforestation
 Large fields are cleared for the wind blades
5. Solar Power Generation
 Deforestation
 Large tracks of land are cleared for the solar panels to be installed

Mitigation measures to Environmental Impact of Energy Generation and use of energy

 Afforestation
 Reforestation
 Use of clean source of energy
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 Map work and Geographical Information Systems

Map

What is a map?

 It is the representation of an area drawn on a piece of paper to scale

Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

 Is a computer based system of storing, processing and presenting spatial data

Components of a good map

 Title
 Indicates the purpose or theme of the map e.g. map of major soil types in
Zimbabwe, map showing ARDA activities e.t.c
 Grid / gratitude
 A grid is a set of lines assigned numerical values defining a location on a map
in many topographical sheets
 The lines that run horizontally from left to right of the map are called
northings (their numbers increase towards the north)
 The lines that run vertically from the top to the bottom of the map are called
eastings (their numbers increase eastwards)
 Direction information
 Maps are drawn with a north orientation
 North direction in a map is always towards the north pole of the earth
 When you are looking at the north pole, your right will be the east, your left is
the west and the back will the south
 Key / legend
 Is the representative symbols of features of a map
 Help to understand the map details
 Written at the bottom right or left corner of the map
 Scale
 Is a ratio between the actual distance /area on the map to the actual distance on
the ground e.g. 1: 100 000 (means one unit on the map represents 100000 of
the same units on the ground)
 Cartographers
 Are scientists who draw maps
 Coordinate reference system (CRS)
 Are the points at which eastings and northings of the grid intersect
(coordinates) and are identified by numbers or letters
 Is a coordinate-based local, regional or global system used to locate
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geographical entities
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The two types of CRS

 1. Geographic coordinate systems
-consists of latitude and longitude lines
2. Projected coordinate systems
-is a flat, two-dimensional representation of the earth
 Convectional signs and symbols
 Are standard symbols used on a map and explained in the legend / key
 They are in three types
(a) Point symbols
 Buildings
 Dip tanks
 Trigonometrical beacons
(b) Line symbols
 Railways
 Roads
 Power lines
 Telephone lines
(c) Area symbols
 Cultivated lands
 Ponds
 Orchards

Colour codes used with map symbols

1. Brown
 Land or earth features- contour lines, eroded areas, prominent rock outcrops,
sand areas and dunes, roads
2. Light blue
 Water features-canals, coastlines, dams, lakes, marhes, swamps and levees,
ponds, rivers and water towers
3. Dark blue
 National water ways
4. Green
 Vegetation features- cultivated fields, golf courses, nature and game reserve
boundaries, orchards, vineyards, recreation grounds, woodland
5. Black
 Construction features- roads, tracks, railways, buildings, bridges, cemeteries,
communication towers, dam walls, excavations and mine dumps, telephone
lines, power lines, wind pumps, boundaries
6. Red
 Construction features- national, arterial and main roads, lighthouses and
marine lights
7. Pink
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 International boundaries
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 Types of Maps

1. Political maps
 Shows the state and national boundaries of a place
 Does not have any topographic features
 Shows the location of cities with respect to each other
2. Physical maps
 Shows the physical features of a place or country (rivers, mountains, forests
and lakes)
 The features are presented in different colours e.g. (water bodies in blue
colour, mountains in brown colour e.t.c)

3. Topographic maps
 Show physical features using contour lines than colours
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4. Climatic maps
 Show the information about the climate of different areas e.g. show areas that
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receive high rainfall or snow

  Uses colours to depict areas of different climates
5. Economic or Resource maps
 Show different resources present in an area or economic activities prevalent in
an area e.g. crops and minerals found in an area
 Usually letters or symbols are used to represent the economic activities or
resources

Example of an economic map

6. Road maps
 Show roads, highways or railways present in an area
 It is a detailed type of map generally used for direction purposes
 Usually made individually, for a particular place e.g. a city
7. Population maps
 Show information about population such population density
8. Vegetation maps
 Show location of vegetation, especially forests

Major types of maps

 Topographical maps
 Political maps
 Physical maps
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 Economic maps
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 Co-ordinate systems

1. Geographic co-ordinate system

 Is a coordinate system associated with positions on earth (geographic position)
 It gives positions as spherical coordinate systemusing latitude, longitude and
elevation
 It gives map coordinates projected onto the plane
 It gives a set of numbers, letters or symbols forming a geocode

Longitude lines

 Are perpendicular lines to the equator

 Are also known as meridians
 Are numbered from 0o to 180o

Latitude lines

 Are parallel lines to the equator



2. Universal Transverse Mercator co-ordinate system (thirteen figure grid

reference)

370000mE 371 372 373 374 3868053

8053000mN

8052

8051
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8050
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