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6
Work, Energy
and Power
Work
When a force acts on an object such that it displaces through some
distance in the direction of applied force, then the work is said to be
done by the force.
Work done by the force is equal to the product of the force and the
displacement of the object in the direction of force.
If under a constant force F the object is displaced through a distance s,
then work done by the force
W = F × s = Fs cos q
where, q is the smaller angle between F and s.
Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit is erg.
\ 1 joule = 107 erg
Its dimensional formula is [ML2T -2 ].
Work done by a force is zero, if
(a) body is not displaced actually, i.e. s = 0.
(b) body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force, i.e.
q = 90°.
Work done by a force is positive, if angle between F and s is acute
angle.
Work done by a force is negative, if angle between F and s is obtuse
angle.
Work done by a constant force depends only on the initial and final
positions of the object and not on the actual path followed between
initial and final positions.
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Work, Energy and Power 55

Work done in different conditions
(i) Work done by a variable force is given by
W = ò F × ds
It is equal to the area under the force-displacement graph,
along with proper sign.
B
Force
A

D C
Displacement
Work done = Area ABCDA
(ii) Work done in displacing any body under the action of a number
of forces is equal to the work done by the resultant force.
(iii) In equilibrium (static or dynamic), the resultant force is zero,
therefore resultant work done is zero.
(iv) If work done by a force during a rough trip of a system is zero,
then the force is conservative, otherwise it is called
non-conservative force.
● Gravitational force, electrostatic force, magnetic force etc
are conservative forces. All the central forces are
conservative forces.
● Frictional force, viscous force etc are non-conservative
forces.
(v) Work done by the force of gravity on a particle of mass m is
given by W = mgh
where, g is acceleration due to gravity and h is height through
which the particle is displaced.
(vi) Work done in compressing or stretching a spring is given by
1
W = - kx 2
2
where, k is spring constant and x is displacement from mean
position.
(vii) When on end of a spring is attached to a fixed vertical support
and a block attached to the free end moves on a horizontal
1
table from x = x1 to x = x2, then W = k ( x22 - x12 ).
2
(viii) Work done by the couple for an angular displacement q is
given by W = t × q,
where t is the torque of the couple.
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56 Handbook of Physics

Energy
Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit is erg. Its dimensional formula is
[ML2T -2 ].
There are several types of energies, such as mechanical energy (kinetic
energy and potential energy), chemical energy, light energy, heat
energy, sound energy, nuclear energy and electric energy etc.

Mechanical Energy
The sum of kinetic and potential energy is known as mechanical
energy.
Mechanical energy is of two types
1. Kinetic Energy
The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its motion is called its
kinetic energy.
1 p2
Kinetic energy of an object is given by K = mv 2 =
2 2m
where, m = mass of the object, v = velocity of the object
and p = mv = momentum of the object.
2. Potential Energy
The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position or
configuration is called its potential energy.
In one dimensional motion, potential energy U ( x ) is defined if force
F ( x ) can be written as
dU
F( x) = -
dx
or F ( x ) × dx = -dU
xf Uf

or ò F( x ) × dx = - ò dU = U i - U f
xi Ui

Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces. It does not

exist for non-conservative forces.
Potential energy depends upon frame of reference.
There are three important types of potential energies
(i) Gravitational Potential Energy If a body of mass m is
raised through a height h against gravity, then its gravitational
potential energy = mgh.
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Work, Energy and Power 57

(ii) Elastic Potential Energy If a PE
spring of spring constant k is stretched
through a distance x, then elastic
1
potential energy of the spring = kx 2.
2
The variation of potential energy with
a
distance is shown in figure. x
(iii) Electric Potential Energy The electric potential energy of
two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r in vacuum is
given by
1 qq
U = × 1 2
4pe 0 r
1 N-m 2
Here, = 9.0 ´ 109 = constant
4pe 0 C2

Equilibrium
If the forces acting an the object are conservative and it is in
equilibrium, then
-dU dU
Fnet = 0 Þ = 0 or =0
dr dr
Equilibrium of an object or system can be divided into three types
(i) Stable equilibrium An object is said to be in stable
equilibrium, if on slight displacement from equilibrium
position, it has the tendency to come back.
d 2U
Here, = positive
dr 2
(ii) Unstable equilibrium An object is said to be in unstable
equilibrium, if on slight displacement from equilibrium
position, it moves in the direction of displacement.
d 2U
Here, = negative
dr 2
(iii) Neutral equilibrium An object is said to be in neutral
equilibrium, if on displacement from its equilibrium position, it
has neither the tendency to move in direction of displacement
nor to come back to equilibrium position.
d 2U
Here, =0
dr 2
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58 Handbook of Physics

Work-Energy Theorem
Work done by a force in displacing a body is equal to change in its
kinetic energy.
v2 1 1
W = ò F × ds = mv22 - mv12 = K f - K i = DKE
v1 2 2
where, K i = initial kinetic energy
and K f = final kinetic energy.

Regarding the work-energy theorem, it is worth noting that

(i) If W net is positive, then K f - K i = positive, i.e. K f > K i or kinetic
energy will increase and vice-versa.
(ii) This theorem can be applied to non-inertial frames also. In a
non-inertial frame it can be written as
Work done by all the forces (including the Pseudo force)
= Change in kinetic energy in non-inertial frame.

Other Forms of Energy

Heat Energy
A body possess heat energy due to the disorderly motion of its
molecules. Heat energy is also related to the internal energy of the
body.

Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is stored in the chemical bonds of atoms and molecules.
If the total energy of the reactant is more than the product of the
reaction, then heat is released and the reaction is said to be an
exothermic reaction. If the reverse is true, then heat is absorbed
and the reaction is endothermic.

Electrical Energy
It is the energy which is associated with the flow of electric current or
with charging or discharging of a body.

Nuclear Energy
It is the binding energy of the nucleus of an atom. It is used in nuclear
reactors, nuclear fission etc.
Mass-Energy Equivalence
According to Einstein, the mass can be transformed into energy and
vice-versa.
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Work, Energy and Power 59

When Dm mass disappears, then produced energy, E = Dmc2
where, c is the speed of light in vacuum.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only be
transferred from one form to another form.
Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
For conservative forces, the total mechanical energy (sum of kinetic
and potential energies) of any object remains constant.

Power
The rate at which work is done by a body or energy is transferred is
called its power.
Work done
Power = Rate of doing work =
Time taken
If under a constant force F a body is displaced through a distance s in
W F× s
time t, then the power P = =
t t
s
But = v, uniform velocity with which body is displaced.
t
\ P = F × v = F v cos q
where, q is the smaller angle between F and v.
Power is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is watt and its dimensional
formula is [ML2 T -3 ].
Its other units are kilowatt and horse power,
1 kilowatt = 1000 watt
1 horse power = 746 watt
1 kWh = 3.6 ´ 106 J

Collisions
Collision between two or more particles is the interaction for a short
interval of time in which they apply relatively strong forces on each
other.
In a collision, physical contact of two bodies is not necessary.
There are two types of collisions

1. Elastic Collision
The collision in which both the momentum and the kinetic energy of
the system remains conserved are called elastic collisions.
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60 Handbook of Physics

In an elastic collision, all the involved forces are conservative forces

and total energy remains conserved.

2. Inelastic Collision
The collision in which only the momentum remains conserved but
kinetic energy does not remain conserved are called inelastic collisions.
The collision in which two particles move together after the collision is
called a completely inelastic collision.
In an inelastic collision, some or all the involved forces are
non-conservative forces. Total energy of the system remains
conserved. If after the collision two bodies stick to each other, then
the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.

Coefficient of Restitution or Resilience (e)

The ratio of relative velocity of separation after collision to the relative
velocity of approach before collision is called coefficient of restitution or
resilience. It is represented by e and it depends upon the material of
the colliding bodies.
For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
For a perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0
For all other collisions, 0 < e < 1

One Dimensional or Head-on Collision

If the initial and final velocities of colliding bodies lie along the same
line, then the collision is called one dimensional or head-on collision.

Perfectly Elastic One Dimensional Collision

Applying Newton’s experimental law, we have
v2 - v1 = u1 - u 2
u1 u2 v1 v2

m1 m2 m1 m2
Before collision After collision

Velocities after collision

( m - m2 ) u1 + 2m2u 2 ( m2 - m1 ) u 2 + 2m1u1
v1 = 1 and v2 =
( m1 + m2 ) ( m1 + m2 )
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Work, Energy and Power 61

Important Points Related to Perfectly Elastic one
Dimensional Collision
● When masses of two colliding bodies are equal, then after the
collision, the bodies exchange their velocities.
v1 = u 2 and v2 = u1
● If second body of same mass ( m1 = m2 ) is at rest, then after collision
first body comes to rest and second body starts moving with the
initial velocity of first body.
v1 = 0 and v2 = u1
● If a light body of mass m1 collides with a very heavy body of mass
m2 at rest, then after collision
v1 = - u1 and v2 = 0
It means light body will rebound with its own velocity and heavy
body will continue to be at rest.
● If a very heavy body of mass m1 collides with a light body of mass
m2( m1 > > m2 ) at rest, then after collision
v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1

In Inelastic One Dimensional Collision

Loss of kinetic energy
m1m2
DK = ( u1 - u 2 )2 (1 - e2 )
2 ( m1 + m2 )

In Perfectly Inelastic One Dimensional Collision

Velocity of separation after collision = 0.
m m ( u - u 2 )2
Loss of kinetic energy = 1 2 1
2 ( m1 + m2 )
If a body is dropped from a height h0 and it strikes the
ground with velocity v0 and after inelastic collision it
rebounds with velocity v1 and rises to a height h1, then h0
h1
v1 2gh1 h1 v1
e= = = v0
v0 2gh0 h0

If after n collisions with the ground, the body rebounds with a velocity
vn and rises to a height hn , then
v hn
en = n =
v0 h0

Height covered by the body after nth rebound, hn = e2n ho

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62 Handbook of Physics

Two Dimensional or Oblique Collision

If the initial and final velocities of colliding bodies do not lie along
the same line, then the collision is called two dimensional or oblique
collision.
In horizontal direction,
m1u1 cos a1 + m2u 2 cos a 2 = m1v1 cos b1 + m2v2 cos b2
y
m2
m1
u1 v2
a1 b2
a2 x
v1
u2
b1 m1
m2

In vertical direction,
m1u1 sin a1 - m2u 2 sin a 2 = m1v1 sin b1 - m2v2 sin b2
If m1 = m2 and a1 + a 2 = 90°
then b1 + b2 = 90°
If a particle A of mass m1 is moving along X-axis with a speed u and
makes an elastic collision with another stationary body B of mass m2,
then
v1
A
m1
A u B a
m1 m2 b
B
m2
v2
From conservation law of momentum,
m1u = m1v1 cos a + m2v2 cos b
0 = m1v1 sin a - m2v2 sin b