Work, Energy and

Power
1. INTRODUCTION

In the chapter Newton’s laws, force has played a central role as the quantity
determining motion. This chapter is devoted to the very important concept of
energy and the closely related concept of work which are scalar quantities
and have no direction associated with them. The capacity of doing work is
defined as energy. The energy of an object changes if an exchange of energy
occurs between the object and its environment. Hence we discuss the
transfer of energy via a force, a process known as doing work. The change in
kinetic energy of an object when subjected to force is due to transfer of
energy between the object and the one that applies the force. The chapter is
not concerned with the common meaning of the word ‘work’ which implies
any physical or mental labour.

By combining the Newton’s second law and the principle of kinematics, two
additional methods of analysis are possible.

(a) One of these methods is Work – Energy Method. The advantage of this
method is that the determination of the acceleration of the particle is
not necessary. The method of work -energy relates force, mass,
velocity and In this method, the work done by the forces acting on a
particle is related to the change in kinetic energy of the particle.

(b)Law of conservation of energy is another method for solving The

concept of energy is very important because, energy is conserved. The
total energy remains constant in any process. There are many
situations for which an analysis based on Newton’s laws would be
 difficult but which can be dealt with using the law of conservation of
energy.

2. WORK DONE BY A FORCE

Work is said to be done by a force when a body undergoes displacement

parallel to the line of action of the force or parallel to one of the components
of force applied.

Work done by the force acting on a body can be calculated as follows.

Case – I : When body gets displaced along the direction of force then work
done is equal to the product of force and displacement.

W=FS

Case – II : When body gets displaced in a direction making some angle θ with
the direction of force then work done by the force is equal to product of force
and component of displacement along the force (or) product of displacement
and component of force along the displacement (or) dot product of force and
displacement.

W=F[Scosθ]=[Fcosθ]S=F→.S→

Work is a scalar

Explanation:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ at rest at point A on a horizontal surface as

shown. Let a force F→
 Acts on the body making an angle ‘ θ ‘ with the horizontal. Due to which the
body undergoes displacement S→

And travels from A to B. The component of force along the displacement is

Fcosθ

. Now

Work done W=(Fcosθ)S=FScosθ=F→.S→

Note: If F→=Fxiˆ+Fyjˆ+Fzkˆ

And S→=Sxiˆ+Syjˆ+Szkˆ

W=F→.S→=FxSx+FySy+FzSz

Dimensions and units of work

The dimensional formula of work is [ML2T-2]. Its unit in SI is joule and is

denoted by J.
Joule : Work is said to be one joule if a force of 1 newton displaces a body
through a distance of 1 m along the direction of force.

1 J = 1 N ´1 m

In CGS system, the unit of work is erg

Erg : Work done is said to be one ‘erg’ if a force of one dyne displaces the
body through a distance of 1 cm along the direction of force.

1 erg = 1 dyne ´ 1 cm

Relation between joule and erg

1 J=1N´m = 105 dyne´100 cm = 107 dyne cm

1 J = 107 erg

Nature of work :

Work done by a force may be positive, negative or zero.

 Positive work : Positive work means that force (or one of its
components) is parallel to If ‘θ’ is the angle between force and
displacement, then, 00≤θ<90°

Examples :
 (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the
lifting force (upward) is positive

(ii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the external (stretching)

force is positive

 Negative work :

Negative work means that force (or one of its components) is opposite to
displacement. If ‘θ’ is the angle between force and displacement, then,
900<θ≤180°

Examples :

(i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work done by the
force of gravity (downward) is negitive

(ii) When a body is made to slide over a rough surface, the work done
by the frictional force is negitive

 Zero Work :

Under three conditions, work done becomes zero.

1. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement (θ = 90°)

Examples :

(i) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal
force is always zero.

(ii) When a porter travels on a horizontal platform with a load on his

head, work done by him against gravity by the porter is zero

(iii) When the bob of a pendulum swings, the work done by the tension
in the string is

2. If there is no displacement [s = 0]

Examples :

1) When a person tries to displace a wall by applying a force and if it does

not move the work done by him is zero.

2) Work done in holding bob of simple pendulum at its extreme position is

zero.

3. If resultant force acting on the body becomes zero. (F =

0).

Examples:

1) The work done by all forces acting on a raindrop falling down with terminal
velocity is zero.

2) If body is moving with uniform velocity on a horizontal frictionless surface,

then work done on the body is zero.

Work done by a force

a) Work done by a constant force

If a constant force F→

Displaces a body by S→

, then work done by the force W=F→.S→

By using force–displacement graph, the area enclosed by the graph on

displacement axis gives the amount of work done by the force.

Force displacement curve of a constant force is shown in fig. OPQR

Area OPQR = OP ´ OR = F ´ S = work

b) Work Done by a Variable Force

When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with position, the work
done by such a force for an infinitesimal displacement is given by

dW=F→.ds→
The total work done in going from A to B as shown in the figure is

W=∫BAF→⋅ds→=∫BA(Fcosθ)ds

In terms of rectangular component F→=Fxiˆ+Fyjˆ+Fzkˆ,

ds→=dxiˆ+dyjˆ+dzkˆ

∴W=∫BA(Fxiˆ+Fyjˆ+Fzkˆ)⋅(dxiˆ+dyjˆ+dzkˆ)

Or ∴W=∫BA(Fxdx+∫BAFydy+∫BAFzdz

By using force- displacement graph the above Work done is represented as

follows.

Let a body, whose initial position is x1, is acted upon by a variable force and
finally the body acquires its final position x2.

For a small displacement ‘dx’ the work done will be the area of the strip of
width dx.

dW = F dx

∴W=∫x2x1dW=∫x2x1Fdx

W = (Sum of Areas of various strips of width dx between x1 and x2)

W = Area under curve between x1 and x2

WORK DONE BY A FORCE IN VARIOUS SITUATIONS

Case-1

A body of mass ‘m’ is lifted from ground to a height ‘h’ by using a minimum
force F.

The minimum Work done by the lifting force is WF=Fh=mgh

Work done by the gravitational force is

Wg=–mgh

Case-2

One end of a string is fixed to a support and a body of mass ‘m’ is attached
to the other end of the string. If the point of support moves with acceleration
‘a’ in the upward direction, Work done by tension in the string when the body
moves upward through a distance ‘h’ is

W=m(g+a)h
In the above case if the body moves downward with acceleration ‘a’ then
work done by the tension in the string is W=–m(g–a)h

. Here work done is negative as force and displacement are opposite to each
other.

Case-3

a). A body of mass ‘m’ is placed on a friction less horizontal surface. A force F
acts on the body parallel to the surface, such that it moves with an
acceleration ‘a’. The work done by the force acting on the body when its
displacement is S, is given by W=FS=mas

b) If body moves with uniform velocity on a horizontal friction less surface.

The Work done on the body is W = 0.

c) If frictional force is considered between the body and the surface then the
Work done by the force to move the body with uniform velocity is
W=fs=μKmgs

c) In the above case if the body moves with uniform acceleration a

Work done by the force is W=(f+ma)s=(μKmg+ma)s

Case-4

A body of mass ‘m’ and of density ‘d1‘ lies in a non viscous liquid of density
‘d2‘. The minimum Work done to lift the body with uniform velocity through a
height ‘h’ in the liquid is

W=mgh(1–d2 d1)
 4. ENERGY

“Energy of a body is its capacity to do work”

Greater the amount of energy possessed by the body, greater the work it will
be able to do. All the agents which are able to do work are said to be
energetic.

i) A bullet fired into a wall is able to penetrate into the wall by

doing work against friction due to its energy.
ii) Fast blowing wind is able to turn a wheel.

iii) A moving vehicle possess energy since it does work against

friction and air resistance before coming to rest after the
engine is switched off.

iv) Water stored in a dam has energy since it can run the turbines
when the water flows down onto the turbines.

The different forms of energy are mechanical energy, light energy, heat
energy, sound energy. Electrical energy, nuclear energy etc.

In mechanics, we divide mechanical energy into two types, namely (1)

Kinetic Energy (2) Potential Energy.

The dimensional formula for energy is ML2T-2 same as that of work.

SI unit of energy is joule (J)

C.G.S unit is erg.

1J = 107 erg.

Note: The other units of energy are:

leV≈1.6×10–19 J; 1MeV≈1.6×10–13 J1cal≈4.2 J ; 1Kcal≈4200

J1KWH=36×105 J=36×1012 erg

Note: Many students think that KWH is the unit of power. But it is the unit of
energy. Usually electrical energy is measured in KWH.

5. KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.

It is measured by the amount of work that the body can do against an

opposing force acting on it before coming to rest.

Examples for bodies having Kinetic Energy :

(1) A vehicle in motion.

(2) Water flowing along a river.

(3) A bullet fired from a gun.

(4) A satellite going around the earth.

Expression for kinetic energy : Consider a body of mass ‘m’ is moving with a
velocity ‘v’. A uniform force opposes its motion to bring the body to rest in a
displacement S.The uniform retardation of the body due to the force is ‘a’
which is obtained by the kinematic equation.

Here initial velocity = v, final velocity,V=0

0–v2=2as; a=–v22s

The opposing force on the body is

F=ma=–mv22s

.
From Newton’s third law of motion. Force applied by the body = –F=mv22s

As the body moves against the applied force, its displacement is along the
force applied by the body hence work done by the body against the opposing
force acting on it is

W=(mv22s)(s)cos 0=12mv2

∴ Kinetic energy of the body K=12mv2

6. POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its

position or configuration

* It is measured by the work that the body can do in position or

configuration.

* Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces.

It does not exist for non – conservative forces.

 In case of conservative forces dU=–F→.dr→

Where dU is the change in potential energy.

Expression for gravitational potential energy

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ is on the ground. It is lifted vertically upwards

through a height ‘h’. Considering the height to be very small compared to
the radius of the earth ® i.e., h<<R, we can neglect the variation of g. The
gravitational force ‘mg’ on the body can be taken to be constant. The work
done by the external agency against gravitational force is

W = Fs = mgh. (∵ F=mg; s=h)

This work gets stored as potential energy of the body. Potential energy of the
body U=mgh

The above expression actually represents the increase in the stored energy
from the reference position (earth surface) to the final position at a height
‘h’.

Note

1). By definition the negative of the work done by gravitational force is

defined as the change in potential energy of the body.

dU=–F→⋅dr −→ ∴∫UfUidU=–∫h0F→⋅dr→=mg∫h0dr

Uf–Ui=mg(h–0)=mgh

2). Work done, potential energy and kinetic energy depend on frame of
reference selected to observe the motion of the body.

6. SPRING FORCE

Spring force is an example of a variable force which is conservative. The

figure shows one end of a massless spring attached to a rigid vertical
support and the other end to a block of mass ‘m’ which can move on a
smooth horizontal surface. Let X = 0, denote the position of block when the
spring is at its natural length. In an ideal spring, the spring force Fs is directly
proportional to ‘x’ where ‘x’ is the displacement of the block from equilibrium

Position. (i.e. X = 0). This force law for the spring is called Hooke’s law and is
mathematically expressed as Fs = –Kx.

The constant ‘K’ is called the spring constant. Its S.I unit Nm-1, and is a
measure of the stiffness of the spring.

To calculate the work done on the block by the spring force as the block
moves from undeformed position X = 0 to X = x1

dW=F→.dx→.=–Kx.dx; ∫dW=∫x10–Kx.dx

W1=–12Kx21

 The work done by the spring force is always negative.

 If the block moves fromX=x1 to X=x2

, the work done by spring force is

W2=∫x2x1–Kxdx ∴ W2=12 K(x21–x22)

 Similar is the result of the work done by spring force when it is

compressed through ‘x’ from its natural length.

W3=12Kx2
Potential energy stored in a spring

We define the change in potential energy of a system corresponding to a

conservative internal force as

dU=–∫x10F→dr→

∴ dU = -(work done by the spring force)

dU=–{–12kx2}x10=12Kx21

Uf–Ui=12kx21

Since we take Ui as zero when spring is at its natural length ∴ Uf=12kx21

Potential energy stored in a spring

We define the change in potential energy of a system corresponding to a

conservative internal force as

dU=–∫x10F→dr→

∴ dU = -(work done by the spring force)

dU=–{–12kx2}x10=12Kx21

Uf–Ui=12kx21

Since we take Ui as zero when spring is at its natural length ∴ Uf=12kx21

Points to remember regarding potential energy

1. Potential energy can be positive or negative or zero.

2. A moving body may or may not have potential energy

3. Potential energy should be considered to be a property of the entire

system , rather than kinetic it to any specific particle.

* If potential energy of the system is negative then the particles are bounded
to the system.
* If potential energy of the system is positive the particles are not bounded
to the system.

For example, in hydrogen atom, when electron is revolving round the nucleus
potential energy of the atom is negative. i.e., electron is bounded to the
nucleus of the atom.

When an electron is taken from K–shell to L–shell its potential energy

increases.

3. The absolute value of potential energy has no physical significance.

Relation between Kinetic Energy and Linear Momentum

When a body of mass m moves with a velocity ‘v’ its kinetic energy is

KE=12mv2=m2v22m=p22m[∵p=mv]

This is the relation between kinetic energy and linear momentum

When a bullet is fired from a gun the momenta of the bullet and gun are
equal and opposite. It can be seen from the above expression that the ratio
of the kinetic energies of two bodies having the same magnitude of
momenta is in the inverse ratio of their masses i.e.,

Kbullet Kgun =Mgun Mbullet

Hence, the kinetic energy of the bullet is greater than that of the gun.

Points to remember regarding Kinetic energy

1. As mass ‘m’ and v2 are always positive, kinetic energy is always a positive
scalar

2. The kinetic energy depends on frame of reference . The kinetic energy of a

person of mass ‘m’ sitting in a train moving with speed ‘v’ is zero in the
frame of train but 1/2mv2 in the frame of earth

3. The relation kinetic energy K = p2/2m shows that a body cannot have
kinetic energy without having momentum and vice versa.
7. WORK – ENERGY THEOREM

Statement : “The work done on a particle by the net force is equal to the
change in its kinetic energy”.

Proof : Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ is moving with an initial velocity ‘u’.
When it is under the action of a constant net force F, let it gain uniform
acceleration ‘a’. Its velocity becomes ‘v’ after a displacement S. Work done
by the net force

W = FS = maS (∴ F = ma)

=m(v2–u22 S)S(∵a=v2–u22 S)

=m(v2–u22)=12mv2–12mu2

W=Kf–Ki

Where Kf and Ki are the final and initial kinetic energies of the particle. Kf – Ki
is the change in kinetic energy of the particle

Hence, the theorem is proved.

Note

1) The theorem is applicable not only for a single particle but also for a
system. When it is applied to a system of two or more particles, change in
the kinetic energy of the system is equal to work done on the system by the
external as well as the internal forces.

2) Work-energy theorem can also be applied to a system under the action of

variable forces, conservative as well as non conservative forces.

Special cases in work energy theorem

 1. A particle of mass ‘m’ is thrown vertically up with a speed ‘u’.
Neglecting the air friction , the work done by gravitational force,
as particle reaches maximum height is

Wg=Δk=Kf–Ki

Wg=–12mu2 [∵kf=0]

2. A particle of mass ‘m’ falls freely from a height ‘h’ in air medium
onto the ground. If ‘V’ is the velocity with which it reaches the
ground , the work done by air friction is Wf and work done by
gravitational force Wg = mgh

Wg+Wf=Δk, mgh+Wf=12mv2–0

Wf=12mv2–mgh

3. A block of mass ‘m’ slides down a frictionless smooth incline of

inclination ‘θ’ to the horizontal . If ‘h’ is the height of incline , the
velocity with which the body reaches the bottom of incline is

Wg=Δk=mgh=12mv2–0⇒v=2gh−−−√

Dimensions and units of Power

(a) Power is a scalar quantity with dimensions [ML2T-3].

(b) S.I unit of power is J/sec (or) watt (w).

CGS unit of power is erg/sec.

© Practical unit of power is horse power(hp)

1hp = 746W.

Watt : The power of an agent is said to be one watt, if one joule of work is
done in one second.

1watt=1 joule 1s=1 Js–1

(c) The slope of W-t curve gives instantaneous power.

P=dWdt=tanθ

(as shown in fig.(a))

Efficiency of Crane or Motor

The ratio of output power to the input power is called efficiency.

Η= output power Input power ×100 η=p0pi×100

Total input power Pi=100η×mght

Applications to power

1) If a machine gun fires ‘n’ bullets per second such that mass of each
bullet is ‘m’ and coming out with a velocity ‘v’ then the power of the
machine gun is

P=N(12mV2)t

(where N bullets are fired in time ‘t’ then n = N/t)

Pav=12mnV2

2) A conveyor belt moves horizontally with a constant speed ‘v’ Gravel is

falling on it at a rate of ‘dm/dt’ then,

a) Extra force required to drive the belt is

F=dmdt.v

b) Extra power required to drive the belt is

P=FV=(dmdt.V)V P=dmdt.v2
 2) A car of mass ‘m’ is moving on a horizontal road with constant
acceleration ‘a’. If R is the resistanceoffered to its motion, then the
instantaneous power of the engine when its velocity is ‘v’

Net force on the car is F – R = ma

Driving force of the engine is F = R + ma

Instantaneous power P = F. V

P=(R+ma)V

3) The car moves on a rough horizontal road with a constant speed ‘V’
then the instantaneous power of engine is

P = F.V (V constant)

But F = f

P = fV (Here f = frictional force on rough horizontal surface) P=μ mg.

4) A body of mass ‘m’ is initially at rest. By the application of constant

force its velocity changes to “V0

” in time ‘ t0

‘ then

V = u + at

V0=at0

Acceleration of the body is a=V0t0

a) Find instantaneous power at an instant of time ‘t’ is

P = F.V = (ma) (at) = m a2 t

Pinst =m(v0t0)2t[∵a=v0t0]

b) Average power during the time ‘t’ is

Pav=12.pinst ; Pav=12m(v0t0)2t