V-MXenes For Energy StorageConversion Applications

Review
ChemSusChem doi.org/10.1002/cssc.202400283
www.chemsuschem.org
V-MXenes for Energy Storage/Conversion Applications

Iftikhar Hussain,*[a] Onkar Jaywant Kewate,[b] Abdul Hanan,[c] Faiza Bibi,[c]
Muhammad Sufyan Javed,[d] P. Rosaiah,[e] Muhammad Ahmad,[a] Xi Chen,[a] Irum Shaheen,[f]
Muhammad Bilal Hanif,[g] Ali Hassan Bhatti,[h] Mohammed Ali Assiri,[i] Wail Al Zoubi,*[j] and
Kaili Zhang*[a]
MXenes, a two-dimensional (2D) material, exhibit excellent vanadium-based MXenes (V-MXenes) and their composites. The
optical, electrical, chemical, mechanical, and electrochemical current trends in V-MXene and their composites for energy
properties. Titanium-based MXene (Ti-MXene) has been exten- storage and conversion applications have been thoroughly
sively studied and serves as the foundation for 2D MXenes. summarized. Overall, this review offers valuable insights,
However, other transition metals possess the potential to offer identifies potential opportunities, and provides key suggestions
excellent properties in various applications. This comprehensive for future advancements in the MXenes and energy storage/
review aims to provide an overview of the properties, conversion applications.
challenges, key findings, and applications of less-explored
1. Introduction have been actively seeking materials that can offer improved
energy storage/conversion capabilities. These advanced materi-
The exploration and utilization of renewable energy sources, als might enable the development of more efficient and reliable
such as wind and solar power, are gaining increasing attention. energy storage devices, facilitating the integration of renewable
However, the intermittent nature of these energy sources energy sources into the grid and reducing reliance on fossil
requires the development of efficient energy storage and fuels.[17–19] Efforts are being made to discover new electrode
conversion systems. Electrochemical energy storage/conversion materials, electrolytes, and architectures for storage/conversion
devices, including Li-ion batteries (LIBs), non-Li-ion batteries, devices.[20–22]
supercapacitors (SCs), and electrocatalytic water splitting have There has been a surge of interest in investigating various
been considered promising solutions for renewable energy.[1–3] two-dimensional (2D) materials since the groundbreaking
However, the current performance of these devices falls short discovery of graphene in 2004.[23] These 2D materials exhibited
of meeting the escalating demand for large-scale energy excellent physical and chemical properties. After the discovery
storage.[4–12] To address this challenge, there is an urgent need of graphene, researchers motivated to synthesis and explore
to explore and identify new materials with enhanced perform- many other atomic-layer materials such as hexagonal boron
ance for energy storage/conversion systems.[13–16] Researchers nitride (hBN), transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), silicene,
[a] I. Hussain, M. Ahmad, X. Chen, K. Zhang [g] M. B. Hanif

Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius
Tat Chee Avenue, Hong Kong University Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
E-mail: ihussaintoori1@gmail.com [h] A. H. Bhatti
kaizhang@cityu.edu.hk University of Science and Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro Yuseong-gu, Daejeon
[b] O. J. Kewate 34113, South Korea
School of Advanced Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore [i] M. A. Assiri
632014, India Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), Chemistry
[c] A. Hanan, F. Bibi Department, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 9004, Abha
Sunway Centre for Electrochemical Energy and Sustainable Technology 61413, Saudi Arabia
(SCEEST), School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, [j] W. A. Zoubi
Selangor 47500, Malaysia Materials Electrochemistry Laboratory, School of Materials Science and
[d] M. S. Javed Engineering, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan 38541, Republic of Korea
School of Physical Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou E-mail: wailalzoubi@ynu.ac.kr
730000, China © 2024 The Authors. ChemSusChem published by Wiley-VCH GmbH. This is
[e] P. Rosaiah an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
Department of Physics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute Non-Commercial NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in
of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Thandalam, Chennai, 602 105, any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-
India commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
[f] I. Shaheen
Sabanci University, SUNUM Nanotechnology Research and Application
Center, Tuzla 34956, Istanbul, Turkey
ChemSusChem 2024, e202400283 (1 of 25) © 2024 The Authors. ChemSusChem published by Wiley-VCH GmbH
Review
germanane, and phosphorene for various applications. Each of electrochemical performance.[58–60] Since the initial synthesis of
these materials possesses unique properties and characteristics the first Ti3C2Tx MXene in 2011, there has been significant
that make them attractive for scientific consideration and progress in the synthesis of various types of MXenes.[33] It is
potential applications.[24–28] One notable advantage of 2D worth noting that Ti-based MXenes have received significant
materials is their large surface-area-to-volume ratio and internal attention.[61,62] Ongoing investigations continue to explore non-
surface areas, making them promising candidates for energy Ti-MXenes.[43] For example, vanadium-based MXenes (V-MXenes)
storage/conversion devices.[29–32] have shown excellent electrochemical performance, making
In recent years, a new class of 2D materials called MXenes them promising candidates for energy storage/conversion
has gained attention.[33–35] MXenes are derived from a group of applications.[38,63] V2CTx and V4C3Tx are the two types of V-based
3D materials known as MAX phases.[36,37] The selectively etching MXenes that have been reported for energy storage/conversion
of the “A” layers from the 3D MAX phases produce 2D MXene. applications. V2CTx offers a greater and more easily accessible
During etching, the strong M X bonds can be maintained, surface area per unit mass and volume in comparison to V4C3Tx
generating graphene-like layers.[38–40] The etching of the “A” due to the difference in the number of V transition metal layers
layers offer unique chemical and physical properties.[41,42] There- present in their structures.[64]
fore, MXenes have gained significant interest due to their The synthesis of V-MXene has been investigated using
intriguing properties, including high electrical conductivity, diverse methods, which include etching techniques involving
chemical stability, hydrophilicity, flexibility, diversity, and tuna- HF, NaF, LiF, as well as electrochemical etching.[65] Furthermore,
ble surface chemistry.[43–46] These properties make MXenes V-MXenes as electrodes offered numerous advantages as
promising candidates for various applications, particularly electrode which can be attributed to their ability to exhibit
energy storage/conversions.[47,48] various valence states, including + 2, + 3, and + 4.[66] In recent
MXenes have a general formula Mn + 1XnTx, where M years, the V-based MXenes composite-/hetero-structures have
represents an early transition metal (such as Nb, Ti, V, Ta, Mo, been utilized to take advantage of the synergistic effects
etc.), X represents carbon and/or nitrogen, and n is an integer between their components.[51] These V-MXenes heterostructures
ranging from 1 to 4. The value of n determines the number of offer a range of materials and contribute to improved electro-
transition metal layers in the MXene structure.[49,50] Over 50 chemical properties by increasing electrolyte accessibility,
MXenes have been reported experimentally to date with enhancing conductivity, introducing additional redox activities,
different transition metals (M) and surface terminations (Tx) and extending cycle life.[51] The research on MXenes, V-MXenes,
based on elements shown in Figure 1a.[51,52] Each metal, atom, and V-MXenes composite is rapidly growing year by year as
number, functional group etc. (M, X, n, and Tx) in MXenes play a shown in Figure 1b. The data was collected from scopus by
crucial role in determining their properties.[53–55] MXenes can using words: MXenes, V-MXenes, and V-MXenes composite.
have varying numbers of metal layers, ranging from two in Overall, V-MXenes have emerged as promising materials for
M2XTx to five in M5X4Tx structures.[52] The number of metal layers electrochemical energy storage/conversion system. Herein, this
influences the interlayer spacing, which affects the accessibility study provides a comprehensive overview of the recent
of active sites for electrochemical reactions, ion diffusion progress, challenges, and prospects in the field of V-MXene-
kinetics, and mechanical properties of MXenes.[56,57] By tuning based and its heterostructures/composites for energy storage/
the composition and layer configuration of MXenes, researchers conversion applications (Figure 2). We anticipate that this
can manipulate properties such as electrical conductivity, review will offer innovative progress in the field and serve as a
mechanical strength, surface chemistry, thermal stability, and
Dr. Hussain is a Postdoctoral Researcher in als Chemistry A, ACS Applied & Materials
the City University of Hong Kong under the interfaces, Chemical Engineering Journal, Jour-
supervision of Prof. Kaili Zhang. He received nal of Power Sources, etc.
his M.S. degree from Yeungnam University,
Prof. Zhang is a Professor in the Department
South Korea and Ph.D. from City University of
of Mechanical Engineering at City University
Hong Kong. He also went as a visiting
of Hong Kong. He received his Ph.D. degree
researcher at Drexel University, USA under the
from the National University of Singapore in
supervision of Prof. Yury Gogotsi. His current
2006. He then worked as a postdoctoral
research focuses on the development of
researcher at French National Center for
electrode materials for energy storage/conver-
Scientific Research (LAASCNRS) and Swiss
sions. He has published more than 120
Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH
research/review articles in the refereed jour-
Zurich). He joined the City University of Hong
nals such as Progress in Energy and Combus-
Kong as an assistant professor in 2009. His
tion Science, Advanced Materials, Advanced
research interests include nanomaterials for
Energy Materials, Advanced Functional Materi-
energy storage/conversions, energetic materi-
als, Advanced Science, ACS Energy Letters,
als, energetics-on-a-chip. He has published
Materials Today, Coordination Chemistry Re-
more than 200 peer-reviewed papers/reviews
view, Energy Storage Materials, Small, Carbon
in reputed journal.
Energy, Nano-Micro Letters, Journal of Materi-
Review
Figure 1. (a) Periodic table summarizing MAX and MXene details and (b) current trends on published studies related to MXene composites (from Scopus).
valuable guide for newcomers embarking on research in this relatively low number of atomic layers.[67] According to theoret-
direction. ical investigations, V2CTx has superior performance compared to
other MXenes in many different ways. This is attributed to its
characteristics of being the lightest member in the family,
2. Applications of V-MXene and its Composite possessing high conductivity (3300 S cm 1), and having a
tunable surface chemistry with a pseudocapacitive nature. In
The V-MXenes have attained a widespread interest in various today‘s scenario, lithium-ion capacitors (Li-IC) have emerged as
applications. Herein, we summarized the recent trends on V- a very promising energy storage solution that effectively
MXene and their composites for energy storage and energy bridges the gap between conventional batteries and
conversion applications. supercapacitors.[7,68,69] However, the supply of lithium is limited,
and there is a growing need for energy storage devices. As a
consequence of this, there arises a necessity for an alternative
2.1. Supercapacitors material to lithium.[70]
In a study conducted in 2013, Ding et al.[71] successfully
These days, there has been a notable emphasis on the study of showcased the viability of sodium-ion (Na-IC) capacitors. In their
Ti3C2Tx due to its facile synthesis methods and significant research, they modified the lithium (Li) electrode with an
chemical stability. In addition to a range of MXenes, the M2XTx affordable sodium (Na) ion electrode. Most of the research was
structure, particularly V2CTx, gains prominence due to the large focused on negative electrode. In 2015, Dall’Agnese[70] reported
amount of active sites per unit mass, which is attributed to its a new positive electrode material for supercapacitors. In this
Review
Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of overview of the review based on V-MXenes.
work, for the first-time researcher investigated the sodiation of the potential of each electrode remained within its allowed
V2C in a half cell. The present study involved the preparation of working potential range, a mass ratio of 1 : 2 was maintained
V2C through the selective removal of the Al layer from the V2AlC between the positive electrode and the negative electrode. The
MAX phase using a 50 % concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF) capacity for full cell was particularly increased in in the first 70
solution (Figure 3a). In this study, a Swagelok cell setup was cycles. After 300 cycles the full cell exhibited stability up to 70 %
employed. The half-cells consisted of metallic sodium as the (Figure 3c). The performance of the MXene electrode was
counter and reference electrode, which were separated by a shown to be contingent upon the utilization of different types
glass fiber separator (GFA). The assembly of complete cells was of electrolytes, including aqueous, basic, and neutral solutions.
carried out in three-electrode Swagelok cells, where an Ag wire In addition to Ti3C2 MXene, many additional MXene materials
was utilized as a pseudoreference electrode. The electrodes are frequently subjected to testing in electrolytes, particularly
underwent presodiation through immersion in the electrolyte aqueous electrolytes. Due to the presence of chemical
and subsequent short-circuiting with metallic sodium. The similarities with Ti3C2 MXenes. The V2C MXene has garnered
electrolyte employed in the experiment consisted of a solution attention for its lightweight nature and the possibility for its
containing 1 M concentration of sodium hexafluorophosphate material surface to exhibit pseudocapacitive activity. Shan
(NaPF6) dissolved in a mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and et al.[72] conducted an investigation into the electrochemical
dimethyl carbonate (DMC) in a 1 : 1 ratio. The prepared characteristics of V2C MXene. Notably, they successfully fabri-
electrode exhibited high performance near ~100 F g 1 at a slow cated a self-supporting V2C film through the utilization of an
scan rate (0.2 mV s 1). For Na intercalation, the performance is etching approach-based HF (Figure 3(d–e)). This film was
shown to be ~50 F g 1 at 50 mV s 1 (Figure 3b). To ensure that subsequently employed as an electrode in supercapacitors, with
Review
Figure 3. (a) Schematic representation of the preparation of V2CTx MXene and its sodium intercalation. (b) Summary of rate performance. (c) It shows capacity
Vs cycle stability. Reproduced with permission from ref. [70]. Copyright 2015, ACS Publications. (d) Schematic illustration of synthesis, intercalation, and
delamination of V2C MXene. e) An optical image of flexible MXene film. Electrochemical performance of V2TX MXene as an electrode at various scan rates in (f)
1 M H2SO4 g) 1 M KOH (h) 1 M MgSO4. (i) It shows cycle stability measured through GCD at 10 A g 1. (j) Charge and discharge curves obtained in H2SO4.
Reproduced with permission from ref. [72]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier.
the experiments conducted in aqueous electrolytes containing processes, hence potentially stimulating the development of
potassium hydroxide (KOH), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and magne- novel strategies aimed at enhancing its performance.
sium sulphate (MgSO4). The CV curves in different electrolytes After 211 MAX phases were found, a new MAX phase called
are shown in Figure 3f–h. The capacitance values obtained for the ‘413’ MAX phase was added to the MAX phase family. From
1 M KOH and MgSO4 were 184 F g 1 and 225 F g 1, respectively a crystallographic perspective, it is seen that the packing
(Figure 3i). In particular, a maximum specific capacitance of sequence along the c-axis in the MAX phases 211 and 312
487 F g 1 was achieved for a 1 M H2SO4 solution (Figure 3i). The differs from that of another MAX phase. Specifically, the MAX
obtained results are promising and indicate the possibility of phase under consideration exhibits four layers of transition
conducting additional investigations on the utilization of metal between the layers of A element, in contrast to the 211
vanadium carbide MXenes in energy storage applications. The and 312 phases which have two and three layers of transition
GCD curves in H2SO4 are shown in Figure 3j. Further inves- metal, respectively. In 2018, Birkel’s group successfully synthe-
tigation is necessary to fully comprehend the pseudocapacitive sized V4C3Tx MXene from the V4AlC3 MAX phase.[66] The V4C3Tx
charge storage mechanism exhibited by V2C. This endeavor will MXene material has demonstrated significant interlayer spacing,
entail a comprehensive exploration of the underlying redox improved structure and morphology, rapid ion diffusion, excep-
Review
tional electrical conductivity, and a substantial surface area. Due Wang et al.[78] synthesized V4C3TxMXene by employing
to its distinctive attributes, V4C3Tx MXene has been widely polycrystalline V4AlC3 MAX phase, owing to the distinctive
utilized in a range of applications, with particular emphasis on attributes associated with this material. The V4C3Tx MXene was
its utilization in supercapacitors. The pseudocapacitance of prepared by immersing V4AlC3 milled powder in a solution of
MXene materials is improved as a result of their numerous 40 % concentrated hydrofluoric acid for different periods of
oxidation valence states. As previously stated, the V-based time. The V4C3Tx MXene material was utilized as an electrode in
MXenes, namely V2CTx and V4C3Tx, exhibit valence states of + 2, the fabrication of supercapacitors and the detailed electro-
+ 3, and + 4, which contribute to the enhancement of super- chemical performance is shown in Figure 4a–f. The electrode
capacitor performance.[66,94] has a noteworthy capacitance value of 209 F g 1 when
immersed in a solution of 1 M H2SO4. The observed perform-
Figure 4. (a) CV curves at various scan rates. (b) GCD curves of the electrode at various energy densities. (c) It shows the gravimetric capacitance of the
V4C3TxMXene electrodes. (d) Cycling stability at 10 A g 1 (inset- galvanostatic data). (e) b-values for electrodes. (f) The analysis conducted involved the use of
CV partitioning to determine the capacitive component’s contribution to the overall current at specific scan rates. Reproduced with permission from ref. [78].
Copyright 2029, Elsevier. (g) It shows cyclic voltammetry curves of the various compositions at different temperatures electrodes. (h) The capacitance retention
of the Cs of V4C3Tx, NH3-V4C3Tx-350 °C, and NH3-V4C3Tx-550 °C at various scan rates is shown. (i) The capacitance retention of the NH3-V4C3Tx-350 °C electrode. (j)
Nyquist plots of the V4C3Tx, NH3-V4C3Tx-350 °C and NH3-V4C3Tx-550 °C electrodes (the inset: magnified plot in the high-frequency region). (k) subjected to 10000
galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) cycles at a current density of 10 A g 1, was evaluated. The accompanying insets depict the GCD curves of the NH3-
V4C3Tx-350 °C electrode after the initial, 5000th, and 10000th cycles. Reproduced with permission from ref. [79]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.
Review
ance of the system exhibits a consistent and enduring cyclic area and the presence of numerous active sites. The electrode
behavior, characterized by a high retention rate of 97.23 % in material employed in this study exhibited a remarkable specific
terms of capacitance after undergoing 10,000 cycles. Due to the capacitance of 551 F g 1, surpassing that of pure V2CTx MXene
large interlayer distance, high surface area, pores, and better (Figure 5e). The detailed CVs and GCDs in 1 M H2SO4 for the
hydrophilicity. The provided CV curves depict the variations in superior electrode were matched which are shown in Figure 5f–
capacitance during the charging and discharging operations g. Additionally, it exhibited enhanced cycling stability, with a
within the designated potential range, which can be attributed retention rate of 93.3 % after undergoing 5000 cycles (Fig-
to the presence of irreversibly intercalated cations that are ure 5h). The aforementioned technology employed in structural
confined between the sheets The surfaces of MXenes layers are engineering, which incorporates a significant amount of carbon,
terminated with functional groups, such as O, F, and OH, has demonstrated the potential to improve both the electro-
through the etching process. This results in MXenes possessing chemical performance and stability. In addition to V2CTx MXene,
a wide range of chemical properties and adjustable character- V4C3Tx MXene exhibits considerable potential in the realm of
istics. supercapacitor technology. In a recent study, researchers
The enhancement of electrochemical performance in successfully synthesized a V4C3Tx MXene film that is both free-
MXenes can be achieved through surface modification.[95–97] Li standing and flexible. This was achieved through the intercala-
et al.[79] conducted a study wherein they employed the etching tion of tetra-n-butyl ammonium hydroxide (TBAOH) and
approach to synthesize V4C3Tx MXene and subsequently subsequent delamination of the suspension, resulting in the
assessed its electrochemical performance (Figure 4g–k). In order formation of d-V4C3Tx. The findings of this study were reported
to enhance the performance of V4C3Tx MXene, a series of in reference.[81] Nevertheless, the electrochemical performance
annealing processes were conducted in an ammonia environ- is constrained as a result of the robust van der Waals interaction
ment at different temperatures ranging from 350 °C to 550 °C. that occurs between the MXene sheets, leading to their
The electrode has demonstrated a significant capacitance value horizontal aggregation and subsequent restacking. In order to
of 210 F g 1 when immersed in a 1 M H2SO4 solution. The surmount these challenges, other materials like as metal oxide
observed retention of capacitance was found to be 96.3 % after have been integrated into the MXene structure to enhance its
undergoing 10000 cycles, indicating exceptional cycling stabil- overall performance. After careful consideration of these factors,
ity. Among all, NH3-V4C3Tx-350 °C exhibited superior conductiv- Bin et al.[103] have studied the incorporation of molybdenum
ity, stability, as well as integrated area based on CV and GCD trioxide (MoO3) in delaminated V4C3Tx MXene as an electrode
curves. material for supercapacitors. The electrode that was developed
The previously mentioned study has been performed in had exceptional electrochemical performance (Figure 5i–k),
recent years in order to investigate the efficacy of V2C and achieving a specific capacitance of 645 C g 1 and maintaining a
V4C3Tx MXene for SCs. In order to enhance electrical conductiv- retention rate of 97 % after undergoing 10,000 cycles. The
ity, chemical stability, and promote the formation of more detailed electrochemical performances of V-based MXenes have
porous structures, a range of spacers are employed, including been summarized in Table 1.
carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Such spacers used in Ti3C2Tx MXene The demand for safe and affordable energy storage devices
enhanced overall performance of the electrode materials.[98,99] particular batteries have surged due to the rapid growth in
Zahra et al.[82] synthesized multiwall carbon nanotubes portable electronic devices, the expanding market for electric
(MWCNTs) incorporated with the V2CTx MXene and prepared vehicles, and advancements in renewable energy
the composites to enhance the electrochemical performance, production.[4,10,94,104,105] Herein, the recent advancements in
providing stability to layered MXene sheets, and additional different batteries have been summarized.
conductive pathways which helps for charge and discharge
capacity. The MXene/MWCNTs electrode exhibited a capaci-
tance of 1842 F g 1 and a specific capacity found at 62.5 A h g 1. 2.2. Li-ion Batteries
The capacitance retention was found 94 % after 10000 cycles.
The detailed comparison of bare MWCNTS, V2CTx and MXene/ Intercalation-based energy storage systems, such as lithium-ion
MWCNTs electrode is exhibited through CVs and GCDs as batteries (LIBs), have played a huge role in energy storage,
shown in Figure 5a–c. Several types of spacers, such as nano- powering various applications ranging from portable electronics
carbon, metal oxides, and conducting polymers, are utilized to to electric vehicles, and even stationary grid storage.[106–108]
improve the performance of supercapacitors. In addition to the However, there is a growing demand for batteries that can store
benefits, it has been observed that the utilization of pseudoca- more energy, have longer lifetimes, and allow for faster
pacitive material has a detrimental effect on the stability of charging.[109] For instance, Naguib et al.[110] reported V2CTx as
MXene.[100–102] electrode materials in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The synthesis
To overcome this, Yadav et al.[83] synthesized V2CTx MXene of V2CTx is illustrated in Figure 6a. V2CTx as electrode revealed
by HF etching and prepared metal-organic frameworks using superior voltage window over Nb-based MXenes. This implied
terepthalic acid as a linker, and converted MOFs into nano- that certain MXenes may perform better as anodes, while others
porous using selective pyrolysis in an inert atmosphere (Fig- have the potential to be utilized as cathode materials in LIBs.
ure 5d). The distinctive structure and architecture of the nano- V2CTx has exhibited higher capacity, reaching 210 mAh g 1 at
disc resulted in a significant increase in electrochemical surface 1 C. V2CTx demonstrated higher capacity at higher lithiation
Review
Figure 5. (a) CV curves of MWCNTs and MWCNTs@V2CTx MXene. (b) Curves of energy densities at various scan rates. (c) GCD curves at various current
densities. Reproduced with permission from ref. [82]. Copyright 2022, APL. (d) Schematic illustration of the preparation of the V2CTx@C matrix. (e) capacitance
vs current density graph for V2CTx MXene and V2CTx @C composite. (f) CV curves of V2CTx@C in 1 M H2SO4. (g) GCD curves at different current densities. (h)
cycling stability graph of V2CTx@C electrode. Reproduced with permission from ref. [83]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier. (i) The d- V4C3Tx, MoO3, and d- V4C3Tx/MoO3
composite films cyclic voltammetry curves at 2 mV s 1. (j) Gravimetric capacity at 1 A g 1. (k) Cycling stability and Coulombic efficiency at 10 A g 1 for 10,000
cycles. Reproduced with permission from ref. [103]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
voltages. V2CTx (Figure 6b) exhibited a significant capacity well as the formation of V O Sn bonding. The dynamic
within a voltage range of 0 to 3 V against a Li/Li +. In another mechanism of V2C@Sn MXene electrodes in real time was
report, Wang et al.[111] studied atomic Sn4 + -decorated V2C studied through operando X-ray absorption fine structure
MXene as an improved electrode material for LIBS. This unique (XAFS) measurement technique. Figure 6c displayed the XAFS
Sn4 + -decorated V2C MXene demonstrated not only enhanced spectra of the V K-edge collected during the initial cycling
capacity but also excellent stability and rate capabilities due to process. As the voltage decreased from 3.472 V during charging
the expanded interlayer spacing within the MXene structure as (C) to 0.216 V during discharging (D), the absorption edge
Review
Table 1. Summary of V-MXenes and its composites as electrode material for applications towards supercapacitor.
MAX MXene Electrode Electrolyte Potential window (V) Capacitance Scan rates/ Cycle Number of Refs.
Current life Cycles
densities
3
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx Seawater 0.8 to 0.3 317.8 F cm 0.2 A/g 89.1 % 5000 [73]
1 1
V2AlC V 2C V 2C 1 M Na2SO4 0.3 to 0.9 164 F g 2 mV s ~90 % 10000 [74]
3 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx 3 M H2SO4 0.4 to 0.2 ~1473 F cm 2 mV s 100 % 50000 [38]
1
V2AlC V2CTx V 2C 0.5 M Li2SO4 1.2 to 0.0 208 F g 2 mV/s 75 % 1000 [63]
1
1 M MgSO4 1.2 to 0.0 225 F g 2 mV/s 87.5 % 1000
1
1 M Na2SO4 1.0 to 0.2 120 F g 2 mV/s 98 % 1000
1
0.5 M K2SO4 1.0 to 0.2 104 F g 2 mV/s 97 % 1000
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx 1 M LiOH 1.4 to 0.8 386 F g 2 mV s 86.3 % 60000 [75]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx 1 M H2SO4 0.5 to 0.1 665 F g 2 mV s 81.9 % 1000 [76]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx 2 M ZnSO4 0.9 to 0.3 481 F g 1Ag 84.3 % 60000 [77]
1 1
V4AlC3 V 4C 3 V 4C 3 1 M H2SO4 0.3 to 0.1 209 F g 2 mV s 97.23 % 10000 [78]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx V4C3Tx 1 M H2SO4 0.30 to 0.30 210 F g 10 mV s 96.3 % 10000 [79]
1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx V4C3Tx 1 M H2SO4 0.4 to + 0.4 330 F g 5 mV/s 90 % 3000 [80]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx V4C3Tx - - 290 F g 2 mV s 93.1 % 60000 [81]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTX V2CTx/CNT 1 M KOH 0.2 to 0.5 1842 F g 2 mV s 94 % 10000 [82]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx@C 1 M H2SO4 0.0 to 1.2 551 F g 2Ag 88.1 % 5000 [83]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx/ZrO2 3 M H2SO4 0.5 to 0.3 1200 F g 5 mV s 97 % 10000 [84]
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx@Si 1 M ZnSO4 0.0 to 1.0 557 F g 1 A/g 96.4 % 10000 [85]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx/NiV-LDH 6 M KOH 0.0 to 0.5 1658.2 F g 1Ag 80.95 % 10000 [86]
1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx@NiCoMn-OH 3 M KOH 0.0 to 0.5 827.45 C g 1 A/g 88.44 % 10000 [87]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx Co-LDH/ V2CTx 6 M KOH 0.1 to 0.4 1005 F g 1Ag 95.7 % 3000 [88]
1 1
V2AlC V2CTx V2CTx/Ti3C2Tx 1 M H2SO4 0.6 to 0.2 365 F g 1Ag ~100 % 10000 [89]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx V4C3Tx@NiO-RGO 1 M KOH 1.0 to 0.8 1021 F g 0.5 A g 96.4 % 10000 [90]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx V4C3Tx@NiO-RGO 1 M KOH 1.0 to 0.8 1009 F g 1Ag 97.4 % 10000 [91]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx N V4C3Tx/PoPD 1 M H2SO4 0.2 to 0.4 676.5 F g 1Ag ~100 10000 [92]
1 1
V4AlC3 V4C3Tx NiCoAl-LDH/V4C3Tx 1 M KOH 0.1 to 0.5 627 C g 1Ag 100 % 10000 [93]
shifted to lower energy. Additionally, the bond length (inset of several steps as depicted in Figure 6f. Firstly, V2AlC MAX powder
Figure 6c) of V M (C/O) increased. These changes were was subjected to etching using a mixed solution of NaF and HCl
attributed to the reduced valence of V, which occurred due to which selectively removed the Al layer from the V2AlC MAX
the intercalation of Li + ions into the MXene structure. When phase, resulting in the formation of V2CTx MXene. Subsequently,
the voltage is subsequently charged to 3.343 V, both the the obtained V2CTx MXene was immersed in a KOH solution to
absorption edge and bond length reversibly recovered, indicat- facilitate K intercalation and expand the interlayer spacing.
ing the stability of the V2C MXene material. By comparing the During this step, K ions are intercalated between the MXene
valence fluctuation of V with V2O3 and VO2, the range of valence layers, which expanded the interlayer spacing. Finally, the
fluctuation for V in the V2C MXene was calculated to be + 2.66 V2CTx-K MXene was transferred into a CaCl2 solution to not only
to + 2.75 as depicted in Figure 6d. It has been reported that intercalate Ca ions but also further expand the interlayer
heteroatom dopants (N, S, O, B, S, P) further improve the overall spacing of V2CTx MXene. Interestingly, the Ca + doped V2CTx
performance of MXenes.[112] For instance, N, S co-doped V V2CTx MXene demonstrated a superior reversible capacity of approx-
MXene exhibited a superior high reversible capacity of imately 223 mAh g 1 at a high current density of 2 A g 1. These
590 mAh g 1 after 100 cycles at a low current density of results indicate that the heteroatom doping enhances the
0.1 A g 1 than bare V2CTx MXene as shown in Figure 6e.[113] Even electrochemical performance of the MXene material, making it
at a high current density of 2 A g 1, the N, S co-doped V2CTx a promising candidate for high-performance LIBs. The diffusion
MXene retained a reversible capacity of 298 mAh g 1 after 300 mobility affinities of Li ions on both non-defective and defective
cycles, highlighting its excellent rate capability and long-term V2C MXene monolayers were also studied through ab initio
cycling stability. Further, Lu et al.[114] reported that the calcium electronic structure calculations.[115] All these findings suggest
(Ca +) doping in V2CTx MXene significantly improved the electro- that V2C MXene could be a promising candidate for LIBs.
chemical performance when used as an anode material for LIBs.
The detailed synthesis process of doped V2CTx MXene involved
Review
Figure 6. (a) Illustration of synthesis of V2CTx (b) Voltage profile of V2CTx between 0 and 3 V vs Li/Li +. Reproduced with permission from ref .[110]. Copyright
2013, ACS Publications. (c) Normalized XANES spectra of V K-edge at different voltages, inset: the corresponding Fourier-transformed V K-edge EXAFS spectra.
(d) Chemical valences of V atom in V2O3, VO2, and V2C@Sn electrode. Reproduced with permission from ref.[111]. Copyright 2018, Wiley. (e) Cycling
performance VCT-600 and N S-VCT-600. Reproduced with permission from ref. [113]. Copyright 2021, Elsevier. (f) Schematic illustration of the etching process
of V2AlC and the cation intercalation behaviors. Reproduced with permission from ref. [114]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.
2.3. Li S Batteries potential as an anchoring material for lithium-sulfur batteries.

Further, Wang et al.[119] experimentally produced a 3D grid
Recently, there has been significant interest in alkali-metal ion heterostructure comprising nanorod clusters of VO2(p) (para-
batteries utilizing sulfur as the cathode material. Lithium-sulfur montroseite-VO2) grown on the surface of 2D V2C MXenes. This
(Li S) battery has garnered attention due to its exceptional unique combination of materials demonstrated excellent cata-
theoretical energy density of 2600 W h kg 1 and high theoretical lytic capabilities, made it suitable for achieving higher perform-
capacity of 1673 mA h g 1, which are more than five times ance in sulfur cathodes. The cycle performance of V2C/S and
greater than those of conventional LIBs.[116–118] Wang et al.[116] VO2(p)-V2C/S was tested at a current density of 0.2 C (1 C =
designed S-functionalized V2C (V2CS2) MXene material theoret- 1627 mAh g 1), as depicted in Figure 7a. The positive electrode
ically which possessed both dynamic and thermal stability, as composed of VO2(p)-V2C/S demonstrated superior and stable
well as metallic properties. In comparison to bare V2C and reversible cycle performance. It achieved a reversible discharge
V2CO2, V2CS2 exhibited a moderate adsorption effect that capacity of approximately 1250 mAh g 1 and retained over 90 %
effectively suppressed the “shuttle effect” and preserves the after 100 cycles (compared to the second cycle). On the other
structure of lithium polysulfides (LIPSs) without any decom- hand, the V2C/S positive electrode exhibited a significant
position. Furthermore, the metallic characteristics of V2CS2 decrease in discharge capacity, retaining only 77.2 % of its
remain intact even after adsorbing LIPSs, thereby enhancing capacity after 100 cycles (compared to the second cycle).
the electrochemical activity during the charge and discharge Figure 7b presents the GCDs of V2C/S and VO2(p)-V2C/S
processes. The V2CS2 surface demonstrated low energy barriers cathodes, with a sulfur loading of 3.5 mg cm 2. At current
for both Li2S decomposition and Li diffusion, facilitating the densities of 0.2 C and 2 C, the VO2(p)-V2C/S composite exhibited
phase transformation of LIPSs and supporting the electro- higher initial discharge capacities (1120 mAh g 1 at 0.2 C,
chemical reactions. It was concluded that V2CS2 exhibited great 683 mAh g 1 at 2 C) compared to V2C/S, which showed
Review
Figure 7. (a) Cycling performance at 0.2 C for 100 cycles with a sulfur loading of 1.8 mg · cm 2. (b) Charge discharge profiles of V2C and VO2(p)-V2C/S.
Reproduced with permission from ref. [119]. Copyright 2019, ACS Publications. (c) Fabrication process of 3DP MOx-MXene/S electrodes. Digital photos of (d)
Printing patterns on a PET substrate (6 cm×2 cm); (e) the top- and side-view of 3DP sulfur electrodes (2 cm×2 cm) harnessing different layer numbers; (f) Top-
view SEM image of a 3DP sulfur electrode. Reproduced with permission from ref.[120]. Copyright 2020, ACS Publications. (g) CV profiles at 0.1 mV s 1, (h) EIS
curves after 20 cycles, (i) rate performance for S/1T-VSe2-MXene, S/1T-VSe2, and S/MXene cathodes. Reproduced with permission from ref. [123]. Copyright
2023, Elsevier.
discharge capacities of 718 mAh · g 1 (0.2 C) and 476 mAh g 1 a 3D printable ink. This ink enables the smooth printing of
(2 C). These results indicate that the VO2(p)-V2C/S composite customized 3D-printed sulfur electrodes for LSBs. In Figure 7d, a
offered improved discharge capacity performance compared to digital photo displayed printed patterns of “Ti, V, and Nb” on a
V2C/S. Wei et al.[120] proposed an universal approach for the polyethylene terephthalate substrate, demonstrated the high
formation of MOx-MXene (M: Ti, V, and Nb) heterostructures printing versatility of the technique. The method allows for fine-
through in-situ fabrication. These heterostructures served as tuning of mass loading through a layer-by-layer printing
robust and versatile hosts, enabling excellent battery perform- process. Figure 7e highlights the successful realization of wood-
ance by simultaneously immobilizing and converting polysul- pile electrode architectures with controllable layer thickness,
fides. Figure 7c exhibited the synthetic procedure of MOx- achieved through this technique. Figure 7f presented a top-
MXene (M: Ti, V, and Nb) heterostructures and the subsequent view SEM image of a printed electrode, revealing uniform 3D
preparation process of 3DP MOx-MXene/S cathodes for lithium- line structures with well-preserved interiors. Theoretical calcu-
sulfur batteries (LSBs) are illustrated. Initially, the MOx-MXene lations suggested that the in-situ implanted oxides enhanced
heterostructure is synthesized using a hydrothermal approach the kinetics of polysulfide transformation while preserve the
that involved gentle etching and mild oxidation. The resulting intrinsic conductivity of MXene. As a result, the representative
material is then impregnated with sulfur to form the MOx- VOx-V2C/S electrode exhibited a high volumetric capacity of
MXene/S composite. Carbon nanotubes are incorporated as 1645.98 mAh cm 3 at 0.2 C. Furthermore, it retained
additives to adjust the ink viscosity, allowing the formulation of 631.17 mAh cm 3 after 1500 cycles at 2.0 C, with a marginal
Review
capacity decay of only 0.03 % per cycle. These findings high- 2.4. Zn-Ion Batteries
lighted the potential of the MOx-MXene heterostructure as a
promising candidate for high-performance battery applications. Rechargeable aqueous zinc-ion batteries (ZIBs) have garnered
In another report, the V2O5@V2C/S (sulfur loading of increasing attention due to their cost-effectiveness, environ-
8.4 mg cm 2) electrode demonstrated a higher initial capacity of mentally friendly neutral aqueous electrolytes, non-toxicity, and
1173 mA h g 1 at 0.2 C and experienced only a 0.047 % decay the use of abundant zinc metal as the anode material.[128] Li
per cycle.[121] Tan et al.[122] reported an innovative in-situ strategy et al.[129] proposed all-in-one protocol for the direct fabrication
that converted V2C MXene into 3D NiAs-type V3S4 nanocrystal of V2CTx MXene-based zinc-ion batteries through an in-situ
functionalized carbon flakes (V3S4@C). This conversion process electrochemical method. This approach involved utilizing MAX
formed a unique host material that offered synergistic effects of as the cathode material and an F-rich electrolyte as the etchant.
the polar V3S4 mediator and the conductive carbon framework. Notably, this protocol offered a one-step and environmentally
Moreover, a novel electrode denoted as 1T-VSe2-MXene friendly process, eliminating the need for any acid or alkaline
heterostructure was developed as a sulfur host to enhance the substances. One particularly intriguing aspect of this research
catalytic conversion of sulfur species.[123] Theoretical and was that the cell continued to work as a rechargeable battery
experimental analysis confirmed that the energy-level differ- throughout and after the exfoliation process, exhibiting an
ence between the conductive MXene and 1T-VSe2 induces increasing capacity. The zinc-ion battery demonstrated an
electron flow across the heterointerface, built-in electric field impressive capacity of 409.7 mAh g 1 at a current density of
(BIEF) in the metal-metal phase. Figure 7g presented the CVs of 0.5 A g 1, leading to an energy density of 310.3 Wh kg 1. In
S/1T-VSe2-MXene, S/1T-VSe2, and S/MXene in the voltage range another report, the same group[130] reported capacity
of 1.7–2.8 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s 1 (S loading was enhancement in a zinc hybrid-ion battery (ZHIB) using V2CTx
6.9 mg cm 2). Among the tested electrodes, the S/1T-VSe2- MXene as the cathode material. The underlying mechanisms
MXene electrode exhibited the highest current density and the responsible for this exceptional performance was identified as
lowest reaction polarization for all the redox peaks. This MXene delamination and an unexpected phase transition (from
suggested that the enhanced sulfur redox kinetics attributed to V2CTx to V2CTx/V2O5/C) occurred during cycling. The generation
the interfacial built-in electric field (BIEF) of the 1T-VSe2-MXene of both the original cathode material and secondary derivatives
heterostructure. It facilitated faster charge transfer and im- synergistically contributed to the enhanced capacity. Figure 8a
proved electrical conductivity, leading to more efficient redox displayed the cycling performance of the V2CTx -based ZHIB at a
reactions. Figure 7h displayed the EIS spectra after 20 cycles. high current density of 10 A g 1. The capacity of the battery
The semicircle diameter in the low-frequency region of the S/ experienced a sharp increase in the initial few hundred cycles.
1T-VSe2-MXene cell was smaller compared to S/1T-VSe2 and S/ After approximately 16,000 cycles, the specific capacity became
MXene, indicating a lower charge transfer resistance (Rct) and stable at around 202 mAh g 1 at 10 A g 1 and continued a slight
better electrical conductivity for the S/1T-VSe2-MXene cathode. increase in subsequent cycles until the battery eventually fails.
This further confirmed the improved redox reactions and The Coulombic efficiency (CE) remained stable at 100 %
enhanced performance of the S/1T-VSe2-MXene electrode. Fig- throughout this extended cycling period. Figure 8b provided in-
ure 7i illustrates the rate capabilities of these cathodes, and it situ cyclic CVs to verify the retention. The CV curves exhibited
was evident that the S/1T-VSe2-MXene cathode exhibits signifi- significant enlargement, indicating a capacity enhancement
cantly superior performance. This improved performance was phenomenon that aligns with the prolonged cycling curve
attributed to the interfacial BIEF provided by the 1T-VSe2- observed earlier. The CV curve obtained after 18,000 cycles at
MXene heterostructure. Which promoted efficient electron/ion 10 A g 1 demonstrated a considerably enlarged integrated area,
transport, enhanced the redox kinetics of sulfur species, and confirming enhanced cycle life. The enhanced capacity was
enables rapid electrochemical reactions. The S/1T-VSe2-MXene attributed to gradual separation of few-layered V2CTx flakes
cathode exhibited a high reversible capacity of 1321 mAh g 1 at from the original bulk material, creating more active sites for
0.1 C. It also demonstrated excellent cyclic stability with a ion accommodation and thereby enhancing the energy storage
capacity decay of only 0.058 % per cycle over 550 cycles at capability.[131,132] Similar phase transition was also observed for
0.5 C. These findings highlighted the effectiveness of the 1T- the V2Ox@V2CTx electrode during the etching and electro-
VSe2-MXene heterostructure catalyst in improving the perform- chemical cycling while using 1 M ZnSO4 electrolyte.[133] The
ance of sulfur-based batteries. Further, both theoretical and V2Ox@V2CTx demonstrated excellent rate performance and high
experimental studies on V4C3Tx modified polypropylene (PP) capacity of 304 mAh g 1. Ziu et al.[134] activated in-situ electro-
separator (V4C3Tx-PP) also demonstrated potential applications chemically the valence of surface vanadium from V2 + /V3 + to V4 +
of MXenes as for Li S batteries.[124] The current studies showed /V5 + as shown schematically in Figure 8c. The valence state of
that V–Mxene and its tuning could be a possible potential the outermost vanadium (V) atoms in the V2CTx cathode was
material in Li S batteries.[121,122,124–127] controlled by charging it at different voltages of 1.4 V, 1.8 V,
and 2.0 V. The higher charging voltage facilitated the oxidation
of the outermost V atoms. The activated V2CTx cathode exhibits
excellent rate performance due to the synergistic effects
between the high-valence VOx coating and the conductive
V C V layers. At a current density of 30 A g 1, it achieves an
Review
Figure 8. (a) Long-term cycling performance of V2CTx-based ZHIB at 10 A g 1 and (b) Cycling performance and Coulombic efficiency of V2CTx-based ZHIB at
0.2 A g 1 based on 21 M LiTFSI + 1 M Zn(CF3SO3)2 electrolyte. Reproduced with permission from ref. [129]. Copyright 2020, ACS Publications. (c) Schematic
illustration showing the valence regulation of V2CTx cathode. Reproduced with permission from ref. [134]. Copyright 2021, Wiley. (d) Cycling performance of
K V2C@MnO2, K V2C@MnO2 without MnSO4, and δ-MnO2 electrodes at 0.3 A g 1. Reproduced with permission from ref. [135]. Copyright 2021, ACS
Publications. (e) Schematic Illustration of the Surface Selenization of V2CTx for the Preparation of VSe2@V2CTx Nanohybrids. Reproduced with permission from
ref. [147]. Copyright 2022, ACS Publications. and (f) Structure and working mechanism of Zn-ion microbattery using VS2/MXene as the cathode and Zn/MXene
as the anode. Reproduced with permission from ref. [137]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
ultrahigh rate performance, reaching a capacity of 358 mAh g 1. colleague[136] presented a simple and efficient one-step surface
Moreover, it demonstrated energy density of 318 Wh kg 1. Zhu selenization strategy to create advanced nanohybrids based on
et al.[135] developed a manganese-vanadium hybrid cathode (K- MXenes as shown in Figure 8e. By subjecting MXenes to the
V2C@MnO2) for ZIBs. The uniform MnO2 nanosheets were grown selenization process, the surface metal atoms are transformed
on the surface of V2CTx MXene. The synthesis process involved into transition metal selenides (TMSes) that exhibited out-
metal-cation intercalation through in-situ growth strategy. The standing structural stability and high capacity. Importantly, the
presence of abundant active sites on the MnO2 nanosheets inner layers of MXenes were preserved during this process. The
promoted electrochemical reactions, leading to improved high versatility of this strategy was confirmed by successfully
specific capacity of 408.1 mAh g 1 at 0.3 A g 1. The synergistic constructing various electrodes such as VSe2@V2CTx,
effects between Mn2 + electrodeposition and the structural TiSe2@Ti3C2Tx, and NbSe2@Nb2CTx nanohybrids. In particular, the
stability provided by V2CTx MXene result in minimized structural VSe2@V2CTx nanohybrid exhibited superior electrochemical
damage to the MnO2, ensuring prolonged cycling stability and performance, including high-rate capability with a capacity of
enhanced and superior battery lifespan of K-V2C@MnO2 as 132.7 mA h g 1 at 2.0 A g 1, long-term cyclability with 93.1 %
shown in Figure 8d. capacity retention after 600 cycles at 2.0 A g 1, and substantial
By combining MXenes with secondary materials, unique capacitive contribution of 85.7 % at 2.0 mV s 1. Extensive
hybrid MXene heterostructures can be formed. It is crucial to experimental and simulation investigations elucidated that the
grasp the synergy between these hybrid materials in order to integration of VSe2 and V2CTx contributed to the exceptional
maximize their properties. The development of MXene-based Zn-ion storage performance. Moreover, similar heterostructure
heterostructures and hybrid structures should aim to enhance based on V2CTx and VS2 was reported for micro ZIBs and the
the overall physical, chemical, mechanical, and electrochemical structure and mechanism details are shown schematically in
properties, making them highly suitable for applications in Figure 8f.[137] The finger-like electrodes were created using a
energy storage.[37,43,49,51] In another study, Sha and his laser direct writing technique. The cathode consists of carved
Review
VS2/MXene heterostructure, while the anode was composed of solutions. This superiority of Al-based batteries over those
carved Zn/MXene. The developed microbattery exhibited a high based on other non-lithium elements has made them partic-
capacity of 30.8 μWh cm 2 at a power density of 0.57 mW cm 2. ularly promising for future energy storage applications.[150,151]
Additionally, the microbattery demonstrated an ultralong cycle VahidMohammadi et al.[94] reported a rechargeable Al battery
life, with almost no capacity reduction observed even after utilizing a V2CTx MXene cathode. The mechanism for charge
2000 cycles. In summary, the microbattery offered both high storage in this system involves the reversible intercalation of
capacity and excellent cycle life, highlighting its potential for Al3 + cations between the layers of the MXene material as
flexible electronics. Number of other electrodes based on V- shown schematically in Figure 9a. The charge-discharge profiles
MXene and its derived nanomaterials have been reported for of an multi layered (ML)-V2CTx cathode at a current density of
ZIBs.[138–146] 10 mA g 1 revealed in Figure 9b. During the initial discharge, a
significant irreversible capacity of approximately 335 mAh g 1
was observed. This irreversible capacity was likely attributed to
2.5. Al Batteries the dissociation of chloroaluminate anions and other electrolyte
components, which might be due to a solid electrolyte inter-
The increasing demand for electrochemical energy storage face. As a result, the initial discharge capacity decreased to
devices with high energy density and rapid ion diffusion has led around 178 mAh g 1 in the first cycle, corresponding to the
researchers to explore alternatives to widely used LIBs. Non- composition V2Al0.26CTx. The CV curve of the cell (Figure 9c)
lithium metal-based ion batteries, such as N, K, Mg, Ca, and Al displayed two broad cathodic peaks within the range of 1.2–1 V
have gained significant attention.[148,149] Among these, Al-based (Peak I) and 0.9–0.8 V (Peak II), accompanied by corresponding
batteries have been studied due to their abundant reserves, anodic peaks at approximately 1 V (Peak III) and 1.4 V (Peak IV).
high valence charge per atom, and admirable safety in aqueous Understanding these characteristics is crucial for further opti-
Figure 9. (a) Schematic illustration of the proposed mechanism for an Al battery with V2CTx MXene as the cathode during discharge in 1.3 : 1 AlCl3/[EMIm]Cl
ionic liquid electrolyte; (b) Initial discharge and the following GCDs of a ML–V2CTx cathode for the first, second, and the fifth cycles at a current density of
10 mA g 1; (c) CV curve of a ML–V2CTx cathode at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s 1 in a voltage range of 0.1–1.8 V (V vs Al/Al3 +). Reproduced with permission from
ref. [94]. Copyright 2017, ACS Publications: (d) Scheme of V2C@Se synthesis process; Charging/discharging curves of V2C (e) and V2C@Se (f) for the first, second,
and fifth cycles; and (g) Rate performance of V2C and V2C@Se over 40 cycles at 1000 mA g 1 to 3000 mA g 1. Reproduced with permission from ref. [152].
Copyright 2022, Elsevier.
Review
mization and utilization of the ML–V2CTx cathode in aluminum- mechanical characteristics shown by these materials renders
based battery systems. Lv et al.[152] converted V2C to a V2C@Se them very favorable contenders for augmenting the efficacy
composite through selenization. The detailed synthesis of V2C and eco-friendliness of H2 generation systems.[174]
MXene and its composite is displayed schematically in Fig- In this regard, Haider et al.[175] presented a method for
ure 9d. The reversible redox reaction of V2C@Se was inves- modifying the surface of xTx MXene in order to enhance its
tigated using XPS and other electrochemical analysis. The electrocatalytic properties for water splitting applications. This
analysis revealed that the charging-discharging process in- was achieved by the strategic loading of spherical silver
volved the reversible conversion between V2 + /V3 +, V4 + /V5 +, and nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) onto V2CTx nanosheets (NSs) with
Se2 /Se2 + states. It was also studied through theoretical optimized efficiency (Figure 10a). The provided data showed an
calculations. At a constant current density of 1 A g 1, the initial overpotential of 32 mV (vs. RHE) and a Tafel slope of
discharge capacities were found to be 208.8 mAh g 1 for V2C 114 mV dec 1 in an alkaline environment. The application of a
and 402.5 mAh g 1 for V2C@Se, as depicted in Figure 9(e–f). uniform distribution Ag-NPs onto 2D MXene sheets served as a
However, in the fifth cycle, the discharge capacities decreased conductive agent, while the substantial surface area of the
to 77.1 mAh g 1 for V2C and 268.3 mAh g 1 for V2C@Se. It was sheets promoted the transport of ions by establishing short
evident that the capacity fading of V2C was significantly faster conductive routes at the interface between the electrode and
compared to V2C@Se. The results demonstrated that the electrolyte. Furthermore, the robust interaction and efficient
incorporation of Se in the V2C structure mitigated the capacity electrical coupling resulting in charge transfer between Ag-NPs
fading issue, making V2C@Se a more promising cathode and V2CTx MXene have been shown to significantly improve the
material. Figure 9g illustrated the performance of V2C and efficiency of water-splitting (HER). This interaction not only
V2C@Se cathode materials during 35–40 cycles, with a change enhances the structural stability of the catalyst but also reduces
in current density from 3 A g 1 to 1 A g 1. Notably, V2C@Se the barrier to charge transfer, ultimately leading to an increase
exhibited a stable discharge specific capacity of 300.5 mAh g 1, in the inherent activity of the catalyst’s structure. The HER
indicating excellent performance even under high current observed in this study adhered to the Volmer-Heyrovsky
densities. On the other hand, the discharge specific capacity of mechanism, which is often associated with cathodic hydrogen
V2C has decreased to less than 100 mAh g 1, indicating a synthesis.[176] Figure 10b and 10 c demonstrate micrographs of
significant capacity loss under the same conditions. These MAX following the HF treatment. The presence of an accordion-
findings highlighted the superior performance of V2C@Se like configuration serves as evidence for the removal of the
compared to V2C when subjected to high current density. aluminum atomic layer, hence validating the successful produc-
Further research and development efforts focused on under- tion of V2CTx MXene. The predominant proportion of released
standing the fundamental mechanisms governing Se dissolu- gases, such as hydrogen, which originated from an exothermic
tion and exploring innovative strategies to minimize it will be interaction that occurred between the HF as well as MAX
crucial in enhancing the cycle performance of composite phases, is likely accountable for the enlarged structure resem-
cathodes like V2C@Se. V-based MXenes and its integrated bling an accordion. The SEM images depict the V2CTx /Ag-NPs
nanomaterials have also been reported for K-ion batteries[153,154] hybrid structure, revealing the development of a porous
and Na-ion batteries.[70,153,155–157] These efforts on batteries morphology of Ag-NPs on the surface of V2CTx MXene. The SEM
contributed to the development of more efficient and durable image in Figure 10d shows Ag-NPs exhibiting a spherical
energy storage systems.[158,159] morphology, accompanied by an estimated average grain size
of 11.50 nm. The particles exhibit homogeneous distribution
over 2D MXene sheets, without any instances of agglomeration.
2.6. HER Moreover, Ling et al.[177] conducted a study employing first-
principles calculation to investigate the catalytic properties of
The pursuit of effective and environmentally-friendly energy V2CTx MXene, specifically focusing on its oxygen functional
sources has led to an increased focus on the exploration of groups (V2CTxO2) in the context of the HER. Their findings
innovative materials that may facilitate crucial processes in indicate that V2CTxO2 does not exhibit favourable catalytic
energy conversion technology.[160–164] One area of particular activity for HER due to the strong bonding between H and
interest is to the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), which plays oxygen O. However, the incorporation of transition metals onto
a critical role in the creation of hydrogen (H2) via the process of V2CTx MXene emerges as a promising approach to enhance the
water electrolysis.[165–167] In recent times, there has been a efficiency of hydrogen evolution. The adsorption of transition
growing recognition of the significance of 2D materials due to metal on the V2CO2 surface results in the formation of bonds
their distinctive electrical and catalytic characteristics. Among with adjacent V and O atoms, leading to a reduction in the
these materials; Graphene and MXenes are highly strength of the H O binding. This, in turn, enhances the
appreciated.[168,169] 2D class of MXenes have been playing an performance of the HER. In addition, Akir et al.[178] conducted
essential role toward electrochemical water splitting reactions experimental investigations on V2C MXene-based materials
such as Ti3C2Tx, Mo2C, Cr2C, Ta2C, and DTMs as well.[170–172] including two distinct bismuth (Bi) compounds. The objective
However, vanadium (V)-based MXenes have emerged as very of their research was to validate the possible use of V2C as an
promising contenders for improving the performance of the electrocatalyst for the HER. In this study, a novel approach was
HER.[173] Their distinctive aggregation of electrical, catalytic, and used to synthesize nanostructures of both 2D/0D and 2D/2D
Review
Figure 10. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process for the hybrid structure of V2CTx /Ag-NPs. Reproduced with permission from [175]. Copyright
2023, ACS publications. (b, c) SEM of V2CTx MXene after etching (taken at a resolution of 1 μm) and (d) The hybrid of V2CTx /Ag-NPs (HII) has a size of 0.5 μm.
Reproduced with the permission from ref. [175]. Copyright 2023, ACS publications. (e) The XRD patterns of V2AlC, V2C, V2C/BVO, as well as V2C/Bi are shown. (f
and g) TEM and HRTEM images of V2C/Bi are shown, and (h) The Raman spectra of V2C, V2C/BVO, as well as V2C/Bi are presented. Reproduced with the
permission from ref. [178]. Copyright 2023, RSC publications.
Review
compositions, using two distinct processes simultaneously. The demonstrated a lack of noticeable potential degradation even
2D/2D V2C/BVO composite material was composed of BiVO4 after 25 h of operation. Furthermore, Figure 11e illustrates the
nanosheets, referred to as BVO, that were enveloped by layers HER polarisation curves of the pure V2CTx MXene, Ag-NPs, HI,
of V2C. This composite was synthesized by a straightforward HII, as well as HII hybrid catalysts. The hybrid materials exhibited
hydrothermal technique. On the other hand, the 2D/0D V2C/Bi reduced overpotentials in order to achieve a current density of
composite material comprised of spherical particles of Bi, also 10 mA cm 2. In order to get a current density of 10 mA cm 2, an
known as Bi NPs, which were firmly attached to V2C MXenes overpotential of 60 mV was necessary for HI. On the other hand,
utilizing the solid-state annealing process. The efficacy of the HIII, pristine V2CTx, and Ag-NPs exhibited observed values of
V2C/BVO catalyst in promoting the HER in a 0.5 M H2SO4 45 mV, 154 mV, and 135 mV, respectively. In contrast, the HII
solution was shown, showcasing its superiority over the electrode demonstrated a much-reduced overpotential of
unmodified V2C catalyst. The XRD analysis was conducted to 32 mV in order to achieve a current density of 10 mA cm 2. The
investigate the crystalline structures of V2AlC, V2C, and observed overpotential of 28 mV demonstrated with Pt as an
composite samples, as shown in Figure 10e. The obtained XRD industrial catalyst serves as a relevant baseline for comparison.
patterns exhibited prominent diffraction peaks at 2θ = 13.5° as Figure 11f-g illustrates the Tafel slopes along with Durability of
well as 41.2°, which are indicative of the materials’ exceptional the V2CTx /Ag-NPs hybrid (HII) in the process of HER, both
crystallinity and purity, as confirmed by the reference PDF 29– before and after undergoing 4000 cycles.
0101. Upon treatment with a HF/NaF solution, the resulting
etched sample exhibited distinct peaks at 7.5°, 15°, 22.6°, and
30.7°, which may be attributed to the crystal planes (002), (004), 2.7. ORR and OER
(006), as well as (008) respectively. These peaks correspond to
the hexagonal V2C MXene material, which has a multilayered Vanadium (Vd)-MXenes are a novel category of 2D materials
structure. The TEM/HRTEM pictures (Figure 10f and 10 g) that exhibit notable bifunctional electrocatalytic capabilities in
demonstrate that the multilayered structure of V2C was oxygen reduction (ORR) along with evolution processes (OER).
effectively preserved, and Bi nanoparticles were successfully Figure 12a demonstrates the preparation of V2C through
deposited onto the outermost layer of the V2C MXene. Raman selected etching of A layer through V2AlC.[182] Alongside various
spectroscopy was also used to investigate this combination, as MXenes, Kiran et al.[183] prepared V2C (VC HF) MXene from V2AlC
seen in Figure 10h. In the V2C spectrum, several bands were by etching utilising HF with low temperatures targeting bifunc-
seen at roughly 147, 211, 262, 513, along with 691 cm 1. Based tional method for ORR as well as OER. The XRD patterns of the
on the theoretical investigation conducted by Champagne VC-HF material displays a distinctive diffraction peak at an angle
et al.,[179] it has been determined that the peak seen at 211 cm 1 of 2θ = 7.2°. This peak has been linked to the crystal plane (002)
may be attributed to the Eg mode of V2C(OH)2. Similarly, the of V2C MXene (Figure 12b). Regarding structure, the VAC layers
peak observed at 262 cm 1 corresponds to the Eg mode of V2C. undergo exfoliation after HF treatment, resulting in the
Additionally, two relatively less intense peaks observed at 513 acquisition of quasi-2D VC-HF MXene sheets (Figure 12c–d). In
and 691 cm 1 can be ascribed to the A1 g mode of V2CF2 along addition, Zhou et al.[184] conducted a theoretical study wherein
with V2CO(OH), correspondingly. they proposed the creation of a range of heterostructures
As previously mentioned, Figure 11a provides a concise consisting of N-doped graphene accompanied by V2C MXene
overview of the methodological stages used in the production monolayers. These heterostructures were proposed as potential
of P- V2CTx. The original substance, denoted as V2CTx, consisted bifunctional electrocatalysts driving the ORR. The researchers
of many layers, whereby the aluminum component was conducted first-principles calculations to demonstrate that the
selectively removed via the use of HF from V2AlC.[180] Based on graphitic layer on V2C and Mo2C MXenes exhibit a very high
the aforementioned theoretical findings, it is comprehensible level of reactivity, as shown by their ability to catalyse the ORR
that the unaltered V2CTx material demonstrates an overpotential with an overpotential as low as 0.36 V. The remarkable catalytic
of 760 mV (η@10 mA cm 2) at a current density of 10 mA cm 2 activities seen in this study may be attributed to the electronic
in our experimental observations, as seen in Figure 11b. This coupling between the graphitic sheet and the MXene. These
value is notably more than the overpotential exhibited by the activities exhibit a correlation with the pz band centre of the
unaltered Ti2CTx material, which is 600 mV at 10 mA cm 2. outermost carbon atoms as well as the work function of the
Furthermore, as seen in Figure 11c, the Tafel slope exhibited a heterostructures. Distinct lattice fringes were seen in the high-
significant decrease from 187 mV dec 1 for the pristine V2CTxto resolution HRTEM images of both materials, which corre-
178 mV dec 1 for P1- V2CTx, further decreasing to 85 mV dec 1 sponded to the VACs reported earlier (Figure 12e-f). The
for P2- V2CTx, and finally reaching 74 mV dec 1 for P3- V2CTx. obtained SAED diagrams for both samples exhibit a correspond-
This observation suggests that the HER catalyst’s kinetic ence with the crystal structures of VAC. Notably, the SAED
reaction rate becomes quicker with an increasing amount of P- pattern of the VC-HF sample displays distinct bright spots,
doping into the PC link. The chronoamperometry test (j–t) indicating the presence of crystalline exfoliated MXene layers.
findings shown in Figure 11d demonstrate that the P3- V2CTx Significantly, it is noteworthy that there is a significant rise in
has exceptional long-term operating stability, lasting for over the reduction current value for both samples in the electrolyte
24 h, with a minimal measured potential rise of just 0.5 mV. The saturated with O2. This observation indicates that both of the
stability of P3- V2CTx was assessed through LSV studies, which VAC along with VC-HF MXene samples exhibit electrochemical
Review
Figure 11. (a) Schematic illustration of the phosphorization for synthesizing the P-doped V2CTx (P- V2CTx) nanosheets by heat treatment with P(Ph)3 (TPP) and
their possible chemical compositions which can be determined by calculated surface formation energy. Reproduced with permission from [181]. Copyright
2019, Wiley. (b) Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV curves) without iR correction of all electrocatalysts with scan rate of 10 mV s 1 (c) Corresponding Tafel slopes
(d) Chronoamperometry measurement (j–t) for P3- V2CTx electrocatalysts, showing the good cyclic stability. (e) Polarization curves for HER containing V vs RHE
of pristine V2CTx MXene, Ag-NPs, and as-prepared V2CTx/Ag-NPs hybrids (f) Tafel plots of corresponding catalysts, and (g) Durability of V2CTx/Ag-NPs hybrid
(HII) in HER before and after 4000 cycles. Reproduced with permission from [175]. Copyright 2023, ACS publications.
Review
Figure 12. (a) Diagram illustrating the preparation process of V2CTx. (b) The XRD patterns of VC-HF, which demonstrate the presence of V2C and unreacted
V2AlC, as well as the XRD pattern of VAC, (c-d) SEM images of VAC and VC-HF demonstrate a layered structure. (e-f) TEM images of VAC and VC-HF, together
with their corresponding SAED patterns. (g) The CV curves of VC-HF and VAC samples are shown. (h) A comparison is made between the LSV curves and the
related Tafel plots (inset of (h)) of VC-HF along with VAC samples. The LSV curves of (i) VC-HF and (j) VAC at various rpm, together with their accompanying
K L plots, are shown in the insets. Reproduced with permission from [183]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
Review
activity towards ORR, as seen in Figure 12g. According to the diverse V-based MXenes and its composites as an electrode as
data presented in Figure 12h, it can be seen that VC-HF MXene well as catalyst material. Our investigation mainly provided the
has a greater level of ORR activity compared to VAC, but advancements made in utilizing V-based MXenes and its
somewhat lower than the current leading catalyst Pt/C. The composites energy storage and conversion. Numerous ap-
increased activity of MXene may be attributed to its greater proaches, reasons, and other factors attributed to improved
active surface area as well as the presence of terminal performance of V-based electrode materials have been dis-
functional groups on its surface. These factors promote the cussed. Despite the extensive research on V-MXene materials
interaction between MXene and O2, hence facilitating the for energy storage and conversion, there is a need for further
reduction of O2. Figure 12(i–j) illustrate the LSV graphs of the advancements in V-MXene nanocomposites. Future research in
VC-HF as well as VAC samples, respectively, obtained at this field can be conducted focusing on the following aspects:
different rpm.[183] * It is important to address the oxidation issues of V-MXenes.
Figure 13a displays the LSV polarisation curves for OER, The development and optimization of pre-modification
which depict the electrochemical system’s reaction on the V techniques and post-modification methods for the MXenes
versus RHE scale. Ag-NPs embellished V2CTx sheets have a are important. Further research and scrutiny in this area are
reduced overpotential compared to unmodified V2CTx in required to overcome these challenges and optimize not
achieving a current density for 10 mA cm 2 (η10).[175] Figure 13b only V-MXene but also non-V MXenes materials for various
displays the Tafel slope for all the materials examined in this applications.
study. The OER performance of HI was strong, with a calculated * Among different MXenes, Ti3C2Tx has garnered significant
Tafel slope of 62 mV dec 1. This slope was the lowest among attention. Thus, it is crucial to explore the potential of not
the hybrid structures that were developed, thus much lower only V-based MXenes but also modified V-based MXenes for
than the slope of pure V2CTx MXene, which was 143 mV dec 1. various applications. Investigating these modified MXenes
The Tafel slopes of HI, HIII, and Ag-NPs were measured to be 76, will allow a comprehensive understanding of their electro-
80, as well as 123 mV dec 1, respectively. Figure 13c displays the chemical abilities and expand the range of MXene materials
overpotential observed at current densities of 10 and also suitable for various other applications.
100 mA cm 2 for all the electrocatalysts investigated in this * For flexible and wearable electronic devices, V-MXene porous
study. On the other hand, the stability of the catalyst was films exhibit relatively weak mechanical properties. It is
assessed by continuous CV at a scan rate of 50 mV s 1. Prior to essential to explore improved preparation methods for
and after 4000 cycles, LSV polarisation curves were generated. MXene porous films or investigate the integration of V-
The hybrid catalyst exhibited exceptional longevity, as seen by MXene with other materials through chemical bonding
the little change within overpotential following 4000 CV cycles, methods to enhance their mechanical strength. This require
as depicted in Figure 13d. In addition, Kiran et al.[183] also in-depth exploration to develop robust V-MXene porous films
examined the open circuit voltage (OCV) and voltage-current with enhanced mechanical properties for practical applica-
(V I) characteristics of VAC and VC-HF MXene by conducting tions.
LSV at a rotation speed of 1600 rpm in a 0.1 M KOH solution * The MXene-based heterostructures exhibited exceptional
saturated with N2. As per their experiment, Figure 13e demon- advantages and promising application as disused in our
strates that VC-HF MXene has an overpotential (η10) of 430 mV previous review.[51] Further research effort is necessary to
OER for 10 mA cm 2, surpassing the pure VAC sample’s over- obtain the V-MXene heterostructures with outstanding
potential of 560 mV. Despite exhibiting lower OER performance properties. These efforts can focus on optimizing the
than RuO2 (η10–360 mV), the VC-HF MXene displays higher OER dispersion of V-MXene within the secondary materials,
performance than VAC, perhaps attributable to its greater ECSA. exploring novel processing techniques, investigating the
The VC-HF MXene has a reduced Tafel slope of 68 mV dec 1, in effects of V-MXene distribution on composite properties, and
contrast to VAC which has a Tafel slope of 89 mV dec 1 exploring potential synergistic effects between V-MXene and
(Figure 13f). The enhanced electrocatalytic performance of the secondary materials. Such composites and heterostructures
VC-HF MXene may be due to its abundant terminal functional can be used in various applications such as electronics,
groups on the surface, larger active electrochemical surface energy storage, sensors, and more. It is important to
area, as well as lower resistance (Rs). Moreover, V-nitrides investigate the interface engineering of the V-MXenes
MXenes have also been synthesized through various methods composites and heterostructures for understanding the
for different applications.[185–189] interactions and compatibility between the components.
* Expanding the range of surface termination groups for
MXenes, such as N, H, S, Se, Te, etc. would significantly
3. Conclusion and Future Aspects broaden the practical applications of V-MXene. The V-MXene
such as V4C3Tx can also be turned into in-situ heterostructure
The exciting properties of MXenes, including their tunable (V4C3Tx/VA2 (A is S, Se, Te etc.)) without using additional
morphology and bandgap configuration, excellent electrical source of vanadium to further enhance the electrochemical
conductivity, thermal stability, hydrophilicity, and decent performance of the system. Such in-situ heterostructure has
specific surface area, drive the utilization of MXene for various been previously reported for other MXene.[190]
applications. In this review, we have extensively examined the
Review
Figure 13. (a) Polarisation curves were obtained for the HER using virgin V2CTx MXene, Ag-NPs, and V2CTx/Ag-NPs hybrids. Reproduced with permission from
[175]. Copyright 2023, ACS publications. (b) Tafel plots of the relevant catalysts. Reproduced with permission from [175]. Copyright 2023, ACS publications. (c)
Comparison of the overpotential needed to achieve current densities of 10 and 50 mA cm 2. Reproduced with permission from [175]. Copyright 2023, ACS
publications. (d) The durability of the V2CTx /Ag-NPs hybrid (HII) in OER was evaluated before and after 4000 cycles. Reproduced with permission from [175].
Copyright 2023, ACS publications. (e) The LSV curves exhibit the electrocatalytic efficacy of VC-HF and VAC for OER at 1600 rpm in a 0.1 M KOH solution
saturated with N2, and (f) the matching Tafel slopes are shown. Reproduced with permission from [183]. Copyright 2023, Elsevier.
* Voltage window is the most important factor for high energy symmetric supercapacitors with the goal of improving their
density SCs. Unfortunately, V-MXene-based symmetric SCs operating voltage windows. Furthermore, gaining a better
exhibited low voltage windows compared to hybrid/asym- understanding of the charge storage mechanisms in both
metric devices. It is suggested to investigate MXene-based aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes should be focused.
Review
Figure 14. Overview of the future aspects of the V-based and other MXenes.
Some previous reports are suggested to read for valuable Acknowledgements

insights related to appropriate voltage window, charge
storage mechanism etc.[191,192] This work was supported by the Hong Kong Research Grants
* In order to advance the fabrication of MXene in a more Council (project number CityU 11201522). The authors express
sustainable and environmentally friendly way, it is important their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King
to explore alternative methods that do not rely on harsh Khalid University, Saudi Arabia, for this work through research
acids for etching. Promising approaches offer potential for group program under grant number RGP-2/451/45.
achieving MXene synthesis while minimizing the use of harsh
chemicals and reducing the environmental impact.[193] Further
research and development are needed to optimize and Conflict of Interests
expand the novel fabrication techniques for MXene synthesis.
* The investigation of various properties of MXene is primarily The authors declare no conflict of interest.
determined by theoretical studies. Computation data shows
that MXene exhibits significant potential for various applica- Keywords: MXenes: 2D materials: V-MXenes · energy storage ·
tions compared to other 2D materials. Consequently, con- energy conversion
ducting experimental research along with computational
study is suggested to determine potential applications of
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REVIEW
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1 – 26
V-MXenes for Energy Storage/Con-
version Applications
This comprehensive review provided MXenes) and their composites for

an overview of the properties, chal- energy storage and conversion appli-
lenges, key findings, and applications cations.
of vanadium-based MXenes (V-

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V-MXenes for Energy Storage/Conversion Applications

[a] I. Hussain, M. Ahmad, X. Chen, K. Zhang [g] M. B. Hanif

Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of overview of the review based on V-MXenes.

2.3. Li S Batteries potential as an anchoring material for lithium-sulfur batteries.

Some previous reports are suggested to read for valuable Acknowledgements

This comprehensive review provided MXenes) and their composites for

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