Trans View Index m2
Trans View Index m2
Trans View Index m2
1
Why Transactions?
Database systems are normally being
accessed by many users or processes at
the same time.
Both queries and modifications.
Unlike operating systems, which
support interaction of processes, a
DMBS needs to keep processes from
troublesome interactions.
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Example: Bad Interaction
You and your domestic partner each
take $100 from different ATM’s at about
the same time.
The DBMS better make sure one account
deduction doesn’t get lost.
Compare: An OS allows two people to
edit a document at the same time. If
both write, one’s changes get lost.
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Transactions
Transaction = process involving
database queries and/or modification.
Normally with some strong properties
regarding concurrency.
Formed in SQL from single statements
or explicit programmer control.
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ACID Transactions
ACID transactions are:
Atomic : Whole transaction or none is done.
Consistent : Database constraints preserved.
Isolated : It appears to the user as if only one
process executes at a time.
Durable : Effects of a process survive a crash.
Optional: weaker forms of transactions are
often supported as well.
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COMMIT
The SQL statement COMMIT causes a
transaction to complete.
It’s database modifications are now
permanent in the database.
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ROLLBACK
The SQL statement ROLLBACK also
causes the transaction to end, but by
aborting.
No effects on the database.
Failures like division by 0 or a
constraint violation can also cause
rollback, even if the programmer does
not request it.
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Example: Interacting Processes
Assume the usual Sells(bar,beer,price)
relation, and suppose that Joe’s Bar sells
only Bud for $2.50 and Miller for $3.00.
Sally is querying Sells for the highest and
lowest price Joe charges.
Joe decides to stop selling Bud and
Miller, but to sell only Heineken at $3.50.
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Sally’s Program
Sally executes the following two SQL
statements called (min) and (max) to
help us remember what they do.
(max) SELECT MAX(price) FROM Sells
WHERE bar = ’Joe’’s Bar’;
(min) SELECT MIN(price) FROM Sells
WHERE bar = ’Joe’’s Bar’;
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Joe’s Program
At about the same time, Joe executes the
following steps: (del) and (ins).
(del) DELETE FROM Sells
WHERE bar = ’Joe’’s Bar’;
(ins) INSERT INTO Sells
VALUES(’Joe’’s Bar’, ’Heineken’, 3.50);
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Interleaving of Statements
Although (max) must come before
(min), and (del) must come before
(ins), there are no other constraints on
the order of these statements, unless
we group Sally’s and/or Joe’s
statements into transactions.
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Example: Strange Interleaving
Suppose the steps execute in the order
(max)(del)(ins)(min).
Joe’s Prices: {2.50,3.00} {2.50,3.00} {3.50}
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Isolation Levels
SQL defines four isolation levels =
choices about what interactions are
allowed by transactions that execute at
about the same time.
Only one level (“serializable”) = ACID
transactions.
Each DBMS implements transactions in
its own way.
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Choosing the Isolation Level
Within a transaction, we can say:
SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL X
where X =
1. SERIALIZABLE
2. REPEATABLE READ
3. READ COMMITTED
4. READ UNCOMMITTED
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Serializable Transactions
If Sally = (max)(min) and Joe =
(del)(ins) are each transactions, and
Sally runs with isolation level
SERIALIZABLE, then she will see the
database either before or after Joe
runs, but not in the middle.
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Isolation Level Is Personal Choice
Your choice, e.g., run serializable,
affects only how you see the database,
not how others see it.
Example: If Joe Runs serializable, but
Sally doesn’t, then Sally might see no
prices for Joe’s Bar.
i.e., it looks to Sally as if she ran in the
middle of Joe’s transaction.
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Read-Commited Transactions
If Sally runs with isolation level READ
COMMITTED, then she can see only
committed data, but not necessarily the
same data each time.
Example: Under READ COMMITTED,
the interleaving (max)(del)(ins)(min) is
allowed, as long as Joe commits.
Sally sees MAX < MIN.
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Repeatable-Read Transactions
Requirement is like read-committed,
plus: if data is read again, then
everything seen the first time will be
seen the second time.
But the second and subsequent reads may
see more tuples as well.
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Example: Repeatable Read
Suppose Sally runs under REPEATABLE
READ, and the order of execution is
(max)(del)(ins)(min).
(max) sees prices 2.50 and 3.00.
(min) can see 3.50, but must also see 2.50
and 3.00, because they were seen on the
earlier read by (max).
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Read Uncommitted
A transaction running under READ
UNCOMMITTED can see data in the
database, even if it was written by a
transaction that has not committed
(and may never).
Example: If Sally runs under READ
UNCOMMITTED, she could see a price
3.50 even if Joe later aborts.
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Views
A view is a relation defined in terms
of stored tables (called base tables )
and other views.
Two kinds:
1. Virtual = not stored in the database; just
a query for constructing the relation.
2. Materialized = actually constructed and
stored.
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Declaring Views
Declare by:
CREATE [MATERIALIZED] VIEW
<name> AS <query>;
Default is virtual.
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Example: View Definition
CanDrink(drinker, beer) is a view “containing”
the drinker-beer pairs such that the drinker
frequents at least one bar that serves the beer:
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Example: Accessing a View
Query a view as if it were a base table.
Also: a limited ability to modify views if it
makes sense as a modification of one
underlying base table.
Example query:
SELECT beer FROM CanDrink
WHERE drinker = ’Sally’;
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Triggers on Views
Generally, it is impossible to modify a
virtual view, because it doesn’t exist.
But an INSTEAD OF trigger lets us
interpret view modifications in a way
that makes sense.
Example: View Synergy has (drinker,
beer, bar) triples such that the bar
serves the beer, the drinker frequents
the bar and likes the beer.
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Example: The View
Pick one copy of
CREATE VIEW Synergy AS each attribute
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The Trigger
CREATE TRIGGER ViewTrig
INSTEAD OF INSERT ON Synergy
REFERENCING NEW ROW AS n
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO LIKES VALUES(n.drinker, n.beer);
INSERT INTO SELLS(bar, beer) VALUES(n.bar, n.beer);
INSERT INTO FREQUENTS VALUES(n.drinker, n.bar);
END;
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Materialized Views
Problem: each time a base table
changes, the materialized view may
change.
Cannot afford to recompute the view with
each change.
Solution: Periodic reconstruction of the
materialized view, which is otherwise
“out of date.”
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Example: Axess/Class Mailing List
The class mailing list cs145-aut0708-
students is in effect a materialized view
of the class enrollment in Axess.
Actually updated four times/day.
You can enroll and miss an email sent out
after you enroll.
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Example: A Data Warehouse
Wal-Mart stores every sale at every
store in a database.
Overnight, the sales for the day are
used to update a data warehouse =
materialized views of the sales.
The warehouse is used by analysts to
predict trends and move goods to
where they are selling best.
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Indexes
Index = data structure used to speed
access to tuples of a relation, given
values of one or more attributes.
Could be a hash table, but in a DBMS it
is always a balanced search tree with
giant nodes (a full disk page) called a
B-tree.
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Declaring Indexes
No standard!
Typical syntax:
CREATE INDEX BeerInd ON
Beers(manf);
CREATE INDEX SellInd ON
Sells(bar, beer);
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Using Indexes
Given a value v, the index takes us to
only those tuples that have v in the
attribute(s) of the index.
Example: use BeerInd and SellInd to
find the prices of beers manufactured
by Pete’s and sold by Joe. (next slide)
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Using Indexes --- (2)
SELECT price FROM Beers, Sells
WHERE manf = ’Pete’’s’ AND
Beers.name = Sells.beer AND
bar = ’Joe’’s Bar’;
1. Use BeerInd to get all the beers made
by Pete’s.
2. Then use SellInd to get prices of those
beers, with bar = ’Joe’’s Bar’
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Database Tuning
A major problem in making a database
run fast is deciding which indexes to
create.
Pro: An index speeds up queries that can
use it.
Con: An index slows down all
modifications on its relation because the
index must be modified too.
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Example: Tuning
Suppose the only things we did with
our beers database was:
1. Insert new facts into a relation (10%).
2. Find the price of a given beer at a given
bar (90%).
Then SellInd on Sells(bar, beer) would
be wonderful, but BeerInd on
Beers(manf) would be harmful.
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Tuning Advisors
A major research thrust.
Because hand tuning is so hard.
An advisor gets a query load, e.g.:
1. Choose random queries from the history
of queries run on the database, or
2. Designer provides a sample workload.
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Tuning Advisors --- (2)
The advisor generates candidate
indexes and evaluates each on the
workload.
Feed each sample query to the query
optimizer, which assumes only this one
index is available.
Measure the improvement/degradation in
the average running time of the queries.
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References in your textbook
Chapter 6
6.6
Chapter 8
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Homework from your textbook
6.6.1
6.6.3
8.1.1
8.2.2
8.3.1
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6.6.1.a question
Product ( maker, model, type)
PC (model, speed, ram, hd, price)
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6.6.1.a solution
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int modelNo;
int pcPrice;
int pcRAM;
float pcSpeed;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
void lookupPC(float fSpeed,int iRAM) {
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY ISOLATION LEVEL READ COMMITTED;
EXEC SQL DECLARE pcCursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT model,price
FROM PC
WHERE speed=:pcSpeed AND ram=:pcRAM;
pcSpeed = fSpeed; pcRAM = iRAM;
EXEC SQL OPEN pcCursor;
EXEC SQL FETCH pcCursor INTO :modelNo, :pcPrice;
while (SQLCODE == 0){
printf(“Model No: %d Price: %d”, modelNo, pcPrice );
EXEC SQL FETCH pcCursor INTO :modelNo, :pcPrice;
}
This is a READ ONLY transaction
EXEC SQL CLOSE pcCursor;
and READ COMMITTED provides
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
the optimum ISOLATION LEVEL
} for concurrency while not allowing 46
dirty reads.
6.6.1.b question
Product ( maker, model, type)
PC (model, speed, ram, hd, price)
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6.6.1.b solution
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int modelNo;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
void deleteModel(int iModel) {
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL
SERIALIZABLE;
modelNo = iModel;
EXEC SQL DELETE FROM Product WHERE model =
:modelNo;
EXEC SQL DELETE FROM PC WHERE model = :modelNo;
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
}
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6.6.1.c solution
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
int modelNo;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
void updatePCPrice(int iModel) {
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
modelNo = iModel;
EXEC SQL UPDATE PC SET price = price - 100
WHERE model = :modelNo;
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
}
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6.6.1.d question
Product ( maker, model, type)
PC (model, speed, ram, hd, price)
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6.6.1.d solution
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
char maker[1];
int exists = 0;
int modelNo;
int pcPrice;
int pcRAM;
int pcHDD;
float pcSpeed;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
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6.6.3 solution
T is the READ ONLY transaction from 6.6.1 (a). Another
READ ONLY transaction can run concurrently without any
difference (i.e. As if all transactions ran in SERIALIZABLE
isolation).
If deleteModel from 6.6.1 (b) was running concurrently with
T, T may not return a PC model which had been deleted
from Product and then deleteModel rolled back. With
SERIALIZABLE isolation, T would return the PC model unless
the delete transaction committed.
If updatePCPrice from 6.6.1 (c) was running concurrently
with T, the reduced PC price(dirty read) could be returned
by T even if updatePCPrice later rolled back.
Similarly, T could return the inserted PC model by insertPC
(phantom read) even if insertPC later rolled back.
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8.1.1.a
MovieStar (name, address, gender, birthdate)
MovieExec (name, address, cert#, netWorth)
Studio(name, address, presC#)
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8.2.2.a
Suppose we create the view:
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8.2.2.b
Suppose we create the view:
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