NURSING RESEARCH 1

NCMB311
THIRD YEAR | FIRST SEMESTER | PRELIMS

WEEK 2: KEY CONCEPTS AND STEPS OF THE NURSING RESEARCH PROCESS

KEY TERMS IN QUAN AND QUAL RESEARCH

(e.g., pain, fatigue, obesity)

CONCEPT QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE CONSTRUCT An abstraction about the human

TERM TERM condition deliberate invented (or
constructed)
Person Subject —
contributing (e.g., self-care by D. Orem; social
information Study Study justice; beauty)
participant participant
THEORY An explanation of some aspects of
Informant, key reality
informant
VARIABLES
Person Researcher Researcher
● Variables is a quality of a person, group, or situation
undertaking the
study Investigator Investigator that varies or takes on different values
○ E.g., weight, anxiety, nausea
That which is — Phenomena ● Central building blocks of quantitative research
being ● Variables are the ones we measure in the conduct of
investigated Concepts Concepts quantitative research
● We use these variables to identify if there are
Constructs
associations in the differences present
Variables ● Research is needed because people and condition
vary
Information Data (numerical Data (narrative ● QUAN seeks to understand how and why conditions
gathered values) descriptions) vary
● QUAN seeks to learn how differences in one variable
Connections Relationships Patterns of
relate to differences in another
between (cause and association
concepts effect,
associative) INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
● Presumed cause
Logical Deductive Inductive
reasoning reasoning reasoning DEPENDENT (OR OUTCOME) VARIABLE
processes ● Presumed effect
● The outcome researches want to understand,
explain or predict
SETTING Types of place where information is
gathered
Smoking —> Lung Cancer
(e.g., clinics, homes, community) INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT

SITE The broad location for the research — ○ The use of independent and dependent variables can
could be an entire community or an also be used to indicate the direction of influence.
institution As seen above, the direction of influence is from
smoking to cancer.
(e.g., a hospital in Antipolo City; an
Igorot neighborhood in Zambales)
CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

CONCEPTS, CONSTRUCTS, AND THEORIES

CONCEPTUAL The theoretical meaning of a
concept
PHENOMENA An abstraction of human attributes
OR CONCEPT

| TRANSCRIBED BY : CALDERON, KC
 - In these types of issues, we might ask
○ It is very important that when
what kind of new evidence is needed?
we are using concepts in our
○ Theoretical Issues
study, we need to identify if
- Is there a conceptual context for
there are conceptual definitions
understanding this problem?
so that our use of the concepts
○ We don;t just select a research problem based on
will be in line with the particular
our interest, we have to make sure that are
scholarly endeavor.
problems are founded or rooted in literature
● Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
(e.g., caring)
○ Quantitative research is conducted in a context
OPERATIONAL Specifies what the researchers must of previous knowledge
do to measure the concept and ○ Quantitative researchers typically strive to
collect needed information understand what is already known about a topic
by undertaking a literature review
(e.g., operationalization of the ○ A thorough literature review provides a
construct of caring via the care
foundation on which to base new evidence and
scale)
usually, it is conducted before data are collected
● Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Framework
DATA AND RELATIONSHIP ○ Relevant if topic or research questions are
relevant to clinical questions
QUANTITATIVE Information in numeric form ● Step 4: Defining the Framework and Developing
DATA Conceptual Definitions
○ Theory offers an explanation on the particular
QUALITATIVE Information in narrative aspects of reality
DATA descriptions ○ When a quantitative research is performed
within the context of theoretical framework, the
RELATIONSHIP Connection between phenomena
findings often have broader significance to utility
○ In qualitative research, we ○ Regardless of whether there is an existing theory
seek patterns of association or not to support your study, there must be an
underlying literature review because your
e.g, concepts and theories are also based on your
- Cause-and-effect (causative) literature review
relationships ● Step 5: Formulating Hypothesis
- Associative (or functional) ○ Hypothesis states the researchers expectations
relationships or predictions about the relationship between
study variable
MAJOR STEPS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ○ Are predicted answers to the research question
PHASE 1: CONCEPTUAL PHASE ○ Most quantitative studies involve testing
Considered as the early steps in quantitative study which hypothesis through statistical analysis
typically consists of strong conceptual elements ○ Inferential statistics are the one we use to test
whether we will accept or reject our hypothesis
● Step 1: Formulating and Delimiting the problem
○ In this step, quantitative researchers begin by PHASE 2: DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE
identifying an interesting and significant In the second major phase of quantitative study,
research problem and formulating questions researchers decide on the methods they will use to
○ Good research requires starting with good topic address research questions
then questions
○ And in identifying research questions, nurse Researchers usually have flexibility in designing a study
researchers must attend to substantive issues, and make many decisions. These methodological
theoretical issues, clinical issues, and decisions have crucial implications for the integrity and
methodological issues if there are aspects that the generalizability of the resulting evidence
may call the need to question safety and privacy
of our respondents ● Step 6: Selecting a Research Design
○ Substantive Issues ○ Research design is the overall plan for obtaining
answers to the research questions

| TRANSCRIBED BY : CALDERON, KC
 ○ Many experimental and nonexperimental ○ The sampling plan specifies how the sample will
research designs are available be selected and recruited and how many
○ In designing the study, the researcher should subjects there will be. The sampling plan is a very
select a specific design and identify strategies to important aspect of quantitative research
minimize bias because this will tell you if the findings that will
○ Because quantitative studies follows the be produced later on can be generalized to the
positivist paradigm, quantitative studies are other members of the population
more inclined to lessen or eliminate study biases ○ It is important that we have a proper sample size
or the possible subjective interpretations of our and sample representativeness to make sure that
study our study findings can be generalized or can
○ Research designs indicate how often data will be have a more significant findings, particularly if
collected, what types of comparisons will be the study aims to be used in addressing clinical
made, and where the study will take place. It's problems
either the site order or the setting ● Step 10: Specifying Methods to Measure Research
○ The research design is considered as the Variables
architectural backbone of the study. Your ○ For quantitative researchers, quantitative
research design will tell you the overall plan on researchers must develop or borrow methods to
how will you address the research question measure their research variables. The primary
you've identified in the conceptual phase of your methods of data collection are self-report
study interviews or surveys or via observations or
● Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Intervention through biophysiologic measures
○ This is if you will be conducting an experimental ○ Self-reported data from patients is the largest
study, particularly an experimental study that class of data collection methods and is often
may harm the patient. So you will develop a referred to as patient-reported outcomes. The
protocol task of measuring research variables and
○ if you're conducting an experimental study, developing a data collection plan is complex and
especially if the intervention you will introduce challenging
may harm, it is very important to identify or to ○ In sampling and selecting population, creating a
clearly state the steps that will be performed. research tool or the measuring tool is also a very
That's why it's called a protocol, the steps that we important activity in research because this is
will be performed and the measures that we will what we will use to gather the data that will
be performed in cases of harm to patients inform our study
● Step 8: Identifying the Population ● Step 11: Developing Methods to Safeguard
○ Qualitative research need to clarify the group to Human/Animal Rights
whom the study results can be generalized ○ This step is important if there will be involvement
○ That is, they must identify the population to be of animals in the research
studied. ● Step 12: Reviewing and Finalizing the Research
○ A population is all the individuals or objects with Plan
common defining characteristics ○ Before collecting data, researchers should take
○ Population needs to be identified, and this steps to ensure that the plans will work smoothly
population must share a particular characteristic ○ For example, researchers will evaluate the
so that it can be generalized to other populations readability of written materials to assess if
as well. That holds the same or that also possess participants with low reading skills can
the same characteristics comprehend them, or they may pretest their
● Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan measuring instruments to see if they work well
○ Researchers collect data from a sample, which is ○ Normally, researchers also have their research
a subset of the population. Using samples is plans criticized by peers, consultants, or other
more feasible than collecting data from an entire reviewers before implementing it. Researchers
population seeking financial support submit a proposal to a
○ The main idea of sampling in quantitative study funding source and reviewers usually suggest
is that the sample adequacy is assessed by its improvements
size and representativeness ○ Since this is a planning phase, the last part of the
○ The quality of the sample depends on how planning phase basically focuses on finalizing the
typical or representative the sample is of the plan. We need to make sure that our plan is more
population or less free of potential problems, so that it will

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 not impede our data collection. That's why it is But in our case, we have an statistician at the
important to have the research plan or the entire early IC
research plan reviewed so that we could ensure ● Step 16: Interpreting the Results
that it will be implemented in a smooth manner ○ So interpretation basically involves making sense
and so as to prevent encountering research of study results and examining their implications.
problems Researchers attempt to explain the findings in
light of prior evidence, theory, and often our own
PHASE 3: EMPIRICAL PHASE clinical experience and in light of the adequacy
The empirical phase is basically the phase of quantitative of the methods they use in the study.
studies that is in focus or that is involved in collecting ○ Interpretations also involves drawing conclusions
data and preparing data for analysis. Often the empirical about the clinical significance of the results,
data phase is the most time-consuming part of the envisioning how our findings can be used in
investigation. Data collection typically requires months of nursing practice, and clarifying what further
work research is needed
○ We don't just interpret our findings, but we also
● Step 13: Collecting the Data articulate the implications of our study
○ This is the phase where we implement the plan
we created in the design and planning phase PHASE 5: DISSEMINATION PHASE
○ The plan typically spells out the procedures for ● Step 17: Communicating the Findings
tuning data collection staff if you will be hiring ○ A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing
data collection staff practice if the results are not shared. To make
○ This also includes how we record the information sure that our study can contribute to the
that will be gathered in the study improvement of healthcare or the practice of
● Step 14: Preparing the Data for Analysis nurses, it is a must that we share our findings
○ The data collected in a quantitative study must ● Step 18: Utilizing the Findings in Practice
be prepared for analysis. One preliminary step is ○ Ideally, the concluding step of a high-quality
coding, which involves translating verbal data study or a disciplined research, is to plan for the
into numeric form. For instance, coding gender use of evidence in practice setting
information as one for females and two for ○ It is also a part of thinking about the implication
males. Part of preparing our data for analysis is of our study to think how our findings can be
to translate the textual data to numerical data, used in practice. Although nurse researchers may
so depending on its corresponding numerical not themselves be able to implement a plan for
data using research finding, they can contribute to the
○ Then another step that may be included in the process by making recommendations or utilizing
step 14 or in the preparation of the data for data evidence by ensuring that adequate information
analysis is to transfer the data from the written has been provided for a systematic review and
documents onto computer files for analysis by pursuing opportunities to disseminate the
findings to clinicians
PHASE 4: ANALYTIC PHASE
This is the phase where the quantitative data must be ACTIVITIES IN A QUALITATIVE STUDY
subjected to analysis and interpretation, which occurs in CONCEPTUALIZING AND PLANNING A QUALITATIVE
this phase of the project STUDY
● Identifying the Research Problem
● Step 15: Analyzing the Data ○ The first is identifying the research problem.
○ Quantitative researchers analyze their data Qualitative researchers usually begin with a
through statistical analysis, which includes simple broad topic area, focusing on an aspect of a
procedures like computing an average, as well as topic that is poorly understood and often which
the ones that are complex little is known. Qualitative researchers often
○ So some analytical methods are computationally proceed with a fairly broad initial question which
formidable, but the underlying logic of statistical may be narrowed and clarified on the basis of
tests is fairly easy to grasp self-reflection and discussion with others. The
○ So computers have already eliminated the need specific focus and questions are usually
to get bogged down with mathematical delineated more clearly once the study is
operations. There is now software that can be underway
used to analyze and perform a statistical test.

| TRANSCRIBED BY : CALDERON, KC
 ○ So more often, the research question in a course of data collection. Certain design features
qualitative study can be big at the outset of the may be guided by the qualitative research
study. But as the researcher performed the tradition within which the researcher is working.
study, the question became more clear. So it's ○ But nevertheless, few qualitative studies adopt
different with quantitative study in which we rigidly structured designs that prohibit changes
already have a predefined clear question when while in the field. So although qualitative
we start our study researchers do not always know in advance
● Doing a Literature Review exactly how the study will progress, they
○ Qualitative researchers do not all agree about nevertheless must have some sense of how much
the value of doing an upfront literature review. time is available for field work and must also
Some believe that researchers should not consult arrange for and test needed equipment. For
literature before collecting data because prior example, if the researchers will need recording
studies could influence conceptualization of the equipment or computers when they conduct their
focal phenomena. In this view, the phenomenon study. Other planning activities would include
should be explicated based on participants' such as tasks of hiring or training interviewers if
viewpoints rather than on prior knowledge you will hire data collectors for your study
○ Those sharing this opinion often do a literature ● Addressing Ethical Issues
review at the end of the study. Often other ○ Qualitative studies are not exempt from ethical
researchers conduct a brief preliminary review to issues. Qualitative researchers, like many
get a general grounding. Still, others believe that quantitative researchers, must also develop
a full early literature review is appropriate. In plans for addressing ethical concerns. Indeed,
any case, whether you agree that there must be there are more special concerns in qualitative
a literature review or not at the beginning of the studies because the study, the focuses, more
study qualitative researchers typically find a often have a more intimate nature than the
fairly small body of relevant previous work studies conducted by qualitative researchers.
because of the types of the questions they ask Again, in qualitative studies, we know that the
● Selecting and Gaining Entree into Research Sites distance between the researcher and the study
○ Before going into the research site or to the field, participants are reduced. That's why qualitative
qualitative researchers must identify an studies must articulate clearly the ethical
appropriate research site. For example, if the considerations in the conduct of the study
topic is the health beliefs of the urban poor and
an inner city neighborhood with low income
residents must be identified. Researchers may
need to engage in participatory field work to
identify a suitable and information-based
environment for the study
○ In some cases, researchers have ready access to
the study sites, but in others they still have to
gain energy. A site may be well suited to the
needs of the researchers, but if the researcher
cannot get in or if the researchers will not be
given access to the site, the study cannot
proceed
○ Gaining entries typically involves negotiations to
the gatekeepers who have the authority to
transfer their children, they will not permit entry
into their world
● Developing an Overall Approach CONDUCTING A QUALITATIVE STUDY
○ Qualitative researchers do not collect data ● The tasks of sampling, data collection, data analysis,
before finalizing their research design. and interpretation typically take place iteratively
○ Qualitative researchers, by contrast, in ● Discussions and observations are loosely structured
quantitative studies, we need to finalize first our (allowing for an expression of a full range of beliefs,
design before we could collect data. But in feelings, and behaviors)
qualitative study, qualitative researchers use an ● Analysis and interpretation are ongoing (they are
emergent design that materializes during the ongoing concurrent activities that guide choices

| TRANSCRIBED BY : CALDERON, KC
 about the kinds of people to sample next and the
types of question to ask or observations to make. It
really follows an emergent design)
● Process of data analysis involves clustering together
related types of narrative information into a
coherent scheme
● The data obtained and the selected participants
become increasingly purposeful
● Concept development and verification shape the
sampling process
● Qualitative researchers’ sampling decisions are
guided by data → Data Saturation
● The researchers themselves are main data collection
instrument and must take steps to demonstrate the
trustworthiness of the data

DISSEMINATING QUALITATIVE FINDINGS

● A summary of prior research is usually offered in
qualitative reports as a means of providing context
of the study
● Qualitative reports are filled with rich verbatim
passages directly from participants

| TRANSCRIBED BY : CALDERON, KC