CHEMICAL FORMULA NAMING

AND WRITING
NAMING SOME INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Binary compounds – made of two elements.
o metal + nonmetal = ionic compound
o nonmetal + nonmetal = covalent
compound
1. Name the more metallic element first.
o Use the element’s name.
2. Name the less metallic element second.
o Add the suffix “ide” to the element’s
stem.

NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS (TYPE I)

Binary ionic compounds: metal + nonmetal NAMING SOME INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. cation is named FIRST Nonmetal Stems
2. anion SECOND, always small first letter Element Stem
Monoatomic cations: ions take the name of the Boron bor
element Carbon carb
Monoatomic anions: root of element name + ide Silicon silic
Nitrogen nitr
Phosphorus phosph
COMMON MONOATOMIC CATIONS AND ANIONS Arsenic arsen
Antimony antimon
Oxygen ox
Sulfur sulf
Selenium selen
Tellurium tellur
Phosphorus phosph
Hydrogen hydr
Fluorine fluor
Chlorine chlor
Bromine brom
Iodine iod
Examples:

• MgCl2 – Magnesium chloride

• Li2S – Lithium sulfide

*if subscript is 1 or the same, no need to write it

Ex. Cation Ca+4 Anion Ca-4

Criss-cross Method:

NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS WITH POLYATOMIC

IONS (treat as a single unit)
ite – lower oxidation state or lower # oxygen
NAMING BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS (TYPE II) ate – higher oxidation state or higher # oxygen
cation: metal forms more than one type of ion, ide ite ate per_ate
Sulfur (S) S-2 SO3-2 SO4-2
charge must be specified
Nitrogen N-3 NO2- NO3-
• Metals exhibiting multiple oxidation states are: (N)
o most of the transition metals Phosphorus P-5 PO4-2 PO4-3
o metals in groups IIIA (except Al), IVA, (P)
& VA Chlorine Cl- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
anion: root of element name + ide (Cl)

METHODS TO NAME THESE COMPOUNDS

1. Older method
o add suffix “ic” to element’s Latin name
for higher oxidation state
o add suffix “ous” to element’s Latin name
for lower oxidation state
2. Modern method
o use Roman numerals in parentheses to
indicate metal’s oxidation state

COMMON TYPE II CATIONS

 • H2O dihydrogen monoxide
• C2O5 dicarbon pentoxide
The oxides of nitrogen illustrate why covalent
compounds need prefixes and ionic compounds do not.

Prefixes:

NAMING SOME INORGANIC NAMING ACIDS

COMPOUNDS Acids – ous, ic
Binary Acids – binary compounds consisting of
hydrogen and a nonmetal.
Compounds – usually gases at room temperature and
pressure.
➢ Nomenclature for the gaseous compounds is
hydrogen (stem)ide.
When the compounds are dissolved in water they form
acidic solutions.
➢ Nomenclature for the acidic solutions is hydro
(stem)ic acid.
NAMING BINARY COVALENT COMPOUNDS
(TYPE III)
Binary covalent compounds: nonmetal + nonmetal
1. 1st element is named FIRST, using the full
element name.
2. The 2nd element is named as if it were an anion.
3. The prefix mono- is never used for naming the
first element.
 There are two other possible acid and salt
combinations.
Ternary Acids and Their Salts are made of three • Acids that have a higher oxidation state than the
elements. “ic” acid are given the prefix “per”.
➢ The elements are H, O, & a nonmetal. o These acids and salts will have one
Two of the compounds are chosen as the basis for the more O atom than the “ic” acid.
nomenclature system. • Acids that have a lower oxidation state than the
➢ Higher oxidation state for nonmetal is named “ous” acid are given the prefix “hypo”.
(stem)ic acid. o These acids and salts will have one less
➢ Lower oxidation state for nonmetal is named O atom than the “ous” acid.
(stem)ous acid Illustrate this series of acids and salts with the Cl ternary
Salts are named based on the acids. acids and salts.
➢ Anions of -ic acids make “ate” salts.
➢ Anions of -ous acids make “ite” salts

NAMES AND FORMULAS OF THE COMMON “IC”

ACIDS
- Naming these compounds will be easier if you
have this list memorized.

Acidic Salts – made from ternary acids that retain one

or more of their acidic hydrogen atoms.
- Made from acid base reactions where there is
an insufficient amount of base to react with all of
the hydrogen atoms.
Old system used the prefix “bi” to denote the hydrogen
atom.
Modern system uses prefixes and the word hydrogen.

NAMING SALTS
Salts – ide, ate
Salts are formed by the reaction of the acid with a strong
base.

Basic Salts are analogous to acidic salts.

- The salts have one or more basic hydroxides
remaining in the compound.
 - formed by acid-base reactions with insufficient
amounts of the acid to react with all of the
hydroxide ions.
Use prefixes to indicate the number of hydroxide groups.
COMMONLY USED LABORATORY
GLASSWARES, EQUIPMENT AND To prevent
from breaking
THEIR USES

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING MASS

5. Volumetric flask – a flask calibrated to contain a
1. Triple Beam Balance – used for obtaining mass of
precise volume at a particular temperature. Used for
an object and chemical substance.
precise dilution and creating standard solutions.

6. Florence flask – a flask with a round body and flat

bottom. It is used to hold and heat liquids evenly.
o Approximate
2. Analytical (Electronic) balance – the most common
type in which the balance pan is placed over an 7. Pipet – used to deliver a specified volume of solution.
electromagnet. • There are many types (accurate volume
• The sample is placed on the sample pan measuring devices):
displacing pan downward by a force equal to the o Graduated (Measuring) pipettes –
product of the sample’s mass and the used to deliver variable volumes of
acceleration due to gravity. liquids.

o Volumetric pipettes (transfer pipet) –

used for transferring very precise
volume of solutions.

o Digital pipets

GLASSWARE
1. Beakers – used for holding liquids and water. The
glassware is also used for mixing solutions and o Syringes
heating the liquids.

8. Burettes – used for measuring specific amounts of

liquids during titration. Often for determining amounts
2. Test tubes – small cylindrical vessels for holding of acids and bases needed.
small amounts of liquids for mixing and heating.

9. Condensers (Leibig condenser) – most common

type, has an inner tube through which vapor flows,
surrounded by a “jacket” through which cool water
3. Erlenmeyer flask – a narrow-mouthed container passes and condenses the vapor.
used to transport heat, or store substances.

10. Filter funnel – used to pour liquids into containers

with small openings; also used to hold filter paper.

4. Graduated cylinder – can be used for measuring

approximate amount of liquids.

11. Buchner flask – can be used in conjunction with the

Buchner funnel in vacuum filtration and is a much
quicker process than gravity filtration.
 12. Separatory funnel – used for separating solutions or
liquids of different densities.

13. Evaporating dish – used to evaporate excess

6. Wire gauze – used for suspending glassware over
solvents to create a more concentrated solution.
the Bunsen burner.

14. Mortar and pestle – used to grind chemicals or

substances into powder form. 7. Tongs – for transporting a hot beaker and removing
lids from crucible.

15. Watch glass – used for keeping the contents in a 8. Forceps – used in dissection to grasp tissues or pick
beaker from splattering. up small items.

9. File – used to grind down materials or sharpen items.

CONSUMABLES
1. Wash bottle – used to wash down specific pieces of 10. Wire brush – used to clean the inside of test tubes or
equipment with water or keep materials moist. graduate cylinders.
o ONLY distilled water

11. Test tube rack – for holding many test tubes filled
with chemicals (or for drying after washing).

2. Micropipets – used to measure and dispense very 12. Test tube clamp – for heating contents in a tube.
small amounts of liquids.

13. Spatula – for measuring and/or removing small

3. Dropper (Pasteur Pipet) – used to measure and amounts of solids or powders when obtaining mass.
obtain small amounts of liquids (not precise).

14. Corks – used to seal or stop flasks and tubes.

PROCEDURAL EQUIPMENT
1. Ring stand – supports the Bunsen burner, iron ring, 15. Thermometer – used to measure temperature.
pipestem triangle, and other items, often while heating
a substance.
16. Hot plate – used for consistent heat, used to heat
substances that may be flammable.
2. Pipestem triangle – supports the crucible when
being heated over an open flame.

3. Bunsen burner – for heating chemical mixtures

or contents in the lab. 17. Well plates – for mixing very small amounts of
chemicals together and comparing results.
4. Iron ring – supports a beaker over a Bunsen burner.

5. Utility clamp – used to hold a test tube or other piece

of equipment in place on a ring stand.
GENERAL CLASS OF GLASSWARES 3. Volumetric Transfer Pipettes
1. Qualitative Glasswares
• Beaker
• Test Tubes
• Watch glass
• Crystallization dish
• Erlenmeyer Flask
2. Quantitative Glasswares
BURET:
• Graduated cylinder
• Volumetric flask
• Volumetric Pipette
• Burette
3. Procedural Glasswares
• Round-bottom flask
• Funnels
• Separatory funnel
• Buchner flask and funnel
Supporting Equipment
• Stoppers
• plastic connector clips
• clamps
Applications
• Stimulating Natural Environments
o Miller-Urey experiment
• Reflux reaction
o Mizoroki-heck reaction
GLASSWARE
1. Erlenmeyer Flask – approximate graduations
2. Griffin Beaker – approximate graduations
3. Graduated Cylinder – used for routine volume
measurements of 25mL or greater
4. Graduated Pipette – used for routine volume
measurements of 25mL or less (NOT VOLUMETRIC)

VOLUMETRIC GLASSWARE
Volumetric Glassware – required for High Accuracy and
Precision
• Required When Preparing or Using Standard
Solutions
1. Buret

2. Volumetric Flask

USAGE OF BURET:
MENISCUS READER – Bottom of Meniscus to Top of
Graduation
VOLUMETRIC TRANSFER PIPETS

USING VOLUMETRIC PIPETS

1. Rinse with solution to be pipeted (Observe for even
draining)
2. Fill to above graduation
3. Wipe off outside of pipet
4. Drain to graduation (bottom of meniscus to top of
graduation)
5. Touch tip to waste vessel
6. Transfer by gravity (vertical - don’t force)
7. Touch tip to inside of receiving flask (clean pipet)

VOLUMETRIC FLASK
TO PREPARE SOLUTIONS WITH ACCURATELY KNOWN
CONCENTRATION
 - Read the label, get chemical, then close lid
Broken glassware? Pick up with tissue
PROPER HANDLING OF CHEMICALS
- Assume all chemicals are dangerous
- Wear PPE when handling chemicals
- Make sure you properly dispose of chemicals
CHEMICAL HAZARD SYMBOLS
June 1, 2015: The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS)
requires pictograms on labels to alert users of the chemical
hazards to which they may be exposed.
- The pictogram on the label is determined by the
chemical hazard classification.

RULES AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

IN CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
TO WEAR:
• Labgowns
• Safety goggles
• Closed-toe shoes and long pants
• Tied long hair
• Gloves
LITERACY OF LABORATORY SAFETY
- Hair is tied back
- Wear safety goggles
- Wear appropriate clothing
- Closed toe shoes
RULES
- Do not enter without permission
- Report spoilages and breakages immediately
- Clear route to exits
LAB SAFETY
- No food or drink
- Know the location of safety equipment
- Remove trip hazards
- Leave experiments at home
- Do not sit-down during practicals
- Know what to do in case of an accident
- Walk and do not run
- Follow the instructions
CHEMICAL USE
- Dress appropriately
- Don’t taste
- Don’t play mad scientist
- Smell with hand waving/wafting
- Don’t taste or sniff chemicals
- Take only to amount you need
- Don’t experiment on yourself
 - Don’t eat or drink in lab EXERCISE:
- Dispose of waste properly
PROPER CONDUCT IN THE LAB
1. No food and drink
2. Chemical use
3. Never work alone
4. Use your head
o Caution, good judgement
o Follow all instructions
o Notify of accident or unsafe areas
5. Bags at the bag rack
6. First aid + shower eye rinse
7. Don’t touch or pick up broken glassware
8. Electrical hazards
o Fire, shock, Malfunctioning electrical
equipment, unsafe use of extension cords
9. Wash hands with soap and water or alcohol-based PRE-LAB (GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES)
hand rub OBJECTIVES:
• Determine accurately and precisely the
EXPERIMENT 1 measurements of given samples using different
measuring instruments.
VIRTUAL LABORATORY OF DETERMINING • Report properly the data gathered from the
RELATIONSHIP OF DENSITY TO MASS AND measurement
VOLUME • Derive values of some physical properties of the
MASS AND VOLUME sample from base measurements
Mass – the measure of the amount of matter in an object or METHODS
sample. REAGENTS AND MATERIALS
- The SI base unit is kilogram (kg), but grams (g) is - Sugar, fine sand, iodized table salt, distilled water,
commonly used in Chemistry. watch glass, matchstick box (empty),100-mL beaker,
Volume – the measure of the amount of space an object or 10-mL graduated cylinder, 50-mL graduated cylinder,
sample takes up or occupies. pasteur pipet, top loading balance, ruler, sets of
- Usually measured in milliliters (mL) or cubic weights, spatula, ice candy bag/plastic cling wrap
centimeters (cm3). A. Measuring the Mass
DENSITY Accuracy
Which do you think would have a greater mass? The greater 1. Using the top-loading balance, measure the pre-
volume? weighed vials assigned to each group.
- Is it 1 kg of feathers or 1 kg of rock 2. Record the results.
Density – defined as mass per unit volume (g/mL or g/cm3) 3. Ask the instructor about the true weight of the sample
- Amount of matter (how tightly packed and how heavy vial.
the molecules are) in an object 4. Compute the percentage error.
- Intensive property of matter Precision
- “Identification tag” of a substance 1. Weigh a clean and dry watch glass. Record the
weight.
2. Get 1 teaspoon of fine sand and place it on the watch
glass, then weigh. Record the weight.
3. Remove the sand from the watch glass; clean and dry
the watch glass.
FINDING DENSITY OF AN OBJECT 4. Repeat steps 1-3 twice over to give three trials.
1. Find the Mass of an object: use pan balances 5. Compare the data. Compute the standard deviation.

2. Find the Volume of an object

B. Measuring the Volume
Accuracy
1. Using 10-mL graduated cylinder, measure 10 mL
distilled water and transfer it to a 100-mL beater.
Make sure that all water is transferred to the beaker.
3. Divide: Density = Mass ÷ Volume 2. Repeat step 1 until the water in the beaker reaches
the 100-mL mark.
 3. Note the amount of water that remained (if there is - Measurements are performed with instruments.
any) in the 10-mL graduated cylinder at the volume of - No instrument can read to an infinite number of
water to be transferred. decimal places
4. Compute the percentage of error. Which of these balances has the greatest uncertainty in
Precision measurement?
1. Measure the inner dimension of an empty matchstick
box (length, width and height).
2. Compute the volume of the box using the measured
dimensions.
Uncertainty in Measurements
3. Fill up the box with water and transfer it to a
• You can easily read the temperature on this
graduated cylinder. Measure the volume of the water
thermometer to the nearest degree.
transferred.
4. Compare the volume readings. • You can also estimate the temperature to about the
5. Make 3 trials and compute the standard deviation. nearest tenth of a degree by noting the closeness of
C. Derived Measurement: Density (ρ) the liquid inside to the calibrations.
Density of Water • Suppose you estimate that the temperature lies
1. Measure the mass of a clean dry 100-mL beaker. between 22°C and 23°C, at 22.9°C. Uncertainty in
2. Fill it up with 50 mL water and weigh. Measurements
3. Determine the density of water using the formula: ρ = • This estimated number, 22.9°C, has three digits.
m/v o The first two digits (20 and 2) are known with
4. Compute the percentage error based on the certainty, while the rightmost digit (9) has
theoretical density of water. been estimated and involves some
Density of Solid Samples uncertainty.
1. Place a spoonful of sugar in a small cellophane bag • These reported digits all convey useful information
and pack it tightly before sealing it. Be sure that there and are called significant figures.
is no trapped air inside the bag.
2. Measure the weight of the packed sugar. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
3. Fill up a 50-mL graduated cylinder with water up to Significant figures - in a measurement, they include all of the
the 25-mL mark. digits that are known, plus a last digit that is estimated.
4. Place the packed sugar into the graduated cylinder - Measurements must always be reported to the correct
with water. Tap the cylinder gently to remove any number of significant figures because calculated
bubbles adhering on the surface of the plastic. Record answers cannot be more precise than measured data.
the rise in volume of the water. RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
5. Compute the density of the sample. (Assume that the RULE #1: Every nonzero digit is significant.
mass and volume of the plastic are negligible.) - Each of these measurements has three significant
6. Compare the computed density with that of the figures:
theoretical density of sugar. 24.7 meters
7. Repeat steps 1–6 using finely ground table salt (NaCl) 0.743 meter
instead of sugar. 714 meters
D. Calibration and Conversion RULE #2: Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are
1. Use a dropper to fill up a 10-mL graduated cylinder up significant. These are called “sandwich zeros”.
to the 5-mL mark. - Each of these measurements has four significant
2. Note the number of drops whenever the water level figures:
(lower meniscus) reaches each mL mark. 7003 meters
3. Get the average number of drops necessary to reach 40.79 meters
each mL mark 1.503 meters
RULE #3: Leading zeros do not count as significant
figures. They act as placeholders. By writing the
ACCURACY AND PRECISION IN
measurements in scientific notation, you can eliminate
MEASUREMENTS such place holding zeros.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION 2 sig fig:
Accuracy – refers to the agreement of a particular value with 0.0071 meter = 7.1 x 10-3 meter
the true value. 0.42 meter = 4.2 x 10-1 meter
Precision – refers to the degree of agreement among several 0.000 099 meter = 9.9 x 10-5 meter
measurements made in the same manner. RULE #4: Trailing zeros following a non zero digit and are
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS significant only if there is a decimal point.
- A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. 0.00500 (3 sig) 100.000 (6 sig)
- A measurement always has some degree of 0.03040 (4 sig) 500 (1 sig)
uncertainty. 2.30 x 10-5 (3 sig) 750 (2 sig)
Why is there uncertainty in measurements? 4.500 x 1012 (4 sig) 12500 (3 sig)
 40 (1 sig) - Number of significant figures = all certain digits + one
ROUNDING OFF estimated digit
- To round a number, first decide how many significant GUIDELINES FOR DETERMINING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
figures the answer should have. 1. In any measurement, all nonzero digits are
- Then round to that many digits, counting from the left. SIGNIFICANT.
- “4 & below, let it go” 2. Zeros may or may not be significant.
- “5 & above, give it a shove” a) Leading zeroes, those beginning of a number,
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS are NEVER significant.
- A calculated answer cannot be more precise than the b) Confined zeroes, those between nonzero digits,
least precise measurement from which it was are ALWAYS significant.
calculated. c) Trailing zeroes, those at the end of a number, are
- The calculated value must be rounded to make it significant if a decimal point is present in the
consistent with the measurements from which it was number.
calculated based on the number of significant figures. d) Trailing zeroes, those at the end of a number, are
Example: A die measures 1.8 cm on each side. Its volume is not significant if the number lacks an explicitly
1.8 cm x 1.8 cm x 1.8 cm = 5.832cm3. This is incorrect shown decimal point.
because the measurements have tenths and the answer is
expressed using thousandths.
ADDITION and SUBTRACTION
- The answer to an addition or subtraction calculation
should be rounded to the same number of decimal
places (not digits) as the measurement with the
decimal places.

MULTIPLICATION and DIVISION

- In calculations involving multiplication and division,
round the answer to the same number of significant
figures as the measurement with the significant SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND MATHEMATICAL
figures. OPERATIONS
Rounding off Numbers – deleting unwanted (nonsignificant)
digits from calculated numbers.
1. If digit is 4 or less, drop the number and the following
digits.
2. If digit is 5 or greater, drop the digit and the following
digits, then the last retained digit is increased by one.
OPERATIONAL RULES
Multiplication and Division – number of significant figures in
NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS the answer is SAME as the number of significant figures in the
MEASUREMENT measurement that contains fewest significant figures.
Measurement – the determination of the dimensions, Addition and Subtraction – number of significant figures in
capacity, quantity, or extent of something. the answer is SAME as the number of significant figures in the
- Most common types in lab: Mass, Volume, Length measurement that contains fewest digits to the right of
Time, Temperature, Pressure Concentration decimal point.
- 2 parts: NUMBER and UNIT ACCURACY AND PRECISION
EXACT AND INEXACT NUMBERS ACCURACY – degree of agreement between true (accepted)
EXACT NUMBER – value has NO associated uncertainty value and measured value
- not measured by a scientific instrument - represented in terms of error
INEXACT NUMBER – value has an associated degree of Absolute Error = True Value – Measured Value
uncertainty Relative Error = Absolute Error/True Value
- measured by a scientific instrument Percent Error = Relative Error x 100
UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS PRECISION – measure of the agreement within a set of
Uncertainty in measurements – limitations of the measuring replicate measurements
device - represented by deviation
- limited observational skills of the individual - sample standard deviation
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Digits in a measurement that are known with certainty PLUS
one digit that is estimated.
 EXPERIMENT 2
SEPARATING COMPONENTS OF A
MIXTURE
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Pure substances – substances that are made up of only one
kind of particle and have a fixed or constant structure.
Mixture – consists of different kinds of elements combined
physically and not chemically

MASS MEASUREMENTS
MEASURING DEVICES:
➢ Top loading balance
➢ Analytical balance
FACTORS AFFECTING MEASUREMENTS IN AN
ANALYTICAL BALANCE
1. Temperature
2. Vibrations
3. Air currents
4. Calibration
CLASSIFICATION OF MIXTURE
5. Property of sample being weighed
Homogeneous mixture (solution) – consistent throughout;
6. User error
every part of it is the same.
VOLUME MEASUREMENTS
- For example, when you dissolve sugar in water and
- Each Lab Glassware has an associated degree of
mix it well, every part of the liquid will have the same
precision and accuracy it can deliver.
sugar concentration. This type of mixture contains two
- Do not assume that delivered volume is exactly the
or more substances.
amount indicated by the calibration mark.
Heterogeneous mixture – has different compositions in
Parallax Error – apparent displacement of a liquid level or of a
different parts.
pointer as an observer changes position.
- For example, if you water and sand in a jar, the sand
- occurs when an object is viewed from a position that
will settle at the bottom and the water will stay on top.
is not at a right angle to the object.
These mixtures can be seen visually and separated
MEASURING DEVICES:
easily using physical methods
➢ Beaker
SEPARATION OF MIXTURE
➢ Graduated cylinder
- In chemical and physical processes, the ability to
➢ Volumetric flask, Erlenmeyer flask
separate and analyze mixtures is fundamental for
➢ Buret, Pipettes
understanding material properties and ensuring purity.
DENSITY MEASUREMENT
- Accurate separation is crucial for determining the
To determine volume:
percent composition of each component, which
1. based on geometric shape
provides insight into the mixture's relative quantities
2. Displacement Principle (Archimedes Principle)
and purity
3. Pycnometer method
- By mastering these techniques, we gain valuable
CHALLENGES OF ACCURATE DENSITY MEASUREMENT
skills in analytical chemistry and enhance our ability to
1. Bubbles
manage and evaluate complex mixtures in various
o All bubbles adhering to the sample and
scientific and industrial applications.
equipment should be removed
DIFFERENT SEPARATION METHOD
o Remaining bubbles will cause a buoyancy
Filtration:
effect
• Principle: Utilizes a porous barrier to separate solid
2. Temperature
particles from a liquid or gas. Separation is based on
3. Weighing
the particle size
4. Data Handling
• Application: Useful for separating insoluble solids
from liquids.
 • Application: Useful for separating and analyzing
mixtures of dyes, pharmaceuticals, and biological
molecules.

Evaporation:
• Principle: Involves heating a liquid to convert it into
vapor, leaving behind the solid components.
• Application: Used to recover dissolved solids from a Distillation:
solution
• Principle: Relies on differences in boiling points to
separate components of a liquid mixture.
• Application: Effective for separating liquid mixtures
into their individual components

Decantation:
• Principle: Involves pouring off a liquid to separate it
from a solid or another liquid with different densities.
• Application: Used to separate oil from water or to
remove a clear liquid from a settled solid.

Objective
Supernatant liquid →
- Evaluate various techniques for separating
Centrifugation: components of a mixture, such as filtration, distillation,
and chromatography, and determine their
• Principle: Uses centrifugal force to separate
effectiveness based on the properties of the mixture.
components based on their densities.
- Compute the percent recovery of a sample from a
• Application: Commonly used in laboratories to
separation process and critically evaluate the
separate blood components or precipitate from a
efficiency of the recovery process
solution.

COMMONLY USED SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

- employed to separate the components of a mixture
- These methods are essential for efficiently isolating
individual components based on their distinct physical
properties.
MATERIALS
1 M K2CO3 1M NH4OH
Erlenmeyer Flask Watch glass
1 M Ca(OH)2 beakers
Distillation Setup Ethanol
Chromatography: Funnel Chromatography paper
• Principle: Separates components based on their Distilled water Filter Paper
different affinities to a stationary phase and a mobile Toothpick as applicator Colored Pen
phase. Test Tube evaporating dish
Analytical Balance Hot Plate
PROCEDURE 2. Using an applicator, carefully apply a small dot of
A. Decantation and Filtration colored ink on the pencil line. Ensure the spot is
1. In a 50 mL beaker, combine 15 mL of 1 M Ca(OH)₂ concentrated but not too large, as it should be small
solution with 15 mL of 1M K₂CO₃ solution. Observe enough to allow for clear separation.
what happen. Develop the Chromatogram
2. Allow the mixture to stand undisturbed until the 1. Carefully place the chromatography paper into the
majority of the solid particles have settled at the container with the solvent. Ensure that the baseline
bottom of the beaker. Get a small amount 10 drops) of (where the ink is applied) is above the solvent level.
the liquid portion using a dropper and transfer it into a The solvent should rise up the paper by capillary
small test tube. action, carrying the ink components with it.
3. Decant the mixture by transferring the supernatant 2. Allow the paper to remain in the solvent until the
liquid to another beaker through a funnel with filter solvent front has moved to within a few centimeters of
paper. the top of the paper. This may take several minutes.
4. Compare the filtrate and the liquid in the test tube.
Record your observation

Analysis of the Result

B. Evaporation
1. Carefully remove the chromatography paper from the
1. Dissolve 1.00 gram of NaCl in 15 ml of water
container once the solvent front has reached the
2. Transfer the solution to an evaporating dish and heat
desired height.
it on a hot plate until all the liquid has completely
2. Lay the paper flat on a clean surface or hang it up to
evaporated.
dry. Avoid disturbing the paper while it dries. Once
3. Recover all the residue and weigh it in the analytical
dry, examine the chromatography paper. The different
balance. Calculate the % yield.
pigments in the ink should have separated and moved
% recovery = Mass NaCl recovered / Mass NaCl x 100
up the paper at different rates, resulting in distinct
spots of color.
3. Measure the distance traveled by each pigment and
the distance traveled by the solvent front.
4. Calculate Rf Values for each pigment using the
formula:
o Rf = Distance travelled by the solute /
Distance travelled by the solvent
5. Compare the Rf values of the pigments with known
standards to help identify them

C. Chromatography
Prepare the mobile phase
1. Fill a beaker with a small amount the mobile phase ( 1
Isopropyl Alcohol: 1 water : 1 Ammonia). The solvent
should be just enough to cover the bottom of the
container but not high enough to reach the baseline
on the paper.
2. Cover it with watch glass/ plastic wrap to equilibrate
Prepare the Chromatography Paper
1. In the given chromatography paper or ash less filter
paper draw a faint pencil line about 1-2 cm from the
bottom edge of the paper. This line will be your
baseline where you will apply the ink sample.
C. Distillation
1. Assemble the distillation apparatus according to the
diagram provided above. Ensure all connections are
secure and the setup is properly sealed.
2. In a 50 mL beaker, combine 10 mL of ethanol with 20
mL of distilled water. Observe and record the
appearance of the mixture.
3. Transfer the mixture from the beaker to the distillation
flask. Connect the distillation flask to the condenser,
making sure all connections are tight and properly
aligned.
4. Heat the distillation flask gradually until the
temperature reaches 78°C. Maintain this temperature
throughout the distillation process to ensure the
ethanol evaporates effectively while the water remains
in the flask.
5. Measure the volume collected.
6. Check the distillate and the residue with K2Cr2O7. A
green solution indicates ethanol.