1 s2.0 S2590123024013021 Main

Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103047
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Results in Engineering
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-engineering
Review article
Understanding lithium-ion battery management systems in electric

vehicles: Environmental and health impacts, comparative study, and future
trends: A review
R. Suganya * , L.M.I. Leo Joseph , Sreedhar Kollem
Department of ECE, School of Engineering, SR University, Warangal, Telangana, 506371, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The future of transportation is moving toward electric vehicles (EVs), driven by the global demand for sus-
Battery management systems tainability. At the core of EV technology is the Battery Management System (BMS), which plays a vital role in
EV battery types ensuring the safety, efficiency, and longevity of batteries. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are key to EV performance,
Electric motors
and ongoing advances are enhancing their durability and adaptability to variations in temperature, voltage, and
Parameter estimation methods
other internal parameters. This review aims to support researchers and academics by providing a deeper un-
Electric vehicles
derstanding of the environmental and health impact of EVs. Additionally, the article offers a comprehensive
analysis of various algorithms used for parameter estimation in BMS, discussing their advantages, limitations,
and practical implications. It also addresses key challenges in EV adoption, such as range anxiety and the
development of charging infrastructure. By exploring these aspects, the review provides valuable information on
improving BMS efficiency and battery technologies, supporting the future growth of cleaner and more sustain-
able electric transportation.
1. Introduction during 2022 and 2030. By the year 2030, agreeing to sell 10 million
units annually [12]. The electric motor, which provides propulsion for
The automotive industry is one of the most important sectors, with an EV, is a crucial component [13] and enhances several advantages
an increase in economic integration [1], while underdeveloped coun- such as high efficiency of up to 90 %, instantaneous torque at various
tries also have the advantage of entering the global market to produce loads, low maintenance, and recovers power through braking [14]. EV
traditional EVs [2]. There is an increase in global warming due to CO2 development has three stages: origin in 1832, mid-stage in 1960, and
emissions of approximately 37 % in the year 2021 [3] due to the use of current stage [15,16]. There is the possibility of zero emissions by using
passenger cars shown in Fig. 1 and, using fossil fuels, it may increase by renewable energy sources to power EVs [17]. When considering the
about 6 % in the year 2050 [4]. To prevent those strategies, there is a major advantage of zero emissions, most governments have extended
development in EVs [5]. their attention to EVs and to enhance air quality by plummeting
In the past two decades, EV technology has shown its development in greenhouse gas emissions [18]. There is a prediction of having more
its production. Fig. 2 [6]: has sold highly in Norway, resulting in an than 10.2 billion EVs by 2030 which is about 1.5 % and EVs are still a
annual sale of 0.6 %–4 % in 2022 [7]. EV sales have doubled in 2021 [8], path to go [19].
as shown in Fig. 3. India will have 9.1 million EVs on the road by 2027,
2.20 million in 2023, 3.90 million in 2025, and 7.51 million in 2026 [9].
It represents a massive and positive market expansion in the Indian 1.1. Types of EVs
EV industry over the next few years. The expansion of EVs will provide
numerous opportunities for companies to invest [10]. There are From [20] the four different types of EVs are shown in Fig. 4.
numerous simple and secure ways to enter the EV sector for lucrative
business opportunities [11]. The 2023 economic study projects that the • Zero-emission vehicles (ZEV): The vehicle is powered solely by a
number of electric vehicles sold in India will increase at a CAGR of 49 % battery and is more efficient than hybrids and plug-in hybrids [21].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: suganyajo@gmail.com (R. Suganya).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103047
Received 4 July 2024; Received in revised form 26 September 2024; Accepted 1 October 2024
Available online 2 October 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Suganya et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103047
• Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV): Emphasizes the combination of 1.2. Advantages of EVs
drives (gasoline and electric), when the battery is drained, it is
powered by the engine drive, so its efficiency is lower than electric or EVs give numerous advantages compared to gasoline engines [41].
plug-in hybrid vehicles [22].
• Plug-in electric hybrid vehicle (PHEV): The ability to plug in and A) Emission-free tailpipes: EVs do not emit exhaust emissions and
charge the battery is emphasized and PHEVs are better than hybrid use renewable energy for residential electricity, reducing the
vehicles and slightly inferior to battery EVs [23]. environmental consequences of charging the vehicle [42].
• Fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV): The direct transfer of chemical B) Lower operating costs: EVs operate much cheaper than fuel or
energy into electricity [24]. diesel vehicles. EVs charge their cells without petrol or diesel
[43]. Cost-effectiveness makes charging an EV preferable to
Batteries are used to store energy, which is then used to propel these refueling with gasoline or diesel. Renewable energy can make
vehicles electrically. The power from the battery is transferred by using EVs greener. If solar panels at home are used to charge, electricity
power converters to start the motor, and the generator power is given to costs can even be lower [44].
the battery [25] the transmission system helps to obtain the mechanical C) Low maintenance costs: EVs require less maintenance because
power and transfer it to the wheels [26]. they have fewer components in their moving state. Petrol and
When it comes to batteries, rechargeable cells are used to generate diesel automobiles require more care than electric cars. There-
rechargeable power [27]. LIBs are the most efficient because they have a fore, the ownership of electric cars is cheaper annually [45].
long range, small footprint, and little memory effect despite their higher D) Simple to operate and silent: Driving EVs is straightforward due
densities, charging/discharging rate, and tunability ratio [28]. To avoid to their gearless design. They have three controls: accelerator,
battery failure and reduce the likelihood of dangerous situations, a su- brake, and steering wheel. Connect your electric car to a home or
pervisory system is required to ensure that batteries function properly in public charger to charge. Electric cars are quieter, reducing noise
the final application, and is well-known as BMS [29]. pollution [46].
BMS is an essential device that connects the battery and charger of E) Convenience home-based charging: Consider arriving late for
EVs [30]. To boost battery performance and energy efficiency, BMS is work at a busy charging station during rush hour. These problems
controlled by critical aspects such as voltage, state of health (SOH), are easily solved with an EV. Just charge your vehicle at home for
current, temperature, and state of charge (SOC), of a battery [31]. Uti- 4–5 h before leaving. If you can get a charger at home, planning
lizing Matlab/Simulink simulation, these parameters can be estimated trips is easy. What if you forget to plug in your machine occa-
[32] and by making use of well-known battery models and simulation sionally? Riders on bikes can easily find fast chargers or battery-
models, estimation is done [33]. [34] suggests different types of battery changing services [47].
models and their techniques for estimating battery states. Analyzing F) Zero noise pollution: EVs run silently because they have no
different aspects of BMS is identified such as safety aspects, its tech- engine. Without an engine, there will be no noise. The electric
nology, and regulation needs, as well as its performance [35]. In addi- propulsion system runs so quietly that one must check the in-
tion to estimating cell safety and state, charging a cell is also an essential strument cluster to see if it is on. Zero-emission vehicles are quiet,
thing and is monitored by different optimization methods [36]. so producers must make artificial noise to protect pedestrians
Cloud-based BMS is more accurate and dependable and requires less [48].
processing power and data storage [37]. In addition to safety measures, G) Comfortability: There are no vibrations or engine noise, it is
there are also some crucial concerns such as excessive charging, exces- more comfortable to travel in an EV [49].
sive discharging, cell imbalance, thermal runaway, and fire risks, to H) Efficiency: Compared to traditional vehicles, EVs have a higher
evaluate these issues intelligent algorithms are used [38] to monitor efficiency of about 70 % by using renewable energy [50].
battery temperature battery thermal management system, which com-
prises cabin air, liquid, and direct refrigerant cooling [39]. Models of the EVs, shared mobility, public transport, and others will be crucial to
effect of heat management on battery efficiency are produced by digital cities in the upcoming ages [51]. More efforts are needed to
computational modeling, mathematics, and experimentation [40]. optimize cell performance and chargeability [52]. The main drawback
of EVs is autonomy. However, researchers are developing better cell
advances to boost driving distance and reduction of heaviness, rate, and
Fig. 1. CO2 emissions of transportation.
2
recharge duration. These issues will prevail and have an impact on EV’s b) Current: The protection of the battery pack and the ability to enable
future [53,54]. the most precise state of charge and state of health algorithms
This review paper discusses the need for a BMS along with its ar- depend primarily on reliable current monitoring. The BMS is tasked
chitecture and components in Section 2, lithium-ion battery character- with not only overseeing temperature and voltage but also regulating
istics are discussed in Section 3, a comparative investigation of current within the system to prevent temperature escalation.
parameter assessment methods for BMS comes under Section 4, EV c) Temperature: Temperature is another crucial parameter with pro-
motors along with the eco-health impact of EVs is discussed in Section found safety implications. The BMS must possess comprehensive
5,6,7,8 and concludes with their limitations and future scope of the EV data on temperature dissimilarities all over the pack to enable the
in Section 9,10 and shown in Fig. 5. control system to make necessary adjustments in the heating system,
cooling system, or pack power levels as the situation demands.
2. Need for BMS 2.1.3 Data acquisition: The battery pack itself is equipped with
sensing devices for use in the monitoring layer. Practical data
The research world is more aware of global warming, which is collected is vital to guaranteeing system safety and assessing
worsened by gasoline and other car emissions, which increase the level the current state of the battery [65].
of carbon dioxide gas throughout the year [55]. To avoid fossil fuels, the
battery powers EVs and ensures their safety [56]. Thus, we must ensure Charging time, discharge method, cell balancing, and thermal
that the batteries operate in safe voltage, current, temperature, and management are all important factors to consider when designing a
charge states [57]. The battery management system is good when it battery pack. These parameters are subsequently relayed to the man-
provides reliable and safe operation of the vehicle along with the esti- agement unit’s interface [66].
mation of the state of cell monitoring is also considered a task for the
development of EVs [58]. Due to some challenges, they pose issues like 2.1.3. Thermal management unit
overheating and thermal imbalance which results in complete damage By controlling the overheating of the battery packs, the thermal
to the battery module. (see Table 3) management unit boosts the efficiency of EVs. The Battery Thermal
Management Unit’s (BTMU) primary function is to keep the battery’s
temperature within acceptable ranges so that thermal overrun is pre-
2.1. Functional blocks of BMS vented [67].
The rising demand for EVs puts pressure on battery manufacturers to
The BMS is designed using functional blocks as shown in Fig. 6 and is design safe thermal management systems. Mechanical, electrical, and
explained below. The subsequent diagram provides a visual overview of thermal misuse can lead to thermal overrun, although it can be miti-
the fundamental functions of the primary battery management system. It gated with a suitable cooling system, battery design, and efficient ma-
consists of the control unit, battery status estimation, data acquisition, terials [68].
safety protection unit, battery monitoring unit, and thermal manage- EV batteries have temperature ranges for efficient operation. Batte-
ment unit [59–63]. ries may overheat, run away, or perform poorly if the temperature ex-
ceeds capacity.
2.1.1. Control unit Several techniques are utilized to keep EV batteries in a safe tem-
It encompasses the complete electronic power control system of the perature range [69,203]. The methods are shown in Fig. 7.
BMS. The battery monitoring module transmits control signals to this
component, which then monitors charging and controls power delivery a) Air cooling: "Air cooling represents a straightforward and cost-
to individual cells [64]. effective cooling approach to EV batteries. As air flows across the
exterior of the battery pack, heat is transferred from it.
2.1.2. Battery monitoring unit
Most EVs require constant monitoring of the battery given that the It provides heating, cooling, and ventilation functions according to
battery system is crucial to the vehicle’s safety, functioning, and even the battery pack’s specifications. Depending on the air intake, air con-
the occupant’s wellbeing. The primary function of the BMS is to keep the ditioning can use either natural or forced convection processes, making
battery operating in only a set of predetermined safe limits [60,64]. it one of the oldest and most used approaches [70]. Although this
Some parameters are essential for maintaining vehicle safety and opti- method is commonly used for stationary battery energy storage systems,
mizing vehicle performance while preserving battery longevity they are it is less efficient for high-performance EVs than liquid cooling.
voltage, current, and temperature. Optimizations to increase temperature uniformity while accounting
for cell irregularities have been attempted by researchers from many
a) Voltage: Voltage monitoring stands out as an indistinguishable countries, Air’s properties limit its cooling effect.
parameter in BMS. Typically, the BMS oversees voltage levels across In a 3D battery thermal model integrated with the experiment design
each series group of cells to avoid overcharging. model, the inlet and outflow of the channel, which affect the uniformity
Fig. 2. Development of EVs.
3
of the battery temperature, are found to be important [71]. To avoid this heat from battery cells by capitalizing on the temperature difference
ripple between the battery pack’s cooling plates, increase airflow and between the vaporization and condensation of the working fluid
cooling efficiency by 93 %. [83].
Design a new circuit by examining the location’s inlet and outlet to e) Phase change material cooling system (PCM): In contrast to the
improve battery pack air cooling efficiency [72]. A cooling system is phase change material, which does transmit heat away from the
shown in the mid-section of the static chamber in Fig. 8 calls for model battery, this approach absorbs warmth during the solid-to-liquid
validation. phase change, greatly lowering the temperature of the battery. To
Battery cooling in hybrid vehicles can be optimized with tapering this end, PCM is frequently used with air or liquid cooling systems
inlet and outlet temperatures using 3D modeling and the forced [84,204] to boost battery pack thermal stability. This synergy of
convention methodology, which also increases temperature uniformity. techniques keeps the battery pack at a healthy and optimal temper-
The optimization of the conical input and outlet must be investigated. ature, which boosts performance and extends its lifespan.
b) Liquid cooling: One of the safest and most effective methods to cool Further cooling methods include hybrid battery thermal manage-
electric vehicle battery packs is liquid cooling, as seen in Fig. 9. ment systems and thermoelectric coolers. As EV demand rises, safety
concerns have driven thermal management system technology to ensure
Liquid cooling agents exhibit superior thermal conductivity and heat efficient cooling and optimal temperatures [85]. As a response, heat
retention [73,202] than air coolants, allowing them to transfer and store management is prioritized as a component of BMS.
more energy. This technique is favored for demanding, high-power ap-
plications where effective heat dissipation is essential. To avert potential 3. Characteristics of LIBs
leaks, liquid coolants necessitate a sealed closed-loop system along with
adequate seals and maintenance. For effective BMS, a LIB is the heart of the system due to its high
Electric vehicle battery packs often employ one of two liquid cooling performance and efficiency with increased energy, etc. as shown in
systems [206]. Table 1[86–89] (see Table 2).
The operational temperature and voltage stand as the critical factors
i) Direct liquid cooling system: When battery cells, such as mineral governing the operation of lithium-ion cells [90]. As indicated in
oil, are directly immersed in a liquid coolant with a conductivity of Figs. 12 and 13, the cell’s voltage, current, and temperature must be
lower than or zero conductivity, the whole battery facet can be sustained within the specified "Safe Operating Area" (SOA). Using the
cooled. This significantly aids the lithium-ion battery’s internal cell outside of this buffer zone poses a risk of irreversible harm [91].
temperature distribution [74–76]. It is possible to overcharge or discharge a battery. Lithium plating
ii) Indirect liquid cooling system: The liquid, like glycol and water, is and overheating would occur if the charging current exceeded 4.2 V
impelled over metal pipes that surround the battery cells. This [92]. Overcharging or storing cells for long periods can lower their
approach is more effective and safer because the battery module is voltage below 2.5 V. This could degrade the electrode [93].
protected from external influences. The performance of this cooling Extreme temperatures, whether high or low, have the potential to
system relies on the shape of the battery pack, which has been pro- harm lithium-ion cells., so they need to be meticulously regulated. There
posed and studied as cylindrical LIBs [77–79] and plate LIBs [80,81]. are three types of temperature-related damage: minimum operational
c) Refrigerant cooling: As seen in Fig. 10 refrigerant direct cooling impact, maximum functional impact, and thermal overrun [94].
systems cool EV batteries faster than liquid glycol cooling methods. Unlike cell failures, voltage, and current affect cell health. The cu-
This system cools or heats batteries by circulating the refrigerant. mulative consequences of these deviations can influence or impact cell
Cooling and heating use different coolant materials. Efficiency makes lifespan [95].
this method popular for maintaining EV battery temperatures [82]. Fig. 14 shows that cells with operating temperatures below 10 ◦ C
d) Heat pipes-based cooling system: Due to their high thermal con- have shorter lifespans. If cells are operated above 40 ◦ C, their lifespans
ductivity, heat pipes are effective in cooling EV batteries. Given their decrease. Furthermore, thermal runaway occurs at 60 ◦ C. The BMS
shape and large contact surfaces, prismatic and pouch batteries thermal management system must always keep the cells within its limits
benefit from this method’s heat dissipation and temperature uni- [96].
formity shown in Fig. 11. The heat pipe technique is used to dissipate To keep the cells operating within their safety limits, the battery
Fig. 3. Sales of Electric vehicles.
4
management system employs safeguards such as protection circuits and

temperature management systems, as has been discussed at length
above [97].
4. Electric motors
Motor effectiveness and horsepower flux densities do have a signif-

icant impact on EV usage and expense, in addition to the battery [98].
During the 1930s, due to the lack of charging stations, gasoline vehicles
surpassed EVs and it is one of the major issues in automobile technology
[99]. Later in 1970 gasoline vehicles created most atmospheric changes
and their cost also increased, which caused a slight change in trans-
portation modes where the era started to begin [100]. The selection of
motors is very important to EVs therefore some parameters are consid- Fig. 5. Review organization chart.
ered for the selection of motors such as maximum climb age gradient,
power, mileage acceleration time, and speed [101].
4.1. Types of motors
Brushless direct current (BLDC) motor, Permanent magnet syn-

chronous motor (PMSM), induction motor (IM), and switched reluctance
motor (SRM) [102,207] are relevant motors shown in Figs. 15–18: for
the EV’s drive system, described as follows.
4.1.1. BLDC motor

According to the motor, efficiency is the main parameter, the BLDC
motor is very popular and an optimal option for EVs, and it is used in
various types of applications [103]. Compared to a DC motor, a BLDC
motor has a simple framework, high speed range, low weight, zero noise
operation, high starting torque, and dynamic response [104]. It is highly
reliable because an electric commutator is better than a mechanical
commutator and its high efficiency is achieved by a rotor magnet that
generates magnetic flux [105].
Fig. 6. Functional blocks of the battery management system.
4.1.2. PMSM motor

PMSMs are extensively employed in contemporary EV drivetrains,
notably in electric mobility scenarios [106]. This is due to the
Fig. 4. Types of EVs.
5
Fig. 7. Cooling methods of a battery.
advantages they offer, including favorable ratios of torque to current,

power to weight, and exceptional proficiency, in addition to their
strength [107]. PMSMs come in two primary forms: the
interior-embedded type (IPM) and the surface-mounted PMSM (SPM). Fig. 9. Representation of liquid cooling.
Of these, IPM takes on a prominent role at the application level due to its
fully enclosed structure [108].
4.1.3. IM
Compared to other types of AC motors, induction motors are the
most technologically sophisticated because of their stability, durability,
low maintenance needs, and ability to perform well under adverse
conditions [109].
Vector-based control approaches can be used to separate torque and
field control, the speediness can be expanded by tumbling the magnetic
field strength within the persistent power section. The drop in force
within the constant power region results in reduced efficiency.
Compared to PMSM it is one of the shortcomings of IM, by using dual
inverters this issue can be solved, which can also reduce rotor winding
loss during the initial stage [110].
4.1.4. SRM
SRM is one of the primary motors that has been used initially in EVs
with the advantage of low cost and durability as well and there is no risk
of demagnetization as there are no magnets in the motor [111]. Low
Fig. 10. Refrigerant cooling system.
starting torque, distortion, and interference are all hallmarks of the SRM
Fig. 8. Positions for inlet and exhaust airflow in a Z-character.
6
Fig. 11. Method of cooling using heat pipes. Fig. 12. SOA of temp vs current.
functioning, whether the rotor is conventional or segmented [112]. The Accurate estimation of voltage and current is vital for battery manage-
main drawback of SRM is the difficulty of the drive, and its control ment, as it impacts charging and discharging processes. Temperature
systems require a low power density and high noise [113]. estimation is crucial for thermal management and avoiding overheating,
Many different EMs can be employed in the automotive sector, each which can degrade battery lifespan. SOC and SOH estimations are vital
with its own set of upsides and downsides depending on the mechanical for gauging the battery’s charge level and overall health, ensuring ac-
control system signal restrictions and the general optimization topol- curate range predictions and longevity.
ogies [114].
Other than the above motors, Fig. 19 talks about some of the existing
motors that are used rarely for EV purposes.
4.2. Understanding the appropriate motor for EV
The initial step in determining suitable EV motors involves outlining

the vehicle’s essential performance criteria, specific operational condi-
tions, and associated cost considerations [115]. For instance, BLDC Hub
motors are well-suited for applications like go-karts and two-wheelers
where modest performance (typically under 3 kW) is required at a
competitive cost. In the case of three-wheelers and two-wheelers, the
choice may involve selecting BLDC motors by including or excluding a
peripheral gear structure, for high-power applications such as perfor- Fig. 13. SOA of temp vs voltage.
mance two-wheelers, wagons, buses, and automobiles, PMSM or IM
prove to be the optimal choice. In the future, as synchronous reluctance
motors (SyRM) and SRM become more lucrative alternatives to PMSM or
Induction motors, the spectrum of motor options for EV applications is
likely to expand [116].
5. Comparative study of parameters of battery management

system
EVs represent a pivotal technological advancement with immense

potential to address environmental concerns and to tumble our depen-
dence on fossil fuels. Precise parameter estimation is a critical aspect of
EVs, encompassing vital parameters like SOC, voltage, current, tem-
perature, and SOH. This paper performs a thorough comparative anal-
ysis in Tables 2 and 3 provides advantages, limitiontations, and practical
implications of various parameter estimation algorithms to optimize EV
performance and battery management. The parameters under scrutiny
Fig. 14. Life cycle vs temperature of LIBs.
are of paramount importance for EV operation and battery health.
Table 1
Batteries and specifications used in EVs.
Battery Cost Nominal Self Overcharge Life cycle Operating Energy Toxicity Thermal Efficiency Power
Type Voltage -Discharge Tolerance Temperature Density Stability density
(Wh/kg)
Lead Acid Less 2V Less High 200–300 Min: − 20 ◦ C 30–50 The sulphuric acid Less 85%–90 180
Battery and Max: 60 ◦ C in the battery is stability %
[86] very dangerous.
Ni-Cd Less 1.25V Medium Moderate 1500 Min: − 40 ◦ C 45–80 contains a deadly Less 95 % 150
Battery and Max: 60 ◦ C metal stability
[87]
Li-Ion More 3.6V Very less Very Low 500–1000 Min: − 20 ◦ C 110–160 Non-Toxic More 98%–100 1800
Battery and Max: 60 ◦ C (Electrolyte may stability %
[88,89] be toxic)
7
Fig. 15. BLDC motor.
filters, neural networks, regression models, and artificial intelligence

techniques. Each algorithm is evaluated based on accuracy of estima-
tion, robustness under various driving conditions, computational effi-
ciency, and adaptability to real-world EV usage.
The upshots of this comparative study are expected to influence the
electric vehicle industry significantly. Accurate parameter estimation is
instrumental in maximizing battery efficiency, predictive maintenance,
and enhancing overall vehicle performance. The findings will inform the
expansion of more consistent and efficient EVS, contributing to its wider
adoption and promoting a sustainable future. The improved algorithms
in this study will guide future research and innovation, accelerating the
advent of cleaner, greener, and more sustainable modes of
transportation.
6. Environmental impact
Fig. 16. PMSM motor.
➢ Battery production: The manufacturing of LIBs, which are
frequently employed in EV applications., can have environmental
impacts due to the acquisition of raw materials (e.g., lithium, cobalt,
nickel) and energy-intensive production processes [152]. Efforts are
being made to enhance the sustainability of battery production,
including recycling, and reducing the reliance on scarce materials
[153].
➢ Battery disposal: To prevent environmental contamination, EV
batteries must be appropriately disposed of and recycled. The
improper disposal of used or malfunctioning batteries can cause
serious ecological damage [154].
➢ Energy source: The environmental benefits of EVs are conditional
on the power source used for recharging [155]. If the electric power
comes from non-renewable energy, the overall cutback in GHG ex-
hausts may be limited. However, as renewable energy sources
become more prevalent, this concern diminishes [156,157].
➢ Charging infrastructure: The establishment and upkeep of EV
recharging facilities can result in localized environmental conse-
quences, encompassing alterations in land use and energy utilization
[158].
Fig. 17. Induction motor. ➢ Vehicle Production: Manufacturing EVs may have lower tailpipe
emissions, but the production of EVs may still generate ecological
This study investigates a range of algorithms, including Kalman
8
Fig. 18. Switched reluctance motor.
Fig. 19. Types of motors.
effects as the energy-intensive production of materials and compo- relatively small compared to the significant economic benefits gained
nents [159]. from EV production. In the UK [168], finds that using EV batteries for
➢ Rare-Earth elements: Some EV motors and batteries use rare-earth energy storage through battery swapping and reusing retired batteries
elements, which can be environmentally challenging to mine and can reduce environmental impacts significantly. Furthermore,
refine, and their extraction can have negative ecological impacts vehicle-to-grid mechanisms offer potential environmental benefits of
[160]. cycle degradation is minimal compared to calendar degradation, with
➢ Weight and tire wear: EVs tend to be heavier than outdated vehicles the balance depending on lithium-ion chemistry, temperature, and
due to the weight of the cell. Heavier vehicles can cause more wear mileage driven.
and tear on the roads, increasing the need for road maintenance and In general, the ecological impacts of zero-emission vehicles are
potentially contributing to environmental impacts [161]. influenced by several factors, encompassing the energy source, battery
technology, recycling and disposal practices, and the overall vehicle
Some of the case studies show the environmental impact of EVs as lifecycle. As technology advances and sustainable practices are adopted,
follows: The environmental impact of EVs varies significantly based on the environmental benefits of EVs are likely to continue to improve.
factors such as energy sources and regional contexts. Case studies reveal
both potential benefits and challenges associated with the transition to 7. Health impact of EV
EVs.
In Lagos, Nigeria, switching to EVs could improve air quality and ➢ Electric Vehicle Manufacturing: The production of EV cells and
reduce carbon emissions, addressing severe urban pollution issues supplementary components can involve the retrieval and processing
[162]. Conversely in Serbia, the emissions from EVs charged on a of raw materials, which may have environmental and health conse-
coal-based grid are comparable to those from ICEVs, highlighting the quences, especially in regions with lax environmental regulations.
importance of the energy source [163]. In Poland, the emissions from Additionally, the manufacturing process itself can generate pollution
charging EVs can exceed those from conventional vehicles, particularly if not properly managed [169].
in rural areas where energy losses are significant. This underscores the ➢ Battery production and disposal: The making and disposal of LIBs
need for localized strategies to optimize energy sources for EV charging used in EVs can have environmental and health impacts if not
[164]. An Indian study revealed that while battery electric vehicles managed responsibly. To reduce these concerns, appropriate waste
(BEVs) have lower emissions than ICEVs, their environmental benefits management measures are vital [170,205].
depend on the local energy mix. Cleaner energy sources could enhance ➢ Battery-related hazards: Lithium-ion batteries, while generally
their sustainability further [165]. Reviews of the GHG emissions in safe, can pose fire and explosion risks if damaged, improperly
Beijing and Shenzhen reveal EVs reduce GHG and air pollution and their handled, or exposed to extreme conditions. These incidents can
adoption can create a sustainable transportation future [166]. Through result in health and safety hazards [171].
production, the study [167] estimates that EV production in Indonesia ➢ Electric and magnetic fields (EMFs): Some concerns have been
will result in additional external emissions costs of approximately raised about the potential health effects of exposure to electromag-
Rp.2.23 trillion, a 0.6 % increase. However, this environmental impact is netic fields generated by EVs and charging infrastructure. However,
9
Table 2
Comprehensive comparison of BMS parameters.
S. SOURCE YEAR ALGORITHM CURRENT VOLTAGE SOC SOH TEMPERATURE
NO
1. [117] 2007 Reduced order extended Kalman filter algorithm NA NA YES NA NA

2. [118] 2011 Columb counting NA NA YES NA NA
3. [119] 2013 Experimental test bed NA NA YES YES NA
4. [120] 2014 Support vector machine model NA NA NA YES NA
5. [121] 2015 . Balancing Algorithm Based on Outlier Detection YES YES YES NA NA
6. [122] 2016 Experimental and simulation mode YES YES YES NA NA
7. [123] 2017 Experimental mode NA NA YES YES NA
8. [124] 2018 Deep neural network NA NA YES NA NA
9. [125] 2018 Unscented Kalman Filter, Particle filter, and a nonlinear observer. NA NA YES NA NA
10. [126] 2019 Feed-forward neural network and extended Kalman filter algorithm NA NA YES NA NA
11. [127] 2019 Machine learning algorithm NA NA YES YES NA
12. [128] 2019 Extended kalman filter NA NA YES NA NA
13. [129] 2020 Pid controller and Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ YES YES YES NA NA
14. [130] 2020 Deep neural networks NA NA YES NA NA
15. [131] 2020 Adaptive extended Kalman filter algorithm and recursive least square method NA NA YES NA NA
16. [132] 2020 Linear ODE Model NA NA YES YES NA
17. [133] 2020 Recurrent nonlinear autoregressive with exogenous inputs (RNARX) neural network NA NA YES NA NA
algorithm and lightning search algorithm (LSA)
18. [134] 2021 Simulation mode YES YES YES NA NA
19. [135] 2021 Columb counting YES YES YES NA NA
20. [136] 2021 Kalman filtering NA NA YES NA NA
21. [137] 2021 Coulomb counting method NA YES YES NA YES
Extended kalman filter
Unscented kalman filter
22. [138] 2021 Machine learning-based battery health and uncertainty management pipeline NA NA NA YES NA
(BHUMP)
23. [139] 2021 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy lab-testing equipment NA YES NA NA YES
24. [140] 2021 Columb counting and open circuit voltage method YES YES YES NA YES
25. [141] 2021 Improved extended Kalman filter NA NA YES NA NA
26. [142] 2022 Base Artificial Neural Network Using Transfer Learning NA NA NA YES NA
27. [143] 2022 Neural networks NA NA YES NA NA
28. [144] 2022 1. Linear Regressor (LR) NA YES NA NA YES
2. K-Nearest neighbors regressor (KNNR)
3. Random Forest regressor (RFR)
4. Decision tree regressor (DTR)
29. [145] 2022 Deep learning NA NA YES YES NA
30. [146] 2022 An integral correction-based soc estimation NA NA YES NA YES
31. [147] 2023 Multi-head attention mechanism and Convolutional layers, Gated Recurrent Unit NA NA YES NA NA
(GRU) networks,
32. [148] 2023 FPGA based BMS NA NA YES NA NA
33. [149] 2023 Deep learning NA NA NA YES NA
34. [150] 2023 Extended Kalman filter NA NA YES NA NA
35. [151] 2023 H-infinity particle filter (HIPF) NA NA YES NA NA
scientific research has not yet established definitive links between electrical energy generation, vehicle technology, manufacturing pro-
EMF exposure from EVs and adverse health outcomes [172]. cesses, and infrastructure development. Efforts to minimize the negative
➢ Infrastructure Construction and Maintenance: Expanding EV health impacts and maximize the positive ones often involve improving
charging infrastructure may require construction and maintenance battery recycling and disposal practices, transitioning to cleaner energy
activities that can lead to localized air and noise pollution, as well as sources for electricity generation, and investing in sustainable trans-
disruption to communities [173]. portation infrastructure.
The review also includes some case studies based on the health im- 8. Limitations of electric vehicles
pacts of EVs:
The health impacts of EVs are increasingly recognized, particularly EVs offer numerous advantages, such as minimized greenhouse gas
in urban settings where air pollution and noise are significant concerns. emissions, minimal functional costs, and quiet operation. However, they
In Middle Eastern countries, continuous electric charging leads to indi- do have a few drawbacks, the nature of which might change based on
rect environmental pollution, and the perception of EVs by consumers context and personal choice. Negative aspects of EVs include.
affects adoption figures [174]. According to the study of [175] in the UK,
there is no significant reduction in PM2.5 emissions due to non-exhaust ➢ Restricted operational range: Most zero-emission vehicles have a
emissions, and are likely to yield smaller changes in exposure to PM2.5 restricted operating range on a single charge in contrast to conven-
than NOx. In China [176], states that Taxi BEVs may worsen air quality tional fuel or diesel vehicles [178]. Although the mileage has shown
due to intensive usage, and in winter months they show less pronounced enhancements due to advancements in battery technology, it can still
emission reduction effects [177]. reveals that there will be an increase in be a matter of concern, particularly for extended journeys [179].
air pollutant emissions from mineral production and battery ➢ Longer recharging time: Unlike gas or diesel vehicles, electric ve-
manufacturing, while subnational regions may become pollution hot- hicles require a prolonged charging time [180]. Even with fast
spots due to the EV transition in China and India. chargers, it can still take significantly more time to charge an EV
Overall, the health impacts of zero-emission vehicles are determined compared to filling up a gas tank [181].
by a complex interplay of elements, including the energy source for
10
Table 3
List of merits and demerits of BMS algorithms in EV.
S. Source Algorithm Advantages Limitations Practical Implications
No.
1. [117] Reduced order Extended Kalman Accuracy in State Estimation, Reduced Complexity in tuning fine parameters Real-time battery monitoring in EVs for
filter algorithm computational efficiency and sensor and model dependency. range predictions, suitable for various
dependency, Faster convergence, battery sizes and configurations from
Robustness to uncertainties small electronics to large EV battery
systems
2. [118] Columb counting Safety and reliability, performance Complexity and dependence on Increase market growth and address
optimization, and longevity. accurate data. emerging challenges in battery
technology
3. [119] Experimental test bed Enhanced safety, improved performance The complexity of real-world The test bed can lead to standardized
insights, and cost-effectiveness applications and the effectiveness of testing protocols to improve
the test bed depend on the accuracy of comparability across studies
the battery models.
4. [120] Support vector machine model Achieves low error of 2.85 % high Complexity due to diverse data Allows real-time monitoring of battery
accuracy of SOH estimation, reduced sources requires extensive data health, enabling proactive maintenance
data upload requirements, and dynamic collection, which is a challenge in and reducing the risk of battery failure.
adaptability. real-world scenarios.
5. [121] . Balancing Algorithm Based on Enhances accuracy of SOC estimations Complexity in implementation, By optimizing SOC across cells, the
Outlier Detection and mitigates the impact of outliers, dependence on accurate data algorithm can extend the overall
prevents overheating, and has potential lifespan of battery packs, making it
safety hazards. beneficial for EVs, adapted for energy
storage systems, promotes efficiency in
renewable energy applications.
6. [122] Experimental and Simulation Safety and protection, accurate state The design of BMS is intricate, BMS facilitates the use of LIBs in
Mode estimation, and improved overall especially in large battery systems, renewable energy systems, enhancing
battery efficiency. and increases the overall cost of grid stability.
battery systems.
7. [123] Experimental mode High accuracy, adaptability, and Implementing neural networks Enhanced battery management through
improved safety requires significant computational accurate soc estimation and aging
resources expertise and data prediction, real-time monitoring
dependency. through dynamic adjustments, and
safety improvements.
8. [124] Deep neural network Achieves high accuracy with mean Computational complexity and data Reduce the risks associated with battery
absolute errors below 1 %, suitable for dependency rely on the quality and failures and cost considerations.
diverse applications and real-time quantity of training data, which may
monitoring of SOC for optimizing not always be available.
battery usage in EVs.
9. [125] Unscented Kalman filter, particle Accuracy and robustness to enhance Complexity and Generalization for Accurate estimation impacts battery
filter, and a nonlinear observer. reliability under varying conditions to implementing sophisticated safety and lifespan, and the market
achieve mean absolute errors below 1 % algorithms complicate BMS design adoption enhances consumer
and need extensive training datasets. confidence in HEVs.
10. [126] Feed-forward neural network Achieves high accuracy, particularly The performance relies on the The proposed method leads to better
and extended Kalman filter under varying operational conditions, quantity and quality of training data, battery pack performance and
algorithm and enhances robustness against noise which limits the practical settings. longevity. It broadens the industry
and uncertainties in battery parameters. Complexity hinders real-time adoption of LIBs in various applications.
applications in some scenarios.
11. [127] Machine learning algorithm Enhanced prediction accuracy, enables Lack of comprehensive data sets and Enhanced safety and cost
continuous health diagnostics, leverages complexity in real-world applications. considerations, even though efficiency
cloud computing for data analysis, is promised.
facilitating scalable and efficient
monitoring systems.
12. [128] Extended Kalman Filter Enhanced battery life, accurate SOC and Complexity and cost along with power Effective SOC and SOH estimation
SOH estimation, and increased energy consumption. algorithms are essential for the
efficiency. successful implementation of such
systems and are particularly beneficial
for EVs where battery performance is
crucial.
13. [129] Pid controller and Raspberry Pi 3 Enhanced monitoring and simulation This method faces integration There is a need for further research to
Model B+ capabilities facilitate better design and challenges as simulation tools require enhance the integration of simulation
testing processes. manual input and complexity in tools within automotive ecosystems.
implementation, especially for
smaller developers.
14. [130] Deep neural networks Improved SOC accuracy, real-time High computational complexity and Real-time data monitoring can prevent
monitoring and alerts in abnormal data dependency challenges in real- hazardous situations, ensuring user
conditions, and adaptability in various world applications. safety. Accurate SOC estimation
operating conditions. optimizes charging cycles, extending
battery life.
15. [131] Adaptive Extended Kalman Enhances SOC estimation accuracy and The adaptive nature of the filter Combining AEKF can significantly with
Filter Algorithm and Recursive increases real-time performance. introduces computational complexity, data-driven approaches could further
Least Squares Method is sensitive to initial parameter improve the accuracy and robustness of
settings, and requires very careful SOC estimation.
tuning.
(continued on next page)
11
Table 3 (continued )
No.
16. [132] Linear ODE Model Achieves rapid convergence in SOC The sophisticated tuning and Accurate SOC estimation prolongs
estimation and has less computational calibration lead to complexity in battery life and improves safety in real-
complexity suitable for real-time implementation and are sensitive to time applications.
applications. noise or disturbances in battery
operation.
17. [133] Recurrent nonlinear Improved accuracy which has an error Combining both algorithms may yield The optimized machine learning models
autoregressive with exogenous of less than 1 % SOC estimation with more robust results in practical achieve accuracy in SOC estimation,
inputs (RNARX) neural network increased adaptability. implications. and process data from multiple sources
algorithm and lightning search to enhance the robustness of SOC
algorithm (LSA) predictions.
18. [134] Simulation mode Enhanced safety, improved Advanced monitoring systems can It allows EVs to function as energy
performance, and compatibility. complicate the design and increase storage units, contributing to grid
costs. stability and renewable energy
integration.
19. [135] Columb counting The model improves SOC estimation The complexity of the model may Accurate estimation extends battery life
accuracy and high operational hinder low-cost applications and has by preventing overcharging and deep
efficiency without the need for full parameter sensitivity. discharging.
discharge cycles.
20 [136] Kalman filtering Enhanced safety and efficiency with Extensive calibration required leads to The rapid testing framework allows for
improved performance leading to better inaccurate estimations over time and efficient evaluation of BMS
battery optimization and longevity. complicates the BMS design along functionalities and real-time
with computational demands. monitoring leads to crucial for the
growth of the EV market.
21. [137] Coulomb counting method High accuracy, reduced data The complexity may hinder It has enhanced BMS and implementing
Extended Kalman Filter requirements, can adapt to various interpretability, the effectiveness of such models in real-world scenarios
Unscented Kalman filter battery chemistries and operating the model is contingent on the quality necessitates ongoing updates and
conditions, of input data. training to accommodate new data and
changing conditions.
22. [138] Machine learning-based battery Improved accuracy by improving SOC The adaptive nature of the algorithm Its robustness against noise and
health and uncertainty estimation, robustness due to may introduce complexity in adaptability to changing conditions
management pipeline (BHUMP) outperforming traditional methods, and implementation and tuning. make it a strong candidate for
lower computational efficiency. widespread industrial application.
23. [139] Electrochemical impedance EIS provides real-time insights into Integrating EIS into existing systems Promotes sustainability in energy
spectroscopy lab-testing battery health, allowing for proactive may require significant technical storage solutions and BMS can enhance
equipment maintenance, has an extended lifespan, expertise and variability in EIS the reliability of EVs by preventing
and reduces replacement costs, measurements can complicate health unexpected battery failures.
benefitting users economically. assessments.
24. [140] Columb counting and open- The PLC-based system improves the The integration of PLCs may require The system can be applied in energy
circuit voltage method based on accuracy of the SOC estimation, allows complicating deployment and storage systems, optimizing battery
the Programmable Logic real-time data processing, and reduces performance may degrade under usage and safety. Further studies
Controller (PLC) costs compared to more complex varying environmental conditions, explore hybrid approaches.
systems. affecting the SOC accuracy.
25. [141] Improved extended Kalman It has integration with renewable energy Implementing a robust BMS can be The effectiveness of BMS is critical for
filter and energy efficiency and ensures safe complex and expensive, especially for consumer acceptance of EVs,
operation by preventing overheating large-scale applications. LIBs require influencing design choices and market
and managing charging/discharging precise management within a limited strategies.
cycles. operating range.
26. [142] Base Artificial Neural Network Allows generalization across cell types The dependence on the quality of the The proposed framework shows
Using Transfer Learning and enhances its applicability in diverse source data and the exploration promise in enhancing SOH estimation
scenarios, reduces data requirements, challenges limits their robustness in for LIBs, its reliance on quality data and
and improves accuracy in SOH unpredictable environments. potential exploration issues warrants
estimation. further investigation to optimize the
practical implications.
27. [143] Neural networks (NN) Achieves SOC accuracy of 96 % in NN requires large datasets for The reliance on extensive data and
practical applications and can adapt to training, which may not be always sensitivity to noise present challenges
varying battery conditions. available, some models can be that need to be addressed for broader
sensitive to measurement noise, practical use.
which affects their reliability.
28. [144] 1. Linear regressor (LR) They are computationally efficient, The accuracy of predictions heavily It aids in scheduling maintenance and
2. K-Nearest neighbors regressor allowing rapid predictions compared to relies on the quality and quantity of optimizing battery usage.
(KNNR) traditional physics-based models. training data, which is a significant
3. Random forest regressor constraint and risk of overfitting.
(RFR)
4. Decision tree regressor (DTR)
29. [145] Deep learning Estimation errors are below 2 %, Computationally intensive hinders The advancements in the field of DL for
enhanced safety and reliability, utilizing real-time applications and highly BMS are promising, but challenges such
cloud computing facilitates co- depends on data quality during as computational demands and data
estimation of battery parameters for operating conditions. requirements must be addressed to fully
better prediction. realize their potential in practical
applications.
30. [146] An integral correction-based soc Enhances the precision of SOC Has computational complexity, affects The adaptive strategy demonstrates
estimation estimation, effectively addresses non- responses in critical applications, and superior performance in dynamic
linearities and time-variant is dependent on accurate battery conditions, ensuring the reliable
characteristics of LIBs, suitable for models. operation of EVs.
dynamic environments.
(continued on next page)
12
Table 3 (continued )
No.
31. [147] Multi-head attention mechanism The fusion of two algorithms enhances Relies on the training data, which This can significantly enhance BMS by
and Convolutional layers, Gated prediction accuracy and provides limits their real-world applications extending battery life and
Recurrent Unit (GRU) networks, robustness by capturing complex and high computational complexity. computational demands must be
temporal dependencies. addressed to maximize its practical
utility in BMS.
32. [148] FPGA based BMS By enabling instantaneous SOC It has complexity in implementation The system can optimize charging
prediction, battery management and requires knowledge for setup and cycles, extending battery life, adapted
efficiency is enhanced, and FPGA maintenance, and sensitivity to for use in smart grid applications,
technology allows rapid matrix environmental factors. improving energy management
operations, which reduces systems.
computational complexity and gives
processing speed and high adaptability
for different applications.
33. [149] Deep learning Requires no additional experiments for DL is computationally intensive, This can facilitate real-time SOH
degradation testing, achieves low error requires significant resources, and monitoring in EVs and be adapted for
rates, and is designed to handle various relies upon quality as well as quantity various battery chemistries, making it
operating conditions, enhancing its of training data. versatile for different industries.
applicability.
34. [150] Extended Kalman filter Enhances accuracy by dynamically The model dependency method, Enhances the performance of BMS in
adjusting battery parameters, resilience which may not always be achievable EVs and renewable energy storage, and
under varying operational conditions, and has computational complexity. improves safety and reliability in
has faster convergence times. critical applications such as grid storage
systems.
35. [151] H-infinity particle filter (HIPF) It improves noise suppression, leading to The algorithm’s complexity hinders Promotes sustainability in EV
more precise soc estimations. Has high real-time applications, requiring technology and suggests a need for
reliability by maintaining an error significant computational resources further exploration into adaptive
margin of only 1 %. and dependence on model accuracy. algorithms to enhance real-time
performance without compromising
accuracy.
➢ Limited charging infrastructure: In some regions, the charging these drawbacks may become less prominent over time. Additionally,
infrastructure for zero-emission vehicles may be less developed the suitability of an EV depends on individual needs and circumstances,
compared to the availability of fuel pumps. This can make it incon- so what may be a disadvantage for one person could be inconsequential
venient for EV possessors to find charging stations, particularly in to another.
rural or less densely populated areas [182].
➢ Higher upfront cost: The actual cost of a zero-emission vehicle is 9. Forthcoming opportunity of electric vehicles
typically more than that of a comparable fuel- or diesel-powered
vehicle. While this price differential is slowly declining, it can still The forthcoming opportunity of EVs holds great promise and is ex-
be a barrier for some buyers [183]. pected to undergo significant developments and transformations.
➢ Limited model variety: The selection of EV models available on the Several factors contribute to the expanding range of zero-emission ve-
market may be more limited due to outdated internal combustion hicles in the future.
engine vehicles. This can limit consumers’ choices in terms of size,
style, and features [184]. ➢ Technological Advancements: EV technology is continually
➢ Battery degradation and replacement costs: Tirelessly, the per- evolving. Future developments may include longer driving ranges,
formance and capacity of EV batteries can worsen, which can reduce improved battery chemistries, increased energy density, faster
the vehicle’s overall range. Replacing the battery can be expensive, charging times, etc. These advancements will make EVs more
although prices have been decreasing [185]. interesting to a broader diverse customer base [190].
➢ Charging compatibility: Various EVs utilize distinct types of con- ➢ Affordability: As battery costs continue to decline, the upfront price
nectors and charging standards, which can create compatibility is- of zero-emission vehicles is projected to become more competitive
sues with some charging stations. This can be extremely tricky when with outdated internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. This
traveling or using public charging infrastructure [186]. affordability will make EVs more available to a wide-ranging
➢ Ecological consequences of battery manufacturing: Although segment of the population [191].
EVs emit fewer emissions during operation, manufacturing lithium- ➢ Recharging Infrastructure Network: The expansion of the
ion cells for EVs can have ecological impacts, including resource recharging infrastructure network is perilous for the extensive
mining and energy-intensive manufacturing processes [187]. implementation of EVs. Regimes and private companies are capi-
➢ Limited resale value: Some EVs may have lower resale values talizing heavily on building fast-charging networks, making long-
compared to their gasoline counterparts, which can result in higher distance travel more convenient and tumbling "range anxiety" [192].
depreciation costs for the owner [188]. ➢ Policy and Regulations: Many governments are implementing
➢ Electricity source emissions: The ecological profits of EVs rely on strategies and protocols to encourage the embracing of zero-emission
the source of the electrical energy employed for recharging. If the vehicles. This consists of incentives such as tax credits, rebates, and
electrical energy is produced from coal or other high-emission emission reduction targets. Such strategies are likely to continue and
sources, the overall reduction in emissions may be less substantial expand in the future [193].
[189]. ➢ Environmental Concerns: Growing considerations about environ-
mental shifts and air quality are lashing the transition to cleaner
It is significant to note that these disadvantages are being addressed transportation options. EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions and are
through ongoing advances in technology and infrastructure develop- seen as a crucial component in curbing emissions in the trans-
ment. As the EV marketplace is expanding steadily and evolving, some of portation industry [194].
13
➢ Consumer Preferences: As consumers become more environmen- durability of the EV.

tally conscious and concerned about the long-term sustainability of Lithium-Ion Batteries: These batteries remain in use in EVs as they
transportation, there is a growing preference for EVs. Automakers offer high energy density as well as efficiency but for longer durability,
are responding by offering a wider range of EV models with various need proper cooling and constant checks.
features and price points [195]. Electric Motors: This paper also highlights the importance of
➢ Autonomous and Connected Vehicles: The integration of EVs with selecting an appropriate type of motor that will enhance the perfor-
autonomous driving technology and connectivity features is an mance and efficiency of EVs, unlike conventional vehicles, where
emerging trend. The advent of fully autonomous, electric vehicles different types will have different benefits depending on the needs of the
has the potential to greatly enhance the convenience, efficiency, and vehicle in question.
security of urban transportation [196]. Environmental and Health Benefits: Transitioning to electric ve-
➢ Battery Recycling and Second Life: Developing sustainable prac- hicles has large positive environmental and health impacts as a result of
tices for battery recycling and repurposing used EV batteries will be cutting emissions, especially in cities.
essential. These efforts will reduce waste and ensure the responsible Future Development Needs: Recent innovations and developments
disposal of battery materials [197]. have highlighted the need to enhance battery technology, charger
➢ Energy Storage: EVs can serve as portable energy retention systems innovation, and desk ownership to make EV technology more dominant.
that enhance grid stability and facilitate the integration of sustain- In conclusion, this article comprehensively reviews key components
able energy sources like wind and solar power [198]. and technologies within EVs, emphasizing the importance of BMS, LIBs,
➢ Urban Planning and Infrastructure: Future urban planning and and electric motors. The comparison of the parameter estimation using
infrastructure development will prioritize electric mobility. Cities the different algorithms is tabulated and their pros and cons along with
may implement policies to encourage electric public transportation, the practical implications are also discussed. The case studies show a
create dedicated EV lanes, and establish emissions-free zones [199]. glimpse of the environmental and health impact of EVs. By knowing the
➢ Market Expansion: Emerging markets, such as India and various limitations of current EV technology and offering recommendations for
African countries, represent significant growth opportunities for EV future research, the article aims to contribute to the ongoing develop-
adoption. These regions are likely to witness increased investment in ment of more efficient, affordable, and sustainable EVs. The BMS for EVs
EV infrastructure and manufacturing [200]. has advanced tremendously, helping to promote the widespread use of
➢ Innovative Business Models: New business models, such as car electric vehicles. As we look to the future, the continued advancement of
sharing, ride-hailing, and subscription services, will continue to BMS technology will play a fundamental role in determining the EV
adapt to incorporate EVs into their fleets, offering consumers more landscape, making EVs more accessible, reliable, and environmentally
flexible and sustainable transportation options [201]. friendly.
In conclusion, the forthcoming scope of EVs is bright and multifac- Funding

eted. As technology advances, costs decrease, infrastructure improves,
and policies support the transition, EVs are rapidly gaining ground as a There is no funding source for this article.
viable form of transport., offering environmental benefits, energy effi-
ciency, and a more sustainable future for mobility. Ethical approval
10. Conclusion This article does not contain any data, or other information from
studies or experimentation, with the involvement of human or animal
EVs are now in the leading line in the shift toward sustainable subjects.
transport systems with BMS, lithium-ion batteries, and electric motors
among the critical subassemblies critical for the optimal and durable CRediT authorship contribution statement
performance of EVs. This paper has outlined the key facets of EV tech-
nology, starting with an understanding of the various types of EV, how R. Suganya: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology,
BMS is vital in managing lithium-ion batteries, and the functional blocks Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. L.M.I.
that are involved in the monitoring, control, and safety of lithium-ion Leo Joseph: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Su-
batteries in EV technology. In another analysis, the authors thereafter pervision. Sreedhar Kollem: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
looked at features of lithium-ion batteries including energy density, Validation, Supervision.
charge-discharge efficiency, and the battery life or life span which are
determinants of the performance of EVs. The paper also went deeper
Declaration of competing interest
into electric motors, with a focus on the differences together with the
appropriateness of various types of electric motors for EV applications,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
coupled with principles of motor selection.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
In this review article, by comparing the specified BMS parameters,
the work reported in this paper.
the impacts of BMS efficiency elements emphasized including; energy
management, thermal control, and safety measures have been evalu-
Data availability
ated. Some of the environmental and health effects found included the
contribution of EVs to lowering greenhouse emissions, as well as the
No data was used for the research described in the article.
improvement of public health through mitigating emissions of air pol-
lutants generated from ICEVs. In addition, the paper pointed out the
limitations of EVs including issues related with charging infrastructure, References
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Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103047

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Understanding lithium-ion battery management systems in electric

Fig. 1. CO2 emissions of transportation.

Fig. 2. Development of EVs.

Fig. 3. Sales of Electric vehicles.

management system employs safeguards such as protection circuits and

Motor effectiveness and horsepower flux densities do have a signif-

4.1. Types of motors

Brushless direct current (BLDC) motor, Permanent magnet syn-

4.1.1. BLDC motor

4.1.2. PMSM motor

Fig. 4. Types of EVs.

Fig. 7. Cooling methods of a battery.

advantages they offer, including favorable ratios of torque to current,

Fig. 8. Positions for inlet and exhaust airflow in a Z-character.

4.2. Understanding the appropriate motor for EV

The initial step in determining suitable EV motors involves outlining

5. Comparative study of parameters of battery management

EVs represent a pivotal technological advancement with immense

Fig. 15. BLDC motor.

filters, neural networks, regression models, and artificial intelligence

Fig. 18. Switched reluctance motor.

Fig. 19. Types of motors.

1. [117] 2007 Reduced order extended Kalman filter algorithm NA NA YES NA NA

➢ Consumer Preferences: As consumers become more environmen- durability of the EV.

In conclusion, the forthcoming scope of EVs is bright and multifac- Funding

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