LAB REPORT 8 Construction of Electronic Analogue Meters (a) Electronic DC Voltmeter SUBMITTED TO: ➢ LE HARIS
SUBMITTED BY: ➢ Muhamad Hamza Raees Awan (404321) ➢ Ehsan-Ullah (407552) ➢ Toheed Ul Hassan (410956)
DE 44 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SYNDICATE A
SUBMISSION DATE 21sh -Nov-2024 Table of Contents
Objective
Apparatus
Theory
Procedure
Result and Calculations
Conclusion
1 1 Objective The objective of this experiment is to measure the inductance of an unknown inductor using a Digital Oscilloscope. Inductance, a property of inductors, plays a critical role in determining how inductive components respond to alternating currents (AC) and varying frequencies. By applying a known excitation signal (typically a sine wave of known frequency) to the inductor, the experiment involves observing the resulting voltage waveform across the inductor using the oscilloscope. From this waveform, key parameters such as impedance and phase shift can be derived, which are then used to calculate the unknown inductance value. This method provides a precise way to characterize inductive components in a circuit.
2 Apparatus Resistors (fixed) 800kΩ x1, 100kΩ x2, 10kΩ x1, 90kΩ x1 Resistors (variable) 100kΩ x1, 50kΩ x1, 10kΩ x1 Op Amp LM741 x1 Galvanometer DC Power Supply DMM
3 Theory
The basic PMMC meter has limitations when measuring both AC and DC voltages or currents. An electronic DC voltmeter overcomes these drawbacks by combining a d'Arsonval meter movement with an amplifier. This combination results in a voltmeter system with two key advantages: 1. Higher Input Impedance: At lower voltage ranges, where the loading effect of the voltmeter is most significant, the input impedance of the electronic voltmeter is much higher. For example, it is typically greater than 10MΩ for DC and more than 1MΩ for AC voltage ranges. 2. Improved Sensitivity: The inclusion of an amplifier increases the sensitivity of the voltmeter, particularly at lower voltage ranges. The direct-coupled (DC) amplifier, often the more affordable option, works effectively when the most sensitive scale is between 0.1 to 1.0 V. The operational amplifier, configured as a non-inverting amplifier, provides an input impedance greater than 10MΩ. The overall meter loading on the voltage ranges is approximately 1MΩ. A resistive voltage divider consisting of 800 kΩ, 100 kΩ, and 100 kΩ is connected in parallel with the input impedance of the operational amplifier circuit. This non-inverting amplifier has a fixed gain of 10. Additionally, a 1Ω current shunt produces a voltage drop of 1V per ampere.
2 The meter is designed for three ranges with a maximum of 1V, 5V and 10V DC - For Range 1: input is 0-1V, input to Op amp is 0-1V which is read by VM as 0-10V. - For Range 2: input is 0-5V, input to Op amp is 0-1V which is read by VM as 0-10V. - For Range 3: input is 0-10V, input to Op amp is 0-1V which is read by VM as 0-10V.
3 The amplifier's bias stability (its ability to maintain a constant output for a given input) is not sufficient for input signals of less than 100 mV. For input signals of less than 100 mV small drifts in bias conditions of the voltmeter amplifier can have the same effect as changes in input voltage. These output level shifts and gain changes are due to thermal effects and sensitivity to variations in power supply voltage make the amplifier impractical.
4 Procedure
1. Calculate IFSD and Rm for the given galvanometer.
2. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 1.
3. Calculate Rtotal using the rated voltage VFS and predefined values of IFSD, Rm, and Rx.
4. Use LM741 op-amp IC and complete the circuit as per design.
5. Positive terminal of desired voltmeter is the one where the term “volts” has been specified in diagram while negative terminal would correspond to ground terminalas shown in diagram. 6. Test for different ranges as per design by changing the position of switch! Measure the voltage for each range and compare the results with theoretical values
5 Results and Calculations
The calculated values for the electronic DC voltmeter were derived based on the resistancevalues and amplifier gain used in the circuit design. - Gain of Op-amp calculated as: 9k R2 = 1+ = 10 Gain = 1 + 1k R1
4 The following values were recorded for each range during the experiment:
Observations: (a) Electronic DC Voltmeter:
VFSD 10V
IFSD 0.3mA Rm 109Ω
RTOTAL 33109Ω Resistance connected in series of meter 33000Ω 9k Gain of Op-amp (Calculate!) 1+ = 10 1k
For potential divider incorporated for different ranges
Values of Resistors Corresponding Range (Calculate) 0 1V 800kΩ 5V 900kΩ 10V Values of Resistors Corresponding Range (Practically seen) 0 1V 802kΩ 4.8V 897kΩ 9.7V
The observed results demonstrate that the constructed electronic DC voltmeter ac- curately measures voltages across different ranges with minimal error. This confirms the effectiveness of the amplifier in improving input impedance and sensitivity, making the meter suitable for AC and DC applications.
6 Conclusion The experiment effectively illustrated the design and operation of an electronic DC voltmeter. By integrating an amplifier into the system, the voltmeter achieves high input impedance and enhanced sensitivity, addressing the limitations inherent in traditional PMMC meters. The measured results closely matched the theoretical values, validating the accuracy and reliability of the design.
