GUIDE TO CHICKEN

HEALTH
MANAGEMENT

Chicken Health
Conditions,
Diseases,
Treatment,
Prevention and
Management

PRAISE THANTHWE PAHUWA

This manual book was prepared by the following consultant:
Praise Thanthwe Pahuwa
Prime Agribusiness Consultancy
P.O Box 51571
Limbe
Email: praisepahuwa@gmail.com
Tel: +265 882 422 747
October 2021

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with heartfelt gratitude that I first thank God for everything.

I wish to acknowledge all the poultry farmers in this country, both small and large scale whose
hard work and commitment has made poultry farming one of the rewarding enterprises in
Malawi financially and nutritionally. I also feel indebted to all farmers whose contribution on
various experiences faced in their poultry farming has formed the basis on which this manual
book is written. Your efforts have added value to this manual book and we believe that this
manual book will help in improving the knowledge, skills and competence in chicken disease
identification, treatment, prevention and management within our farms.

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FORWARD
The poultry subsector is one of the fastest growing sub-sectors within the Agricultural sector in
Malawi. With a production growth of 31.4% between the years 2014 to 2021 (GoM 2021),
poultry farming remains the most developed livestock farming in Malawi. There are many
species of poultry in Malawi which range from chickens, ducks, quails, geese, turkeys and
pigeons among others. In all specialties of poultry farming, one of the challenges faced by
smallholder farmers is poultry diseases and health conditions. The poultry subsector is very
dynamic and therefore the constant need for relevant information concerning poultry disease
management to smallholder farmers at the right time can never be overemphasized.

Poultry production in Malawi is dominated with chickens amongst all other species of poultry.
This therefore provides that chicken health condition and disease management is among one of
the areas which calls for relevant knowledge to be made available to smallholder farmers.

This manual book has been developed targeting the smallholder poultry farmers in Malawi who
are into chicken farming and it is expected to help chicken farmers in identifying chicken health
conditions and diseases, treatment, prevention and management. It recognizes that some diseases
that do not affect other poultry do affect chickens hence the need to provide the relevant
information. This will in turn help chicken farmers to have on-farm diagnosis, treatment,
prevention and management of chicken diseases and health conditions.

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Table of Contents
FORWARD ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 6
1. VIRAL DISEASES (RESPIRATORY) ................................................................................................ 8
1.1. Newcastle Disease ............................................................................................................................ 8
1.2. Infectious Bronchitis ....................................................................................................................... 11
1.3. Avian Influenza (more common in national borders)..................................................................... 12
2. VIRAL DISEASES (NON-RESPIRATORY) .................................................................................... 14
2.1. Infectious Bursal Disease (GUMBORO) – Common in 3-6 weeks old chicks ................................... 14
2.2. Marek’s disease.................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3. Fowl pox (avian pox) ........................................................................................................................... 16
3. BACTERIAL DISEASES (RESPIRATORY) .................................................................................... 18
3.1. Infectious Coryza ................................................................................................................................. 18
3.2. Pneumonia in Chicks ...................................................................................................................... 20
4. BACTERIAL DISEASES (NON-RESPIRATORY) .......................................................................... 21
4.1. Fowl cholera......................................................................................................................................... 21
4.2. Botulism ............................................................................................................................................... 22
4.3. Bumble Foot.................................................................................................................................... 23
4.4. Fowl Typhoid .................................................................................................................................. 24
5. PROTOZOAN DISEASES ................................................................................................................. 25
5.1. Coccidiosis ........................................................................................................................................... 25
6. PARASITES AND PREDATORS ..................................................................................................... 27
6.1. External Parasites ............................................................................................................................ 27
i. Scaly Leg Mite Disease....................................................................................................................... 27
ii. Mosquitoes .......................................................................................................................................... 29
iii. Poultry Mites................................................................................................................................... 30
iv. Poultry Lice..................................................................................................................................... 32
v. Poultry Ticks ....................................................................................................................................... 34
6.2. Internal Parasites of Chickens ......................................................................................................... 35
i. Worms (Ascarides and Heterakis) ...................................................................................................... 35
6.3. Predators ......................................................................................................................................... 36
7. CHICKEN REPRODUCTION HEALTH CONDITIONS ................................................................. 37
7.1. Egg Binding in Laying Hens ........................................................................................................... 37

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7.2. Low/ Zero Hatch of Chicken Eggs ................................................................................................. 40
7.3. Nest Abandonment.......................................................................................................................... 42
7.4. Differentiating Indigenous (Local) chicken laying strains from Meat strains ................................ 44
8. CHICKS HEALTH CONDITIONS .................................................................................................... 45
8.1. Spray Legs in Chicks ...................................................................................................................... 45
8.2. Balding/ Loss of Feathers of Chicks (Alopecia) ............................................................................. 47
8.3. Chilly Chicks .................................................................................................................................. 49
8.4. Hatch Deformities/ Abnormalities .................................................................................................. 50
8.5. Inanition .......................................................................................................................................... 51
8.6. Chick Sexing ................................................................................................................................... 52
9. CHICKEN NUTRITIONAL HEALTH CONDITIONS .................................................................... 55
9.1. Pendulous Crop in Chickens ........................................................................................................... 55
9.2. Diarrhoea in Chickens..................................................................................................................... 57
9.3. Stunted Growth in Chickens ........................................................................................................... 60
10. BEHAVIOURAL HEALTH CONDITIONS OF CHICKENS ...................................................... 62
10.1. Cannibalism ....................................................................................................................................... 62
i. Feather Pecking ................................................................................................................................... 62
ii. Vent pecking in layers......................................................................................................................... 63
iii. Egg eating Vice ............................................................................................................................... 64
11. TRANSPORTATION UNCERTAINTIES .................................................................................... 66
11.1. Transportation losses ......................................................................................................................... 66
11.2. Stress .................................................................................................................................................. 67
12. FEED AND WATER SPILLAGE AND SPOILAGE .................................................................... 69
12.1. Feed Spillage ...................................................................................................................................... 69
12.2. Chicken Drinking Water Spoilage ..................................................................................................... 70
13. BASIC MANAGERIAL ISSUES IN CHICKEN PRODUCTION ................................................ 71
13.1. Breach of Contract between Employer (Owner of Farm) and Employee (Worker) ................... 71
13.2. Breach of Contract between Buyer and Seller in Poultry products............................................. 73
13.3. Theft ............................................................................................................................................ 74
13.4. Poor Performance of Farm Employees (farm workers) .............................................................. 75
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 76

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 1. INTRODUCTION
This booklet aims at helping a farmer in chicken health management on a farm level. A health
chicken should have the following characteristics:

- Eyes: should be clear with no discharges, swelling or drowsiness

- Beak and nose: should be clean, not swollen, no discharges or feed sticking to the beak
- Feathers: should be clean, shinny, with no feathers sticking out
- Vent: should be clean with no signs of loose droppings
- Skin: should be unblemished and without nodular swellings or blisters
- Legs and scales: should be smooth, without swellings or bruises
- Crop: should be medium sized and fairy firm indicating good feed and water
consumption
- Fecal droppings: should be fairy firm, with urates and feed excrete separate

The farmer should therefore use all his/her five senses to monitor chicken health as follows:

- Hearing: Listen to the chickens vocalization, breathing, respiratory sounds and feeding
- Smell: Keep notice of smells in the environment such as ammonia levels
- Sight: Observe chicken distribution, number of birds feeding, drinking, resting, dust in
the air, water quality, feed quality, posture, alertness and eyes.
- Taste: Keep notice of the taste of poultry products (eggs or meat)
- Feel: Handle the chickens to assess weight, breast conformation, crop fill, skin, legs and
temperature in the poultry house

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This booklet has therefore classified chicken diseases and health conditions as follows:

Viral diseases (respiratory): these are all diseases caused by a virus and affect the respiratory
system of the chicken. These include Newcastle disease, Infectious Bronchitis and Avian
Influenza. Common signs include coughing, sneezing and swelling of eyes.

Viral diseases (non-respiratory): these are all virus caused diseases which do not affect the
respiratory system of the chicken. These include Fowl pox, marek disease and Gumboro disease.
Common signs include inflammation of intestines, diarrhoea and lesions on the face of the
chicken.

Bacterial diseases (respiratory): these are all bacterial diseases that affect the respiratory
system of the chicken. These include Infectious Coryza and Pneumonia. Common signs include
sneezing, coughing and swelling of eyes.

Bacterial diseases (non-respiratory): these include all bacterial caused diseases which do not
affect the respiratory system of the chicken. These include Fowl cholera, Fowl typhoid,
Bumblefoot and Botulism. Common signs include loss of balance, inflammation of intestines,
swelling of feet, diarrhoea and lesions on face.

Protozoan diseases: these are all diseases caused by Protozoa and include Coccidiosis.

Parasites: these include all external and internal parasites that affect chickens.

Chicken Reproduction Health conditions: these include complications and adverse health
conditions of reproduction in chickens such as egg binding, nest abandonment and zero hatches
of chicken eggs.

Chick Growth Health conditions: these include adverse health conditions to chicks such as
hatch deformities, spray legs, Inanition and balding.

Digestive System Health conditions: these include adverse conditions in the chickens’ digestive
tract such as pendulous crop and diarrhoea.

Behavioral health conditions of chicks: these include all behaviors that lower chicken
productivity such as cannibalism and egg drinking vices.

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1. VIRAL DISEASES (RESPIRATORY)

1.1.Newcastle Disease
Cause
- Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)
Transmission:

- Breathing air, respiratory discharges, and feces from sick chicken.

- Chicks hatched from eggs laid by sick birds.
- Contaminated shoes of caretakers, feed deliverers, visitors, tires, dirty
equipment, feed sacks, crates, and introduction of new sick birds into a health
batch.

Signs and Symptoms

- Twisting of neck and paralysis
- Staggering movement of chickens
- Gasping/ Labored breathing through its mouth
- Greenish diarrhea despite the feed material consumed
- Drowse eyes of sick chicken
- Sudden death of chickens of up to 100%

Figure 1: Signs of Newcastle disease in Chickens

Treatment
- There is no treatment for New Castle disease as it is a viral disease.
Administration of strong antibiotics with vitamins such as Aliseryl,
Keproseryl, OTC plus administered for 7 days after onset of disease help
prevent secondary bacterial infections.

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 - Organic treatments such as Cockroach berry (nthula) and Christmas melon
(tagiri) have a significant effect in facilitating cure for New Castle disease. On
how to prepare nthula and tagiri to be used as treatment for New Castle
disease treatment, please refer to the booklet “Guide to Organic Poultry
Treatment”.
Prevention
- Strict vaccination of all birds with Newcastle disease vaccine. Follow well-
designed vaccination schedules and obtain vaccine from reputable sources. Do
not administer vaccine after infection has already started as it will facilitate
death of chickens. After each vaccine, administer vitamin. For oral
vaccination and treatment which require dilution, starve chickens 6 hours
before administration to ensure all chickens access treatment or vaccine.
Table 1: Chicken Vaccination Schedule

PERIOD VACCINE/TRE DISEASE METHOD OF

ATMENT ADMINISTRATION
Day 1-3 Vitamin Facilitating growth Diluting in drinking water.
(Stresspac) of chicks.
Day 7 Bursine II Gumboro Dilute in drinking water.
Day 14 Hitchner Newcastle Dilute in drinking water or eye
drops.
Day 21 Bursine II Gumboro Dilute in drinking water.
Day 28 Lasota Newcastle Dilute in drinking water or eye
drops.
Week 5 Poxine (Fowl Fowl pox Wing web method (Piercing
pox) through the skin of the wing of the
chicken using a Poxine vaccine
applicator)
Week 12 and after Lasota Newcastle Dilute in drinking water or eye
every 3 months. drops.
Week 12 and after Dewormer. Worms (Ascarides, Dilute in drinking water.

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every 3 months. Heterakis)

- Good sanitation and implementation of a comprehensive biosecurity program.

- Obtain breeding and rearing stock from reputable farms with well-designed
vaccination schedules. Before introducing them in the batch, ensure that they
are healthy.
- Enforce strict and comprehensive biosecurity (putting disinfectant at the
entrance of the Khola by pouring Chlorine on a sack and laying it on the
ground at the entrance so that farmers should step on the sack before entering
the khola; avoid bringing new stock into the existing stock without thorough
medical check-up). Avoid bringing strangers near the khola.
- Administer organic antibiotics (Aloe Vera, Cockroach berry, Pawpaw leaves,
charcoal, mango leaf bark, e.t.c) twice each week to prevent any infection in
the chickens.
Recovery

Recovery from Newcastle disease outbreak requires disinfecting the khola, and obtaining
healthy breeding stock. Follow well-designed vaccination schedules and enforce strict
biosecurity.

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1.2.Infectious Bronchitis
Cause
- Virus (Coronavirus)
Transmission
- Inhalation of droplets expelled by infected birds.
- Contaminated feed bags.

Signs and Symptoms

- Coughing and sneezing
- Watery discharge from the eyes and/or nostrils
- Swelling of the head. Head shaking may be observed
- Layer birds show severe and prolonged reduction in egg laying; the few eggs
laid have soft or rough shells, and the egg white becomes watery
- Production recovers in 5 or 6 weeks, but at a lower rate than before infection

Figure 2: Signs of Infectious Bronchitis in Chickens

Treatment
- There is no specific treatment for infectious bronchitis. Administering strong
antibiotics with vitamin for 7 days may aid in combating secondary bacterial
infections.
- Give chickens organic treatments such as Coackroach berry, tagiri, Aloe vera
Prevention
- Establish and enforce a biosecurity program

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1.3.Avian Influenza (more common in national borders)
Cause
- Type A Influenza viruses. Avian influenza must be distinguished from
Newcastle disease and fowl cholera as clinical signs and lesions are very
similar. It should also be differentiated. Consult veterinarian for confirmation.

Transmission
- AI is transmitted by direct contact between infected birds.
- Contaminated farm equipment, feed bags, egg crates, vectors such as rodents
and insects, and contaminated shoes and clothing.
- Poultry markets where many species of birds are brought for sale.

Signs and Symptoms

- Facial swellings, blue combs and wattles.
- Bleeding into gizzard, skeletal muscles and trachea.
- Nervous disorders.
- Dark red/white spots develop in the legs and combs of chickens.
- Blood-tinged discharge from the nostrils.
- Death of chickens up to 100 percent.

Figure 3: Signs of Avian Influenza in Chickens

Treatment
- There is no treatment for avian influenza. Administering strong antibiotics
with vitamins such as Aliaseryl, Keproseryl and OTC Plus may reduce losses
from secondary infections.

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Prevention
- Strict quarantine and rapid destruction of all infected flocks remains the only
effective method of stopping an avian influenza outbreak. If you suspect you
may have Avian Influenza in your flock, even the mild form, you must report
it to the veterinarian's office. A proper diagnosis of avian influenza is
essential.
- Strict biosecurity procedures should be practiced. Direct or indirect contact of
susceptible birds with waterfowl, shorebirds and birds or poultry products
from endemic AI areas must be avoided.

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2. VIRAL DISEASES (NON-RESPIRATORY)

2.1. Infectious Bursal Disease (GUMBORO) – Common in 3-6 weeks old chicks
Cause
- Virus (Infectious Bursal Disease Virus)
Transmission
- Bird-to-bird contact between infected birds and uninfected birds; breathing
contaminated air; and contact with contaminated people and equipment.
Signs and Symptoms
- Whitish watery droppings leading to soiling of feathers around the vent, and
vent picking.
- Feathers appear ruffled
- Dull appearance and hunched back sitting position of chicks
- Death of chickens within 3 days from when they first develop signs of illness

Figure 4: Signs of Gumboro disease in Chickens (Infectious Bursal Disease)

Treatment
- There is no specific treatment for Gumboro disease. Administering strong
antibiotics with vitamins such as Aliseryl, Keproseryl and OTC Plus prevent
secondary bacterial infections.
Prevention
- Vaccination of all birds with Bursine II vaccine on day 7 and repeat on day
21. Follow well designed vaccination schedule.
Recovery
- The virus is very stable in the environment therefore it is usually not possible
to prevent the spread of cases from previous flocks to new flocks. Vaccination
is the key to recovery.

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2.2. Marek’s disease
Cause
- Virus (Hepersvirus)

Signs and Symptoms

- Paralysis (loss of muscle function) of wings, characteristic dropping of limb.
- Nodular skin lesions (abnormal growth of skin).
- Discoloration of chicken eyes (bluish color)

Figure 5: Signs of Marek disease in Chickens

Treatment
- There is no treatment for Marek’s disease. Due to low access of Marek disease
vaccine for chicks which is strictly required at day old to be administered at
the hatchery, most chicks grow up without being vaccinated with Marek
disease vaccine. However, as the chicks grow, they develop natural immunity
after exposure to the disease. For chickens that are showing signs and
symptoms, administering strong antibiotics with vitamins such as Aliaseryl,
Keproseryl and OTC Plus may reduce losses from secondary infections.
Prevention
- Vaccinate chicks at the hatchery with Marek disease vaccine.
- Birds with clinical signs of disease will not recover and must be culled.

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2.3. Fowl pox (avian pox)
Cause
- Virus (Poxviridae)
Transmission
- Direct contact between infected and susceptible birds
- Mosquitoes: Mosquitoes are primary become infected from feeding on blood
from birds with fowl pox in their blood stream
Forms of fowl pox:
i. Dry form:
- Raised, wart-like lesions (sores) on unfeathered areas (head, legs, vent, etc.)
The lesions heal in about 2 weeks
- Watery discharges from the eyes and accumulation of yellowish pus
- Dull appearance of the chicken
- Decrease in egg production.
- Death of chicken in extreme cases.

Figure 6: Signs of Fowl Pox in Chickens (dry form)

ii. Wet form:

o Canker-like lesions in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and trachea.

-
Figure 7: Signs of Fowl Pox in Chickens (wet form)

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Treatment
- There is no specific treatment for fowl pox disease. Administering strong
antibiotics with vitamins such as OTC plus, Aliseryl and Keproseryl assist in
preventing secondary infections.
- Administer Organic antibiotics to prevent secondary infections.

Prevention
- Vaccinate chicks with Fowl pox vaccine (Poxine) at 5 weeks old using wing-
web method.
- Administer organic antibiotics to prevent infection twice a week.

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3. BACTERIAL DISEASES (RESPIRATORY)

3.1. Infectious Coryza

Cause
- Bacteria (Hemophilus paragallinarum )

Transmission

- Direct bird-to-bird contact from infected birds or from carriers that have the
disease but not showing signs
- Inhalation of air contaminated by respiratory droplets from sick birds
- Contaminated feed or water
- Nutritionally deficient feed to the chickens

Signs and Symptoms

- Swelling around the face
- Foul smelling, thick, sticky discharge from the eyes, eyelids may stick
together
- Coughing and sneezing of chickens
- Death of chickens (up to 50 %)

Figure 8: Signs of Infectious Coryza in Chickens

Treatment

- Sick birds should be isolated and treated separately. Administer strong

antibiotics with vitamins such as Aliseryl, Keproseryl and OTC plus to the
chickens. The antibiotics will reduce the bacterial infection while the vitamins

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 will boost the immune and improve on the appetite of the chicken. Organic
antibiotics such as Aloe Vera, Pawpaw leaves, cockroach berry facilitate the
recovery of chicken from infectious Coryza.
- In extreme conditions, if the eye is swollen up to the point of the chicken
failing to move, eat or drink due to blindness; make a thin and tiny incision on
the swelling and gently squeeze out the pus from the swelling. Once done
apply a wound disinfectant (Iodine) and isolate the chicken into a clean and
dry poultry house to keep it away from any contaminants and bullying. This
operation should be done by a very experienced practitioner.
- Give the chicken well formulated feed of not less than 16% Crude Protein.

Prevention

- Good management and sanitation are the best ways to avoid Infectious Coryza
- Administration of organic antibiotic twice a week prevent the infection in the
chickens.

Recovery
- Cleaning and disinfection the khola.
- Cull of all infected breeding stock as they become carriers and major source
of infection.

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 3.2.Pneumonia in Chicks
This is a condition whereby chicks die due to cold and pneumonia. Chicks which are
continuously in a cold environment (less than 37oC) are at risk of catching Pneumonia. Feeding
chicks feed that is not balanced and well formulated which affects its ability to metabolize feed
into body heat contributes to the disease.

Cause

o Bacteria (Actinobaccilus pleuropneumoniae)

Signs and Symptoms

o Chicks with dull appearance

o Low feed and water consumption
o Chicks hunching together for warmth
o Death of chicks
o Coughing or sneezing in chicks

Figure 9: Signs of Pneumonia in Chicks

Treatment

o Ensure the brooding box/house of chicks is well lit and heated at a

temperature of 37oC
o Administer a strong antibiotic with a vitamin such as OTC plus, Aliseryl,
Keproseryl

Prevention

o Ensure that the brooding box/house for chicks is well lit and heated at a
temperature of 37oC

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4. BACTERIAL DISEASES (NON-RESPIRATORY)

4.1. Fowl cholera

Cause
- Bacteria (Pasteurella)
Transmission
- Sick chickens added to health batch of chickens
- Dump and unhygienic premises

Signs and symptoms

- Swelling of wattles, joints and foot pads
- Enteritis (Inflammation of intestines) which causes watery and brown runny
diarrhoea
- Yellow-brown pus accumulated in a swollen wattle.

Figure 10: Signs of Fowl Cholera in Chickens

Treatment
- Administering strong antibiotics with vitamin such as Aliseyrl, Keproseyrl,
OTC Plus and Oxytetracycline. Organic antibiotics such as Pepper and
Pawpaw leaves reduce the inflammation of the intestines that causes
diarrhoea.
Prevention
- Biosecurity
- Avoid giving poor quality feed to poultry
- Drinking water and drinkers should always be clean
Recovery
Ensure strict and comprehensive biosecurity

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4.2. Botulism
Cause
- Ingestion of Bacterial Toxins
Transmission
- Feeding on moldy or spoilt feed which is contaminated with Bacteria
Signs
- Drowsiness, weakness, and progressive loss of control of the legs, wings, and
neck.
- Paralysis, bird closes its eyes and appears to be in deep coma.
- Fine tremors of muscles and feathers occur in some birds.
- In extreme conditions, death may occur.

Figure 11: Signs of Botulism in Chickens

Treatment
- Administer strong antibiotics with Vitamin such as OTC Plus, Aliseryl,
Keproseryl. Organic toxin binders such as wood ash or charcoal extract
significantly reduce the toxin effect produced by the bacteria.
Prevention:
- The disease can be avoided by preventing access of poultry to potential
sources of contaminated feed and equipment with toxins.
Recovery:
- Ensure good khola hygiene to remove source of bacterial toxin.

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4.3.Bumble Foot
Cause

- Bacteria (Staphylococcus Aures)

Transmission

- The bacterial is soil borne and enters the feet of the chicken through open cuts
caused by sharp objects such as wire floors, nails, glass and constraining
strings.

Signs and Symptoms

- Swollen foot pads, fingers, joints and hocks which blister into open wounds
- Lameness of chicken

Figure 12: Bumble foot in Chickens

Treatment

- Isolate sick bird and apply iodine on the open wounds. Strong antibiotic with
Vitamin such as Aliseryl or OTC plus help in facilitating cure of the disease.

Prevention

- Remove any sharp objects that may potentially cause injury to chicken feet
such as wires, nails, glass and strings.

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 4.4.Fowl Typhoid
Cause

- Bacteria (Salmonellae and Escherichia coli)

The bacterial causes intestinal inflammation and ulceration (lesions in intestines) leading to
intestinal disorders.

Transmission

- Introduction of sick birds into health flock which contaminates the feed, water
and air

Signs and Symptoms

- Diarrhoea (yellowish due to blood contents in the droppings)

- Drowsiness of sick birds
- Low feed and water consumption
- Sudden death of chickens of up to 50%

Figure 13: Drowsiness of sick chicken (left) and yellow diarrhoea (right) in Fowl Typhoid

Treatment

- Administer strong antibiotics with Vitamin such as OTC Plus, Aliseryl,

Keproseryl.
Prevention

- New birds introduced into health batch should be isolated and checked for any
diarrhoea or signs and symptoms relating to Fowl Typhoid

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5. PROTOZOAN DISEASES

5.1. Coccidiosis
Cause

- Coccidia Protozoa

Transmission

- The Protozoa which is activated in the environment of the chicken house due
to wet and dump dirty litter enters the cells of the chickens’ intestines to
reproduce. The parasite destroys the cells lining the intestinal wall leading to
damage. The degree of damage will depend on how contaminated the
environment is, which is favorable when chicken litter is wet, dump and dirty.

Signs and Symptoms

- Dull, hunched birds with ruffled feathers

- Diarrhoea (often watery and can contain mucus and blood)
- Wet litter in the chicken house
- Hunched back chickens with ruffled feathers

Figure 14: Signs of Coccidiosis disease in Chickens

Treatment
- Administer anticoccidial compounds (amprolium, sulfadimethoxine,
sulfaquinoxaline and sulfamethazine.
- Administering organic anticoccidial treatment such as pawpaw leaf, bitter leaf
and pepper help in curing Coccidiosis disease.

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Prevention

- A good cleaning regime between batches.

- Ensure good turkey house hygiene and clean dry litter at all times.
- Administer organic anticoccidial treatment such as pawpaw leaves, pepper
and bitter leaf once each week.

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6. PARASITES AND PREDATORS

6.1.External Parasites

i. Scaly Leg Mite Disease

Cause

- A parasitic mite called Cnemidocoptes Mutans.

Transmission

This tiny mite lives in the ground or sometimes the floor of the chicken house in damp
conditions. It then burrows under the scales of the chickens’ legs. The mite feeds on the scales of
the legs of the chicken, resulting into rough and raised scales of the chicken legs.

Signs and Symptoms

- Rough and raised scales of the chicken legs

- Thick skin on the shanks of the chicken
- Lameness, leg deformity and necrosis resulting from the heavy crusting of the
scales
- Decrease or cease in egg production

Figure 15: Signs of Scaly Leg Mite in Chickens

Treatment

- To begin with, clean the chicken house and once dry, apply akheri powder to
get rid of any mites on the surface of the chicken house. Then, dip or spray the

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 legs of the chicken with surgical spirit to soften the scales on the legs of the
chicken and soon after, apply Vaseline jelly on legs of the chicken to suffocate
and kill the mites. This should be done 3 times a week, for 4 weeks, or until
the scales on the legs of the chicken are smooth.
- Secondly, put a dust bath, which is a container filled with sand, in the chicken
house which will help the chicken bath off all mites that may be on its body.

Prevention

- Purchase breeding stock that is free from rough or raised scales of the legs.
- Practice good chicken house hygiene.

Recovery

Chickens with scaly leg mite disease can recover.

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 ii. Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are parasites that mechanically transfer fowl pox virus.
Signs
- Fowl pox signs on the chicken
- Mosquitoes observed around the poultry house

Prevention
- Vaccinating poultry with Fowl pox vaccine (Poxine), as control for
mosquitoes would be ineffective.
- Clear and dry all stagnant water around the farm which may be breeding
ground for mosquitoes

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iii. Poultry Mites
Cause
- Poultry Mites. These bore into the skin and feed on blood. They spend most
of their lives on the host and wander from the birds into crevices and cracks.

Transmission

- Poultry mites can be transmitted from infested poultry (chickens, ducks,

guinea fowl, turkeys) introduced at the farm. These ticks coming from
infested birds hide in cracks or walls of the turkey house and may pose threat
of future infestation.

Signs and Symptoms

- Mites visible on featherless areas of the chicken (comb, wattles, eyelids)

- Drop in egg production of chickens

Figure 16: Mites on face of chickens

Treatment

- Apply akheri powder in the turkey house to get rid of any hiding mites. Smear
paraffin or petroleum jelly (Vaseline) on the turkey skin surface where the
mites have been observed and then gently brush them off.

Prevention

- Purchase breeding stock that is free from visible mites.

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 - Practice good khola hygiene

Treatment

- Apply akheri powder in the turkey house to get rid of any hiding mites. Smear
paraffin or petroleum jelly (Vaseline) on the turkey skin surface where the
mites have been observed and then gently brush them off.

Prevention

- Purchase breeding stock that is free from visible mites.

- Practice good khola hygiene

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 iv. Poultry Lice
Cause

- Poultry Lice

Transmission

- Poultry lice can be transmitted from infested poultry (chickens, ducks, guinea
fowl, turkeys) introduced at the farm. These lice coming from infested birds
hide in cracks or walls of the chicken house and may pose threat of future
infestation.

Signs and Symptoms

- Identification of lice in plumage, and their eggs (nits) attached to feathers as they
feed on dry scales, feathers, or scabs on the skin.
- Rough and uneven feathers of the chicken
- Bare skin on parts which normally grow feathers on the chicken
- Unthriftiness and unkempt appearance
- Drop in egg production
- Death in young birds

Figure 17: Lice visible on plumage of chickens

Treatment

Apply akheri powder in the chicken house to get rid of any hiding mites. Mix akheri powder with
sand and put it in a basin to provide a sand bath for the chickens to get rid of the lice on its body
and feathers.

Page 32 of 76
 Figure 18: Putting sand bath for chickens to be dusting off external parasites

Prevention

- Purchase breeding stock that is free from visible lice.

- Practice good khola hygiene

Page 33 of 76
 v. Poultry Ticks
Transmission

Poultry ticks can be transmitted from infested poultry (chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, turkeys)
introduced at the farm. These ticks coming from infested birds hide in cracks or walls of the
chicken house and may pose threat of future infestation.

Signs and Symptoms

- Visible ticks on the skin of the chicken

- On examination of the skin, tick larvae are seen attached, especially on non-
or less feathered areas of the skin (head, breast, abdomen, cloaca), but not on
the leg shanks. They are nocturnal feeders and examination of birds at night is
necessary for diagnosis, especially in cases of low infestations
- The affected birds are ruffled

Figure 19: Ticks visible on skin of chicken

Treatment

Apply akheri powder in the turkey house to get rid of any hiding mites. Mix akheri powder with
sand and put it in a basin to provide a sand bath for the turkeys to get rid of the lice on its body
and feathers.

Prevention

- Purchase breeding stock that is free from visible lice.

- Practice good khola hygiene

Page 34 of 76
6.2.Internal Parasites of Chickens

i. Worms (Ascarides and Heterakis)

Ascarides live in the small intestines and the largest of the intestinal worms, up to 12 cm in
length. Ascarides cause low feed absorption in the small intestines and diarrhoea which results in
slow growth.

Heterakis is a small worm (approximately 2 cm in length) and lives in the Caecum (large
intestines). The worms also cause low feed absorption in the intestines which results in slow
growth and diarrhoea in chickens resulting in dehydration or death in extreme cases.

Signs and Symptoms

- Weight loss and dullness of the chicken

- Slow growth
- Lack of egg production, even at maturity age
- Mild diarrhoea
- Worms in chicken droppings

Figure 20: Signs of worm infestation in Chickens

Treatment

- Routine deworming the chickens with piperazine at 10-12 weeks intervals (3

months interval)

Page 35 of 76
6.3.Predators
This includes the presence of poultry threatening predators such as cats, rodents, dogs, snakes
and hawks.
Damage Caused
o Preying on chicks, chickens and eggs such as hawks, snakes, dogs and
rodents
o Threat to personnel managing the farm such as snakes
o Wastage of poultry feed such as rodents
o Contamination of poultry feed with parasites such as mites from
rodents
o Stress to birds
o Nest abandonment and injuries to chickens
Signs of Predators to Chickens
- Predators seen preying on birds
- Multiple death of health birds in an instant
- Birds with body injuries
- Stressed birds
- Chickens refusing to enter the poultry house

Figure 21: Predators and damage caused to chickens

Prevention
- Keeping a close watch on the birds while scavenging.
- Killing stray dogs/cats/ rodents and snakes and chasing away and trapping predators
(mice and hawks)
- Clearing all hiding places for predators and repairing housing, shelters, and coops
regularly

Page 36 of 76
7. CHICKEN REPRODUCTION HEALTH CONDITIONS

7.1.Egg Binding in Laying Hens

This refers to a condition where an egg is stuck inside the oviduct of the hen. If the egg is not
passed within 24-48 hours, the hen dies.

Causes

- Calcium and phosphorus deficiency which reduces the contraction capability

of the hens’ uterus muscle to squeeze the egg out of the vent
- Egg retention due to lack of sufficient nesting areas
- Feeding hens more fats and proteins than required which results in deposition
of fats in the lining of the uterus which reduces the space of the egg in the
uterus and oviduct
- Natural occurring excessively large egg
- Feeding the hens egg booster to increase size of the egg
- Oviduct infection
- Premature laying before maturity of the body
- Extreme physical pressure from outside of the hens’ abdomen during
transportation, improper handling or predation

Signs and Symptoms

- Loss of appetite
- Disinterest in drinking water
- Decreased activity and dullness
- Upright (penguin) walking and sitting position and abdominal straining
- Frequent and uncharacteristic sitting
- No defecation as egg interferes with normal defecation
- Droopy, depressed, pale comb and wattles
- Bleeding from the oviduct and prolapsed oviduct
- Broken egg inside the oviduct
- Death of the hen within 24-48 hours from onset of signs and symptoms

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 - Presence of egg in the oviduct upon postmortem

Figure 22: Egg binding in Chickens

Treatment

- If signs and symptoms are observed earlier (within the first 24 hours), place
the abdomen of the hen in a bucket filled with warm water (37-40oc). This is
done to relax the oviduct muscles of the hen. Then gently and with extreme
avoidance of adding any physical pressure on the abdomen of the hen to avoid
breaking the egg inside, spread the vent of and pour drops of vegetable oil to
lubricate the vent and oviduct. Isolate the hen into a smaller room to prevent
mobility. Give it a vitamin and glucose solution (sugar solution) to drink
through a syringe to increase its energy. If the hen does not lay the egg within
2 hours, repeat the warm bath and lubrication of the vent. If egg is not
expelled after 48 hours, the hen is likely to die. Slaughter it.

Figure 23: Placing chicken with egg binding in warm water to relax abdominal muscles

Page 38 of 76
Prevention

- Feed hens well formulated and balanced feed with optimum Crude Protein to
avoid unnecessary deposition of fats in the body of the hen
- Egg boosters should be administered with caution. Do not give egg boosters to
newly laying hens as there reproduction organs have not yet fully developed
to handle unusually big eggs.
- Calcium and Phosphorus should be given in right quantities through feed to
the hens
- Handle laying hens with caution during transportation or handling
- Provide adequate nesting boxes

Page 39 of 76
7.2.Low/ Zero Hatch of Chicken Eggs
This is a condition whereby chicken eggs have very low to no hatching rate at all.

Causes

o Improper ratio of cocks to hens which affects egg fertilization

o Breeding cocks and hens from the same batch
o Non-broody hens
o Egg abandonment
o Eggs stored for very long time
o Inappropriate storage of eggs (pointed end facing upwards to maintain yolk
suspension and keep the air sac in the egg intact)
o Broken/ cracked/thin shelled/ extremely big/very small eggs
o Uncomfortable nesting place exposed to draught, moisture which disrupts
efficiency of the brooding
o Feed and water sourced far from the hens which forces it to leave brooding the
eggs to source feed and water
o Inefficient and Ineffective Poultry egg Incubation management

Signs and Symptoms

o Low to zero hatching of chicken eggs

o Eggs with dead chick formed inside
o Incubated eggs with no chick formed inside when candled

Figure 24: Signs of eggs with a bad hatch/zero hatch in chickens and empty egg after candling at
day 9 in incubation representing unfertile egg
Treatment

Page 40 of 76
 o Ensure that there is a recommended ration of cocks to hens. The ratio of cocks
to hens is 1:8-10.
o Cocks used for servicing hens should be fully grown and matured; not too old,
too young or too heavy and compatible with their mate and produce a high
percentage of fertile eggs; and not disturbed much during mating season
o Avoid storing eggs too long before getting them broody or incubated.
Maximum of 10days storage for eggs if artificial egg incubation will be used.
Eggs for incubation should be clean, free from cracks or thin shells, not
excessively large, or small.
o Nesting areas should be well placed, safe from draught, rough surface, warm
and comfortable for the hen to brood the eggs
o If hens are not broody, only use it for production of eggs which will be
artificially incubated and not waiting for it to go broody
o Avoid breeding cocks and hens which are related or from the same batch.
Change cocks in each batch and source it from outside
o Provide feed and water to the hens within reach so that less time is spent off
the eggs during searching for feed and water. Feed should be complete
breeder diet
o Ensure that poultry egg incubation service provided is of reliable standard
o Candling of eggs placed in incubation to determine its fertility

Figure 25: Candling of eggs to establish egg fertility of chickens in incubation

Page 41 of 76
7.3.Nest Abandonment
This is a situation whereby a hen which was laying eggs suddenly stops and abandons laying
the eggs. Chickens prefer to be laying in a dark, quiet and well covered area such as under a
pile of wood, behind straw or in thick or deep fallen leaves. A hen would naturally and
carefully locate where to be comfortably laying eggs. If the hen abandons the nest, it results
in laying of fewer eggs than what it could have laid in the beginning.

Causes

o Removing eggs on the hens’ laying nest

o Predators on her laying nest
o Locking a hen indoor as soon as an egg is observed outside the poultry house
so that it continues laying inside the poultry house which demotivates laying
o Sudden external parasites and predators (red ants, snakes, rodents) on the
nesting place
o Nutritional deficiency, feed and water starvation which disrupts egg formation
in the reproduction organs of the hen
o Multiple breeds of poultry/ different hens laying eggs at the same nesting
place
o Stress due to fights between poultry birds
o Feed and water sourced far from the hen which forces it to leave brooding the
eggs to source feed and water
o Uncomfortable nesting area with open spaces, moisture/moving water,
draught

Signs and Symptoms

o Hen suddenly abandoning laying of eggs

o Presence of multiple poultry eggs (chicken egg, turkey egg, duck eggs) on the
same nesting place
o Same hen laying eggs in different nesting places
o Loss of weight of hen due to nutritional deficiency/feed and water starvation
o Presence of external parasites such as ants, lice on the nesting place

Page 42 of 76
 o Restlessness of a hen that was laying eggs

Treatment

o If a hen is laying outdoor, mark the first egg and leave it there. Any new eggs
laid, may be removed and kept with care but the first egg should not be
removed to encourage her to lay. If security conditions are convenient, all
eggs laid may be left on the nesting area to encourage the hen to lay eggs.
o If hens are raised indoors, provide safe, adequate and reliable nesting areas for
the number of hens in the poultry house. To encourage laying, place cover
material such as grass straw to cover nesting boxes, as it would be in the wild.
o Hens at point of lay should be fed a nutritionally balanced feed ration to
suffice its egg laying nutrition requirement.
o If multiple birds are laying on the same nesting place, remove the eggs as they
are laid and only leave one egg to motivate the birds to continue laying on the
same place. Once a bird has been observed to be going broody, remove the
eggs (8-10), create a different nesting place in a different room, put the eggs in
the new nesting place and lock the bird. The broody bird will sit on the new
nesting place. Alternatively, if there is enough room, separate the birds so that
they each lay eggs at different places.

Prevention

o Avoid mixing multiple breeds of laying poultry in the same house as they will
be fighting for the same nesting place.
o Good poultry management

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7.4.Differentiating Indigenous (Local) chicken laying strains from Meat strains
There is no specific indigenous chicken breed solely for meat or Egg Laying. This is due to
prolonged cross-breeding which has an effect on the chickens overall productivity. However, a
farmer can physically identify those indigenous chicken strains good for meat production and
those indigenous strains good for egg production as follows:

a. Identifying Egg Laying Strains of Indigenous Chickens

- Tail feathers stand at 90o higher than their head.
- Have small elongated body.

Figure 26: Indigenous chicken strains good for egg production

b. Identifying meat Strains of Indigenous Chickens

- They have a broad body with thick shorter tail feathers.

Figure 27: Indigenous chicken strains good for Meat production

Page 44 of 76
8. CHICKS HEALTH CONDITIONS

8.1.Spray Legs in Chicks

This is a condition common in chicks whereby the legs are spread sideways and the chick cannot
stand properly.

Cause

o Slippery surface (during transportation or in the chicken house)

o Hatching deformity
o Feed low in calcium and phosphorus with regards to the optimum feed
required to the chick.

Signs and Symptoms

o Healthy looking chicks with legs spread sideways

o Healthy and bright looking chick unable to stand or move properly

Figure 28: Spray legs in chicks

Treatment

o Insert a small rubber band into a 1.5cm piece of plastic drinking straw
and insert the legs of the chick into the knots of the rubber band to
control the spreading of legs of the chicks

Page 45 of 76
 Figure 29: Remedy for Spray legs in chicks
- Giving chicks stresspac vitamin to chicks to reduce stress

Prevention

- Give chicks well formulated and a balanced feed ratio

- Surface of chicken house/ brooding box should contain bedding material to
avoid slippery floor
- Place a grip material such as piece of cloth or grass straw in cartons/basket
used for transporting chicks

Figure 30: Grip material placed underneath chicks to prevent slippery surface

Page 46 of 76
8.2.Balding/ Loss of Feathers of Chicks (Alopecia)
This is a disease whereby the chicks losses feathers abnormally and out of season for moulting.

Alopecia may be:

i. Partial: occurs in small quantities and not noticeable.

ii. Full: noticeable bald spots on the affected areas of the body.

Causes

i. Malnutrition: if the feed of the chickens does not have enough vitamin D, calcium,
phosphorus, lysine and methionine, this results in failure to grow feathers normally or
regrow feathers when they have been lost through molting.
ii. Inbreeding of chickens which results in undesirable characteristics dominating the
genes of the offspring
iii. Unfavorable environmental conditions (High humidity, High temperature,
Insufficient, ventilation, drafts)
iv. Unclean chicken house (unsanitary conditions)
v. Skin parasites that feed on feathers (poultry mites, fleas)
vi. Feather pecking vice by chickens

Signs and Symptoms of Alopecia in Chickens

- Loss of the plumage on the tail, back, neck and head of the chicken out of
season of molting
- Feathers become faded and not elastic
- Skin lesions and bruises
- Bare/ bald skin of the chicken
- Identification of lice in plumage, and their eggs (nits) attached to feathers.
- They feed on dry scales, feathers, or scabs on the skin.
- Drop in eggs laid by hens
- Death of chicken in extreme conditions

Page 47 of 76
 Figure 31: Signs of Alopecia in chicks

Treatment

- Giving the chickens a balanced and well formulated ration with optimal macro
and micro feed ingredients (phosphates, calcium, iodide, methionine, lime)
- Systematically administer vitamins to chickens to provide for any vitamin
deficiency
- Ensure the chicken house has optimal enviromental conditions through
maintaining the optimum temperature, optimal humidity, good ventilation and
practice good turkey house hygiene
- If alopecia is resulting from mites and fleas, apply akheri powder to the
feathers of the chickens as well as in the turkey house to get rid of any mites
and fleas.
- If farmer is a breeder of chickens, observe the recommended chicken breeding
procedures such as exchanging males to avoid inbreeding and avoid
overbreeding chickens that are not pure such as Kuroilers.

Page 48 of 76
8.3. Chilly Chicks
This is a condition in chicks whereby they get cold and causes healthy consequences such as
chicks huddling and trampling each other for warmth which may result in death of chicks.

Cause

- Chilly environment (low temperature than the recommended one for chicks).
It gets worse with raising the chicks in a dark environment as the trampled
chicks fails to escape from being perplexed.

Signs and Symptoms

- Chicks huddling together for warmth. Chicks being trampled can be seen
perplexed under other chicks.

Figure 32: Chilly chicks huddling and trampling on each other

Prevention

- Provide adequate heat and lighting to chicks. Heating can be through charcoal
stove or electrical bulbs
- If chicks are still in the transportation carton and will stay there overnight
after arrival, put warm water (450C) in a glass bottle and put the bottle in the
carton. This will provide warmth to the chicks overnight. The water can be
changed twice to maintain heat provision to the chicks.

Figure 33: Brooding using electrical heating lamp (left); charcoal stove (centre); and glass
bottle with warm water placed inside carton (right)

Page 49 of 76
8.4.Hatch Deformities/ Abnormalities
This is a condition whereby the chicks hatch with deformities such as abnormal mouth, closed
eyes, abnormal legs or open abdomen.

Cause

- Hatching deformities

Signs and Symptoms

Table 2: Qualities of breeding stock in chicks

Good quality day old chicks Bad quality day old chicks
Active, lively normal behavior Weak, not lively, twisted neck star
gazers.
Normal size Too small
Straight feet & toes Curled feet and toes
Two bright eyes Blind or abnormal eyes
Straight close beak Cross beak, open or dirty
Good dry feathers Sticky & wet feathers
Normal colour Too pale
Supple belly Hard swollen belly
Completely healed navel Unhealed navel

Figure 34: Chicks with Deformities

Treatment

- If deformity is mild such as partially deformed legs, fingers or spread legs chicks can
survive if well managed. For these, isolate the chicks and raise them separately
- If chick deformity is severe (open abdomen, fully deformed mouth), the chicks may
not survive until growth. Remove the chicks from the batch.

Page 50 of 76
8.5.Inanition
This is a condition in chicks during the first two weeks of birth characterized by lack of
energy due to failure to eat or drink thereby resulting into death of chicks.

Cause

o Feeders and drinkers inappropriately placed in the brooding house

o Stress due to mixing chicks with other poultry (ducklings, poults, keets)

Signs and Symptoms

o Sudden death of health looking chicks

o Immobility of chicks due to lack of energy
o Empty crop of chicks

Figure 35: Filled crop of chick indicating feeding (left) and empty crop of chick indicating lack
of feeding (right)

Treatment

o Dipping the beaks of day old chicks in water and feed so that they get
accustomed to where feed and water is placed. Use the same feeders and
drinkers as the chicks will get accustomed to its colors.
o During the first week of the chicks, give them stresspac vitamin to supply
vitality to the chicks

Prevention

o Dipping the beaks of day old chicks in water and feed so that they get
accustomed to where feed and water is placed. Use the same feeders and
drinkers as the chicks will get accustomed to the colors of the feeders and
drinkers.

Page 51 of 76
8.6.Chick Sexing
To farmers who are starting with day old to four weeks old chicks, sexing of chicks is of
significance. This assists the farmer to obtain breeding stock that is of a suitable ratio according
to the sexes of the chicks.

In order to sex chicks, the following could be done:

i. Biological Sexing: Hens (not cocks) determine the gender of the chicks to be
hatched. Therefore, a farmer can expect either more males or females depending
on the history of the clutch from which the hen was obtained. If more females
than males where hatched in that clutch, the hen (offspring) is more likely to
continue produce more females than males. Cocks only fertilize the egg.
ii. Vent sexing: Males have a round protruding center on the vent while females
have a flat or concave center on the vent (95% sexing success ratio but requires
skill and experience)
iii. Color & Size of head: Males have larger and brighter colored heads while
females have smaller and darker colored heads.
iv. Wing Feathers Sexing: Primary feathers and Covert feathers are used in
differentiating males from female. Primary feathers are the actual true feathers
that grow bigger. Covert feathers are the smaller and shorter feathers.

Figure 36: Identification Primary and Covert feathers in chicks

In Male chicks, Primary Feathers are shorter than Covert feathers

In Female chicks, Primary Feathers are longer than Covert Feathers.

Page 52 of 76
 Figure 37: Feathers sexing for chicks

Figure 38: Feather sexing for 1 week old chicks

In addition, males are slow feathering while females develop feathers faster. Males will
begin to produce long, pointed saddle, hackle, and sickle feathers while females tend to have
broad, even and round feathers in these same sections. At 6 weeks old, males develop
feathers in a patchy manner while females develop feathers in an evenly manner.

v. Comb: Males develop larger single comb earlier than females of the same age.
vi. Shanks (legs): Males have larger feet and longer thicker shanks (legs) than
females of the same age.
vii. Behavioral sexing: When the chick is hung upside down in your fingers, males
just hang (4) while female chicks flap and try to right themselves (2).
When the chick is picked up by the scruff of the neck, males let its legs hang (3),
while female draws its legs up to its breast (1).

Page 53 of 76
 Figure 39: Behaviour sexing for chicks

In addition, males tend to be bolder as they less scatter when you whistle, clap hands or
wave an object in their sight or direction. They stand erect and chip while females tend to
crouch down and remain silent.

Page 54 of 76
9. CHICKEN NUTRITIONAL HEALTH CONDITIONS

9.1.Pendulous Crop in Chickens

An abnormal condition in chickens where the crop becomes distended from its normal position
and filled with ingested feed and fluid.

Causes

- Defects in the crop itself from genetic inheritance

- Partial blockage in the gizzard due to tumors, high parasite loads or the
presence of a foreign particle (plastics, metals)
- Feeding the chicks larger particles of feed not in relation with its age which
impacts the crop as the feed particles cannot pass through effectively
- Feeding chickens (more than 6 months old) entirely on pelleted feed which
results in poor gizzard development thereby causing feed to be constantly
stored in the crop. The crop expands, stretching the muscles, losing capacity
to contract and empty, until it reaches a point where the damage is
irreversible.
- Lack of access to fresh and clean drinking water to the chicken
- Overfeeding the chicken
- Restricting feed to the chicken which causes it to consume a lot of feed at a
single time feed is introduced to it

Signs and Symptoms

- Abnormally enlarged and extended crop of the chicken which is featherless

most times
- Sagging (swerving from side to side) of the extended crop of the chicken
- Delayed crop emptying
- Reduced feed intake
- Weight loss due to low feed nutrient absorption

Page 55 of 76
 Figure 40: Pendulous Crop in chickens

Treatment

- Tying a piece of cloth carefully around the stretched crop to keep the crop
from overstretching

Figure 41: How to tie a cloth around the pendulous crop to prevent it from overstretching

- If chicken is feeding entirely on pelleted feed, modify the diet to mash feed
(small feed particles)
- In mild conditions, reduce the feed given to the chicken by 75% but still give
water until the crop reduces in size in order to empty it.

Prevention

- Avoid feeding chickens of more than 6 months old entirely on pelleted feed
- The chickens should have access to fresh clean water at all times to facilitate
normal digestion
- Cull all infected chickens from the farm and should not be used for further
breeding anymore incase the pendulous crop is hereditary

Page 56 of 76
9.2.Diarrhoea in Chickens
Cause: There are several causes of diarrhoea in chickens which include the following:

i. Number of harmful microorganisms which include bacteria, viruses (Hemorrhagic

Enteritis Virus) transmitted from infected birds to health birds and Protozoa causing
Coccidiosis caused due to wet and dirty litter that activates the Coccidiosis causing
protozoa.
These damage the intestine wall and can cause reduced absorption of nutrients
leading to weight loss and a reduction in the amount of water absorbed by the gut,
leading to dehydration. Depending on the cause, the diarrhoea may be contagious to
other birds.
ii. Poor quality feed/ excessive inappropriate treats in feed given to the chickens.
iii. Dirty drinking water which harbors lots of bacteria that cause diarrhoea.
iv. Worms in the intestines of the chicken.
v. Under feeding which results in the chicken consuming more water which is expelled
as a liquid dropping.
vi. Stress due to transportation

Signs and Symptoms

- Wet litter in the chicken house/ floor surface

- Loose droppings
- Weight loss of the chicken
- Dull hunched up birds with ruffled feathers
- Pasted vent

Figure 42: Diarrhoea resulting from stressed chickens (Left) and Starved chickens (Right)

Page 57 of 76
 Figure 43: Diarrhoea from feeding inappropriate treats to chickens or bacterial infection

Figure 44: Diarrhoea from New Castle disease

Figure 45: Diarrhoea from mild form of Coccidiosis in chickens (left) and severe Coccidiosis (right)

Figure 46: Diarrhoea from Internal worm infestation in chickens

Figure 47: Diarrhoea and pasted vent due to Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro)

Page 58 of 76
Treatment of Diarrhoea in Chickens

Treatment of diarrhoea in chickens will depend on diagnosis of the disease in order to administer
proper treatment.

If the chicken droppings resemble worm infestation, give the chicken a dewormer to remove any
intestinal worms that may be facilitating the diarrhoea (only once each 10 weeks).

If chicken dropping resemble bacterial infection/ New Castle disease, give the chicken strong
antibiotic that has vitamin added for 7 days. This is to reduce any bacterial infection affecting the
chicken. The vitamin will increase the appetite of the chicken for feed whilst also improving the
energy level of the chicken. The antibiotic with vitamin should only be given fresh daily to avoid
any bacterial build up in overstayed vitamin. Supplement feed with organic antibiotics such as
Aloe Vera, cockroach berry, pepper and pawpaw leaves to assist in treating the disease and
gastrointestinal inflammation caused by bacterial that triggers diarrhoea.

If the diarrhoea resembles excessive treats/ expired feed/ underfed chickens, give the chicken a
balanced and well formulated feed ration within its shelf life. Greens (cabbages, chinese, grass)
should be supplemented to increase the fibre in the feed, to further aid reduce any watery
dropping.

If diarrhoea is from stressed chickens, give chickens stresspac vitamin and well formulated and
balanced feed ration.

Prevention

- Ensure feed given to chickens is always clean, dry and within use of date.
- Supplement chicken feed with organic antibiotics to prevent harmful bacteria
build up.
- Ensure clean drinking water and hygienic poultry house
- Supplement chickens with organic antibiotics even when they are healthy.

Page 59 of 76
9.3.Stunted Growth in Chickens
Regardless of the breed of chicken, best growth of a chicken is achieved at the earliest stages of
growth and declines in the later stages of growth. However, at any stage of growth, stuntedness
may occur. Some of the causes of stunted growth in poultry may include:

- Unbalanced feed ration given to the chicks which is deficient in the required
nutrients for growth of the birds per its nutrition requirement and age
- Breeding hatchery rejects and unhealthy chicks which have a stunted growth
- Inbreeding of chickens which result in undesirable characteristics such as
stunted growth in the chicks and low feed conversion
- Lack of adequate brooding to chicks which causes the chicks to be
metabolizing energy from feed to body heat
- Disease infections such as fowl cholera, Infectious coryza and worm
infestation

Signs and Symptoms

- Slow actual growth of chickens in comparison to the optimum growth of the

same breed of birds. Stunted chickens may be smaller, lighter and have a low
response to vaccines.
- Delayed period of starting to lay eggs for layers chickens

Figure 48: Growth difference between two chickens of the same breed and same age. Note
stunted growth (left) and normal growth (right)

Prevention

- Obtain breeding stock which is healthy. This should be obtained from a

reputable farm

Page 60 of 76
- Change cocks to be used for breeding purposes in each batch to avoid
inbreeding
- Practice biosecurity and strict vaccination schedule of poultry birds to prevent
diseases that may lead to stunted growth in chickens
- Give well formulated and balanced feed to chickens in proportion to its age
and breed

Page 61 of 76
10. BEHAVIOURAL HEALTH CONDITIONS OF CHICKENS

10.1. Cannibalism
This refers to the practice of chickens pecking and eating each other or its own eggs.

i. Feather Pecking
This refers to the practice of birds pecking each other’s feathers.

Causes

- Starved chickens which results in chickens pecking each other’s’ feathers

- Introduction of new birds into a batch/ different types and sizes of poultry
- Sticking of bedding material or feed on the feathers which causes other birds
to peck the feathers in attempt to feed in unclean poultry house
- Small spotlights on the roofing which shines on feathers triggering pecking by
other birds
- Boredom

Signs and Symptoms of Feather Pecking

- Loss of feathers around the head, wings, tail and other body areas.
- Lesions on the skin of the chickens and blood stained feathers.
- Depression of the chicken due to fear of being pecked.
- Low water and feed consumption.
- Death may occur in extreme cases

Figure 49: Signs of Feather pecking in chickens

Page 62 of 76
 ii. Vent pecking in layers
This refers to the practice of chickens pecking the vent of each other.

Causes
- Starved chickens which results in chickens pecking each other’s’ vent
- Introduction of new birds into a batch
- Sticking of bedding material or fecal droppings which causes other birds to
peck the vent in an attempt to feed
- Open wounds on the chicken which causes other chickens to peck the exposed
part
- Boredom
- Feed nutrition imbalances

Signs and symptoms of vent pecking

- Lesions at the vent of the chicken due to pecking resulting in death of the
affected bird.

Figure 50: Signs of Vent pecking in chickens

Page 63 of 76
iii. Egg eating Vice
- A vice of chickens to deliberately break and eat its own eggs

Cause
- Learned behavior between birds
- Overcrowding
- Inadequate feed and water
- Mineral and nutritional deficiency
- Increased egg laying
Signs and Symptoms
- Chickens observed eating eggs
- Empty shell of eggs found in the chicken house
- Reduced/zero eggs collected from health laying chickens

Figure 51: Egg eating vice in chickens.

Prevention of Cannibalism (Feather pecking, Vent pecking and Egg drinking) in

chickens
- Providing adequate diet and vegetable supplements (black jack, grass, cabbage
and fruits) to distract chickens pecking on each other while pecking the greens.
- Reducing light intensity and covering small nail punctures on roofs of khola to
remove very bright spotlights.
- Providing perches as a refuge for pecked birds.
- Avoiding overcrowding of chickens.
- Environmental enrichment with pecking devices such as vegetables (cabbage,
grass).

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 - Put adequate nesting boxes in the chicken house to prevent chickens laying eggs
anyhow
- Beak trimming (drawback – chronic pains to chickens and reduced feed
consumption if not done correctly).

Figure 52: Picture showing debeaked chicken

Figure 53: Perches for refuge from pecking (left), nesting boxes for egg laying (centre) and
supplementation of greens (vegetables and fruits) to control cannibalism

Recovery
- Cull birds with severe injuries. Remedy contributing factors as listed in
prevention.

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11. TRANSPORTATION UNCERTAINTIES

11.1. Transportation losses

These include all possible uncertainties that may cause loss to poultry products such as breaking
of eggs during transportation, injuries and death of birds during transportation.

Figure 54: Potential uncertainties in transportation of chicken products

Prevention

Use safe and reliable transportation means of poultry products. These include:

- Transporting poultry eggs in carton trays and putting them in a shock/

pressure absorbing container such as grass straw inside a carton.
- Transporting live poultry in poultry baskets to allow upright standing position
of birds. Birds should have access to fresh air and not tightly packed in the
poultry baskets.

Figure 55: Safe carrier basket for live chickens

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11.2. Stress
This is the discomfort to the birds which results into undesirable health effects on the poultry.
Causes
- Overcrowding
- Transportation, bad handling and leg or wing restraint
- Predators and parasites (internal and external parasites)
- Extremely loud noise
- Inadequate food or water
- Extreme change of environment such as excessive heat or cold
- Introduction of new batch in old stock
- Fighting of birds and improper cock to hen ratio
- Disease infection and vaccine administration

Figure 56: Some of the causes of Stress to Chickens (improper handling of birds)

Signs and Symptoms of Stress

- Malnourished chickens due to nutritional deficiency
- Diarrhoea
- Injuries or death of chickens
Consequences of stress
- Poor response to treatment and more susceptible to infections (Newcastle
disease, infectious bursal disease).
- Death or injury to the chicken
- Poor growth, reduced egg production.
- Accidental breaking of eggs.

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 Prevention
- Good khola stocking ratio, good transportation, good handling, providing
secure khola safe from predators, confining chicks from free ranging,
construct khola away from loud noise, provide food and water at regular
intervals, avoiding mixing old stock with new stock/chicks with old chickens,
proper cock to hen ratio.
- Construction of perches to be used as refuge for chickens from fights

Figure 57: Ways of reducing stress in chickens such as Perches (left) and live poultry baskets
(right)

Treatment
- Administer stress pack vitamins
.

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12. FEED AND WATER SPILLAGE AND SPOILAGE

12.1. Feed Spillage

By nature, chickens scratch and scrap for feed using its feet. This is an inborn characteristic
which allows it to scratch for its desired feed from the ground. Similarly, if feed to chickens is
given in an open container, the chickens will scratch and scrap for what it wants to eat. This
results into spillage of feed causing undesirable and uneconomic feed usage. In addition, open
feed containers expose the feed to soiling from chicken droppings. To prevent loss of feed and
wastage, use recommended chicken feeders.

Figure 58: Chicken feeders that reduce wastage of feed

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12.2. Chicken Drinking Water Spoilage
Using of open water containers can result to spoilage of poultry drinking water due to chicken
droppings, feed or bedding materials. This becomes a perfect site for multiplication of bacteria
which causes chicken bacterial infections. To prevent poultry drinking water spoilage, use of
standard poultry fonts is recommended. These fonts should be regularly cleaned and be filled
with fresh water twice each day.

Figure 59: Poultry fonts that prevents spoilage of chicken drinking water

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13. BASIC MANAGERIAL ISSUES IN CHICKEN PRODUCTION

13.1.Breach of Contract between Employer (Owner of Farm) and Employee (Worker)

When an employer (farmer) and employee (worker) agree to work together in a business context,
they enter into a legal relationship. Therefore, any legal relationship has principles that enforce
either party to perform their responsibilities. Breach of Contract between farmer and worker is
the breaking of agreements that were established at the beginning of the contract between the
employer (farmer) and employee (worker). This may be in the form of:

- Employees (workers) not delivering what they are assigned to deliver

- Workers exhibiting negligence, carelessness, laziness
- Workers delaying to perform assigned activity on time and failing to report
any challenges, diseases, and health conditions of chickens on time
- Worker benefiting on products at the chicken farm such as eggs, time off
work, chicks, live chickens, feed and feed ingredient illegally
- Employer not willing to supply the resources required for the desired
performance of the farm such as wages for workers, feed, treatment,
leadership, management and outsourced knowledge
- Employer not possessing good communication skills such as listening,
guidance, adopting and considering suggestions made by workers

In the case that there is Breach of Contract between farmer and worker, there is a need to assess
the Employer or farmer if:

- The employer (farmer) has effective communication skills so that the workers
clearly know what is supposed to be done on time
- The farmer has adequate managerial and leadership skills as workers will only
follow what the owner is guiding them to do
- The farmer is flexible enough to adopt suggestions made by workers on the
effective performance of the chicken farming
- The farmer is willing to supply the required resources to facilitate the desired
performance of the chicken farm such as feed, housing, outsourced technical
assistance and wages to workers
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It is also important to assess the worker if:

- The worker is willing and capable of working within the period of agreement
- The worker has good communication skills such as reporting on time on any
challenges faced on the chicken farm or any suggestions that may contribute
to the desired performance of the farm
- Able to communicate on personal challenges the worker is facing so that the
challenges are addressed on time.

Implications of Breach of Contract between Employer and Employee in poultry farming

- Poor performance of the chicken farm due to theft, delayed payments, lack of
required resources to facilitate chicken production
- Legal implications such as imprisonment or fines

Prevention on Breach of Contract between Farmer and Employer in poultry farming

Having a good contract of employment which among others should be:

- Well documented and able to communicate effectively on either sides of their

duties and responsibilities
- Establish the boundaries between the relationship of the farmers and work
- Have a clear exit strategy on how the relationship would end

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 13.2.Breach of Contract between Buyer and Seller in Poultry products
When an individual offers to sell a poultry product and another individual accepts to buy the
poultry product, and pays the demanded consideration monetary amount, they enter into a
binding contract which is enforceable by law. If either parties does not fulfill their obligations
such as the buyer failing to pay the demanded consideration in monetary terms after receiving
the poultry products; or if the seller fails to supply the poultry products of which the buyer paid
the consideration for within the period of agreement, the result is breach of contract. In addition,
if a seller supplies different items from the ones he was initially supposed to supply; or if the
buyer does not completely pay the demanded consideration, this results in Breach of Contract.

How to Handle Breach of Contract between Buyer and Seller

- Make all attempts to contact the other party so that they communicate and
discuss on their delay. If all attempts to contact communicate or discuss the
issue with the other party fails, do not delay and involve a legal third party
timely of which the most effective is the Malawi Police Services which will
provide guidance on how to proceed.
- Do not speak negative (defamation) of the other party to the public as this also
has its own legal consequences such loss of business to the defamed party, and
legal procedures such as compensation would imply.

How to successfully enter into a Contract between Buyer and Seller

- Ensure that all agreements (discussions, payments, date of fulfilling

obligations, communications) are documented on paper and not verbal as
verbal contracts lack certain enforceable legal elements.
- Ensure that there is effective communication between buyer and seller so that
communication is available in advance. If either party desires to withdraw
from the contract, provide communication in advance.

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 13.3.Theft
Theft in chicken production may include benefiting from another farmer’s chicken products such
as eggs, chicks, live or dressed chickens and feed illegally. Theft has legal implications as it is
under Criminal Law in the Constitution of Malawi.

Figure 60: Theft in chickens

How to Prevent Theft

- Provide secure and strong housing to chickens during day and night
- Count number of birds each day and if some are missing, a farmer should
pursue to know the cause and address it effectively
- Hire security personnel and tame security dogs to watch for thieves
- Any suspicious theft activity should be reported to legal authorities

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 13.4.Poor Performance of Farm Employees (farm workers)
In poultry farming, most of the workers sourced are locally found. Due to delegation and
assigning of activities to workers, results may significantly and adversely deviate from the
planned tasks which may directly relate to the performance of workers. Some of the causes of
poor performance of workers include:

- Lack of technical knowledge to workers in chicken production

- Lack of managerial guidance, communication, supervision, direction and
leadership from the employer/farmer
- Lack of adequate resources for the effective performance of workers such as
adequate wages, food, shelter, rest
- Unrealistic desired goals by the farmer as compared to the ability of the
workers such as placing a large work load on a single worker
- Negligence, careless and unwillingness to work by workers

Implication of Poor Performance of farm workers

- Reduced productivity of a poultry farm

Addressing Poor Performance of farm workers

- Farmer should provide adequate managerial guidance, supervision, effective

communication, direction and leadership to workers
- Farmer should provide adequate resources for the effective and desired
performance of workers such as adequate wages and food
- Farmer may also provide incentives to motivate workers such as bonus
payment, some of the chicken products and day-off for rest
- Training workers to improve their technical knowledge
- Setting realistic goals in terms of task allocation to workers

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Castle Disease In Village Chickens. A Training Manual. ACIAR Monograph Series.
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Campbell, J.R., Kenealy, M.D., and Campbell, K.L., 2003. Animal Sciences. The Biology, Care
and Production of Domestic Animals. 4th ed. McGraw Hill

Charles Stewart Foods Limited (2015): POULTRY DISEASES “Know the basics”

ECTAD Sothern Africa 2010, Picture Book of Infectious Poultry diseases

Eugene Poultry Farm Limited (2017): How to Start your Kuroiler chicken farm

Gondwe, T. N. P, C.B.A. Wollny, A.C.L. Safalaoh, F.C. Chilera and M.G.G. Chagunda (2003):
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Kitalyi, A.J., 1998. Village Chicken Production Systems in rural Africa – Household food
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(2007): Handbook of Poultry Diseases Important in Africa. Global Livestock CRSP

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