LIMITING REAGENT (REACTANT) – a chemical B.

TEMPERATURE (T) – measure of the average

reactant that limits the amount of product; gives the kinetic energy of the particles. Unit is always in
smallest yield. Kelvin, K = ℃ + 𝟐𝟕𝟑.
EXCESS REACTANT – not completely consumed in C. PRESSURE (P) - force per unit area. SI Unit: N/m2,
the reaction; has a bigger amount of product. kPa, mmHg, Torr, atm.
STEPS TO FIND LIMITING REACTANT *STANDARD PRESSURE conversions 1atm = 101.3kPa = 760mmHg.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – caused by the

collisions of air molecules.
VAPOR PRESSURE – gas collision in a sealed
container, liquid going to gas, gas going to liquid,
reaches equilibrium when temperature remains
constant, increase the temperature will increase the
pressure in a sealed container.
D. VOLUME (V) – space occupied by gaseous
Note: The limiting reactant produces the smaller amount; the particles. Unit is always in Liters (L).
excess reactant produces bigger amount.
E. AMOUNT OF GAS (n) – quantity of gas; its weight
THEORETICAL YIELD – the smallest yield of a or its mass. Unit is in Moles (mol).
product; maximum amount of the product that
GAS LAWS – simple mathematical relationships
produced by the complete reaction of the limiting
between volume, pressure, temperature, and the
reactant.
amount of a gas.
ACTUAL YIELD – amount of product from the actual
1. BOYLE’S LAW – pressure and volume are
chemical reaction; usually less than theoretical
inversely proportional; mass and temperature are
yield.
constant. Formula: P1V1 = P2V2
PERCENT YIELD – percent of the product formed
2. CHARLE’S LAW – temperature and volume
based upon the theoretical yield.
are directly proportional; mass and pressure are
𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑼𝑨𝑳 𝒀𝑰𝑬𝑳𝑫
% YIELD =
𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑶𝑹𝑬𝑻𝑰𝑪𝑨𝑳 𝒀𝑰𝑬𝑳𝑫
𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎% constant. Formula: 𝑽𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 𝑽𝑻𝟐𝟐
3. GAY – LUSSAC’S LAW – temperature and
GASES pressure are directly proportional; mass and volume
are constant. Formula: 𝑷𝑻𝟏𝟏 = 𝑷𝑻𝟐𝟐
A. PROPERTIES – no definite shape/volume; easily
compressed because of the space between the 4. COMBINED GAS LAW – two of the others
particles. change; mass is constant. Formula: 𝑷𝑻𝟏𝑽𝟏 𝟏 = 𝑷𝑻𝟐𝑽𝟐 𝟐
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 5. IDEAL GAS LAW – obeys the Gas Laws
a. Consist of very small particles; under all temperature and pressure. Formula: PV = nRT
*R is the constant gas:
b. Particles are constant, random, straight –
𝑳 . 𝒌𝑷𝒂 𝑳 . 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑳 . 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
line motion; 𝑹 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒
𝒎𝒐𝒍 . 𝑲
𝒐𝒓 𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏
𝒎𝒐𝒍 . 𝑲
𝒐𝒓 𝑹 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒
𝒎𝒐𝒍 . 𝑲
c. The molecules are very far from each
6. AVOGADRO’S LAW – volume is directly
other;
proportional to the mass; temperature and pressure
d. No forces of attraction or repulsion
are constant [1 mole = 6.02x1023 particles; 1 mole =
between molecules;
22.4 L – only work at same T and P or STP (Standard
e. Molecules collide with each other and
Temperature and Pressure)]. Formula: 𝑽𝒏𝟏𝟏 = 𝑽𝒏𝟐𝟐
with the walls of the container;
f. All collisions are perfectly elastic.
 7. DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE – 2. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (l) –
the total pressure; pressure inside a container is energy sublevel (s, p, d, f) and have values beginning
equal to the PARTIAL PRESSURE (contribution by with zero until n-1. Describes shape.
that gas). Formula: PTOTAL = P1 + P2 + P3 ATOMIC ORBITALS – region of probability
8. GRAHAM’S LAW – heavier molecules where an electron can be found. (s, d, p, f)
move slower at the same temperature (by square 3. MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (ml) –
root); effuse and diffuse slower; states that smaller orientation of the orbital in space; to determine the
masses move faster than gases with large masses. number of ml values per sublevel, use 2l+1. Specifies
Compare the rates by getting the molar mass of the orientation.
gas.
4. SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms) – spins
DIFFUSION – molecules move from high concentration to low
concentration. about an axis like a toy top, two orientations are
possible: +1/2 (↑) and -1/2 (↓).
EFFUSION – gas escaping through a tiny hole in a container.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION – how electrons are

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL – electrons move in
distributed in the atomic orbitals.
definite orbits around nucleus.
GROUND STATE – lowest energy state of the atom;
QUANTUM MECHANICHAL MODEL OF ATOM
the most stable arrangement of the electrons. (The
- provides MAIN ENERGY LEVEL/SHELL, lower the energy, the greater stability it has.)
SUBLEVEL/SUBSHELL, and ORBITAL.
EXCITED STATE – when electron is found in a higher
- Led by 3 physicists: energy orbital.
a. Louie de Broglie – he proposed that THREE RULES:
electron can also be wave;
1. PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE – no two electrons
b. Erwin Schrodinger – developed the wave in an atom can have the same four quantum
equation, to describe the hydrogen atom; numbers.
c. Werner Karl Heisenberg – discovered the 2. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE – electrons are added to the
uncertainty principle. lowest energy orbitals first before moving to higher
energy orbitals; usually fill the lowest energy level
present.
3. HUND’S RULE – the most stable arrangement of
electrons is the one in which the number of
electrons with the same spin is maximized. (Parallel
spin in contrast to opposite spin.)
PARAMAGNETIC – when there are one or
more unpaired electrons.
DIAMAGNETIC – when all of the electrons
QUANTUM NUMBERS – describe the position and are paired.
energy of the electron in an atom.
1. PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n) –
main energy of an orbital; total energy of the
electron in an atom. (The maximum number of
electrons in the main energy level can be
determined as 2n2) Designates size.
NOBLE GAS NOTATION – abbreviated form of PERIODS – horizontal rows of the periodic
electronic configuration makes use of the table; number of occupied energy levels; there are 7
configuration of noble gases. periods in total.
NOTE: All elements can be represented using a noble gas core EXCEPT GROUPS/FAMILIES – vertical columns of the
hydrogen and helium.
periodic table; have the same physical and chemical
Steps for Writing Noble Gas Electron Configuration properties; also have the same numbers of valence
1. Determine the Noble Gas that is one row up from electrons; there are 8 groups in total.
the element. REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS – s and p block
2. Put the symbol for the Noble Gas in brackets. elements; electrons found in the outermost or
highest main energy level.
3. Continue writing the electron configuration using
the periodic table from the Noble Gas. TRANSITION ELEMENTS – d block elements.
VALENCE ELECTRONS – the outermost electrons,
and the electrons available to be gained or lost in
chemical compound.
NOBLE GAS – have the presence of 8 valence
electrons, therefore, it is chemically stable.
GROUP 7/HALOGENS – the most attractive
elements.
GROUP 1/ALKALI METALS – easily attracted to
other elements; the least stable elements.
NOTE: The lesser the number of valence electrons, the lesser stability
the elements have.

EXCEPTIONAL CASES
PERIODIC TRENDS – specific patters that are present
C
in the periodic table that illustrate different aspects
of a certain element, including its size and its
electronic properties.
PERIODIC TABLE TRENDS – arrangement of
elements in terms of atomic size/atomic radius,
ionization energy, electron affinity,
electronegativity, and metallic character.
MAJOR PERIODIC TRENDS/ATOMIC PROPERTIES:
PERIODIC TABLE – represents an ordering of the 1. ATOMIC SIZE/ATOMIC RADIUS – measure of the
elements based not only on the number of protons size of its atoms, typical distance from the center of
but also on the number of electrons. the nucleus.
GROUP TRENDS: as we increase the atomic
number (go down a group), the atom gets another
energy level, therefore, the atom gets bigger.
PERIOD TRENDS: measure of the size of its
atom; going from left to right across a period, the
size gets smaller. (Same energy level of electrons,
but more nuclear charge.)
2. IONIZATION ENERGY – the energy needed to GROUP TRENDS: From top to bottom,
remove the outermost or highest energy (most nuclear charge decreases, atomic size increases, so,
loosely bound electron), electron from a neutral metallic character increases.
atom in the gas phase. PERIOD TRENDS: From left to right, nuclear
GROUP TRENDS: From top to bottom, the charge increases, atomic size decreases, experience
ionization energy decreases. The nuclear charge greater pull of nucleus, so, metallic character
increases, atomic size increases because of an decreases.
additional energy shell (n), causing the electron to 6. NON-METALLIC CHARACTER – tendency to accept
become less firmly held to the nucleus, therefore, electrons to form an anion.
ionization energy decreases.
GROUP TRENDS: From top to bottom, non-
PERIOD TRENDS: From left to right, the metallic character decreases.
nuclear charge increases. Atomic size decreases,
main energy level remains the same, valence PERIOD TRENDS: From left to right, non-
electrons are more tightly held by the nucleus. metallic character increases.
Because of that, more energy is needed to remove NOTE: elements to the left have a pronounces metallic character
the electron, causing ionization energy to keep while those to the right have a non-metallic character.
increasing.
3. ELECTRON AFFINITY – amount of energy released
when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous
atom; gains an extra to form a negatively charged
ion; ability to hold an additional electron. (The
greater the electron affinity, the greater the energy
needed.)
GROUP TRENDS: From top to bottom,
atomic size and nuclear size increases, resulting the
additional electron to feel less attracted by large
atom, so, electron affinity decreases.
OCTET RULE – states that atoms tend to gain, lose or
PERIOD TRENDS: From left to right, atomic
share electrons until they are surrounded by 8
size decreases, nuclear charge increases, resulting
valence electrons.
greater attraction, so, electron affinity increases.
CHEMICAL BONDING – strong attractive that holds
4. ELECTRONEGATIVITY – tendency of an atom to
opposite charged ions together or that binds atoms
attract a shared pair of electrons toward itself;
together in molecule.
describes the ability of its atom to compete for
electrons with the other atom. IONIC BOND
GROUP TRENDS: From top to bottom, – electrostatic attraction that holds together the
atomic size increases, the greater atomic size, the oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) in a
lesser the tendency to attract the shared pair of solid compound.
electrons, hence, electronegativity decreases. – have high melting and boiling points.
PERIOD TRENDS: From left to right, nuclear – is created by transfer of one or more electrons
charge increases, resulting to attract the shared pair from one atom to another.
of electrons more, hence, electronegativity
increases. – reactions between metals and nonmetals.

5. METALLIC CHARACTER (electropositivity) – SOLID STATE – do not conduct electricity.

tendency of an element to lose electrons and form MOLTEN/LIQUID STATE – conductors of
positive ions (cations). electricity.
STEPS IN WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA OF IONIC STEPS IN NAMING BINAY MOLECULAR
COMPOUND: COMPOUNDS:
1. Write the symbol of the cation. 1. Write the name of the leftmost element in
2. Write the symbol of the anion. the chemical formula first.
3. Determine the charges using the periodic 2. The second element should be given an -ide
table and the roman numerals. ending.
4. Determine the formula from the ions. STEPS FOR WRITING A CHEMICAL FORMULA:
STEPS IN NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS: 1. Decide the type of the bond.
1. Separate the formula of the cation from the - if the prefixes are used, then it is a
anion. covalent bond.
2. Write the name of the cation first followed - if there are no prefixes, it is an ionic
by the name of the anion with a space in bond.
between. 2. Write down the symbol of the polyatomic
3. When the metal involved can form ions with ion or the element.
different charges (e.g., copper I and copper 3. If the prefix was used, add a subscript. Add
II or gold I and gold II) the charge on the ion a subscript in order to balance the charge.
must be quoted.
COVALENT BOND THE STOCK METHOD OF NAMING
– chemical bond between two atoms created by the An ionic compound is named first by its cation and
sharing of a pair of electrons. then by its anion.
– combination of two nonmetals produces a CATION – has the same name as its element.
compound with a covalent molecular structure. Ex.: K+1 is called potassium ion, just as K is
– formed by sharing of electrons between atoms. called the potassium ion.
POLAR COVALENT BOND – type of chemical ANION – named by taking the elemental name,
bond where a pair of electrons is unequally shared removing the ending, and adding with “ide.”
between two atoms. Ex.: F-1 is called fluorine, for the elemental
NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND – type of name, fluorine.
chemical bond where two atoms share a pair of *If either the cation or the anion was a polyatomic
electrons with each other. ion, the name is used in the name of the overall
COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS – compound.
compounds consisting of molecules wherein atoms Ex.: Ca (NO3)2 is called calcium nitrate
are joined by covalent bonds.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
LONE PAIRS/NONBONDING PAIRS- pairs of
unshared electrons – measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule
to attract electrons toward it.
BOND LENGTH- distance between the nuclei of the
two bonded atoms. – used to determine the nature of a bond and the
polarity of a covalent bond.
STEPS IN WRITING THE LEWIS STRUCTURE OF
COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS: ELECTRON AFFINITY- measure of the change in
energy when an electron attaches itself to a neutral
1. Determine the total number of valence atom to become a negatively charged ion, or anion.
electron in the compound.
2. Write the atoms in the order in which they *The greater the electronegativity of an atom the
are bonded to one another then distribute stronger is its ability to attract shared electrons.
the electrons in pairs.
 TYPE OF BOND ELECTRONEGATIVITY ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
DIFFERENCE – contain the element carbon and their atoms are
IONIC ≥2.0 held together by covalent bonds.
POLAR COVALENT 0.5-1.9 – are flammable.
NONPOLAR ≥0.4 – are practically soluble in nonpolar solvents.
COVALENT – non-conductors of electricity.
– have the ability to exhibit isomerism and
COVALENT BOND TYPES catenation.
POLAR MOLECULES – chemical reactions are slow.
– Electrons are not equally shared FORCE THEORY – substances from living or
once living organisms were organic. Compounds
– One part of the molecule is more negative than
that came from minerals or were synthesized in the
another part of the molecule.
laboratory on the other hand were classified as
– Molecule thus has negative and positive ‘poles’ inorganic.
like a battery.
HYDROCARBONS – organic compounds that
– Hydrophilic (water loving) are entirely made up of only two kinds of atoms-
NONPOLAR MOLECULES carbon and hydrogen; colorless gases that have very
weak odors.
– Electrons are equally shared.
NO. OF CARBONS PREFIX
– No one part of molecule is distinctly negative or
positive: no ‘poles’. 1 Meth

– Hydrophobic ‘water fearing’. 2 Eth

Inorganic Compounds Organic Compounds 3 Prop

High melting and boiling Low melting and boiling 4 But

points. points. 5 Pent
Generally soluble in Generally soluble in 6 Hex
water and rarely soluble nonpolar solvents and
7 Hept
in nonpolar solvents. most are not soluble in
water. 8 oct
Conduct electric current Do not conduct electric
(electrolyte). current (nonelectrolyte).
CATEGORIES:
Generally nonflammable Usually flammable and 1. ALKANES (saturated hydrocarbon)- carbon-
and noncombustible. combustible. carbon atoms and carbon-hydrogen atoms
Presence of ionic bond. Presence of covalent are held together by SINGLE BOND; have a
bond. general formula of CnH2n+2.
2. ALKENES (unsaturated hydrocarbons)-
Contain carbon atom and Do not contain carbon
compounds consist of a DOUBLE BOND
hydrogen atom. atom or hydrogen atom.
between carbon-carbon atoms; have a
general formula of CnH2n.
 3. ALKYNES (unsaturated hydrocarbons) –
compounds consist of a TRIPLE BOND
between carbon-carbon atoms; have a
general formula of CnH2n-n.
4. ARENES (aromatic hydrocarbons) –
unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one
or more planar six-carbon rings called
benzene rings (aromatic rings), to which
hydrogen atoms are attached. C6H6

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
CARBOHYDRATES (SACCHIRIDE) – provides energy
to cells, stores energy, forms body structures.
ELEMENTS: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
EX.: sugars, starches
LIPIDS (TRIGLYCERIDE) – stores energy, forms cell
membranes, carries messages.
ELEMENTS: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
EX.: fats and oils
PROTEINS (AMINO ACID) – helps cell keep their
shapes, make up muscles, speed up chemical
reactions, carries messages and material.
ELEMENTS: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur
EX.: enzymes, anti-bodies
NUCLEIC ACIDS (NUCLEOTIDE) – contains
instructions for proteins, passes instructions from
parents to offspring, helps make proteins.
ELEMENTS: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus
EX.: DNA, RNA