Vector analysis

Asmaa Rahim
MCB
Academic year 2024-2025

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1 Scalar elds and vector elds
Denitions
Properties of dierential operators

2 Line integral

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Part 1. Scalar elds and
vector elds

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Scalar elds and vector elds
Let D be a bounded domain in R2 or R3
Denition 1.
A scalar eld is called any function from D to R (f : D → R).

Example
1. f (x, y , z) = x + yz .
2. electric charge, temperature, ...

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Scalar elds and vector elds
Denition 2.
A vector eld is a function that assigns to each point in D a vector F~ , i.e
F~ : D → R3 . We can express it in terms of its component functions P , Q
and R as F~ (x, y , z) = P(x, y , z)~ı + Q(x, y , z)~ + R(x, y , z)~k .

Example
velocity, magnetic eld ...

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Scalar elds and vector elds
We assume that all functions are continuous and dierentiable with respect
to all variables.
Denition 3.
The nabla operator, denoted by ∇, is dened as follows
∂ ∂ ∂ ~
∇= ~ı + ~ + k
∂x ∂y ∂z
.
The gradient of the scalar eld f denoted by grad f or ∇f is a
∂f ∂f ∂f
vector eld given by ∇f = ~ı + ~ + ~k .
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example
f (x, y , z) = x 2 − zy 3 , then ∇f = 2x~ı − 3zy 2~ − y 3 ~k .

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Denition 4.
A vector eld is called a conservative vector eld or gradient eld, if
there exists a function such that grad f = F~ . In this situation f is called a
potential function for F~ .

Denition 5.
The divergence of the vector eld F~ = P~ı + Q~ + R ~k , denoted by div F~ is
∂P
dened by div F~ = ∇. F~ = Px + Qy + Rz . We set Px = .
∂x

Example
If F~ = xy~ı + xyz~ − y 2 ~k , then div F~ = y + xz .

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Denition 6.
Let F~ be a vector eld. We dene the curl of F~ as folows
~ı ~ ~k  
Ry − Qz
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F~ = ∇ ∧ F~ = =  Pz − Rx 
∂x ∂y ∂z
Qx − Py
P Q R

Example
F~ = xy~ı + xyz~ − y 2 ~k .
~ı ~ ~k
−2y − xy −2y − xy
   
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F~ = ∇ ∧ F~ = = 0−0 = 0 
∂x ∂y ∂z
yz − x yz − x
xy xyz −y 2

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Theorem
If curl F~ = ~0, then F~ is conservative vector eld.

Theorem
If div F~ = 0 then, F~ is said to be incompressible.

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Example
a) Show that F~ = y 2 z 3~ı + 2xyz 3~ + 3xy 2 z 2 ~k is a conservative vector eld.
b) Find a potential function f for F~ .

Solution
~ı ~ ~k
6xyz 2 − 6xyz 2
 
∂ ∂ ∂
a) curl F~ = ∇ ∧ F~ = = 3y 2 z 2 − 3y 2 z 2  =
∂x ∂y ∂z
y 2 z 3 2xyz 3 3xy 2 z 2
2yz 3 − 2yz 3
0
 
0 = ~0. Since curl F~ = ~0, F~ is a conservative vector eld.
0

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Solution
...(1)
   2 3 
fx y z
b) grad f = F~ ⇒ fy  =  2xyz 3  ...(2)
fz 3xy 2 z 2 ...(3)
fx = y z ⇒ f (x, y , z) = xy z 3 + ϕ(y , z).
2 3 2

Then, fy = 2xyz 3 + ϕy (y , z) so comparison with (2) gives ϕy (y , z) = 0.

Thus, ϕ(y , z) = Φ(z)
fz = 3xy 2 z 2 + Φ0 (z). Then (3) gives Φ0 (z) = 0 ⇒ Φ(z) = c, c ∈ R.
Therefore,
f (x, y , z) = xy 2 z 3 + c, c ∈ R

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Scalar elds and vector elds

Properties of dierential operators

1 div(f F~ )= f div F~ + F~ grad f
2 curl (grad f ) = ~0
3 div(curl F~ ) = 0
4 div (grad f ) = 4 f where 4f = fxx + fyy + fzz is the operator of
Laplace.

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Part 2. Line integral

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Line integral

The line integral is similar to a single integral except that instead of

integrating over an interval, we integrate over a curve.
Denition
Let C be a curve in space whose parametric equations are dened by

 x = ϕ(t),
y = Ψ(t), t ∈ [a, b]
z = Φ(t)

where ϕ, Ψ, Φ are continuous scalar functions on the interval [a, b] which
are called parametric functions.

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Line integral

Example
1 y= 2x + 1, this line can be parametrized by
 x = t,
y = 2t + 1, t ∈ [0, 2]
z =0


2 x2 + y 2 = 1, the unit circle can be parametrized by

 x = cos t,
y = sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π]
z =0


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Line integral

Denition 1.
A curve c dened on the interval [a, b] is called closed if ϕ(a) = ϕ(b),
Ψ(a) = Ψ(b) and Φ(a) = Φ(b).

Denition 2.
c is oriented when
 the parameter t evolves in a well dened direction :
 x = ϕ(t),
Direction 1 : y = Ψ(t), a ≤ t ≤ b
z = Φ(t)


 x = ϕ(t),
Direction 2 : y = Ψ(t), b ≤ t ≤ a
z = Φ(t)


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Line integral

Let's consider a partition {∆li }i=1...n of the curve C into n elements of

lengths (∆l)i and oriented by ∆l ~ i At the center of each element (∆l)i , the
scalar eld f corresponds to the value fi and the vector eld F corresponds
to the vector Fi (Pi , Qi , Ri ) .
We use the Riemann integral to dene the line integral of a scalar and a
vector eld :

Denition 1.
The line integral of f on the curve C is dened as the limit
n
fi .(∆l)i , denoted by C f .dl .
P R
lim
n→+∞ i=1

The line integral of F on the curve C is dened as the limit

n
~ i , denoted by
P R
lim Fi .(∆l) C F .dL
n→+∞ i=1

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Line integral

Denition 2.
Let C be a curve and f a scalar function, we dene the line integral of f
along C by
Z Z b q
f (x, y , z).dl = f (ϕ(t), Ψ(t), Φ(t)) (ϕ0 (t))2 + (Ψ0 (t))2 + (Φ0 (t))2 dt
C a

If C is closed then, the line integral of f along C is denoted by

I
f (x, y , z).dl
C

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Line integral

Example 1.
Evaluate C (2 + x 2 y )dl where C is the upper half of the unit circle
R

x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Recall that the unit circle can be parametrized by means of the equations
x = cos t , y = sin t , with 0 ≤ t ≤ π .
Z Z π
2
(2 + x y )dl = (2 + cos2 t sin t) sin2 t + cos2 t dt
p
C 0

cos3 t 2
 π
= 2t − = 2π +
3 0 3

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Line integral

Example 2.
Evaluate C (y sin z)dl where C is the circular helix given by the equations
R

x = cos t , y = sin t , and z = t with 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

Z Z 2π
sin2 t sin2 t + cos2 t + 1 dt
p
y sin z dl =
C 0
√ Z 2π
= 2 sin2 t dt
0
2π
√ Z 1
= 2 (1 − cos(2t))dt
0 2
√
= 2π.

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Line integral
Denition 3.
Let C be a curve and F a vector function, we dene the line integral of F
along C by
Z Z
F(x, y , z).dL = P(x, y , z)dx + Q(x, y , z)dy + R(x, y , z)dz
C C

is equal to
Z b
[ P(ϕ(t), Ψ(t), Φ(t))ϕ0 (t) + Q(ϕ(t), Ψ(t), Φ(t))Ψ0 (t)+
a

R(ϕ(t), Ψ(t), Φ(t))Φ0 (t) ] dt

If C is closed then, the line integral of F along C is denoted by

I
F(x, y , z).dL 21 / 30
Line integral

Example
Evaluate C xydx + yzdy + xzdz where the parametrization of the curve C
R

is x = t , y = t 2 and z = t 3 with 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

1 1
27
Z Z Z
3 6 6
xydx + yzdy + xzdz = (t + 2t + 3t )dt = (t 3 + 5t 6 )dt =
C 0 0 28
.

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Line integral

Suppose that is C is a union of a nite number of curves C1 , C2 ,...,Cn ,

where as illustrated in this gure.

Then, we dene the line integral of f along C by

Z Z Z Z
f (x, y )dl = f (x, y )dl + f (x, y )dl + ... + f (x, y )dl
C C1 C2 Cn

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Line integral
Example
Evaluate C 2x dl where C consists of the arc C1 of the parabola y = x 2
R

from (0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment C2 from (1, 1) to

(1, 2) we can choose t as the parameter and the

equations for C1 become x = t , y = t 2 with 0 ≤ t ≤√1.

R1 √ 1 2 32 1 5 5−1
C1 2x dl = 0 2t 1 + 4t dt = 6 [(1 + 4t ) ]0 = .
2
R
6
The
R equations R 2 of C2√are x = 1, y = t with 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
C2 2x dl = 1 2(1) 0 + 1dt = 2 √
5 5−1
Then, C 2x dl = C1 2x dl + C2 2x dl = + 2.
R R R
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Line integral
If −C denotes the curve consisting the same points as C but with the
opposite orientation.

Then,
R we have R R R
−c f (x, y )dx = − c f (x, y )dx, −c f (x, y )dy = − c f (x, y )dy
But if we integrate with respect to arc length, the value of the line integral
does not change whenR we reverse theR orientation of the curve :
−c f (x, y )dl = c f (x, y )dl
This is because ∆li is always positive, whereas ∆xi and ∆yi change sign
when we reverse the orientation of C .
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Line integral

Properities of line integral

linearity, addititvty,...

Remarks
? the line integral of f along C does not depend on the orientation of C ,
unlike the line integral of the vector eld F .
? We dene the length of C by
Z
Length(C ) = dl
C
.
? The line integral of the function F along the curve C physically
represents the work done in moving the particle along C .

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Line integral

A simply-connected region in the plane is a connected region D such

that every simple closed curve in D encloses only points that are in D .
Intuitively speaking, a simply-connected region contains no hole and can't
consist of two separate pieces.

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Line integral
Green's Theorem gives the relationship between a line integral around a
curve C and double integral over the plane region D bounded by C . In
stating Green's Theorem we use the convention that the positive
orientation of the curve C .

Green's Theorem

Let C be a positively oriented, simple closed curve in the plane and let D
be the region bounded by C . If P and Q have continuous partial derivatives
on an open region that contains D , then
I ZZ
Pdx + Qdy = (Qx − Py )dxdy
C D

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Line integral

Example
Evaluate C x 4 dx + xydy where C is the triangular curve consisting of the
H

line segments from (0, 0) to (1, 0), from (1, 0) to (0, 1) and from (1, 0) to
(0, 0).

R 1 R 1−x 1 1
x 4 dx + xydy = 2 0 (1 − x) dx
2 = 61 .
H RR R
C D ydxdy = 0 0 ydydx =

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