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2.6 BREAK IN GRADE

Simple situations of a series combination of two channel sections with differing bed

slopes are considered. a break in grade from a mild channel to a milder channel is

shown. It is necessary to first draw the critical-depth line (CDL) and the normal-depth

line (NDL) for both slopes. Since yc does not depend upon the slope for a taken Q =

discharge, the CDL is at a constant height above the channel bed in both slopes. The

normal depth y01 for the mild slope is lower than that of the of the milder slope (y 02). In

this case, y02 acts as a control, similar to the weir or spillway case and an M1 backwater

curve is produced in the mild slope channel. It may be noted that in some situations there

can be more than one possible profiles. For example, a jump and S1 profile or an M3

profile and a jump possible. The particular curve in this case depends on the channel and

its flow properties. , the section where the grade changes acts a control section and this

can be classified as a natural control. It should be noted that even though the bed slope is

considered as the only variable in the above examples, the same type of analysis would

hold good for channel sections in which there is a marked change in the roughness

characteristics with or without change in the bed slope. A long reach of unlined canal

followed by a line reach serves as a typical example for the same. A change in the

channel geometry (the bed width or side slope) beyond a section while retaining the

prismoidal nature in each reach also leads to a natural control section.

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2.3 CLASSIFICATIONS

S.NO CATEGORY SYMBOL CHARACTERISTIC REMARKS

CHANNEL CONDITION
Subcritical

1 Mild M y 0 > yc flow at normal

depth

Supercritical

`2 Steep S y 0 < yc flow at normal

depth

Critical flow

3 Critical C y 0 = yc at normal

depth

Cannot

4 Horizontal H S0 = 0 sustain
bed
uniform flow

Cannot

5 Adverse A S0 < 0 sustain

uniform flow

For each of the five categories of channels, lines representing the critical

depth (yc ) and normal depth (y0 ) (if it exists) can be drawn in the

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longitudinal section. These would divide the whole flow space into three

regions as:

Region 1: Space above the topmost line,

Region 2: Space between top line and the next lower line,

Region 3: Space between the second line and the bed

CHANNEL SLOPES

Channel slopes are classified based on the relative magnitude of: (i) bed

slopes, S0 with a critical slope, Sc and (ii) normal depth yn with a

critical depth, yc. A channel bottom slope that falls in the direction of

flow is called as sustaining slope. In a sustaining slope, value of S0 is

always +ve and therefore it is also called positive slope. The critical,

mild (subcritical), and steep (super critical) slopes may be classified as

sustaining slopes. When the slope of the channel bottom is either

horizontal or rises in the direction of flow, then it is known as non-

sustaining slope. For example, horizontal and adverse slopes are

classified as non-sustaining slopes. Normal-depth line (NDL) is a line

drawn parallel to bed and at a height of normal depth yn from the bed.

Critical–depth line (CDL) is a line drawn parallel to bed and at a height

of critical depth yc from the bed.

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Critical Slope: - The channel bottom slope is termed as critical if the

bottom slope S0 is equal to the critical slope Sc, i.e. S0 = Sc. where S0 is

+ve. For critical slope the normal depth of flow yn will be equal to the

critical depth yc.

Region 1: Space above the NDL

Region 3: Space between the CDL and the bed line

CDL: Critical depth line

NDL: Normal depth line

Mild slope (M): Channel is called mild (M) when, S0 Kc. since, in

general, the value of conveyance increases with the increase in depth.

Hence, for a mild slope the normal depth of flow is greater than the

critical depth i.e. yn > yc.

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Steep slope(S): In case of a steep channel (S) the, S0 >Sc, where S0 is

+ve, therefore, Kn < Kc and yn. The normal flow in a steep sloped

channel is in supercritical state.

Horizontal slope, (H):

In the case of horizontal slope, S0=0;. Hence, the normal depth of flow

yn =∞. Therefore, uniform flow can never occur on a horizontal bed.

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Adverse slope (A): When the channel bottom slope, rises in the

direction of flow it is designated as an adverse slope; therefore, S0

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2.4 COMPUTATION BY DIRECT STEP METHOD AND

STANDARD STEP METHOD

Gradually varied flow profiles shown above may be quickly solved by

simple numerical techniques. One computer program can be written to
solve most situations.
There are two basic numerical methods that can be used
i. Direct step – distance from depth
ii. Standard step method – depth from distance
1. The direct stepmethod – distance from depth
This method will calculate (by integrating the gradually varied flow
equation) a distance for a given change in surface height.
𝟏 − 𝒇𝟐
∆𝒙 = ∆𝒚
𝒔 𝟎 − 𝒔𝒇
The steps in solution are
1. Determine the control depth as the starting point
2. Decide on the expected curve and depth change if possible
3. Choose a suitable depth step Δy
4. Calculate the term in brackets at the “mean” depth (y initial + Δy/2)
5. Calculate Δ x
6. Repeat 4 and 5 until the appropriate distance / depth changed reached.

2.The standard step method – depth from distance

This method will calculate (by integrating the gradually varied flow
equation) a depth

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at a given distance up or downstream.

∆𝑬 = ∆𝒙 𝒔𝟎 − 𝒔𝒇
The steps in solution are similar to the direct step method shown above
but for each x there is the following iterative step
1. Assume a value of depth y (the control depth or the last solution
depth)
2. Calculate the specific energy EsG
3. Calculate S f
4. Calculate Δ Es using equation 1.30
5. Calculate E s(x+ Δx ) s = E + Δ E
6. Repeat until ΔE s (x+ Δx) = E sG
The Standard step method – alternative form
This method will again calculate a depth at a given distance up or
downstream but this time
∆𝑯 = −∆𝒙 −𝒔𝒇
2
where H = y+z+𝛼𝑣
2𝑔

The strategy is the same as the first standard step method, with the same
necessity to iterate for each step.

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2.5 CONTROL SECTION

A control section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exists

between the discharge and depth of flow. Weirs, spillways, sluice gates are some

typical examples of structures which give rise to control sections. The critical

depth is also a control point. However, it is effective in a flow profile which

changes from subcritical to supercritical flow. In the reverse case of transition from

supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a hydraulic jump is usually formed bypassing

the critical depth as a control point. Any GVF profile will have at least one control

section.

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In the synthesis of GVF profiles occurring in a serially connected channel

elements, the control sections provide a key to the identification of proper profile

shapes. It may be noted that subcritical flows have controls in the downstream end,

while supercritical flows are governed by control sections existing at the upstream

end of the channel section. for the M1 profile, the control section is just at the

upstream of the spillway and sluice gate respectively. for M3 and S3 profiles

respectively, the control point is at the vena contracta of the sluice gate flow

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2.1 DYNAMIC EQUATIONS OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOWS

VARIED FLOW

Flow properties, such as depth of flow area of cross section and velocity of flow

vary with respect to distance is called Non-uniform flow.

It is, otherwise, called as varied flow. The varied flow is broadly classified

into two types:

1) Rapidly varied flow (R.V.F)

2) Gradually varied flow (G.V.F)

If the depth of flow changes quickly over a small length of the channel, the flow is

said to be gradually varied flow (GVF). Example: Back water in a dam.

The following assumptions are made for analyzing the gradually varied flow:

1. The flow is steady

2. The pressure distribution over the channel section is hydrostatic, i.e., streamlines

are practically straight and parallel.

3. The head loss is same as for uniform flow.

4. The channel slope is small, so that the depth measured vertically is the same as

depth measured normal to the channel bottom.

5. A channel is prismatic.

6. Kinetic energy correction factor is very close to unity.

7. Roughness coefficient is constant along the channel length

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8. The formulae, such as Chezy’s formula, Manning’s formula which are

applicable, to the uniform flow are also applicable for the gradually varied flow for

determining slope of energy line.

DYNAMIC EQUATION OF GVF

let

Z = height of bottom of channel above datum

h = depth of flow

V = Mean velocity of flow

ib = slope of the channel bed.

ie = slope of the energy line

b = width of channel

Q = discharge through the channel

The energy equation at any section is given by Bernoulli’s equation.

𝑣2
𝐸 =𝑍+𝑕+
2𝑔

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Differentiating this equation with respect to x is where x is measured along

the bottom of the channel in the direction of flow, we get.

Equation of Non-uniform flow (Slope of free water surface)

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑍 𝑑𝑕 𝑑 𝑣 2
= + + ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑔

𝑑 𝑣2 𝑑 𝑄2
× = ×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑔 𝑑𝑥 2𝑔𝐴2

d Q2 Q2 d1
× = ×
dx 2gh2b 2 2gb2 dx h2

Q2 d 1 dh
= × ×
2gb2 dh h2 dx

Q2
−2 dh
= × ×
2gb2 h3 dx

Q2 −2 dh
= × ×
2gb2 h3 dx

𝑑 𝑣2 −2 1 𝑑𝑕 𝑄2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑕
× = × × × =−
𝑑𝑥 2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏2 𝑕2 𝑑 𝑔𝑕 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑕

𝑣2
Substitute the value of 𝑑
×
𝑑𝑥 2𝑔

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑍 𝑑𝑕 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑕
= + −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑔𝑕 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑑 𝑣2
𝑕 𝑍
= + 1−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2𝑔𝑕

𝑑𝐸
=Slope of the energy line = -ie.
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑍
=Slope of the bed of the channel = - ib.
𝑑𝑥

-Ve sign with ie & ib us taken with the increase of x, the value of E and Z
decreases.

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝑍
Substituting the value of 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
-𝑖 =-𝑖 +𝑑𝑕 1 − 𝑣
𝑏 𝑒 𝑑 2𝑔𝑕
𝑥
2
𝑖 -𝑖 = 𝑑𝑕 1 − 𝑣
𝑏 𝑒 𝑑 2𝑔𝑕
𝑥

𝑑𝑕 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑒
= 2
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑣
2𝑔𝑕

𝑑𝑕 𝑖𝑏 − 𝑖𝑒
=
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑓 2

As h is the depth of flow and x is the distance measured along the bottom of the

channel
𝑑
𝑥 represents the variation of the water depth along the bottom of the channel.
𝑑
𝑕

This is also called the slope of the free water surface.

1. If Sf = So, then dy/dx = 0, the surface profile of flow is parallel to the

bottom of the channel.

2. If Sf < So, then dy/dx is positive which means the flow profile is rising

gradually.

3. If Sf > So, then dy/dx is negative which means the flow profile is lowering

gradually.
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problem 1

In a rectangular channel 12 m wide, depth 3.6 m with a velocity of 12m/s. The bed slope

of channel is 1 in 4000. If the flow of water through the channel is regulated in such away

the energy line having a slope of 0.00004. Find the rate of change of depth of water in the

channel.

Given
b = 12m,

h = 3.6m

V = 1.2 m/s,

ib= 1/4000

ie = 0.00004

To find

1. the rate of change of depth of water in the channel.

Solution

𝒅𝒉 𝒊𝒃 − 𝒊 𝒆
= 𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟏−𝒗
𝟐𝒈𝒉

𝒅𝒉 𝒊𝒃 − 𝒊 𝒆
=
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒇 𝟐

=2.189 ×10-4

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2.2 TYPES OF FLOW PROFILES

The water surface profile is a measure of how the flow depth changes

longitudinally. The profiles are classified based on the relationship between the

actual water depth (y), the normal depth (yn) and the critical depth (yc). Normal

depth is the depth of flow that would occur if the flow was uniform and steady, and

is usually predicted using the Manning's Equation. Critical depth is defined as the

depth of flow where energy is at a minimum for a particular discharge.

Flow profiles are classified by the slope of the channel (So), yn, and yc. There are

five slope classifications designated by the letters C, M , S, A, and H (critical,

mild, steep, adverse, and horizontal) respectively.

• Mild (M) if yn > yc

• Steep (S) if yn < yc

• Critical (C) if yn= yc

• Adverse (A) if So < 0 (if slope is positive in the downstream direction)

• Horizontal (H) if So = 0

The profile is further classified according to the relative position of the actual flow

depth to normal and critical depth as designated by the numbers 1, 2, and 3.

• Type 1 curve: Actual depth is greater than yc and yn, flow is subcritical

• Type 2 curve: actual depth is between yc and yn, flow can be either

subcritical or supercritical

• Type 3 curve: actual depth is less than both yc and yn, flow is supercritical

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Gradually Varied Flow profiles

Channel Region Condition Type

1 y > y0 > yc M1

Mild slope 2 y0 > y > yc M2

3 y0 > yc > y M3

1 y> yc > y0 S1

Steep slope 2 yc > y > y0 S2

3 yc > y0 > y S3

1 y > y0 = y2 C1
Critical slope
3 y < y0 = yc C3

2 y > yc y < yc H2
Horizontal bed
3 H3

2 y > yc y < yc A2
Adverse slope
3 A3

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