1 - Spring Manual

1: Introduction
ICIMOD Manual 2018/4
Protocol for Reviving Springs

in the Hindu Kush Himalaya:
A Practitioner’s Manual
1
Protocol for Reviving Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A Practitioner’s Manual
About ICIMOD
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is a regional
knowledge development and learning centre serving the eight regional member
countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India,
Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan – and based in Kathmandu, Nepal. Globalisation
and climate change have an increasing influence on the stability of fragile mountain
ecosystems and the livelihoods of mountain people. ICIMOD aims to assist mountain
people to understand these changes, adapt to them, and make the most of new
opportunities, while addressing upstream-downstream issues. We support regional
transboundary programmes through partnership with regional partner institutions,
facilitate the exchange of experience, and serve as a regional knowledge hub. We
strengthen networking among regional and global centres of excellence. Overall, we
are working to develop an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem
to improve the living standards of mountain populations and to sustain vital ecosystem
services for the billions of people living downstream – now, and for the future.
About ACWADAM
The Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM) is a
think tank and knowledge facilitating organization working on the management and governance
of groundwater. We carry experience on hydrogeological work across a geodiverse range across
India and its neighbouring region. Drawing on a wide array of experiences from the academic,
corporate and voluntary sectors, our work has found application into seemingly inaccessible niches,
both geographically and thematically. ACWADAM has led the development of aquifer-based,
participatory groundwater management in India through practice and policy. We have partnered
with a multitude of organisations, ranging from International Agencies, NGOs and Government
Departments, mainly in integrating hydrogeological science into programmes that deal with
groundwater resources. ACWADAM is playing a pivotal role in the development of a rationale
regarding knowledge driven management of spring water in the Himalayan region in partnership
with different organisations. We train, build capacities, conduct action research and facilitate
decision support and implementation around groundwater management and governance across a
typology of groundwater systems and societies.
Corresponding author: Aditi Mukherji aditi.mukherji@icimod.org
ICIMOD gratefully acknowledges the support of its core donors: the

Governments of Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China,
India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Sweden, and Switzerland.
2
1: Introduction
ICIMOD Manual 2018/4
Protocol for Reviving Springs

in the Hindu Kush Himalaya:
A Practitioner’s Manual
Authors
Rajendra Bahadur Shrestha1; Jayesh Desai2; Aditi Mukherji1; Madhav Dhakal1;

Himanshu Kulkarni2; Kaustubh Mahamuni2; Sanjeev Bhuchar1; Sugat Bajracharya1
1
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
2
Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM)
iii
Copyright © 2018
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial, No Derivatives 4.0 International License
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Published by
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal
ISBN 978 92 9115 606 1 (printed)

978 92 9115 607 8 (electronic)
LCCN 2018–305032
Production team
Beatrice Murray (Consultant editor)
Samuel Thomas (Senior editor)
Rachana Chettri (Editor)
Dharma R Maharjan (Layout and design)
Photos: Jitendra Bajracharya - Cover; ACWADAM - pp17, 20; Madhav Dhakal - pp19, 40(TL, BR), 41(T), 42(BL);
ICIMOD - pp40(TR), 41(B), 44(B); Sanjeev Bhuchar - pp42(TL), 43(T); WOCAT - pp42(TR), 44(TR, M);
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Printed and bound in Nepal by

Quality Printers (P) Ltd., Kathmandu, Nepal
Reproduction
This publication may be produced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without
special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. ICIMOD would appreciate
receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for
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The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author(s). They are not attributable to ICIMOD and do not
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concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product.
This publication is available in electronic form at www.icimod.org/himaldoc
Citation: Shrestha, R.B., Desai, J., Mukherji, A., Dhakal, M., Kulkarni, H., Mahamuni, K., Bhuchar, S. &
Bajracharya, S. (2018). Protocol for reviving springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: A practitioner’s manual.
ICIMOD Manual 2018/4. Kathmandu: ICIMOD
iv
1: Introduction
Contents
Acknowledgements ix
Acronyms and Abbreviations x
1 Introduction 1
Genesis of the Protocol for Reviving Springs Manual 1
Rationale for the Protocol for Reviving Springs Manual 2
2 Basic Concepts 4
The Hydrogeological Cycle 4
Groundwater 4
Aquifers 4
The Rock Cycle and Rock Types 5
Rock Structure 5
Mountain Springs as Groundwater 7
Types of Springs 7
Watersheds 8
Springsheds 9
Water Tower 10
Springshed Management 10
3 The Six-step Protocol for Reviving Springs in the HKH 12
4 Step 1: Comprehensive Mapping of Springs and Springsheds 13

Background Information on the Study Site from Secondary Data 13
Reconnaissance Survey 13
Spring Mapping and Preliminary Data Collection 13
Delineation of Springshed 14
Resources Needed 14
5 Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System 15

Selection of Springs for Long-Term Monitoring 15
Selection of Data Collector 15
Data Collection 16
Setting up Rain Gauges and Measuring Rainfall 16
Measuring Spring Discharge 17
Water Quality Measurement 21
Data Quality Check, Storage, Management and Transfer 22
Data Analysis (Software Development, App Development) 22
Data Sharing with the Community 22
Training Local Residents in Basic Hydrogeology 23
Resources Needed 23
6 Step 3: Understanding Social and Governance Systems Related

to Springs 24
Data Collection Instruments 24
The Data Collection Process 25
Using the Socio-economic Information for Spring Revival Activities 28
Resources Needed 28
v
7 Step 4: Hydrogeological Mapping, Development of Conceptual

Layout, and Identification of Recharge Area 29
Step 4A: Hydrogeological Mapping 29
Resource Needed 30
Step 4B: Creating a Conceptual Hydrogeological Layout of the Springshed 32
Resource Needed 32
Step 4C: Classification of Spring Type, Broad Identification of the Mountain Aquifer,
and Demarcation and Analysis of the Recharge Area 34
Resources Needed 37
8 Step 5: Developing Springshed Management and Governance Protocols 39

Physical and Biological Measures for Springshed Management 39
Social Measures for Springshed Management 45
Ways to Improve Springshed Management Governance 45
Planning and Implementation 45
Resources Needed 45
9 Step 6: Measuring the Impact of Spring Revival Activities 47

Types of Impact of Spring Revival Activities 47
Measuring Impacts 47
Resources Needed 48
10 The Way Forward 50
References and Futher Reading 51

References 51
Further Reading 52
Annexes 54
Annex 1: Sample Template in Microsoft Excel for Entering Baseline Data 54
Annex 2: Terms of Reference (ToR) for Data Collector 55
Annex 3: Focus Group Discussion Checklist 56
Annex 4: Checklist for Key Informant Interviews 63
Annex 5: Questionnaire Survey for Spring Water Users 64
Annex 6: Field Data Compilation to Produce Collected Information in Google Earth 69
Annex 7: Developing a Cross Section of the Springshed Using Google Earth 73
List of Figures
Figure 1: Dhara Vikas Handbook developed by RM&DD, Government of Sikkim (2014) 2
Figure 2: Dhara Vikas eight-step process 2
Figure 3: The hydrogeological cycle 4
Figure 4: The occurrence of groundwater in soil, rock and fissures 4
Figure 5: Formation of aquifers 5
Figure 6: Main features of the rock cycle 5
Figure 7: Different types of rock showing the geometry of the openings in them which
define their relationship with groundwater 5
Figure 8: Schematic diagram showing strike, dip amount, and dip direction 6
Figure 9: Common types of fault structure 6
Figure 10: Development of simple fold structures 6
Figure 11: Accessing groundwater in the plains and mountains 7
Figure 12: Common uses of spring water 7
Figure 13: Depression spring 7
vi
1: Introduction
Figure 14: Contact spring 8

Figure 15: Fracture spring 8
Figure 16: Fault spring 8
Figure 17: Karst spring 8
Figure 18: The limits or boundary of a watershed (catchment) 8
Figure 19: Springsheds and watersheds 9
Figure 20: Google Earth image of a water tower 10
Figure 21: The six-step protocol for spring revival in the Hindu Kush Himalayas 12
Figure 22: A topographical sheet to understand the topography, drainage patterns,
and water sources 13
Figure 23: Google Earth image showing distribution of springs within a watershed 14
Figure 24: Rainfall measurement using a manual rain-gauge 16
Figure 25: Discharge measurement using bucket and stopwatch method 17
Figure 26: Using the water level change method in a rectangular spring water storage tank to
measure spring discharge 18
Figure 27: Discharge measurement of spring with no outlet using water level drop method 19
Figure 28: V-notch arrangement for measuring stream discharge 19
Figure 29: Rectangular weir arrangement for measuring stream discharge 20
Figure 30: Discharge measurement using rectangular weir arrangement and measuring
the head in the weir 20
Figure 31: Water quality measurement using a tracer instrument 21
Figure 32: A typical geological map 29
Figure 33: Measuring strike and dip using a geological compass such as a clinometer or Brunton
compass 30
Figure 34: Geological information locations produced in Google Earth 31
Figure 35: Plotting of strike and dip 31
Figure 36: Geological map in Google Earth 31
Figure 37: Generating a cross section of the springshed 33
Figure 38: A conceptual hydrogeological layout 33
Figure 39: Conceptual layout showing a fracture spring and the aquifer feeding it 34
Figure 40: Sequence of hydrographs illustrating how concepts, data, and hydrogeological
interpretation can be used to develop a synopsis of the typology of springs and
aquifers 35
Figure 41: Hydrogeological layout showing identification of the recharge area for a
spring based on the geology 36
Figure 42: Location of the recharge area on the geological/ hydrogeological map 36
Figure 43: Location of the recharge area on the Google Earth image 37
Figure 44: Conservation ponds for spring recharge 40
Figure 45: Typical absorption terraces 40
Figure 46: Construction of staggered trenches for spring recharge 41
Figure 47: Semicircular or eyebrow pits to hold water and facilitate infiltration 41
Figure 48: Triangular pits 41
Figure 49: Different types of bund 42
Figure 50: Check dams constructed along gullies to control erosion and increase infiltration 42
Figure 51: Sloping agricultural land technology with crops in the alleyways at
ICIMOD’s Knowledge Park 43
Figure 52: Palisades to control erosion and improve infiltration 43
Figure 53: Brush layering across slopes along a contour 43
Figure 54: Agronomic measures promoting infiltration 44
Figure 55: Management measures for springshed protection 44
Figure 56: A combination of trenches, eyebrow pits and tree plantation to harvest
surface runoff and increase infiltration 44
Figure 57: Hydrographs reflecting spring discharge for different types of spring and
the change following completion of springshed management work at the
end of the baseline year 47
Figure 58: Hydrograph of Spring A showing an increase in discharge after intervention 48
Figure 59: Hydrographs of (a) treated spring (Spring B) and (b) control spring (Spring C) 49
vii
List of Tables
Table 1: Classification of springs based on the volume of flow per unit time 8
Table 2: Summary of requirements for Step 1 14
Table 3: Spring discharge values calculated for different levels of head in a 90° V-notch using
Thompson’s equation 20
Table 5: Sample size determination 27
Table 7: Summary of requirements for Step 4A 32
Table 8: Summary of requirements for Step 4B 33
Table 9: Indicator matrix for spring type, discharge and spring-water quality 35
Table 10: Template for recording land use and ownership in recharge area of springs 36
Table 11: Summary of requirements for Step 4C 38
viii
1: Introduction
Acknowledgements
This work was initiated with funds from the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE) Program and was continued with restricted core funding from the Australian
DFAT. The study was partially supported by core funds of ICIMOD contributed by the Governments of Afghanistan,
Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Sweden, and Switzerland.
The authors are grateful to Sarika Pradhan and Subash Dhakal of Rural Management and Development
Department, Government of Sikkim (RM&DD), for their comments on the initial draft. The authors are also grateful
to all participants in the various training programs organized by ICIMOD and ACWADAM who were trained using
an earlier version of this protocol and who provided feedback for improvements. Special thanks are due to
Karishma Khadka and Nisha Wagle of ICIMOD for providing research support. Finally, the authors are grateful to
Alan MacDonald of the British Geological Survey who reviewed the document and provided insightful comments
that helped improve this manual.
ix
Acronyms and Abbreviations
ACWADAM Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management
CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
CHIRAG Central Himalayan Rural Action Group
DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade
DSCWM Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management
FGDs Focus Group Discussions
GIS Geographic Information System
GoI Government of India
GPS Global Positioning System
HHs Households
HKH Hindu Kush Himalayas
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
KIIs Key Informant Interviews
lpm litres per minute
lps litres per second
MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, India
NEPCAT Nepal Conservation Approaches and Technologies
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
PSI People’s Science Institute
RM&DD Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim
RMCs Regional Member Countries
RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal
TMI The Mountain Institute
ToR Terms of Reference
VDC Village Development Committee
WLE Water, Land and Ecosystems
WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies
WUMP Water Use Master Plan
x
1: Introduction
1 Introduction
Springs are groundwater discharge points that appear where a water bearing layer (aquifer) intersects with the
ground surface and water seeps out of rock pores, fissures, fractures, or depressions. Springs are the main source
of water for millions of people in the mid hills of the Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) (Tambe et al., 2011; Negi and
Joshi, 2004; Chapagain, Ghimire, and Shrestha, 2017). Both rural and urban communities depend on springs to
meet their drinking, domestic, and agricultural water needs. In addition, springs play an important role in providing
water for ecosystem services, such as base flow in rivers, while supporting vegetation and wildlife (Ghimire et al.,
2014; Cantonati et al., 2006). Springs in the HKH also have religious and cultural significance. Over the years,
there has been increasing concern that springs are drying up, becoming seasonal, or their discharge reducing. A
study by Tiwari (2000) found that around 45% of springs in one catchment in the Central Indian Himalayas had
dried up or become seasonal, while a survey of villages in another catchment in the same region found a decline
in spring discharge by 25–75% over the previous 50 years (Valdiya and Bartarya, 1991). Chapagain, Ghimire,
and Shrestha (2017) found that spring discharge in a mid-hill region in Nepal had declined by over 30% in 30
years. Most of these results, and the concerns in general, are based on anecdotal data and the general perceptions
of local people due to the lack of long-term monitoring in the region. However, a recent study by Kumar and
Sen (2017) in Uttarakhand (Central Indian Himalayas) used instrumentation and long-term monitoring to derive
flow duration curves for spring discharge. These showed that discharge had declined in the dry season, thereby
confirming decades of anecdotal evidence. A number of studies based on people’s perceptions have attributed the
drying of springs to causes such as an increase in ambient temperature (Pandey et al., 2018); late onset and erratic
rainfall patterns (Macchi, Gurung, and Hoermann, 2014); changes in land use – mostly in the form of conversion
of forest to agricultural land (Joshi et al., 2014), and forest degradation (Pandey et al., 2018; Rautela, 2015),
including changes in forest type (Naudiyal and Schmerbeck, 2015; Ghimire et al., 2012). While it is well recognized
that water supply from springs is one of the many provisioning services provided by forests (Paudyal et al., 2015),
the role of springs in providing forest biodiversity (and hence habitat services) and regulating services in spring
habitats (for example, in maintaining water quality) is less well known, but of critical importance.
Springs are a part of the groundwater system, but the science of hydrogeology that governs the occurrence and
movement of water in mountain aquifers, and thus the occurrence of springs, is poorly understood. This often results
in misconceptions regarding springs, which in turn leads to misaligned policies that exacerbate the problem. Springs
are also subject to complex socio-technical and informal governance systems with pronounced gender and equity
dimensions. These systems are also not well understood, again leading to inappropriate policies and interventions.
Climate change and change in the biophysical landscape (e.g., land cover and land use change) are widely
implicated in the drying of springs, but there is very little systematic knowledge to effectively link climate change,
vegetation change, and spring discharge, especially because of the large data uncertainties. Rapid changes in
demographics and infrastructure (such as dams and roads) have also impacted springs, but again the exact nature
of the change is difficult to understand due to the lack of studies. Drying of springs – and the associated impact on
communities – is a regional phenomenon that cuts across the entire HKH from Afghanistan to Myanmar, hence the
topic is of immense importance.
Genesis of the Protocol for Reviving Springs Manual

The Rural Management and Development Department (RM&DD) of the Government of Sikkim – a mountainous
state in India – started a programme called Dhara Vikas (spring revival) in 2008 in response to people’s concern
that water sources were drying up. The programme started with a learning-by-doing approach, but it was soon
realized that a thorough understanding of the underlying geology was essential for delineating recharge areas
correctly. Limiting recharge activities to designated recharge areas was crucial both for increasing the efficiency
of investments and for avoiding the unintended consequences of digging recharge structures in fragile areas,
such as areas prone to landslides. The Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management
(ACWADAM) worked closely with RM&DD to train para-hydrogeologists. These para-hydrogeologists were then
deployed across South and West Sikkim to work closely with the rural communities to identify perennial springs that
1
were drying up and develop implementation plans Figure 1: Dhara Vikas Handbook developed by
for reviving them. Since 2011, Dhara Vikas work RM&DD, Government of Sikkim (2014)
has been included as a permissible activity under the
Government of India’s (GoI) 100 days work scheme
– the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). Since then, spring
revival in the state has been undertaken through
MGNREGS funds. Many other mountainous states
in India have followed suit and replicated the Sikkim
Government’s Dhara Vikas programme. In order to
reach out to communities and build their capacity,
RM&DD brought out a booklet on Dhara Vikas that
uses pictures and simple illustrations to explain the
concept of springs and the need for spring recharge
(Figure 1). The booklet described an eight-step
method for spring revival (Figure 2) – the first ever
systematic step-wise spring revival protocol to be
successfully implemented in India (RM&DD, 2014).
Figure 2: Dhara Vikas eight-step process
Source: RM&DD, (2014)
Rationale forthe Protocol for Reviving

Springs Manual
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) is an independent inter-
governmental organization which works in the eight
countries of the HKH (Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan).
The Centre regularly conducts country consultations
with national and local governments and other partner
organizations in each of its regional member countries
(RMCs). In the consultations conducted in the mid-
2010s, drying up of spring water sources, especially
in the mid hill regions, started emerging as a common
theme across the region. Drying of springs has not
only impacted people’s everyday lives, it has also
encouraged unsustainable practices such as drilling
of deep bore wells in fragile mountain aquifers. Such
practices stem from lack of understanding of the
uniqueness and fragility of mountain aquifers and is
often a short-sighted response to acute water stress.
Source: RM&DD, (2014)
2
1: Introduction
Given the widespread concern about drying of springs and the deterioration in spring water quality, the desirable
policy response is to revive the springs using both local and scientific hydrogeological knowledge. We define ‘spring
revival’ to mean any of the following, individually or in combination:
• total discharge of spring has increased especially in lean season;

• spring water is available during more months than before;
• there has been an appreciable improvement in spring water quality, thereby reducing health risks;
• spring water is better managed so that there is more equitable access to water; and
• recharge areas are better protected and managed.
This handbook builds on the earlier work by RM&DD which was India specific and has been suitably modified to
meet the generic requirements of all ICIMOD RMCs. ICIMOD and ACWADAM followed a consultative process with
major partners such as The Mountain Institute (TMI) to come up with the detailed steps in a spring revival protocol,
which were then verified at a workshop held in Gangtok, Sikkim, India in November 2015. The protocol is both
useful and practical because:
• It incorporates hydrogeology, socio-economic and governance issues to come up with a comprehensive

understanding of springs and springsheds.
• It combines aspects of research and knowledge generation (Steps 1 to 4) and implementation (Steps 5 and 6).
Those who are interested only in knowledge generation can follow the first four steps; all six steps are needed for
implementation.
• It is relatively easy to carry out. The step-by-step approach can be used by a diverse range of stakeholders – field
implementers, grass roots workers, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and researchers.
The main target audience of this manual are the field level officials of government agencies and NGOs. The
manual provides a step-by-step approach, which together with a two-week long practical classroom and field-based
training will equip field level officials to implement spring revival programmes in their own areas. The manual will
also be useful for researchers and higher-level government officials to gain conceptual clarity around the issues of
spring management and revival. The manual may be less useful for local communities where a simpler and more
graphical version along the lines of the Dhara Vikas handbook (Figure 1) is likely to be more appropriate.
3
2 Basic Concepts
This chapter presents some of the basic concepts of hydrogeology and social science that are needed as
background when implementing a stepwise spring revival protocol.
The Hydrogeological Cycle

The hydrogeological cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean. As moist air is lifted,
it cools and the water vapour condenses to form clouds. The moisture is then transported in the atmosphere until it
returns to the surface as precipitation. Once the water Figure 3: The hydrogeological cycle
reaches the ground, one or more of three processes
take place: 1) some of the water evaporates back into Glaciers (70%)
the atmosphere; 2) some water flows away as surface

runoff; and 3) some of the water percolates into
the ground to become groundwater. Groundwater Rainfall
can seep into lakes, streams, rivers, and the ocean, Evaporation
River
or be released back into the atmosphere through (0.3%)
transpiration from vegetation. The surface runoff Sea

Groundwater (30%)
empties into lakes, rivers, and streams and is carried
Spring
Rocks
back to the oceans, where the cycle begins again (Groundwater)
(Figure 3). Similar processes take place with snow Rocks
and other frozen precipitation but with a delay (http://

ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/smry.rxml).
Groundwater Figure 4: The occurrence of groundwater in soil,

rocks and fissures
The water that fills the fractures, cracks, and pore
spaces in soil, sand, rocks, and rock formations is
commonly known as ‘groundwater’. Groundwater Rainfall Water saturating rock
comprises less than 1% of the Earth’s water but

around 98% of the available freshwater. The oceans
contain about 97% of the Earth’s water, but this is not
suitable for drinking, while about 2% is frozen at the Hard rock Unsaturated pore
space (air and water)
poles or in glaciers. Of the remaining 1%, 95–97% is Rock grains
stored as groundwater and the rest as surface water. Saturated pore

space (water)
Groundwater is also a major contributor to streams
and lakes in the form of base flows (Figure 4). Groundwater in
the pore space
Porous and permeable rock
Aquifers
Groundwater is stored and transmitted through aquifers. Any saturated geological formation or rock formation
which stores and transmits groundwater is called an aquifer. In order to qualify as an aquifer, a rock unit must have
certain properties which allow storage and transmission of groundwater.
An aquifer should be considered as the basic unit for any study of groundwater or in any watershed development
or recharge augmentation programme. Different rock types have substantially different porosities and permeability.
Most aquifers are in porous regolith and fractured rock. Open pores gradually close with depth, so the base of the
aquifer varies from place to place (Figure 5). In mountain regions such as the Himalayas, high relief and complex
geological structures play a vital role in aquifer formation.
4
2: Basic Concepts
The Rock Cycle and Rock Types Figure 5: Formation of aquifer
The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that Unsaturated zone
describes the long-term transitions through geologic Water table Ground surface
time among the three main rock types – igneous, Saturated zone
sedimentary, and metamorphic – as a result of Fractured rock
formation, breakdown, and reformation. Each

rock type is altered or morphed physically and/
Unconfined aquifer
or chemically when forced out of its equilibrium
conditions (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_cycle). Porous and permeable
rock layer
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of the

molten matter known as magma which exists at great
Impermeable
depths inside the earth and is brought to the surface rock layer Confined aquifer
in the form of lava and other associated material

through volcanoes and fissures in the earth’s crust.
Granite, basalt, and rhyolite are typical examples. Figure 6: Main features of the rock cycle
These rocks can be broken down by weathering or
Igneous rocks
erosion to form sediment that is carried away and (layers of cooled
magma)
Weahering and erosion
(breakdown and transport
of rock material)
deposited elsewhere by agents such as water, air, and
glaciers. The deposited sediment eventually compacts
to form sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale,
and limestone. When subjected to higher pressure
and temperature at greater depths, both sedimentary
and igneous rocks can be further transformed (or
metamorphosed) into metamorphic rocks such as
schist, gneiss, quartzite, and marble. These can
be subducted deep below the surface due to plate Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks (deposition and consolidation
movements (plate tectonics) where they again melt (partial melting and
recrystallisation of rocks)
of weatherd rock material)
to form magma, which in turn can be expelled and

cooled to form igneous rocks, thus completing the
cycle which is repeated over geologic time. Other routes through the rock cycle are also possible, igneous rock can
change into metamorphic rock, and metamorphic rock into igneous or sedimentary rock. The main features of the
rock cycle are shown diagrammatically in Figure 6.
Figure 7: Different types of rock showing the
geometry of the openings in them which
define their relationship with groundwater
Rock Structure
Rocks are made up of different minerals each with Basalt (I) Limestone (S) Shale (S) Quartzite (M)
a definite chemical composition and properties

which govern the properties of the rocks and their
weathering products. The chemical properties of rocks
also play a big role in determining the chemistry of
surface and groundwater.
Groundwater in rocks
Groundwater is contained within the openings in
rocks, i.e., the pores and cracks. The size and shape
(geometry) of the openings (the rock structure)
determine the direction of flow and ease with which
the groundwater can move (Figure 7).
Groundwater moves slowly through the pore spaces Sandstone (S) Weathered Phyllite (M) Fractured
with the movement controlled largely by the porosity Granite (I) Granite (I)
* I – Igneous; S – Sedimentary; M – Metamorphic
5
and permeability of the rocks through which it flows. Porosity is a measure of the void spaces and is the fraction of
the total volume of voids over total volume of rock expressed as a number between 0 and 1 or as a percentage.
Permeability describes the ability of the porous rock material to allow water to pass through it from one point to
another under a hydraulic gradient. The porosity and permeability characteristics of different rock types determine
the total volume of groundwater that they can hold.
Planar structures and orientation

There are two types of rock structure: primary and secondary.
• Primary structures develop during rock formation Figure 8: Schematic diagram showing strike, dip
(e.g., columnar joints in basalts, cross bedding in amount, and dip direction
sandstone).
• Secondary structures develop after rock formation
in response to tectonic stresses (e.g., fractures, Strike
faults, folds). Di
p
dir
ec
tio
n
A variety of two-dimensional, or planar, structural 40°
features can be observed in the field including Dip amount
bedding planes, joints, fractures, faults, cleavage,

and foliation (repetitive layering) or schistosity. The
Rock unit 1 Rock unit 2 Rock unit 3
attitude or trend of bedding planes and other planar
features is expressed in terms of strike, dip direction, and
dip amount (angle) (Figure 8).
• Strike is the direction of the intersection of an inclined geological plane with an imaginary horizontal plane.
Measurement of the bearing of this line gives the strike direction.
• Dip direction is the direction towards which rock beds are dipping and is measured with a geological compass
along a plane perpendicular to the strike line.
• Dip amount is the angle of inclination of the dip plane from the horizontal.
Figure 9: Common types of fault structure
Two of the most common structural features observed
are faults and folds. Rock layers
A fault is a planar feature in which there has been

movement (displacement) of rock along a plane of
weakness (joint or fracture). Different patterns of stress
give rise to different types of fault (Figure 9). A normal Different patterns of stress gives rise to different structures in rocks
fault is a rupture along which the hanging wall has

moved downwards relative to the footwall; a thrust
fault is a type of low angle reverse fault along which
the older rocks have moved upwards over the younger Normal Fault Thrust Fault Strike-slip Fault
rocks; and a strike slip fault is a fracture along which

the blocks have moved past each other horizontally.
Figure 10: Development of simple fold structures
A fold is a bend or wavelike feature in a rock layer
An anticline
formed by compressive tectonic stresses. A syncline Dip amount (folded rocks)
is a fold in which the rocks in the limbs dip towards

p
Dip
Di
Anticline
each other with the youngest rocks in the core of the dir
ect
ion
Dip
fold, whereas an anticline is a fold in which the rocks
in the limbs dip away from each other with the oldest
rocks in the core of the fold (Figure 10).
The study of geological elements such as rock

type, rock texture and structure, and strike and dip Inclined/dipping rock layhers Syncline Horizontal rock layers
6
2: Basic Concepts
helps in understanding the aquifer systems that Figure 11: Accessing groundwater in the
discharge groundwater through springs and thus plains and mountains
in understanding the characteristics of the springs Springs in mountains
themselves.
Mountain Springs as Groundwater Wells in plains
In plain areas, groundwater usually has to be

accessed by digging wells into the water-bearing Water table
aquifers. In hills and mountains, groundwater
naturally discharges in the form of springs, which
occur where a water bearing layer (aquifer) Aquifer
Mountains
intersects with a hill slope and groundwater seeps
out (Figure 11). The spring water is part of the
groundwater system, and only becomes ‘surface
water’ after flowing into a surface water body such
as a stream or lake. Springs provide water to the
mountain population for a wide range of uses
(Figure 12). Every spring is unique in terms of its type,
Plains
catchment, recharge, and discharge. The occurrence
of springs and their behaviour depend on the aquifer
and its properties, thus identifying and understanding
aquifers is very important.
Figure 12: Common uses of springs water
Types of Spring
Springs can be classified in various ways based,
for example, on geology (location of discharge,
bedrock, geological structure, topography);
geography (location and source of discharge;
magnitude of discharge; location, size, and
flow path of aquifer; source of recharge water; Drinking Cultural Domestic
permanence of flow); parameters of water

chemistry; ecology that springs support; and
conservation priorities and human use
(Glazier, 2014). For the purposes of this manual
and the focus on reviving springs that have
deteriorated, we have chosen a definition based
on the underlying geology. Using this, springs are Agriculture Base flow Forests
classified into five types: depression, contact, fracture,

karst, and fault (Figures 13–17).
Depression springs emerge at topographic lows Figure 13: Depression spring

where the water table intersects the ground surface
(Figure 13). Springs can also emerge at the base
of large trees – generally as a result of the roots Loose unconsolidated
deposits (saturated)
penetrating the aquifer and change of slope. These

could be categorized as a special type of depression
spring. Depression
spring
Contact springs emerge at places where relatively

permeable rocks overlie rocks of low permeability
(Figure 14). Fractured gneiss
7
Figure 14: Contact spring Figure 15: Fracture spring
Sandstone (saturated)
Water saturated fractures
Fractured quartzite
Contact between Fracture spring
two lithologies
Massive
quartizite
Contact Massive slate

spring
Fracture springs occur as a result of permeable Figure 16: Fault spring

fracture zones appearing in low permeability rocks.
t
ul
Fa
Movement of groundwater is mainly through the Shale
fractures which tap both shallow and deep aquifers

(Figure 15). Fault spring
Fault springs are found where groundwater at depth Compact rock
is forced up a fault to the fault opening by hydrostatic

pressure (Figure 16).
Karst springs occur where water flows through the Compact rock Siltstone (saturated)
cavities and openings in limestone that form as a

result of dissolution of rock material and then emerges Figure 17: Karst spring
at the base of the limestone layer (Figure 17). Hard rock
Sinkholes
Springs can also be classified on the basis of size, i.e.,
the amount of water they discharge. Meinzer (1927) Karstic limestone
and later Alfaro and Wallace (1994) classified springs

based on the volume of flow per unit time (Table 1).
Table 1: Classification of springs based on the

Hard rock
volume of flow per unit time (magnitude of
discharge)
Spring magnitude Flow

First >10 m3/s Caves and cavities
Karst spring
Second 1-10 m /s 3
Third 0.1-1 m3/s

Fourth 10-100 l/s falling on it to a common point. As such, a watershed
Fifth 1-10 l/s separates two drainage units. Watersheds are also called
Sixth 0.1-1 l/s
catchments as they are the ‘catchment area’ for the point
Seventh 10-100 ml/s
at which the drainage converges (Figure 18).
Eighth <10 ml/s
Source: Meinzer (1927) and Alfaro and Wallace (1994)
Figure 18: The limits or boundary of a watershed

Watersheds (catchment)
Watersheds are best described as the units of the land Drainage
surface that drain water to a common point through Watershed boundary
a system of interconnected stream channels. The

system of interconnected stream channels is called 25
00
the ‘drainage network’. The common point is usually 20

00
the watershed outlet, the point where the highest
15
order stream (that is, the major river or stream in the 00
network) leaves the watershed. Watersheds, in other 27

.6
1
05
words, represent a hydrological unit of land defined 27
.6
.6
27
by a particular topography that drains all the water .5
95
27 9
.5
27
8
2: Basic Concepts
Springsheds
Majority of water conservation programs in the HKH have revolved around the concept of watershed in the past.
Watersheds are easy to demarcate and hold great appeal to most policy makers and implementers alike. However,
watershed concept only accounts for surface water movement over slopes.
Springsheds differ from watersheds because the source of spring water is determined by aquifer characteristics
and not surface topography. Also, movement of spring water which is groundwater, is determined by underlying
geology, that is, nature of rocks, their inclination and structure. The point where the spring emerges is based on
the relationship of the aquifer to the watershed surface. As defined above, a typical watershed drains water from a
ridgeline into the valleys (drainage lines) that converge to a common point – possibly at the confluence of a river,
whereas a springshed is a set of watersheds and aquifers that integrate into a system that supplies water to a group
of springs (Figure 19). The concept of watershed, therefore, cannot account for water which travels outside of the
watershed boundaries, for example through rock beds that inclines towards an adjoining watershed.
Figure 19: Springsheds and watersheds
Watershed-1 Watershed-2 Watershed-3 Watershed-4
a Spring Spring
Springshed-1 Springshed-2
a) Two springsheds each with two watersheds
Watershed-1 Watershed-2 Watershed-3 Watershed-4
Spring
Spring
Springshed-1
b) One springshed with four watersheds
For spring revival, the appropriate unit is the springshed – the unit of land where rain falls (recharge area), and
then emerges at discharge points – the spring. Springsheds, given the folded and faulted nature of the Himalayan
geology, often cover more than one watershed; in other words, recharge area of a spring in one watershed, may as
well lie in another adjoining watershed and as such, spring revival programmes have to be cognisant of this concept
of springshed.
As such, there are three possibilities:

• A springshed with one watershed and one aquifer.
• A springshed with one watershed and more than one aquifer, where the aquifers are not part of an adjoining
watershed
• A springshed with more than one watershed and one or more aquifers
9
Therefore, identifying a springshed is important for managing springs because this is the system that integrates
surface and groundwater and is instrumental for identifying recharge areas.
Water Tower
The concept of a water tower is best understood by expanding the concept of a springshed to a larger system. A
water tower is a common area that hosts many watersheds (and springsheds) that drain out from a common ridge
line, small mountain range, or even a large range. The entire Hindu Kush Himalayan range is essentially a large
water tower as it is the source area for many watersheds and river basins. At a more local scale, a contiguous
ridgeline that provides common high ground to a number of watersheds and springsheds can be described as a
water tower (Figure 20).
Any springshed management programme is likely to involve numerous springs located in several watersheds with
a number of springsheds which are often integrated into one water tower. The water tower is the largest land and
water resource unit within springshed management programmes.
Figure 20: Google Earth image of a water tower
Springshed Management
Springshed management is a comprehensive term encompassing all aspects related to sourcing, distribution,
maintenance, and management of spring water systems. Management includes both hardware, e.g., building of
tanks and water pipelines, and ‘software’, e.g., laying down rules of water distribution, cleaning of source, and
maintaining recharge areas. Since a majority of springs in the HKH are located on community land and water is
used collectively, communities often come together to manage the springs.
The Oxford Dictionary defines a community as “a group of people living in the same place or having a particular
characteristic in common”. In the context of springs and springsheds, a community refers to the people who live in
the vicinity of springs and derive their water supply from these springs. It is important to understand the community
characteristics and their involvement in spring management when recommending ways to revive and manage
springs.
10
2: Basic Concepts
Inclusive perspectives on management of spring water

In most areas in the HKH, communities manage the water from springs. But a community is not necessarily
homogenous. Within communities, there are people who by virtue of their gender, caste, wealth, or ethnicity have
more power and decision-making ability than others. For example, in some South Asian caste-based societies
with norms of purity and pollution, the lower castes (dalits) are often discriminated against when it comes to
collecting water from springs – they are either made to wait longer than others or are assigned to more remote
and marginal springs. Similarly, women are often discriminated against, and especially menstruating women
who are not allowed to touch water. Using a gendered and inclusive perspective in water management means
knowing about and understanding the differences in power and position of different members of the community.
In order to work towards an equitable spring water management system, we must recognize the societal inequities
and develop systems that work in favour of disadvantaged groups such as women, lower castes, and ethnic and
religious minorities.
Tools for participatory social science research

It is customary to use participatory rural appraisal (PRA) or rapid rural appraisal (RRA) tools to collect socio-
economic data in the field to ensure that the data are not extractive and that local people are able to voice their
opinions and describe the reality of their situation (Chambers, 1983). These tools generally yield qualitative data
which can be analysed to understand local practices and perceptions. At the same time, quantitative data amenable
to statistical analysis are needed to understand issues like quantum of water use and whether or not basic minimum
water needs are fulfilled. Ideally, a mixed method should be used that combines qualitative and quantitative tools
in order to understand the socio-economic and governance dimensions of a spring. The following tools are of
particular relevance to this handbook:
1. Transect walks are systematic walks along a defined path (transect) across a community/project area together
with local people to explore certain conditions. Transect walks should be carried out across the springshed and
local water tower noting down the locations of springs using Global Positioning System (GPS) and gathering
further information on each spring from the local community. Transect walks can also be used to understand the
overall layout of the springshed and presence of other water sources.
2. Focus group discussions (FGDs) are a form of qualitative research in which a small group of respondents (5-12
is often considered ideal) are asked about their perceptions on a certain set of issues. FGDs are a powerful tool
for eliciting a collective response on various aspects related to spring management. The format is often a free-
flowing discussion guided by some key questions. By conducting separate FGDs with different groups of people
(such as local leaders, women, men and women from marginalized communities), it is also possible to capture
differences in perception among different groups of stakeholders. The interviews are transcribed in detail and
can be analysed as qualitative data.
3. Key informant interviews (KIIs) are interviews conducted with individuals who are thought to be particularly
knowledgeable about the issue under discussion, and hence have to be chosen carefully. KIIs are also held, like
FGDs, as free-flowing discussions guided by a checklist or key questions, and the results once transcribed can
be analysed as qualitative data.
4. Questionnaire surveys are a research instrument comprising a series of questions designed to gather relevant
data from respondents. Questionnaires must be properly designed and pre-tested, and respondents must be
selected in such a way that they are representative of the population for which data is being collected. Data
collected using questionnaire surveys can be analysed quantitatively using statistical analysis.
11
3 The Six-step Protocol for Reviving

Springs in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
Following a broad consultation with wider stakeholders, Figure 21: The six-step protocol for spring revival
and building on earlier work by the Rural Management in the Hindu Kush Himalaya
and Development Department of the Government of
Sikkim (RM&DD, 2014), ICIMOD and ACWADAM STEPS
developed a comprehensive step-wise process for
studying, managing, and reviving springs in the Hindu
Kush Himalaya. The six-step protocol combines 1. Comprehensive mapping of springs and springsheds
hydrogeology with social sciences and community

action and can be used both as a research tool for
2. Setting up a data monitoring system
generating basic knowledge and to prepare detailed local
implementation plans for spring revival. The step-by-step
approach can be followed relatively easily by a diverse
3. Understanding social and governance systems of spring
range of stakeholders after some basic training. Figure 21
shows the main steps in the protocol; the following
chapters describe the individual steps in detail. 4. Hydrogeological mapping, development of conceptual layout
and identification of recharge area
Implementing the protocol requires an interdisciplinary
team. The skills needed for each of the steps are given at
the end of the individual steps. Overall, the team should
include geologists and hydrogeologists (for Steps 1, 2, 4b. Creating a
4c. Classification
of spring types,
4, and 6); individuals with a basic knowledge of plant 4a. Hydrogeological conceptual
identifying mountain
mapping hydrogelogical
types and species, such as foresters or botanists (for aquifer and recharge
layout of springshed
area
Step 1, especially for identifying broad forest and land
use types); social scientists such as human geographers,
socio-economists, sociologists, or anthropologists (for
5. Developing springshed management and governance
Steps 1, 3, and 6); and watershed experts with expertise
protocols
in implementing physical recharge structures (Step 5).
6. Measuring the impacts of spring revival activities
12
2: Basic Concepts
4 Step 1: Comprehensive Mapping

of Springs and Springsheds
Objective: To generate comprehensive information about the springshed – including web-based maps, GPS
locations of springs, and basic socio-economic information.
Output: A comprehensive spring database with the GPS location of all springs, one-time discharge and water
quality values, and basic socio-economic data, and a field report that documents these findings
Background Information on the Study Site from Secondary Data

The first step in a spring-related investigation is to Figure 22: A topographical sheet to understand the
delineate the study area. For example, the area of topography, drainage patterns, and
investigation may be demand driven following the water sources
requirements of a local community, or it may be
defined by a research or implementing agency based
on previous data.
Once the area of interest has been clearly defined,

secondary data for the area should be collected Pond
in order to obtain an initial understanding in terms

Village
of land use, settlements, distribution of springs,
geology, and so on. Data that could be collected to Roa
d
understand the local geography and culture might

include topographic (Figure 22) and geological s
am
Stre
maps, census and survey data from government
sources, local survey data by NGOs or communities,
and data derived from remote sensing and
geographic information system (GIS).
Reconnaissance Survey
A reconnaissance field survey should be organized in the study area together with local people after the secondary
data and information has been obtained. During the reconnaissance walks, the team should use primary field
observation to familiarize themselves with the pattern of spring distribution, land use, forest, and vegetation patterns,
the local socio-economic situation, local road distribution, and others. This reconnaissance will help in planning the
fieldwork for comprehensive mapping of springs and data collection and in designing the socio-economic survey. It
is important to involve local people in these survey walks and brief them about the objectives of the spring mapping
and revival work.
Spring Mapping and Preliminary Data Collection

A detailed field survey is carried out following the reconnaissance survey using a transect walk approach that covers
the entire area systematically and includes local people. All springs and any other water sources (ponds, dug wells,
bore wells, hand pumps, and others) should be mapped using a GPS device to provide an inventory. One-time
measurements should be made of spring discharge and water quality (salinity, total dissolved solids, electrical
conductivity, pH, temperature, and biological contaminants like E. coli) for all springs in the study area. Some
preliminary socio-economic information should be collected, in particular data on the households that depend on
each spring, including those from marginalized communities, the nature of the distribution system (piped vs. non-
piped), the purposes for which water is collected, people’s perceptions of present water quantity and quality and any
changes over the last decade, and whether there are any major conflicts related to water use.
13
The data should be tabulated in an Excel datasheet (Annex 1). The water sources should be marked on a base
map, whether a topographical sheet (Figure 22) or Google Earth image (Figure 23) using the latitude, longitude,
and elevation for each spring location obtained in the GPS survey to give a comprehensive map of all springs in the
study area. In some cases, the data may already be available – for example, Water Use Master Plan (WUMP) data
collected by Helvetas in Nepal – and these data should be used instead of conducting a new survey.
Figure 23: Google Earth image showing distribution of springs within a watershed
Delineation of Springshed
The next step after comprehensive mapping of the springs in the area of interest is to identify smaller sub-sets of
springs located within a water tower for long-term monitoring. A water tower is chosen as the working unit for spring
mapping and monitoring. It contains a number of springsheds as it extends across a valley-ridge-valley system
located in two or more adjacent watersheds.
Resources Needed
Table 2 gives a summary of the skills (human resources) and instruments (hardware, software) required to carry out
the tasks outlined in Step 1.
Table 2: Summary of requirements for Step 1
Types of skill needed Objective Time estimate

Capacity to carry out a socio-ecological survey including Delineate the area of interest 10 person-days for 100 ha
basic understanding of the landscape and topography; and develop an inventory of (may vary depending on the
mapping of spring locations, houses, and forest and information on springs and topography, access, and level of
vegetation types; and preliminary mapping of socio-economic associated elements within the field support)
dynamics (geologists, hydrogeologists, botanist/forester, area
socio-economists)
Instruments required GPS, field diary, container of known volume, water quality tester,
stopwatch, measuring tape
14
5: Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System
5 Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring

System
Objective: To collect long-term spring discharge data, water quality information, and rainfall data with the help of
the local community by setting up instruments and data monitoring systems.
Output: Data stored in an Excel spreadsheet (or similar data software) on daily rainfall, bi-monthly or monthly spring
discharge, and water quality. Rainfall and spring discharge hydrographs and water quality parameters should be
plotted as graphs.
Periodic (at least bi-monthly or monthly, but if feasible, weekly or daily) spring discharge, spring water quality, and
rainfall data can help in understanding of spring behaviour and aquifer characteristics. Rainfall data is important for
establishing relationships between recharge, spring discharge, and the characteristics of the aquifer that feeds the
springs. The variations observed through regular testing of water from an individual spring helps in understanding
rock-water interactions, travel and residence time of groundwater within the aquifer, and interrelationships between
rainfall, recharge, and spring discharge. The local community should be trained in the process of monitoring and
recording data as well as drawing simple inferences from the collected data. The following sections describe the
methodologies for monitoring different parameters.
Selection of Springs for Long-term Monitoring

The first step in setting up a monitoring system is to select the springs to be monitored in the long term. By long
term, we mean at least two years, and if resources allow, then longer. This selection is carried out at two levels. First,
a water tower is selected which encompasses a large number of springs from different springsheds and a spring
inventory is developed for all the springs in the water tower (Protocol Step 1 above). A number of these springs are
then selected for detailed and regular long-term monitoring using the criteria given below. The final number selected
will depend on the resources available and the variation. The selection criteria include the following:
• Springs that have recently shown a significant decrease in discharge.

• Springs with seasonal or perennial water quality issues.
• Springs on which a large number of households depend for drinking water throughout the year.
• Springs on which marginalized communities and disadvantaged groups depend.
• Springs with special cultural significance.
• Springs that contribute significantly to the local ecosystem.
• Springs that are shared and managed by the local community.
• Springs that can be measured with a high degree of accuracy (not just measuring the overflow, or what comes
out of a single tap) and which are physically accessible (does not unduly endanger the safety of the data
collector).
Springs are selected using the data collected in Step 1 and the above criteria. The list of criteria may be modified
based on the objective of the project and the resources available. Whatever the selection criteria used, they must be
systematically documented in the report.
Selection of Data Collector

Data collection is one of the most important parts of springshed management as the development of plans for
augmenting and managing the springs will be based upon the data collected in the initial phase. The community
members who will be responsible for collecting, maintaining, and transferring the data are thus very important, and
it is important to choose them wisely and train them well. Data collectors need to be trained at least twice and,
depending on their skill, it is desirable to re-train them twice a year to ensure that they are collecting data correctly.
The following points should be considered when selecting the data collector:
15
• Should be a local person well acquainted with the local terrain and well accepted by the local community.
• After training, should be able to measure discharge and rainfall accurately.
• After training, should be able to enter collected data properly and accurately in the data entry format provided.
• Wherever possible, preference should be given to women and to members of marginalized and vulnerable
communities.
• Should have adequate time available to collect data regularly.
It is advisable to train two people for this task from the same household in order to avoid the chances of data
inconsistency and gaps in the event of an emergency. Eventually, the data collectors will also act as ambassadors for
the various activities under the programme within the community. Adequate precautions should be taken to ensure
the health and safety of the local data collectors. Annex 2 provides a sample Terms of Reference (TOR) for data
collectors.
Data Collection
The data collector will collect three types of data – rainfall, spring discharge, and spring water quality. Rainfall
should be recorded each day in all months of the year. Spring discharge data should be recorded at least once and
preferably twice each month, depending on the human and financial resources available. Water quality data should
be collected seasonally and at least three times during the year in the pre-monsoon, peak monsoon, and post
monsoon periods. The data collector should understand the process of monitoring the spring discharge and spring
water quality and rainfall in the field and should collect data in a timely fashion, store the data in the prescribed
format, and transfer the data to the appropriate office.
Setting up Rain Gauges and Measuring Rainfall

Rainfall can be measured using automatic or manual rain gauges. The gauge records rainfall in millimetres (mm)
over a selected unit of time. Rainfall should be monitored in every springshed and ideally at two positions – one
at the recharge site and one at the spring itself. If only one rain gauge can be installed, it should be set up at a
location between the recharge area and the spring. If
resources permit, an automated (self-recording) rain Figure 24: Rainfall measurement using a manual
gauge should be installed; if they are limited, then rain-gauge
a minimum of one standard calibrated manual rain
gauge should be installed. In addition, several simple,
1
home-made rain gauges (see below) can be installed A measuring
at a large number of sites within the springshed cylinder
to improve spatial coverage over the study area.

A rain
Normally, rainfall should be measured every day gauge
between 8.30 to 8.45 am.
A standard manual rain gauge consists of a collector

placed above a funnel that leads into a container 2
where the accumulated water is stored between
observations. If the container is a graduated cylinder
calibrated to reflect the funnel catchment area, then 3
the rainfall can be read directly in millimetres from

the level of water in the cylinder. If the container
4
is unmarked, the accumulated rainwater must be
poured into a measuring cylinder to measure the
volume, and the rainfall calculated as described Rainwater collected in the jar of rain gauge
below (Figure 24).

5 Rainfall in mm
A simple rain gauge can be constructed using a
one-litre mineral water bottle with a flat base. The
top of the bottle is cut off and a funnel inserted. The
16
bottle acts as the rain gauge and the rainfall volume is measured by pouring into a measuring cylinder. Such rain
gauges can be installed at a large number of sites and especially in schools and at other community locations. This
will enable collection of rainfall data over a much larger area than with the automated or calibrated manual rain
gauges alone.
The following method is used to convert volume measurements of rainwater to millimetres of rainfall.
• Measure the volume of rainwater collected in the bottle using a measuring cylinder (in ml)
• Measure the radius of the funnel opening where rain was collected (in mm)
• Calculate the rainfall collection area (funnel opening) A = 3.14* (Radius of funnel in mm)2
• The rainfall in mm is the total volume of rainwater collected divided by the area of collection of water
column in mm
Rainfall (mm) = volume (ml) *1000 / 3.14* (radius of funnel)2
Measuring Spring Discharge

Discharge (Q) is the volume of water flowing from a spring per unit time. It is measured in litres per minute (lpm) or
litres per second (lps). Discharge is one of the most important parameters for understanding the characteristics of an
aquifer. Long-term discharge data will provide information about both the nature of a spring (perennial or seasonal)
and the storage and transmission capacity of the aquifer that feeds it. There are various methods available for
measuring discharge; the most important are described in the following sections. The method chosen will depend
on the volume of flow, the type of spring, and the surrounding infrastructure. In general, measurements should be
repeated three times for every reading and averaged to reduce error.
Container (or bucket and stopwatch) method Figure 25: Discharge measurement using bucket and
The simplest method is to hold a container of known stopwatch method
volume (bucket or large measuring cylinder) directly
under the spring so that all the water from the outlet
flows into the container, and to measure the time
taken to fill it. This method can be used when the
spring is free flowing with no infrastructure like tanks,
the spring discharge is significant, and the entire flow
can be channelled into the container as shown in
Figure 25. The size of the container depends on the
amount of discharge. In general, a larger container
will provide better accuracy, but it should still fill within
a few minutes. The steps are as follows:
• Hold a bucket of known volume under the spring
discharge point.
• Start a stopwatch as soon as the spring water starts falling into the bucket and stop as soon as the bucket is full.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) by dividing the volume of the bucket (V) in litres by the
time taken to fill it (t) in seconds and multiplying by 60 (as there are 60 seconds in a minute):
v
Q = t * 60
• NOTE: The measurements should be repeated at least three times and the average value taken as the reading.
Example
A 5 litre bucket fills up in 45 seconds.
The spring discharge is 5/45 * 60 = 6.67 lpm. In other words, the spring would take one minute to fill a bucket of
6.67 litres.
17
Water level change method

Some springs occur in the form of seepage
Figure 26: Using the water level change method in a
and a storage tank is constructed to collect the rectangular spring water storage tank to
water. It is not possible to measure the discharge measure spring discharge
of these springs directly; the method of choice Spring water storage tank
is water level change with volume estimation. a
b
The discharge is calculated from the observed Spring

discharge
point
rise in water level in the tank over a set time; the h1
dimensions of the tank are used to calculate the

water volume (Figure 26).
Tap
(closed)
The steps are as follows:
• Close the outlet valve and start a stopwatch.

a) Initial water level (h1) measured when the outlet valve is closed
Measure the water level in the tank at
the instant of closure (h1) by dropping a Spring water storage tank
measuring tape or stick through the opening a

b
Spring
in the top of the tank (Figure 26a). discharge
point h
2
• Stop the stopwatch after a time interval

chosen based on the flow rate of the spring
and measure the new level of the water (h2)
Tap
in the same way as before (Figure 26b). (closed)
Choose the time interval such that there is

an appreciable (easily measurable) change b) Final water level (h2) measured at the end of a fixed time interval
in water level.
• Calculate the difference between h1 and h2
to give the net rise in water level (h) in metres.
• Calculate the water volume using the tank dimensions. For a rectangular tank with sides a, b (metres), the
accumulated volume (V) is given by V = a * b * h (m3). For a cylindrical tank, calculate the volume from the
diameter.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) by dividing the accumulated volume with the number of
minutes taken (assuming it is 30 minutes in this case) and multiplying by 1,000 (as there are 1,000 litres in 1 m3)
a*b *h
Q= 1, 000
30 *
• NOTE: The measurement should be repeated three times and the average value taken as the reading.
Example
The initial water level in a rectangular tank 5m long (a) and 3 m wide (b) is 5 m (h1), the water level after 30
minutes is 4 m (h2).
The net rise in water level (h) is 5 – 4 = 1 m
The total volume of accumulated water is 5 * 3 * 1 = 15 m3
The spring discharge is 15 *1, 000 = 500 litres per minute (lpm)
30
Water level drop method

Some springs seep into a cavity that is not clearly defined and doesn’t have an outflow. Water is withdrawn using a
bucket, jug, or other container (Figure 27). The discharge of these springs can be measured by removing a known
volume of water and measuring the recovery time. (If resources permit, a pressure transducer can be installed in
the spring to accurately measure water level fluctuation, otherwise the manual measurement described here is
recommended.)
18
The steps are as follows: Figure 27: Discharge measurement of spring with no
• Note the depth of the water in the spring cavity outlet using water level drop method
using a ruler inserted at the centre and start a
stopwatch.
• Extract a known volume of water; the water level
will be lower.
• Observe the rise in water level at regular intervals
and stop the stopwatch when it reaches the
original level.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min
(lpm) by dividing the number of litres withdrawn
(V) by the time taken in minutes (t)
Q = V/t
• NOTE: The measurement should be repeated
three times and the average value taken as the
reading.
Example
5 litres of water is extracted from a cavity with initial water level 12 cm; it takes 10 minutes for the water level to
recover.
The spring discharge is 5/10 = 0.5 litres per minute (lpm).
Stream flow method

A few springs occur as seepages forming a stream. Direct measurement of the discharge is a challenge, but the
discharge can be calculated using the streamflow. The stream discharge is measured by installing a weir across the
stream to channel the flow. There are two types of weir: a V-notch weir for low flow and a rectangular weir for higher
flow.
V-notch method
A V-notch weir is used when the stream flow is low. It Figure 28: V-notch arrangement for measuring
is simply a ‘V notch’ in a plate that is placed so that it stream discharge
obstructs the open channel flow, causing all the water
to flow through the notch (Figure 28). The weir can be
constructed from a metal sheet (GI or hard-bound tin)
and should be installed at the narrowest part of the
stream close to the springhead. The flow head in the
notch is measured and the open flow rate (discharge)
H
calculated using a weir notch equation.

• Construct a V-notch weir with a ‘V’ angle of 90°.
• Install the weir in the stream at the narrowest
accessible position below the springhead ensuring
H = Head of flow in cm
that all the water in the stream passes through the V.
• Measure the head of flowing water (H) in cm from the bottom of the V using a scale.
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) in litres per min (lpm) as the flow rate using Thompson’s equation:
Q = 0.8388 * H5/2 for a 90° notch
Example
The head measured in a V-notch is 1.5 cm
The spring discharge is 0.8388 (1.5)5/2 = 2.4 lpm.
19
Table 3 shows the discharge values for different values of H calculated for a 90° notch using Thompson’s equation.
Table 3: Spring discharge values calculated for different levels of head in a 90° V-notch using Thompson’s
equation
Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min Head (H) in cms Flow in litres per min
90° notch 90° notch 90° notch
1.0 0.88288 9.5 245.59000 18.0 1213.62060
1.5 2.43293 10.0 279.19117 18.5 1299.66373
2.0 4.99432 10.5 315.40961 19.0 1389.26687
2.5 8.72472 11.0 354.30998 19.5 1482.47783
3.0 13.76273 11.5 395.95540 20.0 1579.34375
3.5 20.23353 12.0 440.40758 20.5 1679.91122
4.0 28.28216 12.5 487.72690 21.0 1784.22621
4.5 37.92564 13.0 537.97247 21.5 1892.33415
5.0 49.35449 13.5 591.20227 22.0 2004.27994
5.5 62.63374 14.0 647.47315 22.5 2120.10794

6.0 77.85379 14.5 706.84092 23.0 2239.86203
6.5 95.10099 15.0 769.36039 23.5 2363.58559
7.0 114.45816 15.5 835.08546 24.0 2491.32154
7.5 136.00498 16.0 904.06912 24.5 2623.11233
8.0 159.81835 16.5 976.36350 25.0 2759.00000
8.5 185.97261 17.0 1052.01996
9.0 214.53984 17.5 1131.08905
Rectangular weir
A rectangular concrete weir can be used to measure stream discharge when stream flow is high. A rectangular weir
is similar to a V-notch weir but with a level rectangular opening to allow water to flow over the weir (Figures 29
and 30). The flow head in the opening is measured and the open flow rate (discharge) calculated from the length of
the opening and the flow head using a rectangular weir equation.
Figure 29: Rectangular weir arrangement for Figure 30: Discharge measurement using rectangular
measuring stream discharge weir arrangement and measuring the head
in the weir
L
H
WEIR BASE
L = Length of the weir in ft

H = Head of the weir in ft
20

• Install a rectangular weir in the stream below the springhead ensuring that the base of the opening is uniform
and smooth and all the water in the stream passes through it.
• Measure the length of the weir (L) precisely in feet.
• Measure the head of the flowing water (H) in feet from the bottom of the opening using a scale (Figure 29).
• Calculate the spring discharge (Q) as the flow rate using the Francis formula (imperial units):
Q = 3.33 (L - 0.2H) H1.5 ft3 /sec
• Convert to litres per min (lpm) using 1 ft3 = 28.32 litres; 1 minute = 60 sec
Q = 3.33 (L - 0.2H) H1.5 * 28.32 * 60 lpm
Example
A head of 0.14 ft is measured in a rectangular weir with length 0.69 ft.
The spring discharge is Q = 3.33 (0.69 – 0.2*0.14) 0.141.5 = 0.114 ft3 /sec
= 0.114 * 28.32 * 60 = 193.7 lpm
Water Quality Measurement

Spring water quality should be assessed when the initial spring inventory is prepared (Step 1 in the protocol) and
then monitored at regular intervals – bi-monthly or monthly if resources permit, but at least three times over the
course of a year in the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons.
The initial test is a one-time measurement of water quality for basic parameters carried out as part of the inventory.
A hand-held tracer instrument is used to provide instant readings of salinity, total dissolved solids, electrical
conductivity, pH, and temperature of the water sample (Figure 31). E. coli contamination is tested using H2S vials.
Field kits can be used for routine water quality assessments in the field. In addition, laboratory water quality tests
should be conducted twice during the programme to validate the results obtained from field test kits and in situ
testing.
Figure 31: Water quality measurement using a tracer instrument
A tracer
Water sample
a b c
a) Collect the sample directly from the spring into a clean container Spring water sample
b) Immerse tracer probe in the sample
c) Read values for concentrations of selected substances
21
Data Quality Check, Storage, Management and Transfer

Checking the data quality is of paramount importance. It is also time sensitive – if poor data quality is detected
months after the original collection date, little can be done to rectify the problem. Data quality check protocols
need to be developed and adhered to. The data collector should submit the data to the project office within one or
two days of collection; the project officer should review the data within a day and if there are any doubts, the data
collector will be able to go back and repeat the measurements. The project officer should also prepare graphs of
spring discharge over time and immediately note any anomalies, and again contact the data collector to rectify any
problems.
Several types of data are generated under a spring management programme at different intervals and frequencies.
It is important to develop templates and methodologies for recording and storing the data and transferring it from
the field level for analysis and storage at a central level.
Data should be maintained at two locations – first with the data collector/field staff in the form of a bound register
or notebook (not loose sheets) that includes all the data entries, and second at the project office in the form of a
digital database. The project officer should develop a template for the field collector(s). The template should focus
on making it easy for the data collector to maintain the data in the given format, while providing sufficient flexibility
to modify the format in response to the field collector’s inputs without disturbing the structure or quality of the data
format/template.
Transfer of data should be the joint responsibility of the project officer and the data collector. Communication
methods are likely to be limited in village areas; innovative communication methods can be developed for transfer
of data including through telephone, mail, or the use of modern technologies such as the internet, where access is
available. Data transfer should be carried out regularly, the frequency should be decided at the outset of the project.
At the office level, the data should be stored in digital databases using software such as Microsoft Excel, Access,
or any other database software that allows easy export of data to multiple formats for analysis. A standard format
should be used to store data from all the springs in the programme. The examples in this Manual use Microsoft
Excel (Annex 1) but can be modified to fit other software as appropriate.
One Excel workbook should be maintained per spring. Within each workbook, different sheets should be used for
different types of data – one sheet for data related to the spring information, one sheet for maintaining regular
discharge data, one sheet for spring water quality data, one sheet for daily rainfall data for the stations in the
springshed, and so on. Consolidated Excel workbooks should be developed that combine similar data from all the
springs or gauges within a water tower. For example, a workbook with all spring discharge data, a workbook with all
rain gauge data, a workbook with all spring water quality data, and so on. Any discrepancies in the data should be
addressed as soon as they are detected. It is essential to carefully maintain backup copies of the data in Excel.
Data Analysis (Software Development, App Development)

Once the data generated through the various monitoring systems has been gathered together in the formats
described above, analysis can begin. Data fed into Excel sheets can be used to generate graphs to facilitate
interpretation. For example, spring discharge and rainfall data are commonly used to construct a hydrograph which
helps in understanding spring behaviour in response to rainfall and aquifer properties and gives an indication of the
size and location of the potential recharge area (more details are given in Step 4).
A dedicated app/software based platform can be developed for the springshed management programme, to enable
data collection, storage, and processing.
Data Sharing with the Community

Data collection and analysis will provide information and understanding of spring behaviour. The data, the results
obtained, and the interpretation in relation to springs should be shared with the local community. This information
sharing is especially important at the later phase of developing springshed management activities and protocols
during Step 5. The information can be shared with the local community using simple hand drawn graphs and charts.
22
Training Local Residents in Basic Hydrogeology

Local residents, especially those who directly depend on the springs, should be trained in the basics of hydrogeology
so that they can both monitor their springs and also understand the science behind spring recharge and discharge.
The training should be carried out when the long-term monitoring system is set up. Training local residents will
enable monitoring of spring discharge and other associated variables to continue even after the lifetime of the
project.
Resources Needed

Ability and knowledge to set up Setting up a continuous measurement 60 person-days/year for measuring spring data
instruments and take measurements system for precipitation, spring discharge, at monthly frequency over a springshed area of
and spring-water quality 100 ha.
365 person hours/year to collect daily rainfall
data
Instruments required Rain gauge, field diary, container of known volume, water quality tester, stopwatch, scale/
measuring tape
23
6 Step 3: Understanding Social and

Governance Systems Related to Springs
Objective: A comprehensive understanding of current water use patterns and their socio-economic implications, and
the institutions and governance systems that are in place for managing springs.
Output: A report that synthesizes the findings from focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KII),
and a questionnaire survey/interviews and presents various aspects of water use, institutions, and governance.
Understanding the current use of springs and the underlying institutions and governance systems is crucial for
devising effective mechanisms for spring revival. This step will yield information on the number of households that
depend on a spring, the quantum of water collected from a spring, the uses of the spring water, perceptions of water
quantity and quality (now and in the past), ease of water collection, and rules, regulations, and institutions involved
in spring management, and conflict management approaches, among others. The data need to be collected
at three levels: the overall water tower or springshed level; the level of springs that are being monitored; and at
household level from the households that depend on the springs. For ease of understanding, this step in the protocol
(Step 3) has been divided into three parts: the instruments needed for data collection, the process of data collection,
and the use of the outputs.
Data Collection Instruments

Focus group discussions (FGDs) at springshed and sub-village/ward level
Focus group discussions are conducted at the level of the lowest administrative unit within a water tower or a
springshed using a detailed checklist. Annex 3 gives a sample checklist which should be adapted to the local
context. The lowest administrative unit might be a ward in Nepal, or specific sub-locality within a village panchayat
in India, for example. Three sets of FGDs should be conducted in each unit – one with knowledgeable and
influential people in the area (e.g., local leaders, political workers, old men and women); one with a women’s
group; and one with marginalized communities like dalits and minority ethnic communities. For example, if a water
tower covers five wards in a village development committee area (VDC) in Nepal, then 15 FGDs will be held, three
in each ward (a general FGD, an FGD with women, and an FGD with marginalized groups). Conducting separate
FGDs, enables voices from all sections of society to be captured. To be effective, the number of participants in each
FGD should be limited to five to twelve. Detailed transcripts should be prepared for each FGD and the information
synthesized to yield the following information:
• the sources of water in the study area and a qualitative appraisal of quality and quantity of these sources over
time;
• a qualitative understanding of land use patterns, cropping patterns, and land use and land cover changes over
time;
• current patterns of management of the springs, such as institutional and governance aspects and conflicts and
conflict resolution; and
• the views of women and marginalized sections of the community on various aspects of water use, management,
conflicts, and others.
Sub output: A brief report summarizing the findings from the FGDs
Key informant interviews (KII) at spring and tap level

One or two key informants (people likely to have the most information) should be identified for each spring
chosen for long-term monitoring (see Step 2). The key informant could be someone who manages the spring, the
chairperson or a member of a water users committee, or a person who lives nearby and knows the spring well.
A semi-structured interview is held with each informant. Annex 4 gives a sample interview checklist and format
which can be adapted to the local context. Where springs are connected to taps, one KII should be held for each
24
6: Step 3: Understanding Social and Governance Systems Related to Springs
tap because taps often have their own institutional arrangements. GPS readings should be made for the water
distribution infrastructure – springs, collection tanks, and taps – at the time that interviews are conducted. The KIIs
should yield the following information for each spring:
• Ownership, number of dependent households, and type of source (dhara vs. naula/kuwa; perennial vs.
seasonal)
• Water distribution system – whether water is collected from source and if so, how, or whether source is connected
to collection tanks and/or taps
• Management related institutions – whether there is a water users committee, and if so, the membership and
representation of women and marginalized groups, activities of the management committee, sources of finance
for the management committee; and norms of participation and decision making
• Rules and regulations for water collection, with a special focus on rules of access for marginalized communities
• Conflicts and conflict resolution mechanisms
• Any awareness about the recharge area and means of spring conservation
• Any other relevant information
Sub-output: One to two-page report summarizing the findings from the KII(s) for each spring and a map showing
the water distribution system, if any
Questionnaire survey for individual water users

A structured questionnaire is used to collect socio-economic data from the water users who collect water from
the springs chosen for long-term monitoring. Annex 5 shows a generic questionnaire that has been tried and
tested in Nepal and the Indian Himalayas which can be adapted to the local context.
The questionnaire survey can cover all water users of a spring or a representative sample. A full census of
water users should be held if there are sufficient human and financial resources available and any of the
following apply:
• The number of dependent households per spring (identified during the KIIs) is relatively small (20 households or
fewer).
• Implementation activities are being planned to revive the spring (Step 5). This is important to provide baseline
socio-economic data to compare changes after implementation activities are complete (Step 6).
• Water users collect water at the spring source because there is no distribution system in place (pipelines/ taps).
A representative sample survey of water users is sufficient if

• resources are limited (time, financial, human);
• the number of dependent households is large (50 or more);
• the project is only concerned with generating scientific information (Steps 1–4) and no intervention activities are
planned; or
• there is a decentralized piped distribution network, which means that interviewing all users is logistically
challenging as the water is fed to several locations.
The questionnaire surveys should generate the following information:

• Demographic information on respondents
• Total water collected per day and total spring discharge per day, i.e., comparison of water availability and
demand. This will help categorize springs into those under stress and those not and will help identify seasonal
patterns in water availability and demand
• Quantitative data on water use, including ranking of water use according to purpose
• Data on various aspects of water access – such as time taken to collect water, rules for water collection,
condition of water sources, and built infrastructure
• Perceptions of water availability, quality, reliability, and dependability, and perceptions of past and future water
availability and quality
Sub-output: All data from the questionnaire surveys must be checked and entered into a simple database (Excel
workbook). The output is a database with checked data, and a report analysing the data generated.
25
The Data Collection Process

Designing questionnaires and checklists
Annexes 3–5 provide prototypes of checklists and questionnaires that have been field tested at various locations.
However, it is important to adapt these instruments to the local context since socio-economic conditions and
institutions vary across the region. A dedicated member of the team should collect relevant socio-economic
background information during the reconnaissance survey in Step 1 and use it to modify the instruments accordingly.
Pre-testing and finalizing questionnaires and checklists

At the start of the second visit to set up the monitoring system (Step 2), a member of the team, preferably a socio-
economist, should pre-test the instruments and make any necessary changes. In other words, one or two KIIs, FGDs,
and questionnaire surveys must be conducted to test whether the instruments yield the required information in a
usable form and whether anything needs to be added or deleted. The instruments should then be finalized.
Identifying and training field enumerators

During the first or second visit, the team socio-economists should consult with local partners, to identify a group
of five to eight educated youth from the local area (with high school or college education) who can be trained as
enumerators for the questionnaire survey. After the questionnaire is finalized and translated into the local language,
a manual should be developed in the local language on how to conduct the survey, and the group thoroughly
trained. Training a group means that surveys can be held at a number of springs at the same time. A supervisor
should be deployed with the enumerator team to check data quality and carry out random quality tests to ensure
that data is collected correctly.
Conducting interviews and surveys

FGDs and KIIs
FGDs and KIIs must be conducted by project staff – these qualitative and in-depth interviews cannot be outsourced
as they need a consistent interviewer who understands the topic in depth and who can draw conclusions and
respond to information given. Great care must be taken in identifying the right respondents for these interviews and
in-depth discussions.
Questionnaire surveys
Selecting respondents for the questionnaire surveys is relatively simple. In a full census, one or two enumerators
should be present at the selected sources from 5 or 6 in the morning to 5 or 6 in the evening and interview all
adults (over 16) who come to collect water. Children should not be interviewed as they may not know all the details,
but the number of children who come to collect water should be noted. This approach provides the most realistic
estimate of the actual number of people/households who collect water from spring. If resources permit, the exercise
should be repeated in the pre and post monsoon seasons to identify seasonal fluctuations in water collection
practices. The complete census of water users will take one day.
In a sample survey, a specified number of water users is interviewed from each source. The number of people needed
to ensure the sample is statistically representative is determined using the household dependency data obtained
in the KIIs for the spring and/or tap. A step-wise process for drawing a sample is given below. The enumerators
interview all adults drawing water from a spring or tap until the number required for the sample is reached. They
can then move to the next spring. If the water is piped to individual households, the enumerators must visit the
number of households required for the sample among those identified as using water from the source.
Determining the sample size

A normal approximation to the hypergeometric distribution is used to determine the sample size for a small
population. In the field it is easiest to calculate the sample size required using a sample determination table as
shown in Table 5.
26
6: Step 3: Understanding Social and Governance Systems Related to Springs
Table 5: Sample size determination
Confidence = 95% Confidence = 99%

Population size Margin of Error Margin of Error
5% 3.50% 2.50% 1% 5% 3.50% 2.50% 1%
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
20 19 20 20 20 19 20 20 20
30 28 29 29 30 29 29 30 30
50 44 47 48 50 47 48 49 50
75 63 69 72 74 67 71 73 75
100 80 89 94 99 87 93 96 99
150 108 126 137 148 122 135 142 149
200 132 160 177 196 154 174 186 198
250 152 190 215 244 182 211 229 246
300 169 217 251 291 207 246 270 295
400 196 265 318 384 250 309 348 391
500 217 306 377 475 285 365 421 485
600 234 340 432 565 315 416 490 579
700 248 370 481 653 341 462 554 672
800 260 396 526 739 363 503 615 763
Source: https://math.tutorvista.com/statistics/sample-size.html
The sample size is determined for each administrative unit identified for the FGDs (see above) Example: Ward 1 has
100 households, the desired confidence level is 95% with a 5% margin of error. Reading from the table, the sample
size is 80 households.
This sample then needs to be allocated proportionally to each spring in the unit area (ward) according to the
number of dependent household(s). The number of households dependent on the spring is divided by the total
number of households (HHs) in the ward and this proportion of the total sample size calculated to give the number
of HHs in the sample for that spring.
If the spring serves a number of separate taps, the same process is used to determine the proportion of the sample
to be interviewed at each tap from the proportion of spring households served by the tap.
Data cleaning and entry

All data collected from the FGDs, KIIs, and questionnaire surveys must be recorded properly. For FGDs, detailed
transcripts must be written and the information synthesized into a report. Similarly, the KII information should be
entered in a database (Excel workbook) and a report prepared. A data entry format should be prepared (in Excel)
for the questionnaire survey data and the data entered. If the sample size is large (more than 350 respondents
or so), double data entry is preferred with the same data entered by two data entry operators and compared for
discrepancies, which are then corrected. Overall, it is very important to clean the data before it is entered into the
database and to check that data entry has been done correctly.
Data analysis and report writing

After the data has been entered and quality checks conducted, it can be analysed. Some of the common analysis
parameters are demographic composition, types of water use, perceptions of water availability and quality, and
presence and types of institutions and governance.
27
Using the Socio-economic Information for Spring Revival Activities

The socio-economic information gathered through the discussions and interviews will be used in a number of ways:
• For determining which springs should be prioritised for revival based on factors such as the number of dependent
households, the proportion of spring water collected as a percentage of total discharge, people’s perception of
spring water quantity and quality, and whether there is a spring management committee or group that looks after
it
• To enforce management and conservation protocols and frame new governance mechanisms for better and
more equitable distribution of water
• To measure the impact of revival interventions; the data collected in this step provide the baseline data against
which data collected in Step 6 (after interventions) can be evaluated
The final output of this step is a comprehensive report that analyses the socio-economic, institutional, and
governance aspects of water use, drawing information from FGDs, KIIs, and the questionnaire survey.
Resources Needed
Types of skill needed Activity Time estimate

Social scientist (sociologist, FGDs, KIIs 1–2 hours for each FGD and KII once FGD
anthropologist, human geographer, participants have been identified
economist, social worker)
Local village youth (high school or Questionnaire surveys and data entry Each survey takes 15–30 minutes, but the
college graduates preferred) enumerators need to sit at the water source for
12 hours from morning to evening
Social scientist Analysis of data and report writing Up to 2 weeks for a junior professional, plus 2–4
days for a senior professional
28
7: Step 4: Hydrogeological Mapping, Development of Conceptual Layout, and Identification of Recharge Area
7 Step 4: Hydrogeological Mapping,

Development of Conceptual Layout, and
Identification of Recharge Area
In this step, the recharge area is identified using knowledge of the local hydrogeology. There are three sub-steps:
field mapping of the geology; creating a conceptual hydrogeological layout of the springshed; and identifying the
recharge area.
Step 4A: Hydrogeological Mapping

Objective: To undertake a detailed study of rocks, rock structures, streams, and springs in the springshed and
prepare a geological map (and/or a cross section) of the springshed
Output: A geological map to support development of a conceptual hydrogeological layout
Applying hydrogeological principles through detailed study of the rocks, rock structures, streams, and springs in the
springshed can significantly improve demarcation of the recharge zone for spring management and revival. The
types of rock, their strike and dip (inclination), presence of openings, and structural features together govern the
accumulation and movement of groundwater. The dip and strike of rocks and identification of openings forms the
basis of geological mapping, especially in the Himalayan region. The steps involved in detailed hydrogeological
mapping of a spring and its springshed are outlined in the following.
Obtaining a geological map of the area

Geological maps (published or unpublished) Figure 32: A typical geological map
of the area of interest may be available from
different sources; such maps can be used for 78°08’16.8” 1400m 78°08’42.72” 1300m
reference purposes and to gain a first-cut idea

about the regional geological conditions. In 30
°
1500m
general, geological maps may be available from 30
° 20
°
1600m
the geological survey departments of different 20
°
countries (e.g., Geological Survey of India,

Department of Geology and Mines, Bhutan). 30°29’18.24” 30°29’18.24”
Figure 32 shows an example of geological map.

20
°
These maps can provide information about
the types of rock, their orientation, and broad
geological structures present in the area of 246m
20
°
interest, and can be very useful for understanding 78°08’16.8” 1700m 78°08’42.72”
the general geology of the area before Phyllite Unconsolidated

sediments Dolomitic limestone
undertaking detailed hydrogeological mapping of

the springs and springsheds.
Geological observations during the transect walks

Information on spring location, rock type, and strike and dip values (see Chapter 2 on rocks and structure of
rocks), as well as land-use, land-cover, and forest types (broad leafed vs. coniferous), should be collected during
the transect walks across the springshed and noted in a field diary, together with values of latitude, longitude, and
elevation for every location of interest.
29
The geological traverses should be planned such that they cover the entire springshed (Figure 33). A geological
map and geological cross section are prepared using the information collected. The map and section are essential
for the development of a conceptual hydrogeological layout, and ultimately to identify the recharge area or
protection zone.
Figure 33: Measuring strike and dip using a geological compass such as a clinometer or Brunton compass
Fields
Valley 2 Valley 1
Measuring dip direction and

strike of the rocks
Measuring dip amount

of the rocks Spring
Fractures
Inclined rock layers
Magnetic needle
pointing north direction
90°
0°/360°
Measuring dip direction 180°
Inclined rock layers of the rocks
270°
Creating a geological map (using Google Earth/Toposheet)

A geological map shows the distribution of different types of rock and their structural relationship with each other
in the area of interest. Geological maps can be prepared at various scales, but for the purpose of hydrogeological
mapping of a spring and springshed area, it is preferable to prepare the map at a scale of 1:10,000 or 1:25,000,
depending on the detailed information required for spring revival activities.
All the information gathered during the transect walk observations is transferred in a specific format to an MS Excel
sheet on a computer (Annex 6A). The Excel file is converted to a Google Earth file format (.kml) using an online
converter like www.Earthpoint.us which will place all the information in the form of placemarks in Google Earth
(Figure 34).
The attitude, i.e., strike and dip, of a particular rock at its place of observation in the field is plotted over the
placemark in Google Earth representing its location (Figure 35). In this way, the observations made at the surface
are built into a geological map incorporating structural and lithological observations (Annex 6B).
The integration of data on dip and strike with other standard observations made on rocks in the mapping enables
interpolation and extrapolation of outcrop data to produce a geological map (Figure 36).
Resources Needed
the tasks outlined in Step 4A.
30
Figure 34: Geological information locations produced in Google Earth
Fracture/joint observatoins
Rock exposure
Spring location
Weathered outcrop
1019
P19
Schist
320
32
Figure 35: Plotting of strike and dip
Geological info
Spring
Strike-dip representation
Figure 36: Geological map in Google Earth
Fractures
Lithology outcrop observations
Phyllitic schist layer
Spring
31
Table 7: Summary of requirements for Step 4A

Basic understanding of field hydrogeology Collecting hydrogeological information 60 person-days for mapping springshed of
along with hands on experience in using from the field for developing 100 ha
basic software such as MS Excel, Arc GIS, hydrogeological maps
and Google Earth.
Instruments required Brunton compass/clinometer, hammer, GPS, field diary, base map like toposheet/
geological maps
Software requirement Microsoft Excel and Google Earth
Step 4B: Creating a Conceptual Hydrogeological Layout of the Springshed

Objective: To prepare a geological cross section for the springshed and project it into a three-dimensional (3-D)
conceptual hydrogeological layout
Output: A conceptual hydrogeological layout helps in the demarcation of the recharge zone for spring management
and revival described in step 4C. It also helps in visualizing the area of interest in 3-D.
A hydrogeological layout of a springshed is actually a geological cross section depicting a spring and its relation
to the surrounding geology viewed in 3-D. Thus a geological cross section is first prepared from the geological
map and then projected onto a 3-D image. The location of the spring is then marked on the 3-D layout to form
a conceptual layout. The base map and geological map prepared using the field data are used to create the
hydrogeological layout, including the cross-sectional view of the springs and springsheds. The hydrogeological
layout helps in understanding the inclination of rock layers and structures with reference to the spring. These further
guide demarcation of the recharge area for the spring. The steps involved in the preparation are described in the
following.
Generating a cross section of the springshed

The geological map prepared in step-4A is used as a base for generating a cross section of the springshed using
tools in Google Earth together with software support from CorelDRAW. A para-hydrogeologist can also hand-draw
a hydrogeological layout and cross section while in the field without the use of computer software.
Using Google Earth, an elevation profile (also called a topography profile) is generated for the springshed of
interest. The profile is then transferred to CorelDRAW software where the contrasts in lithology (contacts) are marked
together with the locations of the spring and fractures or joints, as noted in the observations (Annex 7). This process
yields a two-dimensional (2-D) cross section for the springshed (Figure 37) which is then integrated into CorelDRAW
to produce 3-D conceptual hydrogeological layout.
Creating a 3-D conceptual hydrogeological layout

The cross-section profile represents all the geological information in 2-D including rock layers (showing dip
direction and dip amount), spring location, and fracture/joint observation points. This section is integrated into a
3-D layout using CorelDRAW tools which displays the fracture trends, strike and dip of the rocks, and location of
spring together with any additional observations and information from the field (Figure 38). This 3-D layout helps in
developing understanding of the geological setup of the springshed. The aquifer can be represented in the layout
itself using the field information on spring typology and aquifer identification, which further helps in demarcating the
recharge area for the spring.
Resources Needed
the tasks outlined in Step 4B.
32
Figure 37: Generating a cross section of the springshed
Fracture observations Spring location Fracture observations
Dip of the rock
SSW NNE
Figure 38: A conceptual hydrogeological layout
Unconsolidated material Kathnaula spring
Phyllitic schist Ganga khanepani spring

N
Fracture sets (F)

dipping SW
F
Table 8: Summary of requirements for Step 4B
Ability to interpret field data in order to Creating a geological cross 30 person-days for a 100 ha springshed area
understand and draw the hydrogeological section and developing a
setting of the springshed, together with the hydrogeological conceptual
capacity to work on various computer aids layout
Use of software Designing software like CorelDRAW and SketchUp, and

Google Earth
33
Step 4C: Classification of Spring Type, Broad Identification of the Mountain

Aquifer, and Demarcation and Analysis of the Recharge Area
Objectives: To identify the spring type and the aquifer feeding the spring and demarcate the recharge area for the
spring based on various outputs from the previous steps, particularly the hydrogeological layout.
Output: The final output is identification of the recharge area(s), with various sub-outputs from different steps
The hydrogeological layout of a springshed helps in identifying the aquifer and recognizing the type of spring being
studied, as well as progressing towards demarcating the recharge area for the spring as part of the springshed
management activities. The steps involved are described in the following.
Identifying the spring type and aquifer

The hydrogeological layout described in the previous section is based on field observations and mapping. The
broad location of the aquifer, the location of the spring, and other geological features indicate the hydraulic
connection between the ground surface, the aquifer, and the spring. Different characteristics contribute to
identification of the type of spring and type of aquifer, including the relation to geological features, and the
discharge, water quality, and hydrograph.
Identification of spring and aquifer type from the hydrogeological layout

The hydrogeological layout developed from the observations is compared with the diagrams of spring-types and
aquifer types given in the concepts section (Chapter 2) in order to identify the basic spring type. Figure 39 shows
an example where the spring emerges along a fracture (and mostly due to the presence of the fracture) trending
roughly NE-SW from an aquifer defined by phyllite and fractured quartzite layers.
Identification of spring and aquifer type from the

hydrograph and groundwater quality information Figure 39: Conceptual layout showing a fracture spring
The type of spring (and aquifer) is also broadly and the aquifer feeding it
correlated with the rainfall-discharge hydrograph,
Phyllite and fractured quartizite layers form the
and with groundwater quality. Thus the preliminary aquifer system to the spring
Escarpment slope
identification can be further confirmed using the
Fracture
data and information on spring discharge, rainfall,
and groundwater quality collected during the Dip slope
monitoring activities (Protocol Step 2). It is useful
to capture annual and longer-term trends in spring Aquifer
discharge through measurement, but approximate N
information can also be obtained by talking to
the community who can create a narrative about
the seasonal and long-term trends in springs that
Recharge area Fracture spring
they use. Both types of information are used to A hydrogeological layout of the springshed
help correlate the spring-type. Table 9 provides Inclined Fracture spring
rock layers Village 1
an indicator matrix for the correlation between Land owned
spring type and the nature of the hydrograph by village 2
and groundwater quality which can be used as a Village 2

rule of thumb. While only indicative, this type of
correlation helps strengthen the identification of
spring and aquifer(s) type.
Identification of spring and aquifer types from

hydrograph typology Recharge area for Land owned by
spring in village 1 village 1
The ‘type curves’ of hydrographs can also be used
A conceptual drawing of the springshed
to further delineate the typology of springs and
34
Table 9: Indicator matrix for spring type, discharge and spring-water quality
Spring type Possible nature of hydrograph and groundwater quality

Depression spring Seasonally high discharge; spring sometimes seasonal but often perennial
Groundwater quality changes with season; the concentration of dissolved solids generally increases with drop
in discharge
Contact spring Seasonally high discharge but not as variable as in a depression spring; usually perennial
Groundwater quality, particularly the concentration of dissolved solids, generally increases as discharge
dwindles
Fracture spring No major discharge variation, fairly constant, seldom with high discharge; usually perennial
Groundwater quality fairly constant, with minor fluctuations
Fault spring Sometimes with high and fluctuating discharge, particularly when fed by deeper confined aquifers; fluctuation
typically doesn’t follow the seasons
Groundwater quality varies, sometimes with a high concentration of dissolved solids throughout the seasons
Karst spring Seasonal or perennial with highly fluctuating discharge
Groundwater quality is different in karst springs compared to other springs. Usually there is a higher
concentration of dissolved solids and seasonal changes in groundwater quality are common.
aquifers, which is then used in the process of identifying recharge zones and management of the recharge process.
The sequence of hydrograph type curves shown in Figure 40 illustrates how concepts, data, and hydrogeological
interpretation can be used to develop a synopsis of the typology of springs and aquifers in a broad and indicative
manner.
Figure 40: Sequence of hydrographs illustrating how concepts, data, and hydrogeological interpretation
can be used to develop a synopsis of the typology of springs and aquifers
Spring 1 Spring 2 Spring 3 Spring 4 Spring 1 Spring 2 Spring 3 Spring 4

160 160
140 140
High discharge, perennial Depression, karst, fault
120 120
100 100
Widely ranging discharge Karst, contact, fault
80 80
Discharge
Discharge
60 60
40 Sustained perennial discharge 40 Fracture, contact
20 Low discharge, highly seasonal
20
Fracture
0 0
Apr/15
May/15
Jul/15
Sep/15
Oct/15
Dec/15
Jan/16
Mar/16
May/16
Jun/16
Apr/15
May/15
Jul/15
Sep/15
Oct/15
Dec/15
Jan/16
Mar/16
May/16
Jun/16
Time Time
a) Hydrograph with description of the discharge magnitude and b) Hydrograph indicating the correlation with spring type
fluctuation showing whether the spring is seasonal or perennial
160 160
Unconfined/confined
140 Large storage, rapid flow 140
120 120
100 100
Discharge
Discharge
80 Low storage, quick transmission connection 80

to seasonal surface water source Confined
60 60
40 Slow flow, moderate to large storage
40
Mostly unconfined
20 Very limited storage, highly local and seasonal connection to 20
Very local aquifer
surface water
0 0
Apr/15
May/15
Jul/15
Sep/15
Oct/15
Dec/15
Jan/16
Mar/16
May/16
Jun/16
Apr/15
May/15
Jul/15
Sep/15
Oct/15
Dec/15
Jan/16
Mar/16
May/16
Jun/16
Time Time
c) Hydrograph describing the possibilities for water storage and d) Hydrograph showing correlation with possible aquifer type
transmission in the underlying aquifers
35
Delineation of the recharge area

Identification and delineation of the recharge area(s) is the most important step in springshed management. It is
crucial both for augmenting or restoring spring discharge and quality by increasing recharge to the aquifers feeding
the spring, and for managing aquifers and springs by protecting the recharge area. The recharge area is identified
from the hydrogeological layout and then located on the map and Google Earth image.
The hydrogeological layout is used to identify the area that supplies water to the aquifer that feeds the spring, i.e.,
the recharge area, by linking backwards from the spring through potential channels for the water along fractures
and other rock formations to the location on the surface. Following careful identification, this area is indicated as
the recharge area on the layout (Figure 41).
Once the recharge area has been marked on the hydrogeological layout, it can be located on the geological/
hydrogeological map (Figure 42).
The recharge area is then located on the Google Earth Image to provide a way of identifying the area for recharge
interventions in a form that people are accustomed to (Figure 43).
Figure 42: Location of the recharge area on the
Figure 41: Hydrogeological layout showing geological/ hydrogeological map
identification of the recharge area for a 81° 58’ 18.7”
spring based on the geology
30
Phyllitic schist (dipping NE)
30
Unconsolidated materials 28° 88’ 15.1”
Badarukha spring
30
30
N
Not mapped
Unconsolidated colluvium
Phyllitic schist
400 m Badarukha spring
a) Spring location – a depression spring tapping an unconfined a) Map showing geology of area and location of spring
aquifer formed in unconsolidated sediments
81° 58’ 18.7”
Recharge area
30
Phyllitic schist (dipping NE) 30
Unconsolidated materials 28° 88’ 15.1”
Badarukha spring
30
30
N
Not mapped Protection area
Recharge area
Badarukha spring
400 m
b) Decharge area located upslope from the spring at the top of the b) Demarcation of the recharge area using the
unconfined aquifer information from the hydrogeological layout
Collecting detailed information about the recharge area

Once the recharge area has been delineated, ground information should be collected on land use and ownership
of the site to help in the selection of recharge measures. The type of land cover (forest, agricultural land,
settlements, and so on) and land ownership (private vs. communal) will play a significant role in determining
what activities are desirable and/or feasible. Table 10 shows a typical format for collecting information about the
recharge area. Simple GPS mapping of land ownership and land cover will also help in systematic planning of the
recharge activities (Step 5, see next Chapter).
Table 10: Template for recording land use and ownership in recharge area of springs
Name of Land use type Main uses of land Main users of land Who owns the land? Who regulates land
spring use?
[Spring 1]
[Spring 2] etc
36
Figure 43: Location of the recharge area on the Google Earth image:
Badarukha spring
Phyllitic schist
Unconsolidated material (debris)
N
©2016 Google
Image © 2016 CNES / Astrum
US Dept of State Geographer 400 m
a) Geological map from Figure 42 depicted as an overlay on the Google Earth image in tilt view
Badarukha spring
Recharge area
Protection area
©2016 Google N
Image © 2016 CNES / Astrum
US Dept of State Geographer 400 m
b) Demarcation of the recharge area(s) on the Google Earth image in tilt view (the geological layer can be retained or removed)
The identification of spring types and aquifers and demarcation of the recharge area(s) is a prerequisite for the
next step of developing the springshed management and governance protocols. The physical aspects of recharge
augmentation and protection form a significant part of the protocols. However, implementation depends on
community perception and understanding of the process of mapping, measurement, and identification of spring
typology. The maps developed in this step provide a basis for helping the community understand the location of the
recharge area, the role of recharge in ensuring spring discharge, how spring revival measures can work, and how
they can help improve and maintain their water supply. The springshed management plan will link the technical and
socio-economic aspects including understanding of the potential impacts of water augmentation. The impacts can
include any of the following: increased spring discharge, improved water quality, more sustained discharge during
the dry season, better management with more equitable access, and efficient distribution.
Resources Needed
the tasks outlined in Step 4C.
37
Table 11: Summary of requirements for Step 4C

Interpreting field hydrogeology and Identifying and demarcating potential One person-day for a trained person per
spring discharge hydrographs – recharge sites spring
geologist and hydrogeologist
Social scientists and forester Collecting detailed land use and land 1-4 person days per spring recharge area,
change information on recharge areas. depending on the size of the recharge area.
Remote sensing maps are a good tool
Software requirements Microsoft Excel, Remote Sensing maps,
if available, CorelDRAW and Google
Earth
38
8: Step 5: Developing Springshed Management and Governance Protocols
8 Step 5: Developing Springshed

Management and Governance Protocols
Objective: To understand the different ways of enhancing recharge, and develop springshed management and
governance protocols. These can be physical measures or governance and social protocols, or a combination of
both.
Output: Detailed and context specific spring recharge and governance protocols for implementation activities.
Recharge areas are governed by local geology and often cross village boundaries. This means that management
protocols for spring water must be developed by mutual consent among the different villages involved.
Management plans are also site specific, developed to meet local needs and taking into account local possibilities
and constraints. Land use and ownership play a role in determining what measures are possible. For example,
construction of physical structures like pits and ponds or terraces may not be possible on private land and
alternative interventions like hedgerows or tree plantation may be suggested. In some cases, the recharge area
might be located in a place where activities are not possible, and in others artificial enhancement of recharge may
not be needed, with changes in land and spring management sufficient to address any problems. In all cases, it
will be useful to organize public meetings to acquaint community members with the possibilities for springshed
management, and actions to undertake or avoid. Governance mechanisms will need to be established to ensure
that the springshed management protocols can be maintained.
There are two main aspects to springshed management: physical and biological measures, and social measures.
Physical and Biological Measures for Springshed Management 30

In order to recharge springs, it is important to stop rainwater simply running off the surface and get as much water
30
as possible to infiltrate into the ground. Management measures to increase infiltration are planned at strategic
locations in the recharge areas of springs, and are selected based on the land use type, topography, and land
ownership. Water infiltration can be encouraged through structural, vegetative, agronomic, or management
measures, alone or in combination. A selection of these methods are described in the following section. There are a
30
number of resources available providing more 30 details and more methods such as ICIMOD’s Godavari Knowledge
Park information sheets (ICIMOD, 2013), Nepal Conservation Approaches and Technologies (NEPCAT) Fact Sheets
(www.icimod.org/nepcat), Resource Manual on Flash Flood Risk Management (Shrestha et al., 2012), Global
Sustainable Land Management Database of the World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies
(WOCAT; https://www.wocat.net/en/global-slm-database), and the Manual on Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management Techniques (DSCWM, 2004).
Structural measures
Shallow dugout ponds
Ponds can be used to harvest surface runoff and increase infiltration (Figure 44). They can be round or rectangular
and are usually constructed on sloping land where there is a natural depression (ICIMOD, 2008b). The typical size
for recharge purposes is around 3 x 3 m, with a depth of 0.75 m. A feeder channel is connected to the pond from
both sides to help harvest additional surface flow. The walls should be sloped at 45 degrees to prevent cave in
(RM&DD, 2014). It is better to construct a series of small ponds rather than one large pond.
Avoid locations
• where there is slope movement, subsidence, land sliding, or gullying which may affect the area below;
• where the valley side of the pond is not sufficiently stable to hold standing water;
• at the toe of a slope, where the pond may increase the instability of the slope; and
• close to a cliff, where slope-failure may occur due to seepage or water pressure.
39
Figure 44: Conservation ponds for spring recharge
a) Rectangular dugout pond waiting for rain b) Circular pond – economically efficient but more difficult to construct
Inwardly sloping terraces or absorption terraces

Inwardly sloping terraces guide water towards the hillside rather than down the slope. Level terraces with riser bunds
for impounding water for paddy cultivation also facilitate recharge. These terraces are very effective where the soil is
fairly rough so that the greatest possible infiltration surface is obtained, but less so where the soil is less penetrable
(such as heavy clay). Old terraces can be modified to make them inward sloping with a gentle gradient (Figure 45).
Figure 45: Typical absorption terraces
a) Inwardly sloping terraces b) Level terraces for paddy cultivation with soil bunds at the margins
Trenches (continuous or staggered)

Trenches or retention ditches can be dug by hand along contour lines in a staggered (or continuous) pattern
(Figure 46). Contour lines can be identified using a simple A-frame (ICIMOD, 1999). The trenches should be
trapezoidal, e.g. 40 cm high, 30 cm wide at base, and 50 cm wide at top. The exact size and spacing depends
on the slope, with smaller trenches and closer spacing on steeper slopes constructed. The soil excavated from the
trench is used to form a compacted berm on the downhill edge of the ditch with a gap of about 10-15 cm, and the
berm planted with permanent vegetation to stabilize the soil. Trenches should be maintained before the rainy season
and checked after heavy rains. The structure can be unsuitable in areas susceptible to landslides.
Semi-circular bunds or eyebrow pits

Eyebrow pits are small curved trenches around 2 m long and 50 cm wide dug at intervals across a slope to catch water
(Figure 47). The soil is piled high to form a ridge on the downslope side which can be planted with grass, fodder, fruit,
or non-fruit species to stabilize the pit and further hinder flow. If the fields are levelled, planting pits can also be used.
The effectiveness of these water traps can be increased by integrating a layer of mulch (ICIMOD, 2007).
40
Figure 46: Construction of staggered trenches for spring recharge
a) Diagram of layout b) Staggered trenches across grassland
Figure 47: Semicircular or eyebrow pits to hold water and facilitate infiltration
Triangular pits
Figure 48: Triangular pits
Triangular pits are used to trap snow to reduce
evaporation and increase percolation. The dug out
soil is piled on the sunny side to form a berm or bund
in which seeds can be planted (Figure 48) (Bhuchar et
al., 2009).
Soil and stone bunds

A bund is a continuous raised mound constructed in a
long line to keep back water (Figure 49). Bunds help
to increase infiltration and keep back eroded soil.
They are easy to build but need more effort to maintain. Bunds can be combined with trenches (Figure 49a) and
fodder or other crops can be planted along the top. Stone bunds can be constructed if stones are available (Figure
49b) (WOCAT, 2011).
Check dams
Check dams are small structures constructed from loose stone and gabion masonry across a gully or channel to
slow water flow and prevent the gully deepening further (Figure 50). The structures also help increase infiltration
along the gullies. Loose check dams can be combined with vegetative measures (bio-engineering) which further
increases water retention and infiltration.
41
Figure 49: Different types of bund
a) Soil bund along a contour combined with a trench b) Stone bunds
Figure 50: Check dams constructed along gullies to control erosion and increase infiltration
Vegetative measures
Afforestation and forest management
Deforestation and unsustainable forest management is one of the causes of springs drying up. Sustainable forest
management and afforestation of degraded land with appropriate species are important for reducing runoff,
increasing infiltration, and enhancing recharge. Species should be selected for afforestation that demand less water,
have water saving strategies, and support undergrowth. For example, native deciduous species which shed their
leaves during the dry season can further enhance recharge. Intermediate tree cover is generally better than dense
tree cover as transpiration is lower. There should be a complete ban on using fire in recharge areas.
Hedgerows
Sloping agricultural land technology – contour hedgerows – can be used to construct terraces naturally that hold
back water. Fast-growing nitrogen-fixing tree or shrub species are planted along contour lines to create a living
barrier that traps sediment and gradually transforms the sloping land to terraces (Figure 51). The terraces are used
to grow crops, fruit, or fodder. The hedgerows reduce runoff and soil erosion and improve infiltration. This approach
combines the strength of terracing with the strengths of natural vegetation.
42
Palisades (live check dams) Figure 51: Sloping agricultural land technology
A palisade is a fence or wall made from live wood with crops in the alleyways at ICIMOD’s
Knowledge Park
cuttings planted in lines across a slope following
the contour in order to trap soil and debris moving
down the slope and increase infiltration (Figure 52).
The cuttings grow to form a dense, stable wall of
vegetation.
Brush layering
In brush layering, live woody cuttings are laid in lines
across a slope with soil in between following the
contours (Figure 53). As the roots grow, they anchor
and reinforce the upper soil layers while the foliage
traps debris. Brush layering can be used for well-
drained slopes of less than 45°. The structures reduce
runoff velocity and increase infiltration. Figure 52: Palisades to control erosion and improve
infiltration
Agronomic measures (sustainable
agriculture)
Organic matter in soil increases the presence of soil
cavities and acts as a sponge for water. Soil rich in
organic matter preserves moisture longer. There are
a range of agronomic techniques that can be used
to improve the structure of top soil and increase
moisture capacity including mulching, adding
compost, and minimum tillage. These techniques also
slow the water flow allowing more time for infiltration
(Figure 54).
Management measures Figure 53: Brush layering across slopes along a contour
Wetlands and grazing land management

If wetlands are present in the recharge area, they
must be protected and/or restored. There should
be no grazing in the recharge area. Overgrazing
leads to soil depletion which reduces soil infiltration.
If a complete grazing ban is difficult, options like
restricting stocking density and rotational and
deferred grazing should be promoted. Simple fencing
around the springshed will help to protect it from
further deterioration (Figure 55).
Eco-safe roads
Steep slopes and weak rock are subject to erosion and landslides, which degrade the groundwater recharge
capacity. Although erosion and landslides are caused by extreme natural events (e.g. heavy rainfall), they are often
aggravated by human activities such as road construction. Eco-safe methods which combine vegetative and low cost
structural measures should be used when constructing rural roads (Devkota et al., 2014). Various bio-engineering
techniques can be used to hinder landslides such as grass planting, palisades, fascines, and wattle fences, based on
a landslide survey and assessment (DSCWM, 2016).
43
Figure 54: Agronomic measures promoting infiltration
a) Minimum tillage b) Mulching – spreading of plant material or organic matter (here

straw) around the base of plants
Figure 55: Management measures for springshed protection
a) Rotational grazing, a sustainable land management practice b) Fencing of springshed
Combined measures
The measures described above can be combined in a comprehensive springshed management approach. For
example, combining eyebrow pits or trenches with tree plantation in alternative rows can be highly effective to
increase infiltration (Figure 56) (ICIMOD, 2008a). These measures can be complemented with other measures like
solar energy technologies, improved stoves, fodder cultivation on private lands, and roof rainwater harvesting to
reduce the dependence on recharge areas for ecosystem goods and services.
Figure 56: A combination of trenches, eyebrow pits and tree plantation to harvest surface runoff and increase
infiltration
Species along eyebrows

and trenches
1. Stylo Hedgerows species:
2. Gini grass 1. Sunhemp
3. Moth napier (cutting) Tree species:
1. Painyu 2. Tephrocia
4. Mollasses 3. Tithonia
5. Signal (cutting) 2. Champ
3. Bakaino 4. Flemingia
6. Pumpa
7. Jointvetch 4. Chilaune
5. Lapsi Continue up to 24 rows
8. Stylo
44
Social Measures for Springshed Management

Some of the important social protocols for springshed management are as follows:
• Keeping the recharge area and spring surrounding clear of open defecation, garbage, solid waste, and others
• Construction of a spring box to prevent surface water flowing directly into the spring
• Use of clean utensils to draw water from the spring
• No construction of toilets in demarcated recharge area or near springs
• No application of chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides) in the recharge area or near the spring; replace with eco-
friendly methods like composting and integrated pest management
• No cutting of trees in the demarcated ‘Protection and Recharge’ area
• Keeping the area around the spring clean and green
Ways to Improve Springshed Management Governance

It is important to have local systems based on good governance principles that facilitate and control decision
making with regards to spring water use and spring resource management. The local systems may comprise the
following:
• Formation of spring water user groups for springs and recharge area management. All castes and groups of
different social/economic status should be included in the group, and women’s participation encouraged.
• Spring water user groups should have written rules and regulations for spring water management, and penalties
for violations of rules.
• A community fund should be established with a nominal monetary contribution once every three months from
each household. This is important to ensure that the recurrent costs for maintenance and management of springs
and recharge structures can be covered in a sustainable manner.
• Spring discharge, water quality, and rainfall should be monitored regularly to assess the impact of springshed
management protocols.
• A yearly water balance should be calculated based on spring discharge and rainfall data to facilitate equitable
distribution of spring water.
Planning and Implementation

The planning and implementation of springshed management and governance protocols requires good community
mobilization for motivating and convincing land users to invest in, and maintain, spring recharge measures. Social
mobilization is also necessary for ensuring gender and social equity and for conflict resolution during the process
of designing and implementing protocols. Moreover, the effectiveness and efficiency of the recharge measures are
ensured if the technical measures are selected and applied based on proper survey, design, and cost estimations,
and when there is coordination between the relevant programmes of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, animal
husbandry, infrastructure development, soil and water conservation, and others. Therefore, the implementation of
Step 5 demands an interdisciplinary and gender balanced team of social and technical persons with knowledge of
the local contexts.
Resources Needed
45

Soil and water conservation expert Selection of appropriate measures for different 3–4 hours per site during selection of
land use types, technical inputs to field technician measures
1–2 hours per day per site to provide
technical inputs to field technician during
implementation
Soil and water conservation field To supervise and provide technical inputs 7–10 days per site
technician to communities and implementers during
establishment of recharge measures, and arrange
tools and material
Community mobilizer To discuss with farmers and local authorities 3–4 days per site
to acquire land where measures are to be
implemented, to arrange tools and material
Unskilled labour (about 10–15) To work on the ground Usually around 7–10 days per site (but
depends on area of recharge zone to be
covered and measures to be implemented)
Tools and material Tools for technician: measuring tape,
(Number/amount of tools and clino-compass (one per site)
material required depends on size Tools for structural and vegetative measures:
of intervention area and measures A-frame to make contour lines, rope, white powder
adopted) or ash; spade, shovel, hoe, pick
Material for vegetative and agronomic measures:
planting material (seeds/plant cuttings, seedlings),
locally available biological mulching material such
as straw, plant residues, stones, empty sacks
46
9: Step 6: Measuring the Impact of Spring Revival Activities
9 Step 6: Measuring the Impact of Spring

Revival Activities
Types of Impact of Spring Revival Activities

The impacts of springshed management are manifested in various forms. They range from a simple increase
in spring discharge to improved equity and efficiency in the use of spring water. Continued monitoring of the
springshed activities described in the various steps above is necessary to correctly gauge and understand the
impacts of a springshed management programme. Springshed management impacts can be broadly categorized
into changes in:
• the resource (aquifers) feeding the spring system
• the supply of spring water to users
Figure 57: Hydrographs reflecting spring discharge
• the demand for spring water for different types of spring and the
change following completion of springshed
Figure 57 shows a typical example: the impact on management work at the end of the
spring discharge after a year for different types baseline year
of spring in an area with a spring management 200 Low discharge, seasonal
Highly fluctuating, seasonal
180
programme. High discharge, fluctuating perennial
Moderate constant discharge, perennial
160
140
Impacts on resource (aquifers) 120
Discharge in lpm
The impacts on the resource result from changes in 100

Baseline year Impact year
80
the quantity of water available to the spring from the
60
aquifer due to improvements in one or more of the
40
following: 20
• The quantity of water stored in the aquifer which is 0
Apr/15
Jul/15
Oct/15
Jan/16
May/16
Aug/16
Nov/16
Mar/17
Jun/17
reflected in an increase in spring discharge
• The quality of water stored in the aquifer which is
reflected in improved spring-water quality Month
• Better management of the recharge area – it is protected, litter free, and rules and norms for land use in the
recharge area are well laid out
Improved supply of spring water

Supply, including access to spring water and/or distribution, can be improved through appropriate engineering
systems, improved access points, and better protocols for managing spring tanks and distributing water equitably
and efficiently to communities. Adequate attention should be paid to both engineering design and social equity
when constructing any civil engineering structures, in order to ensure that socially marginalized populations also
benefit from these investments.
Improved demand management for spring water

Social norms can be established regarding conservation measures, protection of recharge zones, and rules in
accessing spring water, as well as practices that reduce wastage and contamination at the source.
Measuring Impacts
Measuring hydrological impacts
Step 2 (Chapter 4) describes the setting up of a long-term monitoring system for selected springs. The data from this
system should be used to measure the hydrological impacts of the spring revival activities. The impact is measured
47
by comparison with the baseline situation as well as comparison with a comparable ‘non-intervention’ situation. For
example, 20 springs are being monitored in a programme, but only four have undergone intervention for spring
revival. The discharge of these four is plotted before and after intervention, together with rainfall, to identify any
increase in discharge giving a ‘before-after’ comparison. Figure 58 shows a typical hydrograph plot for ‘Spring A’
illustrating an increase in discharge during the dry season after an intervention.
Figure 58: Hydrograph of Spring A showing an increase in discharge after intervention
SPRING - A
800 18
Intervention period
700 16
600 14
12
500
Monthly rainfall (mm)
Discharge (lpm)
10
400
8
300
6
200
4
100 2
0 0
Jun 2015
Jul 2015
Aug 2015
Sep 2015
Oct 2015
Nov 2015
Dec 2015
Jan 2016
Feb 2016
Mar 2016
Apr 2016
May 2016
Jun 2016
Jul 2016
Aug 2016
Sep 2016
Oct 2016
Nov 2016
Dec 2016
Jan 2017
Feb 2017
Mar 2017
Apr 2017
May 2017
Jun 2017
Jul 2017
Aug 2017
Sep 2017
Oct 2017
Nov 2017
Dec 2017
Jan 2018
Feb 2018
Date
A few of the other non-intervention springs with similar hydrogeology and typology and in a similar area (especially
in terms of rainfall) are selected (‘control springs’), and their hydrographs compared with those from the springs
with intervention. This provides an approximate ‘with-without’ comparison. For example, Figure 59 shows the
hydrographs from two springs situated in a similar hydrogeological setting and located on the same topographic
slope: treated Spring B and control Spring C. The discharge from Spring B has risen noticeably, while that from
Spring C has not. These examples show the importance of hydrological data for monitoring impacts.
Measuring socio-economic impacts

Step 3 (Chapter 5) describes the collection of various types of socio-economic data through instruments like FGDs,
KIIs, and questionnaire surveys. The data collection exercise should be repeated post-intervention in Step 6 to gather
evidence about the impact of the intervention on water access for local people. Again, this analysis can be carried
out in terms of a ‘before-after’ and ‘with-without’ comparison.
Resources Needed
Resources needed are same as in Step 2 where spring discharge and water quality are monitored and Step 3, where
we conduct socio-economic surveys, FGDs and KIIs to understand people’s perception on various issues, including
that of adequacy and reliability of spring water availability and its quality.
48
Monthly rainfall (mm) Monthly rainfall (mm)
b
a
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Jun 2015
Jun 2015
Jul 2015
Jul 2015
Aug 2015
Aug 2015
Sep 2015
Rainfall
Sep 2015
Oct 2015
Oct 2015
Nov 2015
Nov 2015
Dec 2015
Dec 2015
Jan 2016
Jan 2016
Intervention period
Feb 2016
Discharge
Feb 2016
Mar 2016
Mar 2016
Apr 2016
Apr 2016
May 2016
May 2016
Jun 2016
Jun 2016
Jul 2016
Jul 2016
Aug 2016
Aug 2016
Sep 2016
Sep 2016
Oct 2016
Date
Date
Oct 2016
Nov 2016
Nov 2016
SPRING - B
SPRING - C
Dec 2016
Dec 2016
Jan 2017
Jan 2017
Feb 2017
Feb 2017
Mar 2017
Mar 2017
Apr 2017
Apr 2017
May 2017
May 2017
Jun 2017
Jun 2017
Jul 2017
Jul 2017
Aug 2017
Figure 59: Hydrographs of (a) treated spring (Spring B) and (b) control spring (Spring C)
Aug 2017
Sep 2017
Sep 2017
Oct 2017
Oct 2017
Nov 2017
Nov 2017
Dec 2017
Dec 2017
Jan 2018
Jan 2018
Feb 2018
Feb 2018
0
2
4
6
8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
10
12
14
16
18
Discharge (lpm) Discharge (lpm)

9: Step 6: Measuring the Impact of Spring Revival Activities
49
10 The Way Forward

Hydrogeological science should form the basis for any work related to watershed or springshed management,
in fact for any work on groundwater. The location and extent of recharge areas are governed purely by the local
hydrogeology and not by administrative or socioeconomic boundaries. The complex geology, spring discharge
locations, and site specific recharge areas force a shift in perspective in studies dealing with spring water away from
the classical ‘ridge to valley to contiguous valley’ approach. It requires a paradigm shift in the way we think about
watersheds and springsheds. It is essential to raise awareness in the local community about the role of hydrogeology
in governing recharge areas, the importance of protecting recharge areas, and the importance of collecting data
on spring water to inform planning. Both the spring source and the underlying aquifer should be considered as
‘common pool resources’ and managed accordingly.
In terms of implementation, there are two proven ways of moving forward. The first is the government led
implementation model. So, far, several states in India have taken up programmes for spring revival. Sikkim has
been a pioneer and most of the other states have followed the Sikkim model, whereby a nodal government agency
(RM&DD in Sikkim) is in charge of implementation of the spring recharge programme, in collaboration with a host
of other civil society and scientific organizations. For example, ACWADAM in partnership with People’s Science
Institute (PSI) and Central Himalayan Rural Action Group (CHIRAG), has provided basic training in hydrogeology
to all such state government implementing agencies. Work on similar lines to Sikkim has commenced in the Indian
states of West Bengal and Meghalaya. These states have, in turn, leveraged funds from other national programmes,
such as MGNREGS, for involving communities in digging recharge structures and paying them based on national
wage norms. Bhutan also plans to embark on a national spring revival programme along similar lines, whereby it
will impart training to field staff in its watershed management and forestry divisions to identify recharge areas using
field geology, and then implement recharge interventions in identified recharge areas through existing government
programmes. This state-led model of implementation, when done in conjunction with other knowledge and
implementing partners, has proved to be both successful and scalable. However, the majority of these programmes
do not maintain long-term databases on spring discharge before and after intervention, and it is difficult to carry out
a rigorous evaluation of project impact in terms of actual volume of enhanced recharge and improved quality.
The second model is the NGO led model implemented in Uttarakhand state of India, in which NGOs train their
field staff and local communities in basic hydrogeology using donor funding, and then carry out recharge area
demarcation and field implementation work together with the communities. This model is quite successful in building
up a long-term evidence base (as most NGOs do a good job of monitoring and data management), but without
explicit government support, scaling up remains a challenge.
Therefore, an ideal combination is a model that combines the strength of government-led models in terms of
scalability and of NGO-led models in terms of monitoring and evaluation of impacts. Knowledge and scientific
organizations like ICIMOD and ACWADAM can play an important role in creating a scientific evidence base for the
efficacy of spring revival programmes in the HKH region. It is expected that as water scarcity issues in the mid hills of
the HKH become more acute, more and more countries in the region will adopt a similar methodology for reviving
springs. This manual is designed to serve these various stakeholders – be it technical staff of government agencies
or relevant NGOs.
In terms of the way forward in scientific methods and knowledge generation, it is possible to supplement the
identification of recharge areas based on field geology (as outlined in this manual) with stable isotope methods,
which can help confirm the recharge pathway and the size and storage capacity of spring aquifers. While basic
isotope analysis tools are now available in many scientific agencies and universities, the main challenge remains the
relatively high cost and time taken for the analysis. We suggest that in the interests of scalability, the field geology
method that this manual espouses remains the main method for identification of recharge areas, but wherever
resources and technology permit, stable isotope analysis be carried out for additional verification. Further details
about this method can be found in IAEA (2004) and Dhakal et al. (2014).
50
10: The Way Forward
References and Further Reading
References
Alfaro, C. & Wallace, M. (1994). Origin and classification of springs and historical review with current applications.
Environmental Geology, 24(2), 112–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00767884
Bhuchar, S., Billingsley, A., Dhakal, M., Providoli, I., Sherpa, S. L. & Ahmad Shah Siddiqi (2009). Soil Moisture
Retention and Soil Fertility Options for Agricultural and Degraded Lands. In Mountain development resource book
for Afghanistan. Kathmandu, Nepal: Kathmandu, Nepal : International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development.
Retrieved from http://lib.icimod.org/record/26732/files/c_attachment_648_5816.pdf
Cantonati, M., Gerecke, R. & Bertuzzi, E. (2006). Springs of the Alps - Sensitive ecosystems to environmental change: From
biodiversity assessments to long-term studies. Hydrobiologia, 562(1), 59-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-005-
1806-9
Chambers, R. (1983). Rural development: putting the last first. Harlow: Prentice Hall. London. Retrieved from http://
opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/123456789/178
Chapagain, P. S., Ghimire, M. & Shrestha, S. (2017). Status of natural springs in the Melamchi region of the Nepal
Himalayas in the context of climate change. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1–18. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10668-017-0036-4
Devkota, S., Sudmeier-Rieux, K., Penna, I., Erble, S., Jaboyedoff, M., Andhikari, A. & Khanal, R. (2014). Community-
Based Bio-Engineering for Eco-Safe Roadsides in Nepal. University of Lausanne, International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, Government of Nepal.
Dhakal, D., Tiwari, A., Tambe, S., Sinha, U. K. & Arrawatia, M. L. (2014). Isotope studies to identify the origin and
recharge area of Himalayan Springs as a climate change adaptation initiative : a case study from Sikkim, Eastern
Himalaya. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, 7(1), 135-140.
DSCWM (2004). Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Measures and Low Cost Techniques. Kathmandu,
Nepal: Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, soil Conservation and Watershed management
component (NARMSAP).
DSCWM (2016). Guideline on Landslide Treatment and Mitigation. Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed
Management, Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved from http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/guideline_on_
landslide_treatment_and_mitigation.pdf
Ghimire, C. P., Bruijnzeel, L. A., Lubczynski, M. W. & Bonell, M. (2012). Rainfall interception by natural and planted
forests in the Middle Mountains of Central Nepal. Journal of Hydrology, 475, 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhydrol.2012.09.051
Ghimire, C. P., Lubczynski, M. W., Bruijnzeel, L. A. & Chavarro-Rincón, D. (2014). Transpiration and canopy conductance
of two contrasting forest types in the Lesser Himalaya of Central Nepal. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 197,
76–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.05.012
Glazier, D. S. (2014). Springs. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/
B978-0-12-409548-9.09322-2
IAEA (2004). Isotope Hydrology and Integrated Water Resources Management. International Symposium Held in Vienna,
19-23 May 2003 by IAEA and IAH in Cooperation with the IAHS, (May). p. 531.
ICIMOD (1999). Manual on Contour Hedgerow Inter-cropping Technology. Kathmandu: ICIMOD. Retrieved from http://lib.
icimod.org/record/31840
ICIMOD (2007). Good Practices in watershed management: Lessons Learned in Mid Hills of Nepal. Kathmandu: ICIMOD,
pp 35. Retrieved from http://lib.icimod.org/record/22078
ICIMOD (2008a). Gully plugging using check dams. Natural Resource Management Approaches and Technologies.
Kathmandu: ICIMOD. Retrieved from http://www.icimod.org/?q=10350
ICIMOD (2008b). Conservation Ponds - Handout for Low Cost Soil and Water Conservation Techniques and Watershed
Management (unpublished). Kathmandu: ICIMOD
ICIMOD (2008c). Conservation Planting Techniques - Handout for Low Cost Soil and Water Conservation Techniques and
Watershed Management (unpublished). Kathmandu, Nepal: International Center for Integrated Mountain Development.
ICIMOD (2013). ICIMOD Knowledge Park at Godavari – Information Sheets. Kathmandu, Nepal: International Center for
Integrated Mountain Development. Retrieved from http://lib.icimod.org/record/31695
51
Joshi, A. K., Joshi, P. K., Chauhan, T. & Bairwa, B. (2014). Integrated approach for understanding spatio-temporal changes
in forest resource distribution in the central Himalaya. Journal of Forestry Research, 25(2), 281–290. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11676-014-0459-9
Kumar, V. & Sen, S. (2017). Evaluation of spring discharge dynamics using recession curve analysis: a case study in data-
scarce region, Lesser Himalayas, India. Sustainable Water Resources Management. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-
017-0138-z
Macchi, M., Gurung, A. M., Hoermann, B. & Choudhury, D. (2014). Community perceptions and responses to climate
variability and change in the Himalayas. Climate and Development, 7(5), 78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2
014.966046
Meinzer, O. E. (1927). Large springs in the United States. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 557. Washington:
Government Printing Office.
Naudiyal, N. & Schmerbeck, J. (2015). The changing Himalayan landscape: pine-oak forest dynamics and the supply of
ecosystem services. Journal of Forestry Research, 28(3), 431–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-016-0338-7
Negi, G. C. S. & Joshi, V. (2004). Rainfall and spring discharge patterns in two small drainage catchments
in the western Himalayan Mountains, India. Environmentalist, 24(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1023/
B:ENVR.0000046343.45118.78
Pandey, R., Kumar, P., Archie, K. M., Gupta, A. K., Joshi, P. K., Valente, D. & Petrosillo, I. (2018). Climate change
adaptation in the western-Himalayas: Household level perspectives on impacts and barriers. Ecological Indicators,
84(August 2017), 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.08.021
Paudyal, K., Baral, H., Lowell, K. & Keenan, R. J. (2015). Ecosystem services from community-based forestry
in Nepal: Realising local and global benefits. Land Use Policy, 63, 342–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
landusepol.2017.01.046
Rautela, P. (2015). Traditional practices of the people of Uttarakhand Himalayan in India and relevance of these in
disaster risk reduction inpresent times. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 13, 281–290. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2015.07.004
RM&DD (2014). Dhara Vikas Handbook: A User Manual for Springshed Development to Revive Himalayan Springs (2nd
Edition). Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim jointly with the Deutsche Gesellschaft
fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320161064_
Dhara_Vikas_Handbook_-_User_Manual_for_Reviving_Himalayan_Springs. (accessed 2-14-2018).
Shrestha, A. B., GC, E., Adhikary, R. P., Rai, S. (2012). Resource Manual on Flash Flood Risk Management Module
3: Structural Measures. Kathmandu: ICIMOD. p. 102. Retrieved from http://www.preventionweb.net/files/9298_
flashfloodriskmanagement3.pdf
Tambe, S., Kharel, G., Arrawatia, M. L., Kulkarni, H., Mahamuni, K. & Ganeriwala, A. K. (2011). Reviving Dying Springs:
Climate Change Adaptation Experiments From the Sikkim Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, 32(1),
62–72. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-11-00079.1
Tiwari, P. C. (2000). Land-use changes in Himalaya and their impact on the plains ecosystem: Need for sustainable land
use. Land Use Policy, 17(2), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(00)00002-8
Valdiya, K. S. & Bartarya, S. K. (1991). Hydrogeological Studies of Springs in the Catchment of the Gaula River, Kumaun
Lesser Himalaya, India. Mountain Research and Development, 11(3), 239–258. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673618
WOCAT (2011). Stone faced soil bund of Tigray. Retrieved from https://qcat.wocat.net/en/wocat/technologies/view/
technologies_980/
Further reading
Chapter 2 (basic concepts)
Kresic, N. & Stevanovic, Z. (2009). Groundwater Hydrology of Springs. (N. Kresic & Z. Stevanovic, Eds.) (1st Edition).
Butterworth-Heinemann.
MacDonald, A.; Davies, J.; Calow, R.; Chilton, J. (2005). Developing groundwater: A guide for rural water supply. Rugby,
UK, ITDG Publishing. Retrieved from https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780441290
Marshak, S. (2016). Essentials of Geology. W.W.Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-393-26339-8. P. 720.
Chapter 4 (Step 1)
Tambe, S. (2011). Creation of a village spring atlas for the conservation of Himalayan springs and adapting to climate
change. India Water Portal. Retrieved from http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/creation-village-spring-atlas-
conservation-himalayan-springs-and-adapting-climate-change
52
References and Further Readings
Chapter 5 (Step 2)
Margane, A., and Stoeckl, L. (2013). Monitoring of spring discharge and surface water runoff in the groundwater
contribution zone of Jeita spring. Special report no 8. Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung, BMZ). Retrieved from https://www.bgr.bund.
de/EN/Themen/Wasser/Projekte/abgeschlossen/TZ/Libanon/spec_rep_8.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3
Tubman, S. C. (2013). Spring Discharge Monitoring in Low-Resource Settings : a Case Study of Concepción Chiquirichapa
(Master’s Thesis). Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences, Michigan Technological University.
Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1705&context=etds
Chapter 6 (Step 3)
Measurement and Data Collection. (2018). Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). Retrieved from https://www.
povertyactionlab.org/research-resources/measurement-and-data-collection. (accessed on 4-19-2018)
Working with Data. (2018). Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). Retrieved from https://www.povertyactionlab.
org/research-resources/working-with-data (accessed on 4-19-2018)
Morris, E. (n.d.). Sampling from Small Populations. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/265276754_Sampling_from_Small_Populations
Chapter 7 (Step 4)
ACWADAM. (n.d.). Publication. Retrieved from http://acwadam.org/index.php?option=com_publications&view=publicati
onss&Itemid=114
Lisle, Brabham, B. (2011). Basic Geological Fielwork. Book (5th Edition, Vol. 1542). Chennai, India: Wiley_Blackwell, A
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Mahamuni, K. & Kulkarni, H. (2012). Groundwater Resources and Spring Hydrogeology in South Sikkim, with Special
Reference to Climate Change. Climate Change in Sikkim - Patterns, Impacts and Initiatives. p. 261-274. Retrieved
from http://sikenvis.nic.in/writereaddata/16-Chapter_Groundwater_Resources_and_Spring_Hydrogeology_in_South_
Sikkim.pdf
Moore. J. E. (2017). Field Hydrogeology: A Guide for Site Investigations and Report Preparation (2nd edition). CRC Press.
ISBN: 9781138077140. Retrieved from https://www.crcpress.com/Field-Hydrogeology-A-Guide-for-Site-Investigations-
and-Report-Preparation/Moore/p/book/9781138077140
Negi, G. C. S. & Joshi, V. (2004). Rainfall and spring discharge patterns in two small drainage catchments in the
western Himalayan Mountains, India. Environmentalist, 24(1), 19–28. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1023/
B:ENVR.0000046343.45118.78
Negi, G. C. & Joshi, V. (2007). Geo-Hydrological Studies for Augmentation of Spring Discharge in the Western Himalaya,
Final Technical Report. New Delhi: Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. Retrieved from http://cgwb.gov.
in/INCGW/GC Negi Report.pdf
Chapter 8 (Step 5):

DSCWM. (2005). Training Handout on Bioengineering and Survey, Design and Estimation of Soil Conservation Activities.
Kathmandu, Nepal: Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management. Published under Soil Conservtion
and Watershed Management Component (NARSAP).
DSCWM. (2016). Guideline on Landslide Treatment and Mitigation. Kathmandu, Nepal: Department of Soil Conservation
and Watershed Management. Retrieved from http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/guideline_on_
landslide_treatment_and_mitigation.pdf
HELVETAS/META/aidenvironment. (2015). Water Use Master Plan + 3R Facilitator’s Manual. Retrieved from http://www.
aidenvironment.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Nepal-Module-final_SF.pdf
ICIMOD (2008d). Community efforts for improving drinking water quality. Natural Resource Management Approaches and
Technologies. Kathmandu, Nepal: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Retrieved from http://
www.icimod.org/?q=10313
ICIMOD (2008e). Drinking water quality improvement through conservation measures. Natural Resource Management
Approaches and Technologies. Kathmandu: ICIMOD. Retrieved from http://www.icimod.org/?q=10353
ICIMOD (2008f). Rehabilitation of degraded communal grazing land. Natural Resource Management Approaches and
Technologies. Kathmandu: ICIMOD. Retrieved from http://www.icimod.org/?q=10349
53
Annexes
Annex 1: Sample Template in Microsoft Excel for Entering Baseline Data
Microsoft Excel is used to store data collected in the field. One Excel workbook should be
maintained to feed in all the data related to springs mapped in a particular region. The spring
location (latitude, longitude, elevation), spring code, and spring name, should go into the first
columns followed by other related data (Figure A.1).
Multiple sheets can be created within one workbook to keep data segregated. For example,
baseline socio-economic data in the first sheet, discharge data in the second, water quality in the
third and so on. This helps in understanding and retrieving data for later analysis.
Figure A.1: Example of an Excel Workbook showing location of the spring

(Latitude, Longitude, Elevation), and spring code, name and type
54
References and Further Readings
Annex 2: Terms of Reference (TOR) for Data Collector
The data collector will carry out the following tasks.
Measure spring discharge weekly/ bi monthly/ monthly, as per the requirement of the project.
Total number of springs to be monitored: ………
Number of wards covered by the research site: …….
Number of springs covered in each ward: ………….
Measure rainfall data
Measure daily rainfall.
Standard time for measurement: 8:45 am
Measure in-situ water-quality parameters like pH, EC, TDS, and salinity using water-quality tester
Enter data into standard format as provided
Report the updated records to focal person or local facilitator.
Send monthly data to agency office concerned
Qualifications
Should measure discharge and rainfall accurately.
Should enter collected data into the data entry format properly and accurately.
Preference should be given to women/dalits.
Should be a local or locally-based working person.
55
Annex 3: Focus Group Discussion Checklist

1. General
Area:
VDC/Panchayat:
Ward Nos:
Village/settlement:
No. of households:
Average family size:
Total population:
Male/female ratio:
2. Water Resources by Type

2.1 Rivers
2.1.1 What are the major rivers and streams in the area?
River/stream name Location and ward/name of the Water availability (seasonal,

place permanent)
2.1.2 For what purpose is the river water used?

Drinking:
Livestock:
Irrigation:
Other:
2.1.3 Have the flows of rivers changed over the past 10 years?
(increased, decreased, or remained the same)
2.1.4 If water availability has decreased, how do you cope with it?
Drinking:
Washing, cleaning:
Irrigation:
Livestock:
Other:
2.2 Ponds
2.2.1 How many ponds exist in the area (ward number wise) and how are they distributed geographically?
Name/ Location* Permanent Seasonal Completely dry
* Location can be up or down or east, west, north, south, etc. depending on the cluster
56
Annexes
2.2.2 For what purposes are the ponds used (religious, recreational, watering animals, fishery, washing, cleaning,
and groundwater recharge)?
2.2.3 Which of the ponds mentioned above have performed well in terms of water availability and what is the
reason for this?
2.2.4 Please give the location of those ponds that may be contributing to recharge of springs downstream.
2.2.5 How have ponds changed in the past 10 years in terms of number, water depth, quality, etc.? And why?
2.2.6 Do you think there is a connection between ponds and springs? Please give examples.
2.2.7 Do you plan to build ponds (types) for the purpose of recharging springs in your locality?
2.2.8 Where are suitable areas located for this purpose? (History, community…..)
2.3 Dug wells and bore wells

2.3.1 Are there dug wells in your ward/VDC, if so how many and since when? What is the water used for?
2.3.2 Do you use deep borings for water? If so, how many, when was the first deep boring drilled, who owns it,
how much does it cost, what is the water used for?
2.3.3 If yes, how many are in use and how are they distributed geographically?
• Dugwells
Name/ Location* Permanent Seasonal Remarks
*Location can be up or down or east, west, north, south, etc. depending on the cluster
• Deep bores
Name/ Location* Permanent Seasonal Remarks
*Location can be up or down or east, west, north, south, etc. depending on the cluster
2.3.4 Are they reliable sources of water for drinking? Which is better?
• Dugwells:
• Deep borings:
2.3.5 How does the depth of water fluctuate between dry and wet seasons? (Unit: foot, metre, haat, bitta, other
specify…)
• Dugwells:
• Deep borings:
2.3.6 What is the quality (for drinking) of water from these sources?
• Dugwells:
• Deep borings:
2.3.7 Do you get sufficient water for all your needs? If not, how do you prioritize?
• Dugwells:
• Deep borings:
57
2.3.8 Have the number increased or decreased in the past 10 years? What about the water table? Why?
• Dugwells:
• Deep borings:
2.4 Rainwater harvesting:

2.4.1 Do you harvest rain water in your locality? When was the first rainwater harvesting scheme introduced? Who
brought that idea for the first time? (Institutions or someone from the community)
2.4.2 How many households use this practice now?
2.4.3 How has the number of households using this practice increased (or decreased) over the past 10 years
2.4.4 What kind of water harvesting system is commonly used (collection in drums and buckets, open storage tank,
closed storage tank, plastic pond, groundwater recharge, etc.)?
2.4.5 Does any HH have any permanent rainwater harvesting structure (with all components of rooftop water
harvesting scheme)? If yes, how many HHs have them?
2.4.6 What is the average capacity of household level rainwater collection systems?
2.4.7 What are the preferred uses of water from this source?
2.4.8 For how many months is the harvested water sufficient?
2.4.9 What is the level of acceptance for rainwater harvesting? Do you think this is a sustainable source of water
for household use?
3. Sources of water for specific uses
3.1 For domestic use

3.1.1 What are the major sources of water for domestic use?
System Number Beneficiary Quality Change in past 10 years

households Quality Quantity
Tap water (government)
Tap water (private)
Spring water (mul, dhara,
kuwa)
Dug well and bore well
River/stream
Tanker
Rainwater harvesting
Pond
3.1.2 Is the quantity of water sufficient (from above sources) for all your domestic needs (including drinking,
cleaning, washing, sanitation)?
3.1.3 What changes in quantity and quality of water from different sources (mentioned above) have you noticed in
the past 10 years?
3.1.4 If there has been a decline, how do you cope with it?
58
Annexes
3.2 Sanitation
Type Volume of water used Source of water Number of households
Pit latrine
Pakka latrine
No latrine
3.2.1 Is sufficient water available for all your sanitation needs? If not, how do you cope with it?
3.3 Irrigation
3.3.1 Major sources for irrigation:
Source Type (permanent, Irrigated area (ropani) Beneficiary Trend (Increasing/

seasonal) households decreasing)
River/stream
Spring (mul, kuwa, dhara)

Ponds
Canal/channel/raj kulo
Rainwater harvest
Inar/deep boring
Other
3.3.2 Methods of irrigation:
Method Trend (increasing/ Source Remarks

decreasing)
Flooding
Polythene pipes
Sprinklers/drip
Others
Ridge furrow (eg: potato)
Pitcher
3.3.3 Is the quantity of water sufficient for all your agricultural needs (including irrigation and livestock)?
3.3.4 How are the irrigation systems managed (in terms of institution – formal/informal such as user groups; rules
and regulations)?
3.3.5 What changes in quantity and quality of water for agricultural use have you noticed in the past 10 years?
3.3.6 If there has been a decline in quantity, how do you cope with it?
3.4 Other users:

3.4.1 Who are the other users of water in this area (e.g., hotels, industry)?
Number of hotels:
Number of industries:
3.4.2 What are the sources used for this and what is the situation regarding sufficiency, quality, etc.?
3.4.3 Impact on water availability for locals/community due to other users?
59
4. Land use and land related activities

4.1 Land use
Land use Estimated area (%) Notes and remarks
Agriculture
Forest
Grazing
Settlements
Degraded lands
Other, specify
4.2 Agricultural practices

4.2.1 What are the proportions of khet and bari land? (In %)
Khet:
Bari:
4.2.2 What are the major crops and cropping patterns?

Khet:
Bari:
4.2.3 What changes have taken place in the past 10 years in:
Land use?
Crops?
Cropping patterns?
Production and yields?
4.3 Forests
Forest name Type* Condition User/ beneficiary households (no.)
*government, private, community, leasehold, religious, national park/reserve, others
4.3.1 What are the natural forest species?
4.3.2 What are the species used in afforestation? History of past 10 years.
4.3.3 How have forests changed over the past 10 years in terms of:
Area under forest?
Forest condition?
Species of trees and other vegetation?
4.3.4 Any changes observed in water availability after planting any particular plants/ species in the locality? History
of 10 years?
4.3.4 In your experience, which species of plant are good and bad for water restoration?
4.3.6 What are the water resources available within the forests?
Rivers/streams:
Springs (mul, kuwa, dhara):
Ponds:
4.3.7 How are the water resources in the forests utilized?
60
Annexes
5. Water collection and allocation for domestic use (Preferably ask women)
5.1 Who fetches water for household use (men, women, children)?
5.2 How much water does one person collect per day?
5.3 How many times does one person have to collect water per day?
5.4 How much water does one household use per day?
5.5 How much time does it take to fetch water for household use?
5.6 How is water allocated for household use?
Drinking and cooking: …………………………..%
Dishwashing……………………..%
Washing clothes……………………%
House cleaning………………………%
Toilet……………………………………..%
Other (specify)… ………………………%
6. Institutional and Governance aspects

6.1 Which institutions are involved in managing water resources?
Springs:
Ponds:
Wells:
Deep boring:
Irrigation canals:
6.2 Have you noticed any conflicts regarding water use/distribution in your locality?
6.3 How are conflicts resolved?
7. Upstream areas
7.1 What is the condition of upstream areas of water resources used by the community?
4.2 Have there been any major changes over the past 10 years in terms of infrastructure, housing, land use?
4.3 Are there any plans for development and land use changes in the upstream areas in the near future?
8. Climate change
8.1 Over the past 10 years, have there been any major changes (in terms of amount and timing) in:
Temperature:
Rainfall:
Extreme events e.g., floods, droughts, hailstones, landslides, cloudbursts:
8.2 How did they impact on the water sources in the area?
8.3 How did people cope with impacts?
61
9. Groundwater recharge practices?

9.1 Are you aware (directly/indirectly) of concept of groundwater recharge?
9.2 Have you ever implemented any techniques?
9.3 What kind of techniques have you practised so far?
10. Migration
10.1 Has anyone migrated outside from your area/village?
10.2 If yes, then what was the reason for migration? How many HHs have migrated? Where did they migrate to?
10.3 Has any household or community migrated due to water shortage in your locality?
List of participants
Sn. Name of Age Sex Ward Caste/ethnic Phone number/ Signature Occupation
participant number group postal address
(residence) (if applicable)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
62
Annexes
Annex 4: Checklist for Key Informant Interviews

(The person or persons who manage the spring, or are most knowledgeable about the spring, should be
interviewed)
1. Name of the tap/spring : 2. Date of interview (Nepali):

3. Time of interview: start: / finish:
4. Name of interviewer:
5. Name of respondent: 6. Phone number of respondent, if any:
7. GPS location of tap: N E Elevation: m
8.Ward no. where tap is located: 9. Landmark identification for tap, if any:
10.Name of the village/gaun where tap is located: 11. Ownership of spring/ tap from a spring
(private = 1; community = 2; any other specify = 3):
12. Number of households dependent on spring/ tap 13. When was tap constructed (year)?
from a spring:
14. Who provided financial support for construction of 15. Name of spring from where water is supplied to
the tap? this tap:
16. Type of spring (dhara = 1, kuwa = 2, kholsa = 3, other = 4):
17. GPS location of spring: N E elevation: m
18. Distance of tap from spring (metres):
19. Name of the village/gaun where collection tank is 20. Capacity of collection tank (in ltr)
located:
21. GPS location of collection tank: N elevation: m
22. Distance of collection tank from tap (m): 23. From how many additional sources is water being
collected in the collection tank? (1 = just one; 2 =
two; 3 = three; 4 = more than four):
Note: ignore, if the respondent collects water directly
from the spring source.
24. If more than one, can you please name additional 25. If more than one, why did you collect water
sources? from additional sources? (1 = not enough water;
2 = low pressure; 3 = not reliable (not delivered
on time/frequent breakdowns/dried up); 4 = poor
quality/dirty; 5 = due to frequent landslides around
source; 6 = physically challenging; 7 = any other,
specify______)
Note: ignore if respondent collects water directly from the Note: ignore if respondent collects water directly from
spring source the spring source.
26. How is the quality of water from tap/collection tank? 27. Is there anyone responsible for management and
maintenance of this tap/collection tank? (yes = 1; no
(very good = 1; good = 2; fair = 3; poor = 4; very
= 2; everyone is responsible = 3):
poor = 5):
28. If yes, name and contact number of that person or any formal/informal management committee, if any?
29. Are there any operational rules for tap/collection 30. Is there any specific rule for collecting water from
tank: tap/collection tank?
(Clues: what happens when there is less water in tap, for (Clues: first come first serve; rationing in dry season;
how long is tap open, anyone who takes care of closing open for specific time; based on family size; only
and opening the tap, any rules on connecting loose allowed for people from this village/ward; no rule etc.)
pipes from tap)
31. Is there any charge taken for maintenance and repair 32. If yes, how much per year?
of the tap/collection tanks? (yes = 1; no = 2):
63
Annex 5: Questionnaire Survey for Spring Water Users

Instruction: In a sample survey, interview the specified number of respondents (adults who come to fetch water) for
the tap/spring/collection tank. When the required number of surveys is complete, move to another tap sourced to
the same spring or the spring source itself. When conducting the survey, make sure that each respondent represents
a unique household.
Part 1: General information
1.1 Tap/spring code. # :
District/Ward/Spring no./Tap no./Respondent no

1.2 Date of interview (Nepali):
1.3 Time of interview: Start: /Finish: 1.4 Name of interviewer:
1.5 Name of supervisor who has checked the 1.6 Village name:
questionnaire:
1.7 Ward number: 1.8. VDC name:
1.9 Telephone/mobile no. of respondent (if any):
1.10 GPS locations of :
Spring: N- E- Elev.(m)-
Tap: N- E- Elev.(m)-
Collection Tank: N- E- Elev.(m)-
Part 2: Household information (Household means people who eat from the same kitchen)
2.1 Name of head of household: 2.2 Age of head of household (years):
2.3 Sex of head of household (1 = M; 2 = F): 2.4 Caste of household: (1 = Brahmin; 2 = Chhetri; 3
= Dalit; 4 = Newar; 5 = Tamang; 6 = Sherpa;
7 = Gurung; 8 = Sanyashi; 9 = other, specify_______)
2.5 Level of education of head of household 2.6 Name of respondent (if different from head of
(1 = non-literate; 2 = just literate; 3 = primary household. If same, repeat the name)
school; 4 = lower secondary; 5 = secondary;
6 = higher secondary; 7 = graduate and above):
2.7 Age of respondent in years (if different from head 2.8 Sex of respondent (if different from head of
of household. If same, repeat same age): household. If same, repeat same sex) (1 = M; 2 = F):
2.9 Relationship with head of household (1 = self; 2.10 Years of education respondent (if different from
2 = father; 3 =mother; 4 = son; 5 = daughter; | head of household. If same, repeat same level of
6 = wife; 7 = husband; 8 = daughter-in-law; education):
9 = other, specify______):
2.11 Total number of household members: 2.12 Sources of income for the entire household for
whom water is collected (1 = crop cultivation;
2 = livestock; 3 = remittances; 4= business;
5 = government service; 6 = private service;
7 = agricultural labour; 8 = non-agricultural labour;
9 = other, specify______) [ You can choose more than
one option]:
64
Annexes
2.13 Of the sources of income mentioned, which is 2.14 Total household income of all household members
THE MOST important: (monthly):
(1 = < Rs. 999; 2 = Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 4,999;3 = Rs.

5,000 to Rs.9,999; 4 = Rs.10,000 to Rs.19,999; 5 =
Rs. 20,000 to Rs. 49,999; 6 = > Rs. 50,000 )
Part 3: Tap/ spring source specific questions

Seasonal water collection data
Season Dry season (Falgun- Jestha) Wet season (Asar–
Magha)
3.1 No. of times in a day when water is collected?
3.2 No. of days in the week when water is
collected (1-7)?
3.3 No. collected per trip? gagri gagri
drums drums
buckets buckets
jerkins jerkins
cans cans
bottles bottles
other specify___________ other
specify__________
3.4 How long (in minutes) does it take to fill up your gagri/vessel/ 3.5 For how many years have you been
drum/bucket etc? collecting water from this tap/ spring
source?
Type of vessel Capacity of vessel (ltr) Time taken (minutes)
Gagri
Drum
Bucket
Jerkin
Other
3.6 How far (metres) is your home from this tap/ spring source? 3.7 How long (in minutes) does it take to
fetch water (two-way travel time and waiting
time)?
3.8 For what purposes do you use this water? (1 = drinking; 2 = washing clothes; 3 = other domestic use such
as washing utensils; 4 = livestock; 5 = irrigation; 6 = making raksi/jand; 7 = religious purposes; 8 = karesha
bari irrigation; 9 = other, specify_________) you can choose more than one :
3.9 Are you allowed to collect as much water as you want in a 3.10 If your answer to Q. 3.9 is, no, never
day? (=2) or sometimes (=3), then how many
gagris can you collect at a time in
(1 = yes, always; 2 = no, never; 3 = sometimes):
Dry season Wet season
3.11 Do you have to stand in a queue to collect water? (1 = yes, always; 2 = no, never; 3 = sometimes):
65
3.12 List all rules for water collection, if any? (Clues: first come first serve; rationing on dry seasons; open for
specific time; based on family size; only allowed for people from this village/ward; no rule, etc
3.13 Perception of quantity of water from the spring source? 3.14 Has the volume of water in the spring
source changed over the past 10 years?
(1 = always sufficient; 2 = usually sufficient; 3 = sometimes
(1 = increased; 2 = decreased; 3 = no
sufficient; 4 = rarely sufficient; 5 = never sufficient):
change):
Note: here spring source means the main source/mool from where
Note: here spring source means the main
water is collected.
source/mool from where water is collected.
3.15 If volume (quantity) of water has changed in the source (increased or decreased), what were the reasons?
3.16 Perception on quality of water from spring source? 3.17 Has the quality of water in the spring
source changed over the past 10 years?
(1 = very good; 2 = good; 3 = fair; 4 = poor; 5 = very poor):
(1 = improved; 2 = declined; 3 = no
change):
Note: here spring source means the main source/mool from where Note: here spring source means the main
water is collected. source/mool from where water is collected.
3.18 If quality of water has changed (improved or declined), in the source what were the reasons?
3.19 Perception on water source’s reliability (dependability)? 3.20 On a scale of 1-5, how dependent
are you on this specific tap/ spring source?
(1 = always reliable; 2 = usually reliable; 3 = occasionally
(Scale 1 = no dependence; 2 = very
reliable; 4 = rarely reliable; 5 = never reliable):
low dependence; 3 = low dependence;
4 = moderately dependent; 5 = high
dependence)
Note: here spring source means the main source/mool from where
water is collected.
3.21 On a scale of 1-5, what is the condition of the following (1 = very good; 2 = good; 3 = fair; 4 = poor; 5
= very poor)
Source:
Collection tanks:
Pipes:
Tap:
66
Annexes
Part 4: Information on additional and other available sources of water:
4.1 In the past 10 years have you changed the source from which you collect water? (1 = yes; 2 = no):
4.2 If the answer to question 4.1 is “Yes” why? (1 = 4.3 Apart from this primary spring source do you also
insufficient water in previous source; 2 = more water get water from other spring sources? (1 = yes, 2 = no)
in the new source; 3 = tap water available at or near
home; 4 = easy to use seasonal springs in monsoon
season; 5 = other, specify_____________) You can
write more than one reason:
4.4 If yes to Q 4.3, can you name those springs? 4.5 Name the source from which you used to collect
water before this tap/water supply system was built?
Note: this is a specific question. Ignore if respondent

collects water from non spring source Note: if water is fetched directly from spring source,
then ask for the spring source.
4.6 How far was that source from your house (metres)? 4.7 Do you also collect water directly from
1. Loose pipes connected to collection tanks, taps or

spring source:
2. Collection tank without pipe:

Note: if water is fetched directly form spring source,
then ask for the spring source. 3. Any other spring: (eg: seasonal springs or any other
springs besides the primary spring)
(Rank according to importance):
Instruction: Ask questions vertically by purpose for which water is used…….
Choose ALL available Purposes for which water is used and water sources ranked according to their
water sources used for importance
household needs and Drinking Domestic Water for Water for Type of Water
agricultural needs: water water (other livestock irrigation irrigated land for other
than drinking (Tick) purposes
**(MENTION ALL) water)
Tick Rank Tick Rank Tick Rank Tick Rank Karesha Khet Tick Rank
(1= (1= (1= (1= Bari
(1=
most most most most (kitchen
most
imp) imp) imp) garden)
imp) imp)
4.8 Dharas (springs)
4.9 Kuwas (springs)
4.10 Kholas (rivers)
4.11 Kulos (canals)
4.12 Kholsa (streams)
67
Choose ALL available Purposes for which water is used and water sources ranked according to their
water sources used for importance
household needs and Drinking Domestic Water for Water for Type of Water
agricultural needs: water water (other livestock irrigation irrigated land for other
than drinking (Tick) purposes
**(MENTION ALL) water)
4.13 Piped water supply
(from springs)
4.14 Piped water supply
(from sources other than
springs)
4.15 Rainwater
harvesting (unorganized/
organized with system
components)
4.16 Rainwater for
irrigation
4.17 Other (specify)
4.18 After obtaining water from ALL of your different water sources, how well are your household’s water needs
met?
(1 = always meets our needs, 2 = usually, 3 = occasionally, 4 = rarely, 5 = never):
Part 5: Water scarcity and water crisis perception

5.1 List all problems faced while collecting water?
5.2 Overall, do you think there is a water crisis/problem 5.3 On a scale of 1-5, how concerned are you about
in your locality? (1 = yes; 2 = no ): the possible drying up of this source? (scale 1 = not
concerned; 2 = hardly concerned; 3 = less concerned;
4 = moderately concerned; 5 = very concerned)
5.4 If yes to Q 5.2, What are the best practices you/ your community has adopted to cope with water scarcity?
(Clues: rainwater harvesting; collect water from nearby sources; control in distribution in season of scarcity; lock
taps/pipes to control open flow etc)
5.5 Any suggestions on how to improve water supply from the existing distribution system? :
68
Annexes
Annex 6: Field Data Compilation to Produce Collected Information in

Google Earth
Annex 6A
1. Data compilation in MS Excel.
• Field data need to be fed into Excel sheet in the format given in the figures below.
• Make three separate workbooks for spring locations, rock formation, and fracture/joint readings.
• Using simple formula (& “<br/>”&) all the information for a particular location can be clubbed and viewed in
Google Earth. (Figures A.2, A.3)
Figure A.2: Excel sheet with spring details
Figure A.3: Excel sheet with lithology data
69
2. Converting Excel data into Google .kml file

Open www.earthpoint.us website and go to the “Excel to kml” tool available on the website as shown below.
• Using the “Browse” option, choose the Excel file created for various data sets.
• Press “View file on web page, Check for errors” to find any errors in the Excel data.
• Using the “Browse” option, again select the file and choose the “View on Google Earth” option which then
exports the Excel data as .kml format in downloads which can be accessed using Google Earth Pro (Figure A.4).
Importing the .kml file in Google Earth yields information in the form of a placemark for every location mapped
which is then further integrated to produce a geological map (Figure A.5).
Figure A.4: www.Earthpoint.us website outline gallery
Figure A.5: Observation points displayed on the Google Earth platform
Rock exposure
Spring location
Weathered outcrop
1019
P19
Schist
320
32
70
Annexes
Annex 6B – Producing a Geological Map

1. Plotting strike and dip of lithology and fracture/joints in Google Earth
• Keeping Google Earth aligned to North, overlay stereo-net using image overlay tool and resize it accordingly.
• To plot strike and dip for a particular location, stereo-net is made to lie over that particular location in such a
way that the location placemark lies at its centre.
• Using the “Add path” tool, plot strike and dip as per the geological information collected.
Strike and dip is plotted for all the locations which help in interpreting rock layers and their disposition in the field
(Figure A.6). A geological map is prepared by collating all the additional information together with strike and dip for
rocks, using the step described below.
Figure A.6: Plotting strike and dip
2. Interpolating lithology and structural data to produce a map

• Rock layers are delineated using “Add polygon” tool in Google Earth, taking into account the lithological
information together with their plotted strike and dip.
• Assign colours to polygons as per lithology, mark fractures/joints with a particular colour to distinguish them from
the strike and dip of rocks (Figure A.7).
71
Figure A.7: Geological map
Fractures
Lithology outcrop observations
Phyllitic schist layer
Spring
72
Annexes
Annex 7: Developing a Cross Section of the Springshed Using Google Earth

1. Obtaining a 2-D profile of the springshed from Google Earth
• The geological map prepared in Step-4A, is used as a base to produce a cross section for any particular spring
and its springshed.
• Draw a profile line using the “add path” tool in Google Earth for the identified springshed, this will help build an
elevation profile for it (Figure A.8).
Figure A.8: Process of adding a path to generate a 2-D profile
• After saving the profile line, an option asking for ‘show elevation profile’ is available on the right click dropdown.
The elevation profile of the desired profile (section) line is generated, this helps produce the cross section of the
springshed (Figure A.9).
Figure A.9: Generating an elevation profile from the profile created
73
2 Preparing a cross section of the springshed using designing software

• Using CorelDRAW, trace out the complete profile by adding all the geological observations to it at their
respective locations.
• Once all the information and observations are in the profile, the cross section is ready (Figure A.10) for
developing further into a 3-D conceptual layout.
Figure A.10: Preparing a complete cross section of the springshed using CorelDRAW
Fracture observations Spring location Fracture observations
Dip of the rock
SSW NNE
74
© ICIMOD 2018
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel +977 1 5275222 Fax +977 1 5275238
Email info@icimod.org Web www.icimod.org
ISBN 978 92 9115 606 1

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1: Introduction

ICIMOD Manual 2018/4

Protocol for Reviving Springs

Corresponding author: Aditi Mukherji aditi.mukherji@icimod.org

ICIMOD gratefully acknowledges the support of its core donors: the

ICIMOD Manual 2018/4

Protocol for Reviving Springs

Rajendra Bahadur Shrestha1; Jayesh Desai2; Aditi Mukherji1; Madhav Dhakal1;

ISBN 978 92 9115 606 1 (printed)

Printed and bound in Nepal by

This publication is available in electronic form at www.icimod.org/himaldoc

3 The Six-step Protocol for Reviving Springs in the HKH 12

4 Step 1: Comprehensive Mapping of Springs and Springsheds 13

5 Step 2: Setting Up a Data Monitoring System 15

6 Step 3: Understanding Social and Governance Systems Related

7 Step 4: Hydrogeological Mapping, Development of Conceptual

8 Step 5: Developing Springshed Management and Governance Protocols 39

9 Step 6: Measuring the Impact of Spring Revival Activities 47

10 The Way Forward 50

References and Futher Reading 51

Figure 14: Contact spring 8

Acronyms and Abbreviations

ACWADAM Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

CHIRAG Central Himalayan Rural Action Group

DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

DSCWM Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management

FGDs Focus Group Discussions

GIS Geographic Information System

GoI Government of India

GPS Global Positioning System

HKH Hindu Kush Himalayas

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development

KIIs Key Informant Interviews

lpm litres per minute

lps litres per second

MGNREGS Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, India

NEPCAT Nepal Conservation Approaches and Technologies

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

PSI People’s Science Institute

RM&DD Rural Management and Development Department, Government of Sikkim

RMCs Regional Member Countries

RRA Rapid Rural Appraisal

TMI The Mountain Institute

ToR Terms of Reference

VDC Village Development Committee

WLE Water, Land and Ecosystems

WOCAT World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies

WUMP Water Use Master Plan

Genesis of the Protocol for Reviving Springs Manual

Figure 2: Dhara Vikas eight-step process

Source: RM&DD, (2014)

Rationale forthe Protocol for Reviving

Source: RM&DD, (2014)

• total discharge of spring has increased especially in lean season;

• It incorporates hydrogeology, socio-economic and governance issues to come up with a comprehensive

The Hydrogeological Cycle