Electrostatics

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Subject: Physics (Part-II) CHAPTER NO.

13

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Current electricity:
 The study of electric charge in motion is called current electricity.

Electric current:
 The amount of charges passes through a cross sectional area of conductor per unit time is
called electric current.
∆𝑄
Formula: 𝐼=
∆𝑡

 It is a scalar quantity because it does not obey vector law of addition.


 Its SI unit is ampere (1A).

One ampere:
 If one coulomb charge or 6.25 × 1018 electrons passes through a cross sectional area of
conductor in one second then current will be one ampere.

1𝐶 6.25×1018 electrons
1𝐴 = =
1𝑠 1𝑠

Material Charge carriers


Conductors Free electrons
Electrolytes Positive and negative ions
Ionized gases Positive ion and free electron
Semi-conductor Holes and free electrons
Differentiate between the conventional and electronic current
Conventional current Electronic current
It flows due to positive charge. It flows due to electron.
It flows from high potential to low potential. It flows from low potential to high potential.
It flows in direction along the direction of It flows in direction opposite to the direction of
electric field. electric field.
Current through the metallic conductor:
 In the absence of electric field then free electrons in conductor
will move in random direction. So net current is zero.

In the presence of electric field:

 When battery is connected between the ends of conductor


then electric field is set up at every point in conductor.so
electrons will move against the electric field.

Drift velocity:

 The average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons by application of electric field.
 Its direction opposite to the direction of electric field.
 Its average value is ≈ 10−3 𝑚𝑠 −1 and thermal value is several hundred kilometer per
second.

Source of current:
 A source which maintain the constant potential difference across the ends of conductor.
 It converts the non-electrical energy into electrical energy.

For examples

 Cell: it converts the chemical energy into electrical energy.


 Generator: it converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Solar cell: it converts the light energy into electrical energy.
 Thermocouple: it converts the heat energy into electrical energy.

Effects of current:
Heating effect:
 Flow of current in wire rise in temperature.

Cause: transfer of kinetic energy of electron to the atom of lattice.

Formula: 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
Factors:

 Amount of current
 Resistance
 Time

Applications: Electric heater, electric iron and electric kettle etc.

Magnetic effect:
 Presence of current in wire is accompanied magnetic field in its surrounding.

𝟎𝝁 𝑰
Formula: 𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓

Factors:

 Amount of current
 Distance from current source

Applications: fan, galvanometer and generator etc.

Chemical effects:
 Flows of current through an electrolyte produce chemical change.

Factors:

 Amount of current
 Nature of electrolyte

Electrolyte: it is the chemical through which current is passed. E.g. solution of 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 .

Electrolysis: chemical decomposition of electrolyte when current is passes through it.

Electrode: rods used to enter or leave the current into the electrolytes.

Anode: electrode which is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

Cathode: electrode which is connected to the negative terminal of battery.

𝐶𝑢+2 + 2𝑒 −1 → 𝐶𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑢+2 + 𝑆𝑂4 −2 → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4

Applications: electroplating (deposit a thin layer of expensive metals over cheap metal).
Ohm’s law:
It was given by German physicist George Simon ohm in 1826.

Statement:

“The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the ends provides the physical states such as temperature etc. of the conductor remains
constant.”

Mathematically:

𝑉∝𝐼

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

 Here, R is constant of proportionality called resistance of the conductor.

Resistance/Hindrance:
 The opposition offered by the conductor to the current is called resistance.
𝑉
Formula: 𝑅= 𝐼

 Its SI unit is ohm.

Dependence:

 Nature of material
 Temperature
1
 Geometry of conductor (𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴)

One ohm:

“A conductor has resistance of one ohm if one ampere of current is flows through it when a
potential difference across the conductor is one volt.”

1𝑉
1Ω =
1𝐴

 “V” versus “I” graph is straight line.


Differentiate between the Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductor:
Ohmic conductor Non-Ohmic conductor
A conductor which obeys Ohms law. A conductor which does not obeys Ohms law.
V-I graph is straight line V-I graph is not straight line

Filament bulb semiconductor diode


e.g. metals at low voltage e.g. tungsten filament bulb and semiconductor
diode etc.
Resistivity and its dependence upon temperature:
Resistivity/specific resistance:
 Resistance of one cubic meter volume of conductor.
𝑅𝐴
Formula: 𝜌= 𝐿

 Its SI unit is ohm-meter

Dependence:

 Nature of materials
 Temperature

Note: Resistivity is the property of material of which wire is made and resistance is the
characterization of the wire.

Mathematical derivation:

 Resistance is directly proportional to the length of conductor.

𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 … … … … … … … . (1)

 Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of conductor.

1
𝑅∝ … … … … … … … (2)
𝐴
Combining equations (1) and (2)

𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

Conductivity:
 Reciprocal of resistivity of material.

Formula:

 Its SI unit is 𝑚ℎ𝑜 − 𝑚−1 ∴ 𝑚ℎ𝑜 − 𝑚−1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛 − 𝑚−1

Dependence:

 Nature of materials
 Temperature

Note: resistivity and conductivity does not depend on the geometry of conductor.

Conductance:

 Reciprocal of resistance of material.


𝐴
Formula: 𝐺 = 𝜌𝐿

 Its SI unit is 𝑚ℎ𝑜 ∴ 𝑚ℎ𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛

Dependence:

 Nature of materials
 Temperature
1
 Geometry of material (𝐺 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺∝𝐴)

Temperature co-efficient of resistance:


 Fractional change in resistance per kelvin.
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0
Formula: 𝛼= 𝑅0 ∆𝑇

 Its SI unit is per kelvin (𝐾 −1 ).

Mathematical derivation:

 The increase in resistance is directly proportional to the initial resistance.

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ 𝑅0 … … … … … … … . . (1)

 The increase in resistance is directly proportional to the rise in temperature.


𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ ∆𝑇 … … … … … … … . . (1)

Combining equations (1) and (2)

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ 𝑅0 ∆𝑇

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼 𝑅0 ∆𝑇

𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0
𝛼=
𝑅0 ∆𝑇
𝐿 𝐿
Here, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 0 𝐶 (𝑅𝑡 = 𝜌𝑡 𝐴) and 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 00 𝐶 (𝑅0 = 𝜌0 𝐴)

𝐿 𝐿
𝜌𝑡 𝐴 − 𝜌0 𝐴
𝛼=
𝐿
𝜌0 𝐴 ∆𝑇

𝜌𝑡 − 𝜌0
𝛼=
𝜌0 ∆𝑇

Differentiate between the Positive temperature co-efficient of resistance and


negative temperature co-efficient of resistance

Positive temperature co-efficient of Negative temperature co-efficient of


resistance resistance
When resistance of material increases with When resistance of material decreases with the
the increase in temperature. increase in temperature.
For examples metals and alloys For examples: electrolytes, gases and
semiconductors

Rheostat:
 A variable resistor which is used for controlling the flow of electric current by varying
the resistance.

 The term rheostat was coined by the English scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone.

 It is derived from the Greek word “rheos” and “statis” which means current controlling
device.

Symbol:
Construction:

 It consists of an insulating cylinder on which a manganin wire is wounded over an


insulating cylinder.

 The ends of the wire are connected to two fixed terminals (A and B).

 A third terminal is attached to a sliding contact which can which can be moved over the
wire

Rheostat as variable resistor:

 For this purpose, one of its fixed terminal A and the sliding terminal C is inserted in the
circuit.
 If sliding contact C move towards terminal A then the resistance involved in the circuit
decreases.
 If sliding contact C move away from the terminal A then the resistance involved in the
circuit increases.

Rheostat as voltage divider:

Potential difference is applied across the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a
battery. The current I passing through the resistance R of the wire AB is given by:

𝐸
𝐼= … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅

The potential difference between the portion BC of the wire AB is given by:

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = ×𝑟
𝑅
Where “r” is the resistance of the portion BC of wire.

 As the sliding contact moves towards the end B, the resistance of portion r of the wire
decreases which result in decrease of output voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶 .
 when the sliding contact moves away from the end B, the resistance of portion r of the
wire increases which result in increases of output voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶 .

Electrical power
 “The rate at which battery is supplying electrical energy is called its electrical power.”
∆𝑊
 Formula: 𝑃= 𝑡
 It is a scalar quantity
 Its SI unit is watt (1W).

Explanation:

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery connected in series with resistance as shown in the figure:

A steady current flow through the circuit and steady potential difference V exist between the terminals A
and B of the resistor R.

The work done in moving up through the potential difference V is

∆𝑊 = ∆𝑄 × 𝑉 … … … … … … … . . (1)

By definition of electrical power is


∆𝑊
: 𝑃= … … … … … … … … . (2)
∆𝑡

Equation (1) put in equation (2)

∆𝑄 × 𝑉
𝑃=
∆𝑡
∆𝑄
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 ∴𝐼=
∆𝑡
By the principal of conservation of energy, the electrical power of the battery is dissipated in the resistor
R. Therefore,

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 … … … … . . (3)

According to Ohm’s law 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

𝑃 = (𝐼𝑅)𝐼

𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅

Multiplying and dividing by R

𝐼2𝑅 × 𝑅
𝑃=
𝑅
𝐼 2 𝑅2
𝑃= ∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅

Electromotive force and potential difference:


Electromotive force Potential difference
Energy supplied by a battery to the unit Work done per unit charge in moving it from
positive charge one point to another.
𝑊 𝑊
Formula 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑄 Formula ∆𝑉 = 𝑄
It is a scalar quantity. It is a scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is joule. Its SI unit is joule.
Emf maintain the potential difference. Potential difference maintains the current.
emf is the cause Potential difference is the effect.
the emf is always present even when no current The potential difference across the conductor is
is drawn through battery. zero when no current flows through it.
Internal resistance:

It is due to electrolyte present between the electrode in cell is called internal resistance.

Dependence:

 Distance between the electrode


 Temperature
 Area
 Concentration of electrolytes

Consider a battery of emf E having internal resistance r. The current I flowing through the circuit
is given by:

𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟

𝐸 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟

Here, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒.

 𝐸 = the emf of the battery, which is equal to the energy gained by unit charge (electron)
to move from its negative to positive terminal.
 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Case-1:
When the switch S is open, no current passes through the resistance. So, voltmeter read the emf
of cell as terminal potential difference (i.e. emf of cell is equal to terminal potential difference)

Case-2:

When the switch S is closed, current passes through the resistance. So emf of cell is greater than
the terminal potential difference.

Maximum power output:

As the current is flows through the of resistance R, the charges flow from a point of higher potential to a
point of lower potential and as such, they loose potential energy. Then power delivered by the battery
of resistance R will be:

𝐸
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 ∴𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟

Kirchhoff’s 1st Rule


Statement

“the sum of all the current flowing towards the point is equal to the sum of all the

current flowing away from the point.”

Or

“The sum of all the current at the meeting point is equal to zero.”

Mathematically:

∑𝐼 = 0

Sign convention:

 A current flowing towards a point is taken as positive.


 A current flowing away from a point is taken as negative.
Explanation:

 Consider a section where four wires meet at a point A.


 Currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are flowing towards the point A and currents 𝐼3 and 𝐼4 flowing away
from the point A.

+𝐼1 + (+𝐼2 ) + (−𝐼3 ) + (−𝐼4 ) = 0

+𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4

It is manifestation of law of conservation of charge.

Conditions:

 source or sink of charge is not present at the meeting point.

Kirchhoff’s 2nd rule:


Statement:

“The algebraic sum of all the potential changes in closed circuit is equal to zero.”

Mathematically:

∑𝑉 = 0

Explanation:

 Consider a closed circuit shown in the figure below: Suppose 𝐸1 is greater than 𝐸2 .
 When current passes through the cell from low to high potential, it gained energy because
the work is done on it. The energy gained by charge is +∆𝑄 𝐸1 .
 When the current passes through the cell from high to low potential, it loses energy equal
to −∆𝑄 𝐸2 .
 When current passes through the resistor 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 , the charge loses energy equal to
−∆𝑄𝐼𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ∆𝑄𝐼𝑅2 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦

Mathematically Derivation is

+∆𝑄 𝐸1 − ∆𝑄𝐼𝑅1 − ∆𝑄 𝐸2 − ∆𝑄𝐼𝑅2 = 0

𝐸1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐸2 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0

𝐸1 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐼𝑅2

It is manifestation of law of conservation of energy.


Rules:

 If a source of emf is traversed from negative to positive terminal, the potential change is
positive, it is negative in the opposite direction.
 If a resistor is traversed in the direction of current, the potential change is negative, it is
positive in the opposite direction.

Wheatstone bridge:
It is an electrical circuit used to measure the unknown electrical resistance.

Principle:

It works on the principle of zero deflection method.

Zero deflection method:

The ratio of their resistances is equal, the potential at points B and D is same and no current
flows through the galvanometer.

Construction:

 It consists of four resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅4 are arranged in the form of mesh.


 Galvanometer is connected between the terminal B and D.
 Battery is connected between the terminal A and C through switch ‘S’.

Diagram:
Explanation:

When switch ‘S’ is closed then current flowing through the circuit.

Applying KVL on the loop ABDA

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0 … … … … … . . (1)

Applying KVL on the loop BCDB

−𝐼2 𝑅2 − (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼2 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 = 0 … … … … … . . (1)

Zero deflection method:

the ratio of their resistances is equal, the potential at points B and D is same and no current flows
through the galvanometer (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 𝑆𝑂 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ).

So, equation (1) becomes

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼1 )𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − (0)𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 = 0

−𝐼1 𝑅1 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3 … … … … … … … … … . (3)

So, equation (2) becomes

−𝐼1 𝑅2 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼1 )𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 = 0

−𝐼1 𝑅2 − (0)𝑅𝑔 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 = 0

−𝐼1 𝑅2 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4 … … … … … … … … … . (4)

Equation (3) divided by equation (4)

−𝐼1 𝑅1 (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅3


=
−𝐼1 𝑅2 (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅4

𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4

Potentiometer:
It is a device that is used to measure potential difference between two points without drawing
any current from original circuit.

Construction:

 It consists of a wire which has resistance between its two fixed terminals A and B.
 A sliding terminal C can slide over the wire.

Explanation:

Potential difference is applied across the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a
battery. The current I passing through the resistance R of the wire AB is given by:

𝐸
𝐼= … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅

The potential difference between the portion BC of the wire AB is given by:

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = ×𝑟
𝑅
Where “r” is the resistance of the portion BC of wire.

Emf of cell:

 A source of potential difference whose emf is 𝐸𝑥 is to be measured is connected between


terminal A and sliding contact C through a galvanometer G.
 After adjusting the circuit, the galvanometer shows no deflection. At this condition the
emf 𝐸𝑥 is equal to potential difference across A and C.

𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸𝑥 = × 𝑟 … … … . . (2)
𝑅

Since resistance is directly proportional to the length (𝑟 ∝ 𝑙)

𝐸
𝐸𝑥 = ×𝑙
𝑅
Comparison of different emfs:

If 𝑙1 is the balancing length corresponding the 𝐸1 , then:

𝐸
𝐸1 = × 𝑙1 … … … … … (3)
𝑅
If 𝑙2 is the balancing length corresponding the 𝐸2 , then:

𝐸
𝐸2 = × 𝑙2 … … … … … (4)
𝑅
Equation (3) divided by equation (4)

𝐸
𝐸1 𝑅 × 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝐸 × 𝑙
𝑅 2

𝐸1 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝑙2

So, the ratio of two emfs is equal to ratio of their balancing lengths.

Applications:

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