Electrostatics
Electrostatics
Electrostatics
13
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current electricity:
The study of electric charge in motion is called current electricity.
Electric current:
The amount of charges passes through a cross sectional area of conductor per unit time is
called electric current.
∆𝑄
Formula: 𝐼=
∆𝑡
One ampere:
If one coulomb charge or 6.25 × 1018 electrons passes through a cross sectional area of
conductor in one second then current will be one ampere.
1𝐶 6.25×1018 electrons
1𝐴 = =
1𝑠 1𝑠
Drift velocity:
The average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons by application of electric field.
Its direction opposite to the direction of electric field.
Its average value is ≈ 10−3 𝑚𝑠 −1 and thermal value is several hundred kilometer per
second.
Source of current:
A source which maintain the constant potential difference across the ends of conductor.
It converts the non-electrical energy into electrical energy.
For examples
Effects of current:
Heating effect:
Flow of current in wire rise in temperature.
Formula: 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕
Factors:
Amount of current
Resistance
Time
Magnetic effect:
Presence of current in wire is accompanied magnetic field in its surrounding.
𝟎𝝁 𝑰
Formula: 𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
Factors:
Amount of current
Distance from current source
Chemical effects:
Flows of current through an electrolyte produce chemical change.
Factors:
Amount of current
Nature of electrolyte
Electrolyte: it is the chemical through which current is passed. E.g. solution of 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 .
Electrode: rods used to enter or leave the current into the electrolytes.
Applications: electroplating (deposit a thin layer of expensive metals over cheap metal).
Ohm’s law:
It was given by German physicist George Simon ohm in 1826.
Statement:
“The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the ends provides the physical states such as temperature etc. of the conductor remains
constant.”
Mathematically:
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Resistance/Hindrance:
The opposition offered by the conductor to the current is called resistance.
𝑉
Formula: 𝑅= 𝐼
Dependence:
Nature of material
Temperature
1
Geometry of conductor (𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴)
One ohm:
“A conductor has resistance of one ohm if one ampere of current is flows through it when a
potential difference across the conductor is one volt.”
1𝑉
1Ω =
1𝐴
Dependence:
Nature of materials
Temperature
Note: Resistivity is the property of material of which wire is made and resistance is the
characterization of the wire.
Mathematical derivation:
𝑅 ∝ 𝐿 … … … … … … … . (1)
1
𝑅∝ … … … … … … … (2)
𝐴
Combining equations (1) and (2)
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
Conductivity:
Reciprocal of resistivity of material.
Formula:
Dependence:
Nature of materials
Temperature
Note: resistivity and conductivity does not depend on the geometry of conductor.
Conductance:
Dependence:
Nature of materials
Temperature
1
Geometry of material (𝐺 ∝ 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺∝𝐴)
Mathematical derivation:
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ 𝑅0 … … … … … … … . . (1)
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 ∝ 𝑅0 ∆𝑇
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0 = 𝛼 𝑅0 ∆𝑇
𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅0
𝛼=
𝑅0 ∆𝑇
𝐿 𝐿
Here, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 0 𝐶 (𝑅𝑡 = 𝜌𝑡 𝐴) and 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 00 𝐶 (𝑅0 = 𝜌0 𝐴)
𝐿 𝐿
𝜌𝑡 𝐴 − 𝜌0 𝐴
𝛼=
𝐿
𝜌0 𝐴 ∆𝑇
𝜌𝑡 − 𝜌0
𝛼=
𝜌0 ∆𝑇
Rheostat:
A variable resistor which is used for controlling the flow of electric current by varying
the resistance.
The term rheostat was coined by the English scientist Sir Charles Wheatstone.
It is derived from the Greek word “rheos” and “statis” which means current controlling
device.
Symbol:
Construction:
The ends of the wire are connected to two fixed terminals (A and B).
A third terminal is attached to a sliding contact which can which can be moved over the
wire
For this purpose, one of its fixed terminal A and the sliding terminal C is inserted in the
circuit.
If sliding contact C move towards terminal A then the resistance involved in the circuit
decreases.
If sliding contact C move away from the terminal A then the resistance involved in the
circuit increases.
Potential difference is applied across the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a
battery. The current I passing through the resistance R of the wire AB is given by:
𝐸
𝐼= … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅
The potential difference between the portion BC of the wire AB is given by:
𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = ×𝑟
𝑅
Where “r” is the resistance of the portion BC of wire.
As the sliding contact moves towards the end B, the resistance of portion r of the wire
decreases which result in decrease of output voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶 .
when the sliding contact moves away from the end B, the resistance of portion r of the
wire increases which result in increases of output voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐶 .
Electrical power
“The rate at which battery is supplying electrical energy is called its electrical power.”
∆𝑊
Formula: 𝑃= 𝑡
It is a scalar quantity
Its SI unit is watt (1W).
Explanation:
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery connected in series with resistance as shown in the figure:
A steady current flow through the circuit and steady potential difference V exist between the terminals A
and B of the resistor R.
∆𝑊 = ∆𝑄 × 𝑉 … … … … … … … . . (1)
∆𝑄 × 𝑉
𝑃=
∆𝑡
∆𝑄
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼 ∴𝐼=
∆𝑡
By the principal of conservation of energy, the electrical power of the battery is dissipated in the resistor
R. Therefore,
𝑃 = (𝐼𝑅)𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅
𝐼2𝑅 × 𝑅
𝑃=
𝑅
𝐼 2 𝑅2
𝑃= ∴ 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
It is due to electrolyte present between the electrode in cell is called internal resistance.
Dependence:
Consider a battery of emf E having internal resistance r. The current I flowing through the circuit
is given by:
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑟
𝐸 = the emf of the battery, which is equal to the energy gained by unit charge (electron)
to move from its negative to positive terminal.
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑟 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Case-1:
When the switch S is open, no current passes through the resistance. So, voltmeter read the emf
of cell as terminal potential difference (i.e. emf of cell is equal to terminal potential difference)
Case-2:
When the switch S is closed, current passes through the resistance. So emf of cell is greater than
the terminal potential difference.
As the current is flows through the of resistance R, the charges flow from a point of higher potential to a
point of lower potential and as such, they loose potential energy. Then power delivered by the battery
of resistance R will be:
𝐸
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 ∴𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
𝐸 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅+𝑟
“the sum of all the current flowing towards the point is equal to the sum of all the
Or
“The sum of all the current at the meeting point is equal to zero.”
Mathematically:
∑𝐼 = 0
Sign convention:
+𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4
Conditions:
“The algebraic sum of all the potential changes in closed circuit is equal to zero.”
Mathematically:
∑𝑉 = 0
Explanation:
Consider a closed circuit shown in the figure below: Suppose 𝐸1 is greater than 𝐸2 .
When current passes through the cell from low to high potential, it gained energy because
the work is done on it. The energy gained by charge is +∆𝑄 𝐸1 .
When the current passes through the cell from high to low potential, it loses energy equal
to −∆𝑄 𝐸2 .
When current passes through the resistor 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 , the charge loses energy equal to
−∆𝑄𝐼𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − ∆𝑄𝐼𝑅2 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
Mathematically Derivation is
𝐸1 − 𝐼𝑅1 − 𝐸2 − 𝐼𝑅2 = 0
𝐸1 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐼𝑅2
If a source of emf is traversed from negative to positive terminal, the potential change is
positive, it is negative in the opposite direction.
If a resistor is traversed in the direction of current, the potential change is negative, it is
positive in the opposite direction.
Wheatstone bridge:
It is an electrical circuit used to measure the unknown electrical resistance.
Principle:
The ratio of their resistances is equal, the potential at points B and D is same and no current
flows through the galvanometer.
Construction:
Diagram:
Explanation:
When switch ‘S’ is closed then current flowing through the circuit.
the ratio of their resistances is equal, the potential at points B and D is same and no current flows
through the galvanometer (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 𝑆𝑂 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 ).
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Potentiometer:
It is a device that is used to measure potential difference between two points without drawing
any current from original circuit.
Construction:
It consists of a wire which has resistance between its two fixed terminals A and B.
A sliding terminal C can slide over the wire.
Explanation:
Potential difference is applied across the fixed ends A and B of rheostat with the help of a
battery. The current I passing through the resistance R of the wire AB is given by:
𝐸
𝐼= … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅
The potential difference between the portion BC of the wire AB is given by:
𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = ×𝑟
𝑅
Where “r” is the resistance of the portion BC of wire.
Emf of cell:
𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝐸𝑥 = × 𝑟 … … … . . (2)
𝑅
𝐸
𝐸𝑥 = ×𝑙
𝑅
Comparison of different emfs:
𝐸
𝐸1 = × 𝑙1 … … … … … (3)
𝑅
If 𝑙2 is the balancing length corresponding the 𝐸2 , then:
𝐸
𝐸2 = × 𝑙2 … … … … … (4)
𝑅
Equation (3) divided by equation (4)
𝐸
𝐸1 𝑅 × 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝐸 × 𝑙
𝑅 2
𝐸1 𝑙1
=
𝐸2 𝑙2
So, the ratio of two emfs is equal to ratio of their balancing lengths.
Applications: