THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.

SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 18531860.
NINTH , twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
 COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the

Bern Convention

by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the

UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

All rights reserved

 THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY
OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME I

A to ANDROPHAGI

Cambridge, England:
at the University Press

New York, 35 West 32nd Street

1910
 NR

Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,

by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
 DEDICATED BY PERMISSION

TO

HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH

KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND
AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS
EMPEROR OF INDIA

AND TO

WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1970
 PREFATORY NOTE
Encyclopedia Britannica, of which the Eleventh Edition is now issued by the

THE University of Cambridge, has a history extending over 140 years.

quarto volumes, was issued in weekly numbers (price 6d. each) from 1768 to
in three
The First Edition,

1771 by "a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland." The proprietors were Colin MacFarquhar, an
Edinburgh printer, and Andrew Bell, the principal Scottish engraver of that day. It seems that
MacFarquhar, a man of wide knowledge and excellent judgment, was the real originator of the
work, though his want of capital prevented his undertaking it by himself. The work was edited
and in great part written by William Smellie, another Edinburgh printer, who was bold enough
to undertake "fifteen capital sciences" for his own share. The numerous plates were engraved
by Bell so admirably that some of them have been reproduced in every edition down to the
present one.
The plan of the work differed from all preceding "dictionaries of arts and sciences," as
encyclopaedias were usually called until then in Great Britain; it combined the plan of Dennis de
Coetlogon (1745) with that in common use on the one hand keeping important subjects together,
and on the other facilitating reference by numerous and short separate articles arranged in
alphabetical order. Though the infant Encyclopedia Britannica omitted the whole field of history
and biography as beneath the dignity of encyclopaedias, it speedily acquired sufficient popularity to
justify the preparation of a new edition on a much larger scale. The decision to include history
and biography caused the secession of Smellie; but MacFarquhar himself edited the work, with
the assistance of James Tytler, famous as the first Scottish aeronaut, and for the first time produced
an encyclopaedia which covered the whole field of human knowledge. This Second Edition was
issued innumbers from June 1777 to September 1784, and was afterwards bound up in ten quarto
volumes, containing (8595 pages and 340 plates) more than three times as much material as the
First Edition.

These earliest editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica consisted mainly of what may be
described as compilation; like all from the time of Alsted to that of Ephraim
their predecessors,

Chambers, they had been put together by one or two men who were still able to take the whole of
human knowledge for their province. It was with the Third Edition that the plan of drawing on
specialist learning, which has since given the Encyclopedia Britannica its high reputation, was first
adopted. This edition, which was begun in 1788 and completed, in eighteen volumes, in 1797, was
edited by MacFarquhar until his death in 1793, when about two-thirds of the work were completed.
Bell, the surviving proprietor, then appointed George Gleig afterwards Bishop of Brechin as
vii
viii PREFATORY NOTE
editor, and it was he who enlisted the assistance, as contributors, of the most eminent men of science
then living in Scotland. Professors Robison, Thomas Thomson and Playfair were the most
notable of these new specialist contributors, and a Supplement in two volumes was issued in 1801

to allow them to extend their work to those earlier letters of the alphabet which had already been
issued by MacFarquhar. It was their labours which first gave the Encyclopedia Britannica its

pre-eminent standing among works of reference, and prepared the way for it to become, as a later
editor claimed, not merely a register but an instrument of research, since thereafter the leading

departments were invited to contribute their unpublished results to its pages.

specialists in all
In the Fourth Edition, published by Andrew Bell in twenty volumes from 1 80 1 to 1810, the

principle of specialist contributions was considerably extended, but it was only brought to such

degree of perfection as was possible at the time by Archibald Constable, "the great Napoleon of the
realms of print," who purchased the copyright of the Encyclopedia Britannica soon after Bell's death
in 1809. Constable lavished his energy and his money on the famous "Supplement to the Fourth,
Fifth and Sixth Editions," which in 1813 he commissioned Macvey Napier to edit. It was with
the appearance of this Supplement that the Encyclopedia Britannica ceased to be a purely Scottish

undertaking, and blossomed out into that great cosmopolitan or international enterprise which it has
since become. The most eminent writers, scholars and men of science England and on the
in

continent of Europe, as well as in Scotland itself, were enlisted in the work: Sir Walter Scott,
and Sir Humphry Davy, Dugald Stewart who received the then unpre-
Jeffrey, Leslie, Playfair
cedented sum of .1000 for a single contribution Ricardo, Malthus and Thomas Young, with

foreign men of science like Arago and Biot. From this time onward, indeed, a list of the
contributors to successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica would be a list of the most
eminent British and American writers and thinkers of each generation; the work had become the
product of the organized co-operation of acknowledged leaders of the world's thought in every
department of human knowledge. For this advance the credit is mainly due to Constable.
The Fifth and Sixth Editions, each in twenty volumes, issued by Constable between 1815 and
1824, were practically reprints of the Fourth, the Supplement issued in six volumes from 1816 to

1824 being considered adequate to supply their deficiencies. The Seventh Edition, edited by

Macvey Napier on the same lines as the Supplement, of which it incorporated a great part, was
brought out by a new publisher, Adam Black, who had bought the copyright on Constable's failure.
This edition was issued from 183010 1842, and was comprised in twenty-one volumes, which included
a general index to the whole work. The Eighth Edition, under the editorship of T. Stewart Traill,
was issued by the firm of A. & C. Black, from 1853 to 1860, in twenty-one volumes, with a separate
index volume.
The Ninth Edition was then undertaken by the same firm on a scale which Adam Black con-
sidered so hazardous that he refused to have any part in the undertaking, and he accordingly
advertised his retirement from the firm.This Edition began to appear in 1875, under the editor-
ship of Thomas Spencer Baynes, and was completed in 1889 by William Robertson Smith. It

consisted of twenty-four volumes, containing 21,572 pages and 302 plates, with a separate index
volume. Adam Black's prognostications of failure were signally falsified by the success of the work,
of which nearly half a million sets including American pirated and mutilated editions were
ultimately sold. The great possibilities of popularity for the Encyclopedia Britannica in Great
 PREFATORY NOTE ix

Britain were only realized, however, when in 1898 The Times undertook to sell a verbatim reprint of
the Ninth Edition at about half the price originally asked for it by the publishers. The success of
by The Times in 1902 of an elaborate supplement in eleven New
this reprint led to the publication

Volumes (one containing new maps and one a comprehensive index to the whole work), constituting,
with the previous twenty-four volumes, the Tenth Edition. The Eleventh Edition, which super-
sedes both Ninth and Tenth, and represents in an entirely new and original form a fresh survey
of the whole field of human thought and achievement, written by some 1500 eminent specialists
drawn from nearly every country of the civilized world, incorporating the results of research and the
progress of events up to the middle of 1910, is now published by the University of Cambridge,
where it is hoped that the Encyclopedia Britannica has at length found a permanent home.
be seen from this brief survey of the history of the Encyclopedia Britannica that, while
It will

the literary and scholarly success of the work has been uniform and continuous, its commercial
career has naturally been subject to vicissitudes. Six different publishing firms have been at
various times associated, with its production; and the increasing magnitude of the work, con-
sequent on the steady growth of knowledge, made this wellnigh inevitable. The Encyclopedia
Britannica has to-day become something more than a commercial venture, or even a national

enterprise. It is a vast cosmopolitan work of learning, which can find no home so appropriate

as an ancient university.
The present publication of the new Encyclopedia Britannica by the University of Cambridge
is a natural step in the evolution of the university as an educational institution and a home
of research. The medieval University of Cambridge began its educational labours as an
institution intended almost exclusively for the instruction of the clergy, to whose needs its

system of studies was necessarily in a large measure accommodated. The Revival of Learning,
the Renaissance and the Reformation widened its sphere of intellectual work and its interests,
as well as its actual curriculum. The igth century saw the complete abolition of the
various tests which formerly shut the gates of the English universities against a large part of
the people. The early establishment in Cambridge of special colleges for women was also a
sign of expanding activities. About the same time the University Extension movement, first
advocated at Cambridge in 1871 on the ground that the ancient universities were not mere
clusters of private establishments but national institutions, led to a wider conception of the

possibilities of utilizing the intellectual resources of the universities for the general diffusion of

knowledge and and the system of Local Examinations brought the university into close
culture;
contact with secondary education throughout the country. But the public to which the University
of Cambridge thus appealed, though wider than that of the college lecture-rooms, was still

necessarily limited. Practically it is only through the medium of the University Press that
Cambridge can enter and maintain direct relations with the whole of the English-speaking
into

world. The present time seems appropriate for an effort towards thus signally extending the
intellectual and educational influence of the university.

To this end, the University of Cambridge has undertaken the publication of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and now issues the Eleventh Edition of that work. These twenty-eight volumes and
index aim at achieving the high ambition of bringing all extant knowledge within the reach of

every class of readers. While the work, in its present form, is to some extent based on the
x PREFATORY NOTE
preceding edition, the whole has been re-surveyed with the guidance of the most eminent
field

specialists. The editors early decided that the new edition should be planned and written as a
whole, and refused to content themselves with the old-fashioned plan of regarding each volume as a
separate unit, to be compiled and published by itself. They were thus able to arrange their material
so as to give an organic unity to the whole work and to place all the various subjects under
their natural headings, in the form which experience has shown to be the most convenient for
a work of universal reference. An important consequence of this method of editing is that the

twenty-eight volumes are now ready for publication at the same time, and that the complete work
can be offered to the public in its entirety. Although the work has been reduced to the smallest

compass consistent with lucidity bibliographies of all subjects which call for assistance of this
nature being provided in aid of more detailed study the aim throughout has been to maintain the

highest standard of scholarly authority, and to provide a thorough elucidation of important scientific
problems for which the modern inquirer has no adequate text-books. This Eleventh Edition
of the Encyclopedia Britannica now, therefore, offered to the public by the University of
is

Cambridge in the hope and belief that it will be found to be a trustworthy guide to sound learning,
and an instrument of culture of world-wide influence.

CAMBRIDGE,
November I,
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
the Prefatory Note the history of the production of the successive editions of the Encyclopedia
Britannica has been briefly told; and elsewhere in these volumes, under the heading of
IN ENCYCLOPAEDIA (vol. ix. p. 369), an account is given in greater detail of the particular form of
literature to which that name applies. It is no longer necessary, as was done in some of the
defend in a Preface the main
earlier editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, to system principle of the
by which subjects are divided on a dictionary plan under the headings most directly
for treatment

suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of an arrangement of material

based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper names has established of the book
itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to the multiplication

of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution of the Eleventh
Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn.

The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors.

It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors. In
addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and
simple, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannica has always been to give reasoned dis-
cussions on all the great
..,,..
questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the
.
A
Debt to earlier
e<jitions
results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are
themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of
systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources
through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches
of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor for the
name Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol-
of the
...-,-...,. u j Their special
umes which left the main rfabric recognized as giving me
11 *r.
untouched was universally .

most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus
gained by the Encyclopedia Britannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship
the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge carries with
it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet
in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment
must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this
respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great
services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia
Britannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car-
ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To
1
In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the
Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article DRAMA, may be cited: "It is proper to state here .that this article is reprinted as it originally
. .

appeared in the supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of this work without any of those adaptations which the course of time and change
xi
xii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest,
and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a
new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work
contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which
in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation.
In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the
Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is
that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision is, indeed, a new edifice as com-
pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter
there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the
conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication.
The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopaedia otherwise than
in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered
Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875
m prohibitive.
and the twenty-fifth in 1889, was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep-
tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the
possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1881 when Spencer
Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same
editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang-

ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopaedia
can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from
the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of
knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol-
umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in
another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical
order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but
each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered, and there is every
Defect of
chance that some what had previously been published may be
integral portion of
division under . ...
stultified.
.
_, .,
. ..
/*.!. -NT- ^ T-J^- c ^i
Those who were responsible for the execution of the Ninth Edition of the
different dates
Encyclopedia Britannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a
collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a
modern public for "up-to-date-ness" had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason-
able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria.
But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that
made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question,
later history could be added. It was the
owing to its system of publication, its arrangement
fact that,
was not encyclopaedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being
systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been
written originally on a faulty principle.
Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued
by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any
work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume.
1"*
On this svstem the P ublic has been furnished with the Oxford New English Diction-
^h'dn I*
ary ( st ^ incomplete in 1910, though work had begun in the early 'sixties and the first
employed.
volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French
La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica
to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained
in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which

of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cases. We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose
splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as it proceeded from his own hand,
leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh
Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the
Seventh Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth!
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xiii

converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, made it imperative to
extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a
new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of
facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was
bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other
sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects
the convenience of the purchaser as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modern History;
the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency-
clopaedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes,
and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in
such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the
organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and
the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start
the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the
knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, such a worif^
whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many
distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling.
And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly
more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the
old system.
The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an
entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre-
cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given
to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared .

with other encyclopaedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study n ss/6/e.
or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which
resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to
learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention
be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required
for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the

subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it
was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as
the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed
that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress
of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously
no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned
on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail,
irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed
in all parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to
its

represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole
was issued.
This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora-
tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis-
appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the
new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site in this "T^
case the whole field of knowledge was mapped out afresh under the advice of special-
ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different

areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi-
ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a
more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who
dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial
direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica an organic unit.
 xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than
had been included in the Ninth Edition some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul-
taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance hi
.. a work of reference to be applied systematically by The authority
the editorial staff.
which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important
feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the
Encyclopaedia Britannica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his
preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said: "The use of initials (as signatures to articles)
was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge
which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated
/ th
^
it
m^
e ^cyetoaKa, but no effort has been spared on the part of the editorial staff to
secure the accuracy and sufficiency of every contribution, and to prevent those repeti-
tions and inconcinnities which necessarily occur where each contributor is absolutely and solely re-
sponsible for the articles which bear his name." The principle here enunciated, which represents the
tradition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the matter of the correct relationship between editors and
contributors, and the responsibility attaching to individual signatures, has been adopted hi the
Eleventh Edition, but with all the advantages resulting alike from simultaneous production and
from the fact that the Editor-in-Chief was assisted by a much larger staff, working under conditions
which enabled the editorial control to be effective to a degree unattainable under the earlier
system. In concert with the numerous eminent writers whose signatures give individual inter-
est and weight to their contributions, the whole work and not only the unsigned articles,
>many ^ Wfl i cn indeed have equally high authority behind them passed through the
fo^reference"
detailed scrutiny of the editorial staff, whose duty it was to see that it provided what
those who used any part of the book could reasonably expect to find, to remedy those "inconcinnities"
to which Robertson Smith alluded, and to secure the accuracy in the use of names, the inclusion of dates,
and similar minutia, which is essential in a work of reference.
A great deal of the older fabric was obviously incompatible with the new scheme of treatment; but,
where possible, those earlier contributions have been preserved which are of the nature of classics in the

'
world of letters.By a selective process which, it is believed, gives new value to the old
material
material by the revision, at the hands of their own authors or of later authorities, of
such articles or portions of articles as were found to fit accurately into their several places
or inclusion under other headings of a consideration of controverted questions on which the
by the
writers may have taken a strong personal view, itself of historical interest their retention has been effected
so as to conform to the ideal of making the work as a whole representative of the best thought of a later

day.

Questions of Formal Arrangement.

Both hi the addition of new words

new. subjects, and in the employment of different words
for
for old subjects, the progress of the world demands a reconsideration from time to time of the

headings under which its accumulated experiences can best be presented in a work which
. ,.
employs the dictionary plan as a key to its contents. No little trouble was therefore
expended, in planning the Eleventh Edition, on the attempt to suit the word to the sub-
ject in the way most
be generally useful for reference. While the selection has at times been,
likely to
of necessity, somewhat
arbitrary, it has been guided from first to last by an endeavour to follow the
natural mental processes of the average educated reader. But it was impossible to interpret what
is "natural" in this connexion without consideration for the advances which have

been made hi terminological accuracy,

J alike in the technicalities of science and
and common '

sense. "** f rms m

* language adopted by precise writers, whose usage has become or
is rapidly becoming part of the common stock. The practice of modern schools
and the vocabulary of a modern curriculum, as well as the predominating example of expert
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xv

authorities, impose themselves gradually on the public mind, and constitute new conventions which
are widely assimilated. In forecasting what would be for the convenience of a new generation of
readers, it has seemed best to aim at adopting the nearest approach to correct modern terminology,
while avoiding mere pedantry on the one hand, and on the other a useless abandonment of well-
established English custom.
It is easier, however, to lay down principles than to carry them out consistently in face of the ob-

stinacy of the materials with which one is dealing in an encyclopaedia which attempts to combine accu-
rate scholarship with general utility and convenience. In the case of biographical articles, _. ,

for instance, it was decided that the proper headings were the names by which the in-
dividuals concerned are in fact commonly known. Thus "George Sand" is now dealt with under her

pen-name (SAND, GEORGE) and not under that of Madame Dudevant; "George Eliot" is no longer hid-
den away under her married name of Mrs Cross; and "Mark Twain" is taken as the permanent name
by which the world will know Mr Clemens. But it is not only in the case of pseudonyms that there
is. a difficulty in deciding upon the heading which is most appropriate. In variance with
et
the practice of the Dictionary of National Biography, all articles on titled persons are here
J^"t f
arranged under the title headings and not the family names. In principle it is believed
that this is much the more convenient system, for in most cases the public (especially outside the British
Islands) does not know what the family name of an English peer may be. Moreover, the system adopted
by the Dictionary of National Biography sacrifices a very important feature in connexion with these bio-
graphical articles, namely, the history of the title itself, which has often passed through several families
and can only be conveniently followed when all the holders are kept together. As a rule, this system
of putting peers under the headings of their titles agrees with the principle of adopting the names by
which people actually are called; but sometimes it is too glaringly otherwise. Nobody would think of
looking for Francis Bacon under the heading of Viscount St Albans, or for Horace Walpole under that
of Earl of Orford. In such cases what is believed to be the natural expectation of readers has
been consulted. The exceptional use, however, of the family name as a heading for persons of title has
been reserved strictly for what may be regarded as settled conventions, and where reasonably possi-
ble the rule has been followed; thus Harley and St John are dealt with as Earl of Oxford and Viscount

Bolingbroke respectively. On the other hand, when a celebrity is commonly known, not under his
family name but under a title which eventually was changed for a different one of higher rank, the more
convenient arrangement has seemed to be notwithstanding general usage to associate the article with
the higher title, and so to bring it into connexion with the historical peerage. Thus the account of the
statesman commonly called by his earlier title of Earl of Danby is deliberately placed
Use of the
under his later title of Duke of Leeds, and that of Lord Castlereagh under Marquess of
Londonderry. If the result of such exceptions to the rule might seem to be that in cer-
tain cases a reader would not know where to turn, the answer is that a reference to the Index, where cross-
references are given, will decide. In the text of the work, although a great deal has been done to refer
a reader from one article to another, mere cross-references such as " Oanby, Earl of; see LEEDS, DUKE
or" are not included as distinct entries; it was found that the number of such headings would
be very large, and they would only have duplicated the proper function of the Index, which
now acts in this respect as the real guide to the contents and should be regarded as an integral part of
the work.
The reference just made to the Dictionary of National Biography may here be supplemented by a
few words as to the British biographies in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. The
whole standard of biographical writing of this kind has undoubtedly been raised by the labours of Sir
Leslie Stephen, Dr Sidney Lee, and their collaborators, in the compilation of that invaluable
work; and
no subsequent publication could fail to profit, both by the scholarly example there set,
and by the results of the original research embodied in it. But in the corresponding Progress in
,. , .
,, ,. , . treatment of
articles in the hncydopodia Bntanmca
advantage has been taken of the opportunity for biography.
further research and the incorporation of later information, and they represent an in-
dependent study, the details of which sometimes differ from what is given in the Dictionary, but must
not for that reason be thought in haste to be incorrect. Allowance being made for a somewhat different
xvi EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
standard in the selection of individuals for separate biographies, and for the briefer treatment, the at-
tempt has been made to carry even a step forward the ideals of the Dictionary in regard to accuracy of
detail and judgment. This has largely been made possible by the existence of the Dictionary,
critical
but the original work done in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in the same field-
drawing as it can upon a number of biographical articles, already classics, hi its earlier editions gives
it an independent authority even in the sphere of British national
biography. More-
character
over '
^e mc us n
l i o * biographies of eminent persons who died after the Dictionary was
supplemented in 1901, and of others still living in 1910, results hi a considerable extension
of the biographical area, even as regards individuals of British nationality hi the narrowest sense. The
articles in the Encyclopedia Britannica, however, are of course not limited to personages of the British
Islands. Not only are biographies here included of the great French, German, men and women of
Italian, Belgian, Dutch, Russian, Scandinavian, Japanese, and other foreign nationalities, as well as
of those of the ancient world, but the same standard of selection has been applied to American and
British Colonial biography as to English, Welsh, Scottish and Irish. Indeed the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica may now claim for the first time to supply a really adequate Dictionary of American National
Biography, covering all those with whom the citizens of the United States are nationally concerned.
It thus completes its representation of the English-speaking peoples, to all of whom English
history, even in its narrower sense, is a common heritage, and in its evolution a common ex-

ample.
Another form of the terminological problem, to which reference was made above, is found in
the transliteration of foreign names, and the conversion of the names of foreign places and countries
into English equivalents. As regards the latter, there is no English standard which can
sa ^
to ^ e un ^ versa ^> though in particular cases there is a convention which it would

names. aDSUr d to attempt to displace for any reason of supposed superior accuracy. It would
be pragmatical hi the extreme to force upon the English-speaking world a system of call-
ing all foreign places by their local names, even though it might be thought that each nationality had
a right to settle the nomenclature of its country and the towns or districts within it. In general the
English conventions must stand. One of these days the world may agree that an international nomen-
clature is desirable but not yet; and the country which its own citizens call Deutschland
and feasible,
and the French I'Allemagne still remains Germany to those who use the English language. Similarly
Cologne (Koln), Florence (Firenze), or Vienna (Wien) are bound to retain their English
CU
bl
names m
an English book. But all cases are not so simple. The world abounds hi less
important places, for which the English names have no standardized spelling; different
English newspapers on a single day, or a single newspaper at intervals of a few weeks or months, give
them several varieties of form and in Asia or Africa the latest explorer always seems to have a preference
;

for a new one which is unlike that adopted by rival geographers. When the Eleventh Edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica was started, the suggestion was made that the Royal Geographical Society
of London the premier geographical society of the world might co-operate hi an attempt to secure
the adoption of a standard English geographical and topographical nomenclature. The

art/ larSociety, indeed, has a system of its own which to some extent aims at fulfilling this require-
has failed to impose it upon general use; but unfortunately the Society's
ment, though it

system breaks down by admitting a considerable number of exceptions and by failing to settle a very
large number of cases which really themselves constitute the difficulty. The co-operation of the Royal
Geographical Society for the purpose of enabling the Encyclopedia Britannica to give prominent literary
expression to an authoritative spelling for every place-name included within its articles or maps was
found to be impracticable; and it was therefore necessary for the Eleventh Edition to adopt a consistent
spelling which would represent own judgment and
its authority. hoped that by degrees this spell-
It is

ing may recommend itself in other quarters. Where reasonably possible, the local spelling popularized
by the usage of post-offices or railways has been preferred to any purely philological system of trans-
literation, but there are numerous cases where even this test of public convenience breaks down and some
form of Anglicization becomes essential to an English gazetteer having an organic unity of its own. Apart
from the continuance of English conventions which appeared sufficiently crystallized, the most authori-
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xvii

tative spelling of the foreign name has been given its simplest English transliteration, preference being
given, in cases of doubt, to the form, for instance in African countries, adopted by the European na-
ion in possession or control. In the absence of any central authority or international .

agreement, the result is occasionally different in some slight degree from any common
nglish variant, but this cannot well be helped when English variants are so capricious, and none per-
istent; and the names selected are those which for purposes of reference combine the most accuracy with
he least disturbance of familiar usage. Thus the German African colony of Kamerun is here called
Cameroon, an English form which follows the common practice of English transliteration in regard
\.o
its initial letter, but departs, in deference to the German official nomenclature, from the older

English Cameroons, a plural no longer justifiable, although most English newspapers and maps still
perpetuate it.
In the case of personal names, wherever an English spelling has become sufficiently established
both in literature and in popular usage it has been retained, irrespectively of any strict linguistic value.
Foreign names in English shape really become English words, and they are so treated
here; e.g. Alcibiades (not Alkibiades), Juggernaut (not Jagganath). But discrimination
as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made /an
guages
,

all the more especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental
difficult,

originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ-

ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In
the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, various eminent
Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the
Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well-
established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the

Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per-
sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we
believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental names had

been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention
of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and

customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names in the headings and for ordinary use through-
out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article.
While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex-
ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of
Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have
been specially prepared for each language for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted,
;

but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed
to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article BABYLONIA
is specially devoted to an elucidation of the divergences between the
renderings given by individual
Assyriologists.
While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature,
at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition
makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood
that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and
personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get
the public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in
purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate
pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical
weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long
as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly
pronounced and it will be long before these conditions can be fulfilled even a phonetic system of spell-
ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already
exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than to invent a new one. The point
is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very
xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
essentials of thecomprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical
signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except
within the narrowest of sects.
This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader
is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected, to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub-
m ~
other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome
stantially applies to many
to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring

accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encyclopaedia Britannica is
intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship
to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high

education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the

world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to
be a stranger.
With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous
editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and
to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which
would more naturally form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now
been made to arrange the material rather according to the heading under which, in an
encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the
technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c., would be
discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters of a continuous treatise.
But each such chapter or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the
dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha-
Under the name of the common subject of the science as a
betical order of headings.
encyclopaedia . ,
., , . , ,

method. whole, its

history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the
separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter on each of which often
a single specialist has unique authority are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which
the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific
material a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the
general account of details which would overload it has been adopted throughout the Eleventh
Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more
authoritative survey has been possible to such a work, than ever
attained, within the limits
before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only
cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general
heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all
T
treatise.
,
^ S//I^/C anywhere
... ,,
in the book; whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing
, _ 1.1 r
headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or
i
"

less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in

detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of
an intelligent reader.
In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions
as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at
independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original
of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to make separate headings of any words
form
headings
which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological
reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers.
1
The labours of Sir James
Murray and his colleagues New
English Dictionary, which has only become accessible
on the Oxford
since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was published, have enabled a precise
examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words,
together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings
1
Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their
interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among
the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The Index in all such
cases must be consulted, whether for word or name.
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix

under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan,
combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a
comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As
a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the
professional
<)r scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to
any one speaking the
ImP ortance of
English language; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology
'
J in
,. , ,. , . . ., , , ,,. ,. , terminological
any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuracy ,

still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to
impart instruc-
tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the
educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated,
and connected with the facts for which properly they stand.

Some Points as to Substance.

In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it be remarked
may
first that, as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has
been dominated throughout by the historical point of view. Any account which
*
purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether hi the realm of mind or in ,. \ff'/"' ,

that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but
what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the
historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under-

stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have
been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art
and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, all
subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the
successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their own account, but also throw light on what
goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely
widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther
and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only
by the date at which the Encyclopedia Britannica is published. Any contemporary description is
indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the
available resources have >been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn
of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as
part of a con-
sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be
true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia
to prophesy.
In this connexion advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been
it is

incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic
development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available
is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics.
to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of
the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially
for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an

encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such
a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con-
siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by
accident is the last before publication would often be entirely
misleading, owing to their being
subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included
in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive
accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing
concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by,
xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
and new statisticssubjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their
on all

historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted

simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their
precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much
has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or
in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as
it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from

the fact that statistics are inserted not as events in themselves this they may or may not be,
according to the subject-matter but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human
activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed
hi the balance of the judicious historian.
While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must
be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over
, ,, the construction of the work as a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its
The spirit of .

science execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it,
that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every
subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or
any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme,
each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter-
dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the
treatment of any large subject. Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the
system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the
scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual
treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion, the
increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and controversy
objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism.
The title of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of
natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a
considerable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount of
The compara- .

information it contains concerning the corresponding activities

......m -r,
other countries. By
tive method,
approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every
department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have
arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is
appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But
the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense new branches of study have arisen which
:

are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given
to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion,
folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail
which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce
to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered
of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and

expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming
him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited by the comparative method in
recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient
is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both
the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Com-
parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy.
The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings,
in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each

particular structure, but with the corresponding features in the rest of the animal kingdom, the study
of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy
and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter-
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi

connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and
progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society.
In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Britannica in relation to the active con-
troversies of the time," Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition

(1875), referred to the conflict of then raging in regard to religion and

opinion
science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopaedia is not called upon .

to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to
deal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot
be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy." The same policy has in-
spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopedia Britannica itself has no side or party; it attempts
to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and
controversy at manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless; its value as a source of
all, it is
authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were
iot able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar-
tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat-
sfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far' as criticism
concerned, in is

such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without prejudice to the
argument. The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out
altogether; that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is
only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine
and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub-
jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid
the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another,
impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent
opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms,
and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it. In order to give the fullest
expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con-
tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the

Encyclopedia Britannica. They have been selected as representative after the most careful con-
sideration and under the highest sense The proportion of space devoted
of editorial responsibility.
to these subjects is necessarily large, becausethey bulk largely in the minds of thinking people;
and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative
claims may naturally vary. The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre-
sent Western civilization however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus
are,
is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time
of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at that
time raged round the application of historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less
acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary
history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religion
which formerly prevailed. Science and theology have learnt to dwell together; and a reverent
attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined,
without arriere-pensee, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and
development.
Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less
than the literary text; and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography
and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was
possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye,
and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material
in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text; and a

large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration
represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The
microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the
xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art.
Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete
examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has
co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible
their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of

beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account.
Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which
they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope,
orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view; either the cartographers have
worked with the text before them often representing new geographical authority on the part of
the contributors or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff
as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that
any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general
index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes
of Gotha, the publishers of Stieler's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis; and the others
have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial
staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout
been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition.

Conclusion.

In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large
number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be
glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the
list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to

give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken
an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for
the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular
sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and Botany, which were under
the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and
Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's
Advisers on assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative
special Anatomy (in association with Mr F. G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The
subjects. whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and

Dr Rendle; and their supervision, in all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer-
ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by MrH.
B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of
Topographical Geology, Dr J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr
F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon
Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A.
Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was
responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly,
Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the
Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and
Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help.
Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E.
M. Walker of Oxford, as regards subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge,
who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning
generally; Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with
Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted on Jewish subjects.
Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas
 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii

Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance
in regard to

their various subjects were Lord Rayleigh and Mr W. C. D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir
Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir E. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H.
Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr
T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof. W. E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A.
Grierson Languages), the Rev. G. W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman
(Indian
History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr
W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W. F. Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art),
Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof. J. G. Robertson

(German Literature), Mr J. S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music),
Prof. H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W. M. Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of
Harvard (American Physiography).
These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the
editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh

Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining
their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which SUpp0rt.
it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which
drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate
information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion,
to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here. The
interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII.

graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to
be used for the purpose
of making the coloured plates which accompany the article KNIGHTHOOD. Makers of history like Lord
Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while
not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of
institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental
or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers, from many such quarters answers
have been freely given to applications for information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia
Britannica.
In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his
chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity. Prof. J. T. Shotwell,
of Columbia University, U.S.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint _. _.

Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant-

Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the
direction of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and
with articles on American subjects; to his loyal and efficient co-operation,both on the special subjects
assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot
be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart-
ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T. A. Ingram, Mr H. M. Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R.
Howarth, Mr F. R. Cana, Mr C. O. Weatherly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove,
Mr C. F. Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev. A. J. Grieve, Mr. W. E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur
B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a
special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control.
On the New York staff Mr
Whinery had the efficient help of Mr
R. Webster, Dr N. D. Mereness, Dr
F. S. Philbrick, O. Scroggs, Mr W. T. Arndt, Mr W. L. Corbin and Mr G. Gladden.
Dr W. K. Boyd, Dr W.
A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the
Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double
purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be The jndex
made for compiling theIndex which would eventually be published; and as the reference-
cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different
writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points
of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes
xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
much way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular
in this
mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published,
represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department and in order to put it into
;

shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction
of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use
of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents,

brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of
the work itself, a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public.

HUGH CHISHOLM.
LONDON,
December 10, 1910.
 INITIALS USED IN VOLUME TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL I.

CONTRIBUTORS, WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 1

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. A. R.* ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J

Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin H Airy.
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. L

A. C. L. SIR ALFRED COMYN LYALL, K.C.B. f Abdur Rahman;

See the biographical article: LYALL, SIR A. C. L Afghanistan: History.
A. D. AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / Addison (in part).
See the biographical article DOBSON,: HENRY AUSTIN.
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology in Cam- "i
Acanthocephala.
bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.
A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc. f
Alpaca.
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. \
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.Soc. f
Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford Professor of English History in the University
; Aconcio.
-j
of London. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. I

A. Gir. ARTHUR GIRAULT.

Professor of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the "j Algeria: History.
International Colonial Institute. Author of Principes de colonisation (1907-1908). L

A. G. H. A. G. HADCOCK (late R.A.) J Ammunition (in part).

Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

A. H. J. G. ABEL HENDY JONES GREENIDGE, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). ,.

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's H Agrarian Laws {in part),
College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law, &c.
A. J. B. ALFRED JOSHUA BUTLER, M.A., D.LITT. J*
Abyssinian Church.
Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. L

A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER J. GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f

Adoptianism; Alford;
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent"! Ai CAn \j Amhrnea Q*
' V '' Ambrose ' st -
.
A1SOp
College, Bradford. I

A. Mw. ALLAN MAWER M.A. JEthelred L;

Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- J JEthelflaed;
-j jpth-ietan- ZFthliPirri
Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f
Algol.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \
A. M. Cl. AGNES MURIEL CLAY (Mrs Edward Wilde). f
Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of 4 Agrarian
Laws (m part).
Roman History, 133-70 B.C.

ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. .

Acclimatization.
See the biographical article WALLACE, A. R. :

ARTHUR SIDGWICK, M.A., LL.D. (Glasgow). f ..

Fellow of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford; formerly Reader in Greek, Oxford Uni- H Aeschylus.
versity.
ARTHUR WILLEY, D.Sc., F.R.S. J Amphioxus.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Director of L

ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. /Aberdeen, 4th Earl of.

Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. L

BUDGETT MEAKIN (d. 1906). J Almohades (in part);

Author of The Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire; &c. \ Almoravides (in part).
CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., LITT.D. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article
;
Agenais.
: BEMONT, C.
C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. f
Algebra: History.
Magdalen College, Oxford. \
Alexandria: Battle.
C. F. A. 'CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. .

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1
American Civil War;
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [Ammunition (in part).
1
A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
xxv
xxvi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
C. F. R. CHARLES F. RICHARDSON, PH.D. f Alcott, A. B.;
Professor of English, Dartmouth College, U.S.A.
\ Alcott L M
C. L. H. CALDWELL LIPSETT. J Amdi; _

Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. 1 Agra.
C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. i

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J .,

Aiexana
,
r
-
01 c
bervia.
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1
1902-1903. [

C. Pf. CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D. ES L. I"

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Alcuin.
-j
tudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.

C. PI. REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. f

Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred the < Alfred the Great.
Great; &c. Ford's Lecturer, 1901.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr.
Professor of Modern History in the University
of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of J
Andrew of Lonejumeau
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1
Author oi'Henry the Navigator The Dawn of Modern Geography &c.
; ; [

C. S. P.* REV. CHARLES STANLEY PHILLIPS. f jt ne lred II

King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. 1
C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f , .

Advertisement (in
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
\ part).
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. r
Hanifa;Abu
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A.
| Ahmad Ibn Hanbal.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Adalia; Adana; Aegean
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899- Alexandria; Alexandretta;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at
Alexandria Troas;
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Amasia; Anazarbus.
Abbadides; Abd-Ar-Rahman;
Admiral; Agreda;
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. Almogavares; Almohades;
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, . Almoravides; Alphonso;
1217-1688 Life of Emilia Castelar &c.
; ;
America: History;
American War of Inde-
pendence: Naval Operations;
American War of 1812.
D. M. REV. D. MEIKLEJOHN. J Adams, John Couch.
D. Mn. REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. r ., ,,, T ...
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Alexander, w. L., Alion, H.
j
D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign J
AlexanQ "> OI
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia. Alexander III., of Russia.
\

E. B.* ERNEST C. F. BABELON.

f
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dcpt. of Medals and Africa, Roman,
Antiquities -!

at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford.
Formerly-^ Amalric.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College.
E. Ch. EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D. Adams Jonn ;
f
Professor of History, Harvard University. 1 Adams, John Qumcy;
L Adams, Samuel.
E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lrrr. r
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. 1 Acoemetl.

E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. f Aasen; Almqvist;

See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. J. Anacreontics;
Andersen, Hans Christian.
E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. l
.u,,,. -.,..,.
See the biographical article GARDNER, PERCY.
:
J .
~] Aegina.
E> He - EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. ; .f,:. . /- , nt.i,,, Tf fn .
Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of P y> '
Geography of Africa &c i of/. {t
E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. ****&>& ; '

}
Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke
College, Cam- J Alani
bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. '

E. J. R. EMANUEL JOSEPH RISTORI, PH.D., Assoc.M.lNST.C.E. f

Member of Council, Institute of Metals. 4 Aluminium.
E. M. W. REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. S Aegina: History.
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Abdomen;
Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of J

Cambridge, "1 AhspAi<!' Adfltiniik

Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester J Alcoforado. ;

Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-

mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
E. R. B. EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. 4 Alexander the Great.
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus.
E. Tn. REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON (d. 1907). /Acolyte;
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict History ; of the Jesuits in England. \ Allen, William.
E. V. REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895). / Abbey;
Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. I Abbot.

E. W.* EDGAR WHITAKER (d. 1905). i"

Ahmed Veflk
Formerly Times correspondent at Constantinople. t

F. A. E. FRED. A. EATON / Academy, Royal.

Secretary to the Royal Academy. L

F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen). f Ablution; Agape;

Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy, -j
Anabaptists;
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I
Ancestor-Worship.
F. Fn. FRANK FINN, F.Z.S. f
Acclimatization
Late Assistant Director of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. \
,, . r .ffithelbald; .ffithelberht;
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. J j^thelfrith' JEthelred-
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
>

.ffithelwuli; Alamanni.
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S.,
F^R.ANTHROP.INST.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
knd the London School of Medicine for Women,
Worne Alimentary Canal;
'

Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and -!

-j

Formerly Hunteriari Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Anatomy.

F. H. Ne. FRANCIS HENRY NEVILLE, M.A., F.R.S. f

Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Lecturer on Physics and Chemistry. \ Alloys (in part).

F. y. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- <
[ *..*"* c imhfi
e
i.
''

logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. [ Akhmim; Amasis; Ammon.

Abyssinia: Geography;
Africa: Geography, History (in
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. part) Albert Edward Nyanza
;

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. (in part) Albert Nyanza (in
;

part); Alexandria (in part);

Algeria: Geography.
F. S. FRANCIS STORR. j
Academ ie S .
Editor of the Journal of Education (London). Officier d'Academie (Paris). \
F. T. M. SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS. r
" " About.
Accountant-General of the Army, 1898-1904. Editor of Great Writers Series. *!

F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. r Agate; Alabaster;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J
Alexandrite;
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
[ Amber' Amethyst
G.* COUNT ALBERT EDWARD WILFRED GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. f .
A.D.M.O., War Office; Colonel, Grenadier Guards. Mission to Abyssinia, 1897. \
Abyssinia: History.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S.
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British J
AlyteS.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
[

G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. f

Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of -I
Ahom.
India, 1898-1902.Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909.
G. Br. REV. GEORGE BRYCE, D.D., LL.D.
Head of Faculty of Science, and Lecturer in Biology and Geology in Manitoba Alberta.
-|

University, 1891-1904. Vice-President of Royal Society, Canada, 1908.

G. B. M. GEORGE BALLARD MATHEWS, M.A., F.R.S.
Formerly Professor of Mathematics, University College of N. Wales. Sometime {
Algebra: Special.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
G. C. R. GEORGE CROOM ROBERTSON. r
Abelard (in part).
See the biographical article : ROBERTSON, G. C. \
G. E. C. COLONEL GEORGE EARL CHURCH. f
Amazon.
See the biographical article: CHURCH, G. E. \
G. E. W. GEORGE EDWARD WOODBERRY, Litt.D., LL.D. f
Professor of Comparative Literature at Columbia University, 1891-1904. Author of -|
American Literature.
Edgar Allan Poe; Makers of Literature; America in Literature; &c.
G. F. B. G. F BARWICK. Duke of Saxe-Coburg;
J Alfred>
Assistant-Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British i Alice Grand-Duchess Of Hesse.

G. L. GEORGE LUNGE, PH.D. (Breslau), HON. DR!NG. (Karlsruhe). /Alkali Manufacture.

See the biographical article: LUNGE, G. \
xxviii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. P. M. GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. I"

Lecturer on Biology, London Hospital Medical College, and London School of Albino.
-|
Medicine for Women.
G. W. B. GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD, A.M., Ph.D. f
Professor of History of Greece and Rome in Columbia University, New York. 1 Ampmetyony.
Author of The Roman Assemblies; &c. '
Abu-l-'ala; Abu-l-'Atahiya;
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Abulfaraj; Abulfeda;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old - Abu-1-Qasim; Abu Nuwas;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Abu Tammam; Abu Ubaida;
Akhtal: Alqama Ibn 'Abada;
Amru'-ul-Qais.
H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, -j Agassiz, J. L. R.
President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908.
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. [Acton
" Lord- A?nn<itiitan- '

Formerly Scholar Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of
of H / t""
A]h B "> [
ra B tonsort. ,

the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the loth edition.

H. C. C. HERBERT CHALLICE CROUCH, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. J
Anaesthetist and Teacher of Anaesthetics at St Thomas's, Samaritan and French ~{ Anaesthesia.
Hospitals, London. L

H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f

Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of the Times Engineering Alchemy.
-j
Supplement. Author of British Railways.
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. /AH...
Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of A1Dany Countess 01.
the Royal Stuarts; &c. \
H. P. J.* HENRY PHELPS JOHNSTON. f American War of Independ-
Author of Royalist History of the Revolution ; The Yorktown Campaign; &c. I ence: Land Operations.
H. R. H.* H. R. HAXTON. Advertisement.
-j

H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G. J" ., .

Member for St. Author of The Call to Arms. Ammunition: Small Arms. ,

Helen's, 1885-1906. \
H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. f

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. Director of the British School at -| Amphitheatre.
Rome, 1903-1905. Author of The Roman Empire.
H. V. K. CAPTAIN HOWARD V. KNOX, M.A.
Exeter College, Oxford.
{
f
UIK
.
Flora and Fauna.

H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f a

nji,..,. .,,,, . .,
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895-1902.
\
H. W. H. HOPE W. HOGG, M.A. c
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester, i Anah.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. r ,
Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna. Amedeo, Ferdmando, of Savoy.
j
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K. C.S.I.
See the biographical article: YULE, Sir H. Afghanistan: History.
\
J. A. Ba. J. ARTHUR BARRETT, LL.B. f Admiralty Jurisdiction:
New York Bar, 1880. U.S. Supreme Court Bar, 1901. |_
United States.
J. A. E. JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E.
Director of (British) Naval Education, 1903. Hon. Fellow of King's College, J
.. _
Cambridge. Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University 1 Air-Engine.
of
Cambridge, 1890-1903.
J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. r
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of A
University College,' London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and
Am P er Der -
"]
University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. [
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. f
Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Albian.
\
J. B. B. JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LiTT.D., LL.D. f
"AI.-!,., T * ni
See the biographical article: BURY, J. B.
\
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Albania-
Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of J . ,

St Alexander of Bulgaria. Alexander of Bulgaria.

\
J. D. Pr. JOHN DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the < Akkad.
Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. L
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HisT.S. r
Acosta, J. de;
Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and
Alarcon J R de*
Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MacColl Lecturer in the 4 ..
of Commander the Order Alarcon r - A - ae
University Cambridge. Knight of of Alphonso XII. > '>

Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I Aleman; Amadis de Gaula.

J. F. R. JAMES FORD RHODES, LL.D. f ., _

See the biographical FORD. Aaa ns> r* '
article: RHODES, J. \
J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A.
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1896. ~\
Ancyra.
Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. L
 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XXIX
J. G. Gr. JOHN G. GRIFFITHS. J Accountants.
Fellow and late President, Institute of Chartered Accountants. L

J. G. Sc. SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C I.E.

j Akyab.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma ; &c. (.

J. H. P. JOHN HENRY POYNTING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J ACOUStlCS. .

Mason Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science, Birmingham 1

University. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M. A., LL.D. (Edin.). J AhBV __. B Ailk
ADeyal .

Author of Feudal England Peerage and Pedigree &c.

; ; I
I. JULES ISAAC. J AD
AmhnUo
lse r
u -
H'
a
Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons, France. \ >

J.L.* SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. f

Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in J
Aether
Cambridge University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Author of Aether and
Matter; &c.
J. L. M. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J
Amathus.
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford.
J. M. M. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London i Anaxagoras (in part).
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.
J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST J
Adam, Robert.
Editor of the Guardian (London).
J. P. Pe. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in J Anbar
the University of Pennsylvania. In charge of the University Expedition to Baby- |

Ionia, 1 888-1 895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I

J. R. C. JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.

Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of and S Absorption of Light.
edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. I

J. R. D. COLONEL JOHN RICHARD DODD, M.D., F.R.C.S., R.A.M.C. Ambulance.

Administrative Medical Officer of Cork Military District.

J.S. JAMES SULLY, LL.D. Aesthetics.

See the biographical article: SULLY, J.

J. S. P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Petrographer to the Geological Survey, Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Agglomerate;
burgh University. Amphibolite; Andesite.

J. S. K. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). f

Sec. Royal Geog. Soc. Hon. Memb. Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, -<
Abbadie; Africa: History.
&c. Editor of Statesman's year-book. Editor of the Geographical Journal. \_

J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY.

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly editor of the Scottish Geographical -j
Altai.
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. L

J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.

Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of J finc A np i, nvv
" iTn,'. 1
University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Uni-
^ v y-

versity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D. \ Abelard (in part).

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.

J. V. B. J. VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. /Acts of the Apostles.

Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

Jno. W. JOHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L. f

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the Members for
United Kingdom of International Court of Arbitration under the Hague Convention, J Alien;
1900-1906. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict 1 Allegiance.
"
of Laws: Chapters on the Principles of International Law, part i. Peace," part ii.
War."
J. W. D. CAPTAIN J. WHITLY DIXON, R.N.
Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal. Anchor.

K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r Accordion; Aeolian Harp;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra ; &c.
\ Alpenhorn.
L. D.* Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. J Adrian I., II., III.;
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. Alexander II.
I. I., (popes).
Alunite;
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER.
Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex Amblygonite; Ampibole;
College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Analcite; Anatase;
Andalusite.
(Albite;
L.V.* LUIGI YILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent in
east of Europe; Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Philadelphia, 1907, and Alexander VI. (pope);
Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. Amari.
(Accoramboni;
 XXX INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. /Alexander the Great:
I Legends.
M. G. MOSES GASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By- I

z. inline Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. 1

Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.
M. 6. D. RT. HON. SIR MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT-DUFF, G. C.S.I., F.R.S. (1829- f
1906). M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, 1857-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India,
1868-1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1881. Governor of J Amnthill Rarnn
Madras, 1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. 1
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1892-1899. Author of Studies in European
Politics; Notes from a Diary; &c. I

M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S. f

Professor of Zoology in University College, Cork. Formerly Professor of Natural
-\
Amoeba.
History in Queen's College, Cork, and Fellow of the Royal University of Ireland. L
M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, M.A., K.C., D.C.L.
President of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General
j

Council of the Bar and Council of Legal Education. Late Chairman, Incorporated < "Alabama" Arbitration.
Council of Law _Rep9rting. Chairman of Quarter Sessions, Westmorland.
Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford.
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, JR., PH.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of Adad -

j
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.
M. M. Bh. SIR MANCHERJEE MERWANJEE BHOWNAGREE, K.C.I.E.
Fellow of
Bombay University. M.P. (C.) Bethnal Green, North-East, 1895-1906. -<
("
A Sa
Author of Small History of the East India Company.
M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. c
Fellow and Lecturer of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Greek) Agesilaus;
Epigraphy. ^ Corresponding Member of the German Imperial Archaeological 1 Agis.
Institute. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

H. 0. B. C. MAX OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Acarnania; Achaean League;

Reader Ancient History at London
in University. Lecturer in Greek at Actium; Aetolia; Ambracia.
Birmingham University, 1905-1908. |
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXLME PRINET.
Albret;
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of
France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Alencon, Counts of.
N. V. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.
Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist Ailly;
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Socie'tS de 1'Histoire de Alexander V. (pope).
France, and of the Soci6t< de 1'Ecole de Charles.
0. E. S. OTTO EPPENSTEIN, PH.D.
Member of Scientific Staff at Zeiss's optical works, Jena. Editor of 2nd ed. of \ Aberration.
Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrnmenie nach Abbe.
0. H.* OTTO HEHNER, PH.D. Adulteration.
Formerly President of the Society of Analytical Chemists.

0. T. M. OTIS TUFTON MASON (d. 1908). America: Ethnology and

Curator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum, Washington, 1884-1908.
Authorof Woman's Sharein Primitive Culture Primitive Traveland Transportation &c.
; ;
Archaeology.

P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. Alain de Lille;

Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes,
Sorbonne, Albigenses.
Paris. Author of Les Idees morales chez les hSterodoxes latines au debut du XIII' siecle.
P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., D.JURIS.
Alsace-Lorraine.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
P. A. G. P. ANDERSON GRAHAM.
Editor of Country Life. Author of The Rural Exodus: the Problem of the Village and Allotments.
the Town.
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. Altai ; Amur : District ;
C
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.
| Anarchism.
P. A. M. PERCY ALEXANDER MACMAHON, D.Sc., F.R.S., LATE MAJOR R.A.
Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint General Secretary Forms
Ateebraic *orms. I

British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, Ordnance College. President 1

of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896.

P. C. H. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London from 1903. University Demonstrator Abiogenesis ; Actinozoa ;
in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at
Oxford, 1888-1891 Alimpntarv
Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London
Hospital, 1 ? /.
Ma *** Part >- m .

1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- I

l

1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903.

P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. | Aberdeen, 1st Earl of;

Magdalen College, Oxford. \Allestree, R.
P.GI. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of
A ; Accent ;
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology. Alphabet.
 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XXXI
P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J
AIDS' Ceoloev
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian
Trilobites. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology.

R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.

Acre; Ai; Altar.
Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund.

R. K. D. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum ; -i.
Aleock Sir R.
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and
Literature of China &c.
;

R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., [ Amblvpoda-

Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; \ . .

The Deer of all Lands The Game A nimals of Africa &c.

; ; I
Aneylopoda.

Aagesen; Absalon;
Adolphus Frederick;
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political
Alexander Nevsky;
History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15131900 The First Romanovs, 1613 to
;
Alexius Mikhailovich;
1725 Slavonic Europe : the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706, &c.
; Alexius Petrovich;
Alin; Andrassy, Count;
Andrew II. of Hungary.
R. P. S. R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's .
Aisle.
College, London. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of
Architecture: East and West; &c.
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., LiTT.D. J Aequi. .

Professor of Latin, Victoria University of Manchester; formerly Professor of Latin

j
in University College, Cardiff.

R. Tr. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.

Dean, Fellow and Lecturer, Worcester College, Oxford. Formerly Scholar of ]
Agriculture (in part).
Christ Church, Oxford.
R. V. H. ADMIRAL SIR RICHARD VESEY HAMILTON, G.C.B. f Admiralty Administration
Senior Naval Lord of Admiralty, 1889-1891. President, Royal Naval College, 1 (British)
Greenwich, 1891-1894.
W. P. REGINALD W. PHILLIPS, D.Sc., F.L.S. f
Professor of Botany in the University College of North Wales. Author of Morpho- Algae.
"j

logy of the Algae, &c. I

S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Aaron; Abimelech;

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Abraham; Ahab;
Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908.
Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904-1905. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Amalekites;
Author of Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Ammonites.
S. E. B. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D. ["
Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in the University of Yale. I

American Law
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. President of the Inter- 1
national Law Association. President of the American Historical Association. I

Adr a ' Aemilia ia

T.As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Oxon.), F.S.A. I"
j ,y ;,
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo- J Agrlgentum; Alba Fucens;
logy at Rome. Alba Longa; Aletrium;
I Anagnia; Ancona.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Affiliation.
Trinity College, Dublin.
T. A. J. T. ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec. Anthropo-
Ababda;
Africa: Ethnology.
logical Society.

T. H. THOMAS HODGKIN, LL.D., D.LiTT. Alaric.

See the biographical article :
HODGKIN, T.
T. H. H. THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S.
See the biographical article :
HUXLEY, THOMAS H. -j
Amphibia (in part).

T. H. H.* COLONEL SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., HON. D.Sc. ("

Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Author of The Indian

Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet; &c. Afghan Turkestan.
T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.D.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.
-
Adam; Amos.

T. W. R. D. T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Abhidhamma

Professor of Comparative Religion in Manchester University. President of the Pali
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secre
Secretary and Librarian of Royal 1
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; &c. Ananda.
V. B. L. VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College, Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner J Acetylene.
to the Corporation of the City of London.

SIR JOSEPH WALTON (d. IQIO).

'Formerly Judge of the King's Bench Div. Chairman of the General Council of the
-j Affreightment.
Bar, 1899.
XXX11 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
W. A. B. C. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Pn. (Bern). Aar; Aarau; Aargau; Adda;
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Projessor of English History ,_St JDavid's Adige; Albula Pass; Alp;
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of*.
,1 wf&jj. f*~fi~ i- r*-:-u u. r>..ij- *~ c.,..'* -/,..,./. TI.~ A ij*~ ;., A;,,f*,~
in Nature *~j in
and Aipes lYianunies; Alps;
;
Switzerland; The
_
the 'Guide to
T*ddi; Guide to
Grindelwald; Alps
i

L Altdorf.
History, &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c.
f Abbot; Aix-la-Chapelle:
W A. P. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Congresses;
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,-! Alexander I. of Russia*
f\v(/\rA
Oxford. Anfhr*r of
Author rtf Modern
A//i//*r*. 7?r/iVw>
Europe; rr
'

All, of
lannma; Alliance;
I Ambassador.
W. Ba. WILLIAM BACKER, PH.D.
Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Buda-Pest.
Abenezra.

W. C. R.-A. SIR WILLIAM CHANDLER ROBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: ROBERTS-AUSTEN, SIR W. C
-I
Alloys (in part).

W. E. G. SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G.

Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, I Albert Edward Nyanza;
Egypt. Under- Secretary of State for Public Works. Adviser to the Ministry of 1 Albert Nyanza (in part).
Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. L

W. FT. WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S. (d. 1907).

Agriculture (in part).
Author of Handbook of Agriculture. -j

W. F. Sh. WILLIAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A.

Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, -<
Algebra.
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884.
W. G.* WALCOT GIBSON, D.Sc., F.G.S. I ifrina-'
-
H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-Bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal; -

Mineral Wealth of Africa The Geology of Coal and Coalmining &c. ;

Algeria: Geology.
;
[
W. G. F. P. SIR WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, BART., D.C.L., LL.D.
Judge of the King's Bench Div. President of International Law Associa^n, 1905. J Admiralty, High Court of;
Author of Book of Church Law. Edited 2nd ed. of Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law, "l
Admiralty Jurisdiction.
and 3rd ed. of vol. iv. of Phillimore's International Law.
W. Hi. WALTER HIBBERT, A.M.I. C.E., F.I.C., F.C.S. J Accumulator,
Lecturer on Physics and Electro-Technology, Polytechnic, Regent Street, London.
W. M. D. WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, D.Sc., PH.D.
Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Formerly Professor of Physical J America: Physical Geography.
Geography. Author of Physical Geography; &c.
W. M. F. P. WILLIAM M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.C.L., LITT.D., LL.D., PH.D. J Abydos.
See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. F.
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article DANTE GABRIEL. j Andrea del Sarto.
:
ROSSETTI,
W. 0. B. VEN. WINFRID OLDFIELD BURROWS, M.A.
Archdeacon of Birmingham. Formerly Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford, 1884-1891, Absolution.
and Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 18911900.
I

W. Ri. WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LITT.D.

Disney Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in
Classics. Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. J Achaeans.
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age
of Greece, &c.
W. S. WILLIAM SPALDING. J Addison (in part).
See the biographical article: SPALDING, W.
W. T. S. REAR-ADMIRAL W. T. SAMPSON, LL.D. f Admiralty Administration
See the biographical article: SAMPSON, W. T.
\ (United States).
W. W. WILLIAM WALLACE.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). \ Anaxagoras (in part).

W. W. F.* WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.

Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub- Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Ambarvalia.
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans.
W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. r Adrian IV., V., VI.;
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. J Alexander III., IV., VII., VIII.;
i, Ancyra, Synod of.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES

Abbreviation. Aeronautics. Albumin. Alimony. Ambo.
Acid. Aerotherapeutics. Alcohol. Alismaceae. Ammonia.
Aconite. Agapemonites. Alcohols. Almanac. Amsterdam.
Addison's Disease. Age. Aldehydes. Aloe. Ana.
Adoption. Alabama. Alexandrian School. Alum. Andaman Islands.
Advocate. Alaska. Alhambra. Amazons. Andes.
Advowson. Alb.
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC A
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME I

A This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in the In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the
Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants. short sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte (i);
In Phoenician, a, like, the symbols for e and for o, did English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely
not represent a vowel, but a breathing ;
the vowels to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was
originally were not represented by any symbol. When the a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H.
alphabet was adopted by the Greeks it was not very well fitted Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history
to represent the sounds of their language. The breathings of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On
which were not required in Greek were accordingly employed the other hand, the long sound of a in the Attic and Ionic dialects
to represent some of the vowel sounds, other vowels, like i and u, passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was
being represented by an adaptation of the symbols for the represented by the same symbol as the original e-sound (see
semi-vowels y and w. The Phoenician name, which must have ALPHABET Greek). The vowel sounds vary from language to
:

corresponded closely to the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent
the Greeks in the form Alpha (a\<j>a). The earliest authority in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a
for this, as for the names of the other Greek letters, is the whether long or short, and also to represent several different
grammatical drama (ypannariKri Qeupia) of Callias, an earlier vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English
contemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds,
containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in which are represented by a in English. In general it may be
Athenaeus x. 453 d. said that the chief changes which affect the a-sound in different
The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest languages arise from (i) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing
of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced
Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination
8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests with rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the
upon its side thus ^
\ <. In the Greek alphabet of later times rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into the
formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced
it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local
varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c.
the angle at which the cross line is set (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., 906, 784).
^ /\ fa /) P|, &c. From The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of
the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans
and from them has passed to the other nations of western Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Madoi, with a.
in the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MaSot),
Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription
is changed into Medoi (Mi?5ot), with an open e-sound instead
found in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that
of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this sound
on a golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET),
is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with i (as in
the letters are still identical in form with those of the western
Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are English seed). The first part of the process has been almost
compara-
tively rare in Greek, as /^, or unknown, as ^.
repeated by literary English, a (ah) passing into e (eh), though
Except possibly in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further
Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet
into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet,
directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received
op. cit. 783).
it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the
I writing of early inscriptions is no less careful than in Latin, the
A takes the form fQ, to which the nearest parallels are found
In English a represents unaccented forms of several words,
e.g.an (one), of, have, he, and of various prefixes the history of
in north Greece (Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford,
only
sporadically). 1888), vol, i.,p.,4. ,
. (P. Gi.)
i. i 5
 AA AAR
As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for lake, with low, marshy shores and many islands. North-west is
various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer.
of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being South-east lies the similar Lille Vildmose. A railway connects
the first of the litter-ae nundinales at Rome), and generally as Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north,
a sign of priority. and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The
In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal harbouris good and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a
"
affirmative proposition in the general form all x is y." The growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and
letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirm- fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the I7th cen-
ative
"
some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid-
"
the particular negative some x is not y." The use of these dle of the 1 8th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt
letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the I4th century or
verbs A/Irmo (or AIo), "I assert," and nEgO, "I deny." earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art
The use of the symbols dates from the i3th century, though and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is Norre Sundby,
some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail-
also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom.
In Shipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality of con- Aalborg received town -privileges in 1342, and the bishopric dates
struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships from 1554.
are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg,
assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian
other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship. Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com-
See SHIPBUILDING. It is popularly used to indicate the highest munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen
degree of excellence. and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and
AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood.
word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to the Latin There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet
aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach; Scand. a, aa, pronounced o). The Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to
following are the more important streams of this name: 1802, when it was annexed to Wiirttemberg.
Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county),
Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the 145 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies
north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi- two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Norvo, which
gable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can- enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the
tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes principal shipping-place of Sondmore district, and one of the chief
Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the
Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Jb'rund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje
Werre at Herford, the Miinster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nord-
others. fjord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to
AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund
for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and

his studies in 1848 to take part in the first Schleswig war, in Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are
which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the pth
became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen- century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 23rd
hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for of January 1904, Aalesund was the scene of one of the most
drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns,
law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole
of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population
won his reputation.Among his numerous juridical works may be had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes.
mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were
Bemaerkinger om Reltigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871- so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom,
1872); Fortegnelse over Relssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, and by the German government, while the British government
Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc- also offered it.

cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman,
department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils was born at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government
were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after
the sources, his energetic demonstration of his subject and his reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em-
stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under
amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection Reshid Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand
and respect. vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the
See C. F. Bricka, Dansk.Biog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio of
Samlade Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this
1863). (R. N. B.) capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. Again
AAL, also known as A'L, ACH, or AICH, the Hindustani names becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than
for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda plants exten-
citrifolia, five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 1856.
sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff In 1867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's
which their roots contain. The name is also applied to the dye, visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal-
but the common trade name is Suranji. Its properties are due to ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the
the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com- sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist,
pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra- he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against
quinone. whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He
AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop, died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871.
and chief town amt (county) of its name, on the south bank
of the AAR, or AARE, the most considerable river which both rises
of the Limfjord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat. and ends entirely within Switzerland. Its total length (including
Pop. (1901) 31,457- The situation is typical of the north of all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about

Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into aij irregular 181 m., during which distance it descends 5135 ft., while its
 AARAU AARHUS
drainage area is 6804 sq. m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a
the canton of Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on
Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, form- the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but
ing on the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked.
past Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet AARD-WOLF (earth- wolf), a South and East African carni-
by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain. vorous mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a
A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper
Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck
lake it receives its first important affluent, the Liitschine (left), and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on
and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites.
Interlaken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss
order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.),
it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-9
by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 172 sq. m.
then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built. and vineyards 8-2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous
It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly direction, Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of
but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The
Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts
Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered
Nidau Canal and then runs E. to Biiren. Henceforth its course is mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot
N.E. for a long distance, past Soleure (below which the Grosse sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein-
Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg
Wigger, right), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are
Suhr on the right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in the ruined castle of Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden
on the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman
the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population in
Linth (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but
affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990
they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im-
AARAU, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900 portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants),
it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants),
Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants).
bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting,
Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31 m. N.W. tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the
of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up
features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides to 1415, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many
collections of various kinds) some good painted glass of the i6th Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and
historical old castles (e.g.
century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that
of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 the monks are now family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of
"
quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library the main causes of the civil war called the Sonderbund War,"in
contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS. 1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly
coming from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of
many industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving, five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla-
foundries, andjactories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien- ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every
tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich i zoo inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum" exists in the
" "
Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of initiative
statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution.
military centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine- The canton sends 10 members'to the federal Nationalrat, being
yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in one for every 20,000, while the two Slander ate are (since 1904)
1415, and in 1798 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into
republic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes.
of Schinznach, just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the
the original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen,
Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, named
AARD-VARK (meaning " earth-pig "), the Dutch name for the the Freie Amter or
"
free bailiwicks
"
(Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen,
"
mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see EDEN- and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as subject
TATA). Several species have been named. Among them is the lands" by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese
bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re-
typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa, mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus
and the northern aard-vark (0. aethiopicus) of north-eastern the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic)
Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some- were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad-
what pig-like; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation.
See also Argoria (published by the Cantonal Historical Society),
are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears
Aarau, from 1860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols.,
disproportionately long; and the tail very thick at the base and St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische Slrohindustrie,
tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt. Burganlagen und Wehrbauten
thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols.,

the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with 1904-1906; W. Merz and F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant.
Argau, 3 vols., Aarau, 1898-1905; J. Miiller, Der Aargau, 2. vols.,
a long extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in
Zurich, 1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weisthiimer, Aarau, 1877;
the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 175 in. but a large indi-
; E. Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.)
vidual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the Cape aard-vark AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east
is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second
skin to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of
is further distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The district is low-lying, fertile
ears. These animals are of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from all
 AARON AASEN
The harbour is good and safe, and agricul- historical information has been preserved of either. The name
parts of the country.
tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the
Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of
a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is
chief imports. The cathedral of the I3th century (extensively only another form of Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is
restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of said to have belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and
art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur- Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note-
worthy, and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's
esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander- sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (l Chron. iv. 17)
borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In view
the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 500 ft. of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting
in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron
ofmoorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi-
tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in
the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of favour of the view that he was the founder of the cult at Bethel
Aarhus dates at least from 951. (Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the
AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest- Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name,
which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) is
hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of based upon Aron,
"
ark
"
(Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. N. Land),
Egypt (see EXODUS MOSES)
;
. The greater part ofhis life-history it must be placed in a line with the other un-Hebraic and difficult
is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist- names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, apparently, of
ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin.
a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood,
see the articles LEVITES and PRIEST. (S. A. C.)
events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been
sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the
"
mount of God " AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall
"
(Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he plays onlya secondary part in the incidents flowering plants (" hag taper," golden rod," &c.). In archi-
at Pharaoh's court. After the "exodus" from Egypt a striking tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting
account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the
him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8).

(Ex. xxiv. i seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the side AARSSENS, or AARSSEN, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele-
of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod, brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His
enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van
Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a
ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv. diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France.
12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence
He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve
of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the
that the golden calf was made (see CALF, GOLDEN). This was French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt
in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his
regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition,
led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin.
life (cp. Deut. ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned
of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder
series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be-
seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange,
originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com- and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their
pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on
offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis-
from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they played so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu ranked
had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kadesh him among the three greatest politicians of his time.
"
holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and lexico-
was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above grapher, was born at Aasen Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on
i

also met their death (Lev. x. 3 cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51).
;
the sth of August 1813. His father, a small peasant-farmer
Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ; named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm-
the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and
xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently
;
when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his
not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore-
scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). sen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in
Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have Hero, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually,
arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young
Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention peasant became master of many languages, and began the
between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed
only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy
was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the
Sondmore;
is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter- his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the

onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give Sondmore language ( 1 843) His remarkable abilities now attracted
.

him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un-
high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the
of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. for ;
result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of
parallels see Gray, comm. ad loc., p. 217). The latter story illus- the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects
trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication
development of priestly ritual the old account of Korah's
: dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Nor-
revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the
now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite
general, and the confirmation of the superior privileges of the
(6) folke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications, the most
Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this
can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since
Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known
"
by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have
"
after the grandson as the hill of Phinehas (Josh. xxiv. 33). Little once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official
 AB ABACUS
language in the place of Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the
poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who
be used one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently
; go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a
acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but
dialect-literature of the last half-century, from Vinje down to small: the average height is little more than 5 ft., except in the
Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion
and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Chris- is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and

tiania, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, hair luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous
but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about and faithless,being bound by no oath, but they appear to be
the language of the peasants became more and more the watch- honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor,
word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy
had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire after the British occupation of Egypt. Their chief settlements are
attention to his philological investigations and the Storthing
;
in Nubia, ;where they live in villages and employ themselves in
conscious of the national importance of his work treated him in agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk
this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal-
years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi-
said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the
ally in
little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats,
in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times.
selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or
"
thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their their mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the
schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious,
on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a
honours. (E. G.) girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her
AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far
of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1898)
" "
the period of the isth of July to the ijth of August. The word many friendlies were recruited from the tribe.
is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar For their earlier history see BEJA; see also BISHARIN, HADEN-
names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death DOA, KABBABISH; and the following authorities: Sir F. R. Win-
of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1891) Giuseppe Sergi,
;

Africa: Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H.

Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian
by Nebuchadrezzar (586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (A.D. 70). Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Rus-
ABA. (i) Aform of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and segger, Die Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.)
called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu- ABACA, or ABAKA, a native name for the plant Musa textilis,
factured in Bulgaria; (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v.).
Arabs. ABACUS (Gr. a/k, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailloir), in archi-
ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief
classical writers), anomad tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi-
origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus
and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric
the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them- orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic
"
selves sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is
Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. In
the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location to-day is later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle
almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman
were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet
them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.
convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides
embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep-
as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle) and ;

valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin-
the telegraph service across the Arabian desert. They inter- thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo
married with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is
and elsewhere long before the Egyptian invasion (A.D. 1820-1822). square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved,
They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts. and the same was retained in France during the medieval period;
The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by but in England, in Early
"
an hereditary chief." Although nominally a vassal of the English work, a circular
Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a por- deeply moulded abacus
tion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers was introduced, which in
from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to the I4th and isth cen-
him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, turies was transformed
who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have into an octagonal one.
since diminished, having probably amalgamated with the The diminutive of
Bisharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a Abacus, ABACISCUS, is

powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled applied in architecture to
with Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued the chequers or squares
con tact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion of atessellated pavement.
of the tribe in cases retain their Beja dialect, To- " Abacus " is also the
many still

Bedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before strangers, name of an instrument FIG. i. Roman Abacus.
as they beh'eve that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring employed by the ancients
ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile have much fellah blood in for arithmetical calculations; pebbles, bits of bone or coins
them. As a tribe they claim an Arab origin, apparently through being used as counters. Fig. i shows a Roman abacus taken
 ABADDON ABANDONMENT
from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven tion on a circular hill standing about 500 ft. above the little
shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads plain of Exarcho one gateway remains, and there are also
;

running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi- traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of
cates units, X
tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a pre-
the shorter bars denote fives, five units, five tens, &c. The cinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples these ;

rod 6 andcorresponding short rod are for marking ounces ; were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but
and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. very little was found.
The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles the See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163;
Roman abacus in. its construction and use. Computations are Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke).
made with it by means of (E. GR.)

balls of bone or ivory run- ABAKANSK, a fortified town of Siberia, in theRussian

ning on slender bamboo government of Yeniseisk, on the river Yenisei, 144 m. S.S.W. of
rods, similar to the simpler Krasnoyarsk, in lat. S42o' N., long. 9i4o' E. This is considered
board, fitted up with beads the mildest and most salubrious place in Siberia, and is remark-
strung on wires, which is able for certain tumuli (of the Li Kitai) and statues of men from
employed in teaching the seven to nine feet high, covered with hieroglyphics. Peter the
rudiments of arithmetic in Great had a fort built here in 1707. Pop. 2000.
6 302 715408 English schools.
The name "abacus"
ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various
species of the shell--fish of the Haliotidae family, with a richly
Swan-Pan.Chinese of
FIG. 2.
is also given, in logic, to an coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl. This sort jof Haliotis is
" " " "
instrument, often called the logical machine," analogous to also commonly called ear-shell," and in Guernsey ormer
the mathematical abacus. It is constructed to show all the (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). The abalone found shell is

possible combinations of a set of logical terms with Barbara and other places on the southern
their nega-
especially at Santa
tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations
are Californian coast, and when polished makes a beautiful ornament.
affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words, The mollusc itself is often eaten, and dried for consumption in
i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems. China and Japan.
These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR,
"
of the logical slate," on which were written in vertical columns the "rivers of Damascus" (2 Kings v. 12), now generally
all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made identified with the Barada (i.e. " cold ") and the A'waj (i.e.
These were com- "
logically out of a definite number of terms. crooked ") respectively, though if the reference to Damascus
pared with any given premises, and those which were incom- be limited to the city, as in the Arabic version of the Old Testa-
patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are ment, Pharpar would be the modern Taura. Both streams run
inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance, from west to east across the plain of Damascus, which owes to
which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus them much of its fertility, and lose themselves in marshes, or
be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given lakes, as they are called, on the borders of the great Arabian
series of premises. The principal examples of such machines desert. John M'Gregor, who gives an interesting description of
are those of W. S. Jevons (Element. Lessons in Logic, c. xxiii.), them in hisRob -Roy on the Jordan, affirmed that as a work of
John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), hydraulic engineering, the system and construction of the canals,
and Allan Marquand (see American Academy ofArts and Sciences, by which the Abana and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might
1

1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, be considered as one of the most complete and extensive in the
1883). world. As the Barada escapes from the mountains through a
" "
ABADDON, Hebrew word meaning
a destruction." In narrow gorge, its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or rivers,"
poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under- the name of one of which, Nahr Banias, retains a trace of Abana.
world or Sheol (cf. Prov. xv. ji). In Rev. ix.
Job xxvi. 6 ;
n ABANCOURT, CHARLES XAVIER JOSEPH DE FRANQUE-
Abaddon used of hell personified, the prince of
("AjSoSScoy) is VILLE D' (1758-1792), French statesman, and nephew of Calonne.
the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon (q.v.), He was Louis XVI.'s last minister of war (July 1792), and
"
the destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- organized the defence of the Tuileries for the loth of August.
padie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are Commanded by the Legislative Assembly to send away the Swiss
employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, guards, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation
shamayim (" heaven "), and makom (" place ") among the and sent to Orleans to be tried. At the end of August the As-
Rabbins, are used of God. sembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orleans to
ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of be transferred to Paris with an escort commanded by Claude
an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the "
Pars, situated at Fournier, the American." At Versailles they learned of the
high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were
and 1 70 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place murdered in cold blood on the 8th of September 1792. Fournier
of the Abadeh-Iklid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele- was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.
graph and post offices, and is famed for its carved wood-work, ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to
small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c., made of the wood of pear abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to
and box trees. meltre abandon, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon
"
ABAE ("Af3<u), a town in the N.E. corner of Phocis, in Greece, being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, ban "),
famous in early times for its oracle of Apollo, one of those con- in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or
sulted by Croesus (Herod, i. 46). It was rich in treasures (Herod, possession. Its signification varies according to the branch of
viii. 33) but was sacked by the Persians, and the temple remained
, the law in which it is employed, but the more important uses of
in a ruined state. The oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. the word are summarized below.
by the Thebans before Leuctra (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple ABANDONMENT OF AN ACTION is the discontinuance of pro-
seems to have been burnt again during the Sacred War, and was ceedings commenced in the High Court of Justice either because
in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias (x. 35), the plaintiff is convinced that he will not succeed in his action or
though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, for other reasons. Previous to the Judicature Act of 1875, con-
was undertaken by Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured siderable latitude was allowed as to the time when a suitor
certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull. Corresp. Hell. vi. might abandon his action, and yet preserve his right to bring
171), and these were confirmed by the Romans. The polygonal another action on the same suit (see NONSUIT) but since 1875 ;

walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preserva- this right has been considerably curtailed, and a plaintiff who
 ABANO ABATIS
has delivered his reply (see PLEADING), and afterwards wishes to ABATEMENT (derived through the French abattre, from the
abandon his action, can generally obtain leave so to do only on Late Latin a beating down or diminishing or
battere, to beat),
condition of bringing no further proceedings in the matter. doing away with a term used especially in various legal phrases.
;

ABANDONMENT IN MARINE INSURANCE is the surrender of the ABATEMENT OF A NUISANCE is the remedy allowed by law to a
ship or goods insured to the insurers, in the case of a constructive person or public authority injured by a public nuisance of de-
total loss of the thing insured. For the requisites and effects of stroying or removing it, provided no breach of the peace is com-
abandonment in this sense see INSURANCE, MARINE. mitted in doing so. In the case of private nuisances abatement is
ABANDONMENT OF WIFE AND CHILDREN is dealt with under also allowed provided there be no breach of the peace, and no
DESERTION, and the abandonment or exposure of a young child damage be occasioned beyond what the removal of the nuisance
under the age of two, which is an indictable misdemeanour, is requires. (See NUISANCE.)
dealt with under CHILDREN, CRUELTY TO. ABATEMENT OF FREEHOLD takes place where, after the death
ABANDONMENT OF DOMICILE the ceasing to reside perman-
is of the person last seised, a stranger enters upon lands before the
ently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the latter out of possession.
a new domicile. The presumptions which will guide the court in It differs from intrusion, which is a similar entry by a stranger on

deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not the death of a tenant for life, to the prejudice of the reversioner,
must be inferred from the facts of each individual case. See or remainder man ; and from disseisin, which is the forcible or
DOMICILE. fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold. (See
ABANDONMENT OF AN EASEMENT is the relinquishment of some FREEHOLD.)
accommodation*or right in another's land, such as right of way, ABATEMENT OF DEBTS AND LEGACIES. When the equitable
free access of light and air, &c. See EASEMENT. assets (see ASSETS) of a deceased person are not sufficient to
ABANDONMENT OF RAILWAYS has a legal signification in Eng- satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportion-
land recognized by statute, by authority of which the Board of ately, and they must accept a dividend. Also, in the case of
Trade may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable
railway authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it. are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in
ABANO, PIETRO D" (1250-1316), known also as PETRUS DE proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any
APONO or APONENSIS, Italian physician and philosopher, was particular legacy (see LEGACY). Annuities are also subject to
born at the Italian town from which he takes his name in 1250, the same rule as general legacies.
or, according to others, in 1246. After studying medicine and ABATEMENT IN PLEADING, or plea in abatement, was the de-
philosophy at Paris he settled at Padua, where he speedily gained feating or quashing of a particular action by some matter of
a great reputation as a physician, and availed himself of it to fact, such as a defect in form or the personalincompetency of the
gratify his avarice by refusing to visit patients except for an parties suing, pleaded by the defendant. It did not involve the
exorbitant fee. Perhaps this, as well as his meddling with merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In
astrology, caused him to be charged with practising magic, the criminal proceedings a plea in abatement was at one time a
particular accusations being that he brought back into his purse, common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up for
by the aid of the devil, all the money he paid away, and that he the purpose of defeating the indictment as framed, by alleging
possessed the philosopher's stone. He was twice brought to trial misnomer or other misdescription of the defendant. Its effect
by the Inquisition on the first occasion he was acquitted, and
;
for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826,
he died (1316) before the second trial was completed. He was which required the court to amend according to the truth, and
found guilty, however, and his body was ordered to be exhumed the Criminal Procedure Act 1851, which rendered description
and burned but a friend had secretly removed it, and the
;
of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now
Inquisition had, therefore, to content itself with the public pro- abolished (R.S.C. Order 21, r. 20). See PLEADING.
clamation of its sentence and the burning of Abano in effigy. In ABATEMENT IN LITIGATION. In civil proceedings, no action
his writings he expounds and advocates the medical and philo- abates by reason of the marriage, death or bankruptcy of any of
sophical systems of Averroes and other Arabian writers. His the parties, if the cause of action survives or continues, and does
best known works are the Conciliator differentiarum quae inter not become defective by the assignment, creation or devolution
philosophos et medicos versantur (Mantua, 1472 Venice, 1476),
;
of any estate or title pendentelite (R.S.C. Order 17, r. i). Crim-
and De venenis eorumque remediis (1472), of which a French inal proceedings do not abate on the death of the prosecutor,
translation was published at Lyons in 1503. being in theory instituted by the crown, but the crown itself
ABANO BAGNI, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of may bring about their termination without any decision on the
Padua, on the E. slope of the Monti Euganei it is 6 m. S.W. by
;
merits and without the assent of the prosecutor.
rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4556. Its hot springs and mud ABATEMENT OF FALSE LIGHTS. By the Merchant Shipping Act
baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as 1854, the general lighthouse authority (see LIGHTHOUSE) has
Aponi fans or Aquae Patavinae. Some remains of the ancient power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light
baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, Trattato del Bagni which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse.
d' Abano, Padua, 1789). An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the ABATEMENT IN COMMERCE is a deduction sometimes made at a
so-called sortes Praenestinae (C.I.L.
i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), custom-house from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on
small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were per- account of damage or loss sustained in warehouses. The rate
haps found here in the i6th century. and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by
ABARIS, a Scythian or Hyperborean, priest and prophet of the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also DRAWBACK;
Apollo, who is said to have visited Greece about 770 B.C., or two REBATE.)
or three centuries later. According to the legend, he travelled ABATEMENT IN HERALDRY is a badge in coat-armour, indi-
throughout the country, living without food and riding on a cating some kind of degradation or dishonour. It is called also
golden arrow, the gift of the god he healed the sick, foretold the
;
rebatement.
future, worked miracles, and delivered Sparta from a plague ABATI, or DELL' ABBATO, NICCOLO (1512-1571), a celebrated
(Herod, iv. 36 lamblichus, De Vit. Pythag. xix. 28). Suidas
; Modena, whose best works are there and at
fresco-painter of
credits him with several works Scythian oracles, the visit of
:
Bologna. He accompanied Primaticcio to France, and assisted
Apollo to the Hyperboreans, expiatory formulas and a prose in decorating the palace at Fontainebleau (1552-1571). His pic-
theogony. tures exhibit a combination of skill in drawing, grace and natural
ABATED, an ancient technical term applied in masonry and colouring. Some of his easel pieces in oil are in different collec-
metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, tions one of the finest, in the Dresden Gallery, represents the
;

as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so martyrdom of St Peter and St Paul.
as to leave the letters or ornament in relief. ABATIS, ABATTIS or ABBATTIS (a French word meaning a heap
8 ABATTOIR ABBADIDES
of material thrown), a term in field fortification for an obstacle pedigree for them when they had become powerful. They .were,
formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops however, very Abd-ul-Qasim gained the confidence of the
rich.
directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with wire. townsmen by organizing a successful resistance to the Berber
The abatis is used alone or in combination with wire-entangle- soldiers of fortune who were grasping at the fragments of the
ments and other obstacles. caliphate. At first he professed to rule only with the advice of a
ABATTOIR (from abattre, to strike down), a French word often council formed of the nobles, but when his power became estab-
" "
employed in English as an equivalent of slaughter-house lished he dispensed with this show of republican government, and
(<;..), the place where animals intended for food are killed. then gave himself the appearance of a legitimate title by protect-
ABAUZIT, FIRMIN (1670-1767), a learned Frenchman, was ing an impostor who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When
born of Protestant parents at Uzes, in Languedoc. His father Abd-ul-Qasim died in 1042 he had created a state which, though
died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revo- weak in itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about
cation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, the authorities took steps it. He had made his family the recognized leaders of the Mahom-

to have him educated in the Roman Catholic faith, his mother medans of Arab and native Spanish descent against the Berber
contrived his escape. For two years his brother and he lived as element, whose chief was the king of Granada. Abbad, surnamed
fugitives in the mountains of the Cevennes, but they at last El Motaddid, his son and successor, is one of the most remarkable
reached Geneva, where their mother afterwards joined them on figures in Spanish Mahommedan history. He had a striking re-
escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the semblance to the Italian princes of the later middle ages and the
time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great pro- early renaissance, of the stamp of Filipo Maria Visccnti. El
ficiency in languages, physics and theology. In 1698 he went to Motaddid was a poet and a lover of letters, who was also a
Holland, and there became acquainted with Pierre Bayle, P. poisoner, a drinker of wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the
Jurieu and J. Basnage. Proceeding to England, he was intro- utmost degree. Though he waged war all through his reign he
duced to Sir Isaac Newton, who found in him one of the earliest very rarely appeared in the field, but directed the generals, whom
" "
defenders of his discoveries. Sir Isaac corrected in the second he never trusted, from his lair in the fortified palace, the
edition of his Principia an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, Alcazar of Seville. He killed with his own hand one of his sons
" who had rebelled against him. On one occasion he trapped a
when sending him the Commercium Epistolicum, said, You are
well worthy to judge between Leibnitz and me." The reputation number of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into
of Abauzit induced William III. to request him to settle in visiting him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot
England, but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to room of a bath. It was
his taste to preserve the skulls of the
return to Geneva. There from 171 5 he rendered valuable assist- enemies he had killed those of the meaner men to be used as
ance to a society that had been formed for translating the New flower-pots, while those* of the princes were kept in special chests.
Testament into French. He declined the offer of the chair of His reign until his death on the 28th of February 1069 was mainly
philosophy in the university in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the spent in extending his power at the expense of his smaller neigh-
sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he bours, and in conflicts with his chief rival the king of Granada.
died at a good old age, in 1767. Abauzit was a man of great These incessant wars weakened the Mahommedans, to the great
learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be advantage of the rising power of the Christian kings of Leon and
discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor W. Whewell Castile, but they gave the kingdom of Seville a certain superiority
of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject over the other little states. After 1063 he was assailed by
of particular study. Rousseau, who was jealously sparing of his Fernando El Magno of Castile and Leon, who marched to the
praises, addressed to him, in his Nouvelle HSlotse, a fine pane- gates of Seville, and forced him to pay tribute. His son,
gyric; and when a stranger flatteringly told Voltaire he had Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim Abenebet who reigned by the title
come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen of El Motamid was the third and last of the Abbadides. He
Abauzit. Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, was a no less remarkable person than his father and much more
his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into amiable. Like him he was a poet, and a favourer of poets. El
their possession, because their own religious opinions were Motamid went, however, considerably further in patronage of
different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical literature than his father, for he chose as his favourite and prime
articlesfrom his pen appeared in the Journal Helvttique and else- minister the poet Ibn Ammar. In the end the vanity and
where, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's Dic- featherheadedness of Ibn Ammar drove his master to kill him.
tionnaire de musique (1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on El Motamid was even more influenced by his favourite wife,
the canonical authority of the Apocalypse, which called forth a Romaica, than by his vizir. He had met her paddling in the
reply from Dr Leonard Twells. He also edited and made valuable Guadalquivir, purchased her from her master, and made her his
additions to J. Spon's Histoire de la rtpublique de Geneve. A wife. The caprices of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of
collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770 Motamid in his efforts to please her, form the subject of many
((Etivres de feu M. Abauzit), and another at London in 1773 stories. In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the
(CEuvres diverses de M. Abauzit). Some of them were translated Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be as
into English by Dr Edward Harwood (1774). faithless as his father. His wars and his extravagance exhausted
Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebier's and he oppressed his subjects by taxes. In 1080
his treasury,
Histoire Litteraire de Geneve, Harwood's Miscellanies, and W. Orme's he brought down upon himself the vengeance of Alphonso VI.
BMiotheca Biblica (1824). He had
of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental barbarity.
'ABA YE, the name of a Babylonian 'amora (?..), born in the endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the Christian king with
middle of the 3rd century. He died in 339. false money. The fraud was detected by a Jew, who was one of
'ABBA 'ARIKA, the name of the Babylonian 'amora (q.v.) of the envoys of Alphonso. El Motamid, in a moment of folly and
the 3rd century, who established at Sura the systematic study of rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned the Christian members
the Rabbinic traditions which, using the Mishnah as text, led to of the mission. Alphonso retaliated by a destructive raid. When
the compilation of the Talmud. He is commonly known as Rab. Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, El Motamid called in Yusef ibn
ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on Tashfin, the Almoravide (see SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES).
the downfall of the western caliphate. It lasted from about 1023 During the six years which preceded his deposition in 1091, El
till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was singu- Motamid behaved with valour on the field, but with much
larly active and typical of its time. The founder of the house was meanness and political folly. He endeavoured to curry favour
Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 1023. He was with Yusef by betraying the other Mahommedan princes to him,
the chief of an Arab family settled in the city from the first days and intrigued to secure the alliance of Alphonso against the
of the conquest. The Beni-abbad were not of ancient descent, Almoravide. It was probably during this period that he sur-
though the poets, whom they paid largely, made an illustrious rendered his beautiful daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who
 ABBADIE ABBAS II.

made her his concubine, and is said by some authorities to have Schomberg, in 1688, to England, and next year became minister
married her after she bore him a son, Sancho. The vacillations of the French church in the Savoy, London. His strong attach-
and submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate ment to the cause of King William appears in his elaborate de-
which overtook his fellow-princes. Their scepticism and extor- fence of the Revolution (Defense de la nation britannique, 1692) as
tion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef a well as in his history of the conspiracy of 1696 (Histoire de la
" " him to remove them in the interest of The king promoted him to the
fetva authorizing grande conspiration d' Angleterre).

religion.In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville. El Motamid, deanery of Killaloe in Ireland. He died in London in 1727.
who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his sons to Abbadie was a man of great ability and an eloquent preacher, but
surrender the fortresses they still held, in order to save his own is best known by his religious treatises, several of which were
life. He died in prison in Africa in 1095. translated from the original French into other languages and had
AUTHORITIES. Dozy, Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, Leiden, a wide circulation throughout Europe. The most important of
1861; and Historia Abbadidarum (Scriptorum Arabum loci de these are Traite de la veriti de la religion chretienne (1684); its
Abbadidio), Leiden, 1846. (D. H.) continuation, Traite de la divinite de Jesus-Christ (1689); and
ABBADIE, ANTOINE THOMSON (1810-1897), and AR-
D' L'Art de se connaitre soi-meme (1692).
NAUD MICHEL D' (1815-1893), two brothers notable for their 'ABBAHU, the name of a Palestinian 'amora (q.v.) who flour-
travels in Abyssinia during the first half of the igth century. ished c. 270-320. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of Greek by
They were both born in Dublin, of a French father and an Irish
Jews. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is
mother, Antoine in 1810 and Arnaud in 1815. The parents re- very often cited in the Talmud.
moved to France in 1818, and there the brothers received a ABBA MARI (in full, Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph), French
careful scientific education. In 1835 the French Academy sent was born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of
rabbi,
Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being pub- the i3th century. He is also known as Yarhi from his birthplace
lished at a later date (1873) under the title of Observations relatives
(Heb. Yerah, i.e. moon,lune), and he further took the name
a la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie. The younger
Astruc, Don Astruc or En Astruc of Lunel. The descendant of
Abbadie spent some time in Algeria before, in 1837, the two men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the
brothers started for Abyssinia, landing at Massawa in February
study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted
1838. They visited various parts of Abyssinia, including the then with the writing of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well
little-known districts of Ennarea and Kaffa, sometimes together as with the Talmud. In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to
and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian
1306, he
many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, rationalism, which, through the medium of the works of Maimon-
Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in
ides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience
favour of France and the Roman Catholic missionaries. After to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation. He, there-
collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, fore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title
geology, archaeology and natural history of Abyssinia, the Minhat Kenaot, i.e. " Jealousy Offering ") called upon the famous
brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their rabbi Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona to come to the aid of
materials for publication. The younger brother, Arnaud, paid
orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent
another visit to Abyssinia in 1853. The more distinguished
Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier
brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies re- proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were
lating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from
He was especially attacked by C. T. Beke, who impugned his the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by ben Adret
veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kaffa. But in 1305. The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain
time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study
that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish
in his contention hotly contested by Beke that the Blue Nile rabbis. On the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV.
was the main stream. The topographical results of his explora- in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the
tions were published in Paris in 1860-1873 m
Geo&esie d' Ethiopie, letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history
full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps.
is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical
Of the Geographie de V Ethiopie (Paris, 1890) only one volume has
poetry and works on civil law.
been published. In Un Catalogue raisonnedemanuscritstthiopiens
AUTHORITIES. Edition of the Minhat Kenaot by M. L. Bislichis
(Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts col- (Pressburg, 1838); E. Renan, Les rabbins franc. ais, pp. 647 foil.;
lected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, in- Perles, Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth, pp. 15-54; Jewish En-
"
cluding a Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna (Paris, 1881), and cyclopaedia, s.v. Abba Mari."
prepared an edition of the Shepherd of Hernias, with the Latin ABBAS I. (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt, was a son of Tusun
version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the Pasha and grandson of Mehemet Ali, founder of the reigning
geography of Abyssinia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. dynasty. As a young man he fought in Syria under Ibrahim
Under the title of Reconnaissances magnetiques he published in Pasha (q.v.) his real or supposed uncle. The death of Ibrahim in
,

1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the November 1848 made Abbas regent of Egypt, and in August
course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant. The following, on the death of Mehemet Ali who had been deposed
general account of the travels of the two brothers was published in July 1848 on account of mental weakness, Abbas succeeded
by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of Douze ans dans la Haute- to the pashalik. He has been generally described as a mere
Ethiopie. Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris voluptuary, but Nubar Pasha spoke of him as a true Turkish
Geographical Society in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the gentleman of the old school. He was without question a re-
Legion of Honour and a member of the Academy of Sciences. He actionary, morose and taciturn, and spent nearly all his time shut
died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the Pyrenees, yielding up in his palace. He undid, as far as lay in his power, the works
40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of of his grandfather, good and bad. Among other things he abol-
its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million ished trade monopolies, closed factories and schools, and reduced
stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893. (J. S. K.) the strength of the army to 9000 men. He was inaccessible to
ABBADIE, JAKOB (i6s4?-i727), Swiss Protestant divine, adventurers bent on plundering Egypt, but at the instance of the
was born at Nay in Bern. He studied at Sedan, Saumur and British government allowed the construction of a railway from
Puylaurens, with such success that he received the degree of Alexandria to Cairo. In July 1854 he was murdered in Benha
doctor in theology at the age of seventeen. After spending some Palace by two of his slaves, and was succeeded by his uncle, Said
years in Berlin as minister of a French Protestant church, where Pasha.
he had great success as a preacher, he accompanied Marshal ABBAS II. (1874- ),khedive of Egypt. Abbas Hilmi Pasha,
IO ABBAS I. ABBAZIA
great-great-grandson of Mehemet Ali, born on the I4th of July pire. The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim to the
1874, succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as khedive of Egypt on throne on their descent from Abbas (A.D. 566-652), the eldest
the 8th of January 1892. When a boy he visited England, and he uncle of Mahomet, in virtue of which descent they regarded
had an English tutor for some time in Cairo. He then went to themselves as the rightful heirs of the Prophet as opposed to the
school in Lausanne, and from there passed on to the Theresianum Omayyads, the descendants of Omayya. Throughout the second
in Vienna. In addition to Turkish, his mother tongue, he ac- period of the Omayyads, representatives of this family were
quired fluency in Arabic, and a good conversational knowledge among their most dangerous opponents, partly by the skill with
of English, French and German. He was still at college in which they undermined the reputation of the reigning princes by
Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the accusations against their orthodoxy, their moral character and
Khedivate; and he was barely of age according to Turkish law, their administration in general, and partly by their cunning
which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the manipulation of internecine jealousies among the Arabic and non-
throne. For some time he did not co-operate very cordially with Arabic subjects of the empire. In the reign of Merwan II. this
Great Britain. He was young and eager to exercise his new opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim the Imam, the
power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the fourth in descent from Abbas, who, supported by the province of
British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by Khorasan, achieved considerable successes, but was captured
intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some (A.D. 747) and died in prison (as some hold, assassinated). The
time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the
great-uncle Abbas I. But in process of time he learnt to under- name of Abu'l-Abbas as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on
stand the importance of British counsels. He paid a second visit the Greater Zab (750) finally crushed the Omayyads and was
to England in 1900, during which he frankly acknowledged the proclaimed caliph.
great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual strife

ready to follow their advice and to co-operate with the British and the development of luxury and the liberal arts, in place of the
officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a old-fashioned austerity of thought and manners. Mansur, the
sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation, second of the house, who transferred the seat of government to
the reconquest of the Sudan, the inauguration of the stupendous Bagdad, fought successfully against the peoples of Asia Minor,
irrigation works at Assuan, the increase of cheap, sound educa- and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) and Mamun (813-
tion, each received his approval and all the assistance he could 833) were periods of extraordinary splendour. But the empire as
give. He
displayed more interest in agriculture than in state- a whole stagnated and then decayed rapidly. Independent mon-
craft, and farm of cattle and horses at Koubah, near Cairo,
his archs established themselves in Africa and Khorasan (Spain had
would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at remained Omayyad throughout), and in the north-west the
Montaza, near Alexandria, he created a similar establishment. Greeks successfully encroached. The ruin of the dynasty came,
He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children. however, from those Turkish slaves who were constituted as a
Mahommed Abdul Mouneim, the heir-apparent, was born on the royal bodyguard by Moqtasim (833-842). Their power steadily
zoth of February 1899. grew until Radi (934-941) was constrained to hand over most
ABBAS I.1557-1628 or 1629), shah of Persia, called the
(c.
of the royal functions to Mahommed b. Raik. Province after
Great, Mahommed (d. 1 586) In the midst of
was the son of shah . province renounced the authority of the caliphs, who were merely
general anarchy in Persia, he was proclaimed ruler of Khorasan, lay figures, and finally Hulagu, the Mongol chief, burned Bagdad
and obtained possession of the Persian throne in 1586. Deter- (Feb. 28th, 1258). The Abbasids still maintained a feeble
mined to raise the fallen fortunes of his country, he first directed show of authority, confined to religious matters, in Egypt under
his efforts against the predatory Uzbegs, who occupied and har- the Mamelukes, but the dynasty finally disappeared with Mota-
assed Khorasan. After a long and severe struggle, he regained wakkil III., who was carried away as a prisoner to Constantinople
Meshed, defeated them in a great battle near Herat in 1597, and by Selim I.
drove them out of his dominions. In the .wars he carried on with See CALIPHATE (Sections B, 14 and C), where a detailed account
of the dynasty will be found.
the Turks during nearly the whole of his reign, his successes
were numerous, and he acquired, or regained, a large extent of ABBAS MIRZA (c. 1783-1833), prince of Persia, was a younger
son of the shah, Feth Alf, but on account of his mother's royal
territory. By the victory he gained at Bassora in 1605 he ex-
tended his empire beyond the Euphrates; sultan Ahmed I. was birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with
forced to cede Shirvan and Kurdistan in 1611; the united armies the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in Euro-
of the Turks and Tatars were completely defeated near Sultanieh pean fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He
in 1618, and Abbas made peace on very favourable terms; and was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by
on the Turks renewing the war, Bagdad fell into his hands after a both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another
year's siege in 1623. In 1622 he took the island of Ormuz from in the East. Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas continued
the Portuguese, by the assistance of the British, and much of its the war against Russia, but his new ally could give him very little
trade was diverted to the town of Bander-Abbasi, which was assistance, and in 1814 Persia was compelled to make a disadvan-
named after the shah. When he died, his dominions reached tageous peace. He gained some successes during a war between
from the Tigris to the Indus. Abbas distinguished himself, not Turkey and Persia which broke out in 1821, but cholera attacked
his army, and a treaty was signed in 1823. His second war with
only by his successes in arms, and by the magnificence of his
court and of the buildings which he erected, but also by his re- Russia, which began in 1825, was attended with the same want of
forms in the administration of his kingdom. He encouraged com- success as the former one, and Persia was forced to cede some

merce, and, by constructing highways and building bridges, did territory. When peace was made in 1828 Abbas then sought to
much restore order in the province of Khorasan, which was nominally
to facilitate it. To foreigners, especially Christians, he
showed a spirit of tolerance; two Englishmen, Sir Anthony and under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at
Sir Robert Shirley, or Sherley, were admitted to his confidence.
Meshed in 1833. In 1834 his eldest son, Mahommed Mirza, suc-
His fame is tarnished, however, by numerous deeds of tyranny ceeded Feth Ali as shah. Abbas was an intelligent prince,
and cruelty. His own family, especially, suffered from his fits of possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of
the comparative simplicity of his life.
jealousy; his eldest son was slain, and the eyes of his other
children were put out, by his orders. ABBAS-TUMAN, a spa in Russian Transcaucasia, government
See The Three Brothers, or Travels of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert of Tiflis, 50 m. S.W. of the Borzhom railway station and 65 m. E.

Sherley, &c. (London, 1825); Sir C. R. Markham, General Sketch of Batum, very picturesquely situated in a cauldron-shaped
of the History of Persia (London, 1874). valley. It has hot sulphur baths (935-! 183 Fahr.) and an
ABBASIDS, the name generally
given to the caliphs of Bagdad, astronomical observatory (4240 ft.).
the second of the two great dynasties of the Mahommedan em- ABBAZIA, a popular summer and winter resort of Austria, in
 ABBESS ABBEY ii

Istria, 56 m. S.E. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900) 2343. It is wards into that of the house of Castille, from whom by marriage
situated on the Gulf of Quarnero in a sheltered position at the it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of England. French and English
foot of the Monte Maggiore (4580 ft.), and is surrounded by were its masters by turns till 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras,
beautiful woods of laurel. The average temperature is 50 Fahr. itwas ceded to the duke of Burgundy. In 1477 it was annexed
in winter, and 77 Fahr. in summer. The old abbey, San Giacomo by Louis XI., king of France, and was held by two illegitimate
della Priluca, from which the place derives its name, has been branches of the royal family in the .i6th and i7th centuries,
converted into a villa. Abbazia frequented annually by about
is being in 1696 reunited to the crown.
16,000 visitors. The whole and south of
sea-coast to the north ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852- ), American painter, was
Abbazia is rocky and picturesque, and contains several smaller born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the ist of April 1852. He
winter-resorts. The largest of them is Lovrana (pop. 513), situ- left the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts at the
ated 5 m. to the south. age of nineteen to enter the art department of the publishing
ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fern, form of abbas, abbot), the female house of Harper & Brothers in New York, where, in company
superior of an abbey or convent of nuns. The mode of election, with such men as Howard Pyle, Charles Stanley Reinhart, Joseph
position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally Pennell and Alfred Parsons, he became very successful as an
with those of an abbot (q.v.). The office is elective, the choice illustrator. In 1878 he was sent by the Harpers to England to
being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body. The gather material for illustrations of the poems of Robert Herrick.
abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by episcopal benediction, These, published in 1882, attracted much attention, and were
together with the conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and followed by illustrations for Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer
holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct. The (1887), for a volume of Old Songs (1889), and for the comedies
council of Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years (and a few of the tragedies) of Shakespeare. His water-colours
of profession. Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedi- and pastels were no less successful than the earlier illustrations
ence of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending in pen and ink. Abbey now became closely identified with the
even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the bishop. art life of England, and was elected to the Royal Institute of
As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual Painters in Water-Colours in 1883. Among his water-colours are
" " " "
functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot. She can- The Evil Eye (1877); The Rose in October" (1879); An
not ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate. In England Old Song" (1886); "The Visitors" (1890), and "The Jong-
" " "
abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield leur (1892). Possibly his best known pastels are Beatrice,
" "
in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. Phyllis," and Two Noble Kinsmen." In 1890 he made his
"
By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks first appearance with an oil painting, A May Day Morn," at
and nuns. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions the Royal Academy in London. He exhibited " Richard duke of
"
to France to Rome itself.
and Spain, and even At a later period, Gloucester and the Lady Anne at the Royal Academy in 1896,
Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the
A.D. 1115, and in that yearwas elected A.R.A., becoming a full R.A. in
government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female 1898. Apart from his other paintings, special mention must be
superior. made of the large frescoes entitled " The Quest of the Holy Grail,"
In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess ( 4 e&w) in the Boston Public Library, on which he was occupied for some
has in some cases e.g. Itzehoe survived to designate the heads years; and in 1901 he was commissioned by King Edward VII.
of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as Stifle, to paint a picture of the coronation, containing many portraits
i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income elaborately grouped. The dramatic subjects, and the brilliant
for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses colouring of his oil pictures, gave them pronounced individuality
(Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. This office of abbess among the works of contemporary painters. Abbey became a
isof considerable social dignity, and is sometimes filled by prin- member not only of the Royal Academy, but also of the National
cesses of the reigning houses. Academy of Design of New York, and honorary member of the
ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- Royal Bavarian Society, the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts
dissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 m. (Paris), the American Water-Colour Society, etc. He received
from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m. N.W. of Amiens first class gold medals at the International Art Exhibition of
on the Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 18,971. Vienna in 1898, at Philadelphia in 1898, at the Paris Exhibitions
It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly of 1889 and 1900, and at Berlin in 1903; and was made a cheva-
on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is lier of the French Legion of Honour.
canalized from this point .to the estuary. The streets are narrow, ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a monastery,
and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of or conventual establishment, under the government of an ABBOT
wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways. The most or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from an abbey in that the
remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran, erected in the superior bore the name of prior instead of abbot. This was. the
1 5th, i6th and i7th centuries. The original design was not case in all the English conventual cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury,

completed. The nave has only two bays and the choir is insig- Ely, Norwich, &c., where the archbishop or bishop occupied the
nificant. The fagade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant abbot's place, the superior of the monastery being termed prior.
Gothic style,flanked by two Gothic towers. Abbeville has Other priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys,
and an hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of
several other old churches to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; but in later
the 1 3th century. Among the numerous old houses, that known times the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost.
as the Maison de Francois I", which is the most remarkable, The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTI-
dates from the i6th century. There is a statue of Admiral CISM) with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells
Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief square. The public institutions or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the
include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of abode of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. Abbeville is an singular asceticism, but without
any attempt at orderly arrange-
important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established ment. The formation of such communities in the East does not
manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building date from the introduction of Christianity. The example had
and locksmiths' work are carried on; there is active commerce been already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae
in grain, but the port has little trade. in Egypt.
Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics were
appears in history during the gth century. At that time belong- accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, at no
ing to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards governed by the great distance from some village, supporting themselves by the
counts of Ponthieu. Together with that county, it came into the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the
possession of the Alencon and other French families, and after- supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious
 12 ABBEY
fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther area of between 3 and 4 acres. The longer side extends to a
away from the abodes of men into mountain solitudes
"
or lonely
"
length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on
deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the cells or huts the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near
of these anchorites. Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the
Thebaid during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L.
most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with
his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The
followers, emulous of his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and
the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected
refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a
of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic com- two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner
munity, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little court is surrouiwied by a cloister (EE), from which open the
dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon
Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruci-
" form domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex.
without any conscious design of his own, had become the
founder of a new mode of living in common, Coencbitism." By In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a
degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of
arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refec-
in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells tory (G), a large cruciform building, about too feet each way,
known as " " " " decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a
came to be Laurae, AaOpot, streets or lanes.
The real founder of cocnobian (KOIJ^S, common, and 0io5, life) semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace
monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of
the beginning of the 4th century. The first community estab-
lished by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper
Egypt. Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering A. Gateway.
3000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies
B. Chapels.
could reckon 50,000 members. These coencbia resembled vil-
lages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one C. Guest-house.
sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest
character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.E. iii. 14), D. Church.
contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common
E. Cloister.
refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They
ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they F. Fountain.
could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The
monks spent all the time, not devoted to religious services or G. Refectory.
study, in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian H. Kitchen.
monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the
300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pacho- I. Cells.
mian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 camel-drivers
and 1 5 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus K. Storehouses.
or steward, who was subject to a chief oeconomus stationed at
L. Postern gate.
the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour
was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The M. Tower.
money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores
for the support of the communities, and what was over was
devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the
FIG. I. Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir).
several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency
of an archimandrite (" the chief of the fold," from n&vdpa, a fold), at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot.
and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental
for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. St
institution. We learn many details concerning those in the Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vato-
vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks pede, also on Mount Athos. This enormous establish-
lived in separate huts, <caX6/3ia, forming a religious hamlet on the ment covers at least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many
mountain side. They weresubject to an abbot, and observed a separate buildings within its massive walls that it resembles
common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common a fortified town. It lodges above 300 monks, and the establish-
meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, ment of the hegumenos is described as resembling the court of a
reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in petty sovereign prince. The immense refectory, of the same
the day they joined in prayers and psalms. cruciform shape as that of St Laura, will accommodate 500
The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of guests at its 24 marble tables.
space and convenience of access from one part of the community The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows
to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of
arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large cellson either side of an oblong gallery.
piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable Monasticism in the West owes its extension and develop-
of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the neces- ment to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480). His rule was
s*nta sary edifices were ranged round one or more open diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation
courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and
Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceed-
convent of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the ing anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and
designation of a monastery generally, being converted into a splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Bene-
female saint). dictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres
This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is of population in England, France and Spain. The number
surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is
 ABBEY
area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar
amazing. Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no (A)
stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir the
fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order ;

altar of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the
alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the
llt-m-
dlctlae. uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where church on either side of the western apse (FF).
" "
necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the The cloister court (G) on the south side of the nave of the
monasteries :stand close to the steep bank of a river) to
accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We
have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the
Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time
and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to
SI Uall. us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of
St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, which puts us in pos-
session of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first
class towards the early part of the Qth century. This curious and
interesting plan has been
made the subject of a
memoir both by Keller
(Zurich, 1844) and by Pro-
fessor Robert Willis (Arch.
Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp.

86-117. To the latter we

are indebted for the sub-
stance of the following de-
scription, as well as for the
plan, reduced from his
elucidated transcript of the
original preserved in the
FIG. 2. Plan of Coptic Monastery.
archives of the convent.
A. Narthex. B. Church.
C. Corridor, with cells on each side.
T hc 8eneral appearance of
u
D. Staircase. tne convent is that of a
town of isolated houses with
streets running between them. It is evidently planned in com-
pliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible,
the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life,
as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the
religious and It should comprise a mill,
social life of its inmates.
a bakehouse, stables and cow-houses, together with accommoda-
tion for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the
walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside
its limits.
FIG. 3. Ground plan of St Gall.
CHURCH. U. House for blood-letting.
The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described : A. High altar. V. School.
The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a B. Altar of St Paul. W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all C. Altar of St Peter. \i.\i. Guest-house for those of
great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms D. Nave. superior rank.
the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. E. Paradise. XjXj. Guest-house for the poor.
In closest connexion with the church is the group of buildings FF, Towers. Y. Guest-chamber for strange
appropriated to the monastic life and its daily requirements the monks.
refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room
MONASTIC BUILDINGS.
for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary G. Cloister.
MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
conference. These essential elements of monastic life are H.
ranged Calefactory, with dormitory Z. Factory.
about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording over. a. Threshing-floor.
communication sheltered from the elements between the various
Necessary. b. Workshops.
buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house Abbot's house. c, c Mills.
and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the in- K. d. Kiln.
Refectory.
firmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its head- L. Kitchen. e. Stables.
master's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside M. Bakehouse and brewhouse. Cow-sheds.
f-
the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that N. Cellar. s. Goat-sheds.
he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to O. Parlour. [over. .
Pig-sties.
*'.
Sheep-folds.
hospitality are divided into three groups, ^one for the reception of Pi. Scriptorium with library k, k, k.Servants' and workmen's
distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a P2 Sacristy and vestry.
.
sleepine-chambers.
third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed House of Novices I .chapel Gardener s house.
Q. ; /.
to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery, the 2. refectory; 3. calefac- m, m. Hen and duck house.
hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of tory; 4. dormitory; 5. Poultry-keeper's house.
the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the
poor on the master's room; 6. cham- Garden.
south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a bers. Cemetery. [bread.
guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of K. 1-6 as above in Bakehouse for sacramental
Infirmary
buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is the house of novices. Unnamed in plan.
placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated S. Doctor's house. 5, j, A. Kitchens.
from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are T. Baths.
Physic garden. t, t, t.
reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are con-
nected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still " " " "
church has on its east side the pisalis or calefactory (H), the
farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the
to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter-
exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It
church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty- appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the
three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house,
nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefac-
west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open " "
" " tory is the dormitory opening into the south transept of the
paradise (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with
 ABBEY
"
readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the " necessarium (I) , conventual buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bake-
a portion of the monastic buildings always "planned with extreme
" house, brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of
care. The southern side is occupied by the refectory (K), from the establishment. At the greatest possible distance from the
the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This
is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is con- church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary
nected by a long passage with a building containing the bakehouse and department. The almonry for the relief of the poor, with a great
brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms.of the servants. The upper hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium.
"
story of the refectory is the vestiarium," where the ordinary
clothes
The most important group of buildings is naturally that de-
of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is an-
other two-story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and voted to monastic life. This includes two cloisters, the great
store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with
one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the the daily life of the monks, the church to the south, the refectory
" "
monastery area, is the parlour for interviews with visitors from
or f rater-house here as always on the side opposite to the church,
the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is
" " and farthest removed from it, that no sound or smell of eating
the scriptorium or writing-room (Pi), with the library above.
To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the east the dormitory,
two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the chapter-house adjacent,
Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. and the lodgings of the cellarer to the west. To this officer was
refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or chapel on one side, placed
back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath committed the provision of the monks' daily food, as well as that
and a kitchen. "
One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to of the guests. He was, therefore, appropriately lodged in the
"
the oblati or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an immediate vicinity of the refectory and kitchen, and close to the
" "
infirmary (R).
The " residence of the physicians " (S) stands contiguous to the guest-hall. A passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the
and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the smaller or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm
infirmary,
monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a monks. Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of
"
chamber for those who "
are dangerously ill. The house for blood- the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and
and
letting " purging adjoins it on the west (U). chancel of an aisled church. Beneath the dormitory, looking out
The outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a " " "
into the green court or herbarium, lies the or cale-
large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, pisalis
and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the factory," the common room of the monks. At its north-east
scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the corner access was given from the dormitory to the necessarium, a
" " " "
side wall of the church. The two hospitia or guest-houses for
the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X] X 2 ) comprise
portentous edifice in the form of a Norman hall, 145 ft. long by
a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats. It was, in common with all
sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and such offices in ancient monasteries, constructed with the most
bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen careful regard to cleanliness and health, a stream of water running
and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their
horses.
" "
There is also an hospitium for strange monks, abutting through it from end to end. A second smaller dormitory runs
on the north wall of the church (Y). from east to west for the accommodation of the conventual
Beyond the cloister," at the extreme verge of the convent area to officers, who were bound to sleep in the dormitory. Close to the
"
the south, stands the factory (Z), containing workshops for shoe- refectory, but outside the cloisters, are the domestic offices con-
makers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, nected with to the north, the kitchen, 47
it: ft. square, sur-
trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths,
with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm- mounted by a lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to
buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malt- the west, the butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small
house (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (/), goat- kitchen of its own. Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are
stables (g), piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants'
two lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall,
and labourers quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen
and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the at which the monks washed before and after taking food.
keeper (). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three
names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, groups. The prior's group " entered at the south-east angle of
lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in all. In the same
the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the cathedral,
way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or nobility who were
and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince,
&c., planted there. assigned to him." The cellarer's buildings were near the west end
A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its an- of the nave, in which ordinary visitors of the middle class were

nexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved in the hospitably entertained. The inferior pilgrims and paupers were
Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, Cam- relegated to the north hall or almonry, just within the gate, as
far as possible from the other two.
bridge. As elucidated by Professor Willis, it exhibits
1

Cathedral, the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine
century, and enables us to compare it with that of the abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be
9th as seen at St Gall. We see in both the same general principles traced, with those described above. The cloister and
of arrangement, which indeed belong to all Benedictine monas- monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.
Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister,
teries, enabling us to determine with precision the disposition of Abbey.
the various buildings, when little more than fragments of the was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the
walls exist. From some local reasons, however, the cloister and eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a
monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far more vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept.
commonly the case, on the south of the church. There is also a The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The
small cloister lies to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still
separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall.
The farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the
buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate
table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their
groups. The church forms the nucleus. In immediate contact
with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the group of chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the
buildings devoted to the monastic life. Outside of these, to the west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions
"
west and east, are the "halls and chambers devoted to the of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as the
exercise of hospitality, with which every monastery was pro- Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster
vided, for the purpose of receiving as guests persons who visited King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.
it,whether clergy or laity, travellers, pilgrims or paupers." To St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed,
the north a large open court divides the monastic from the menial exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts
are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three
buildings, intentionally placed as remote as possible from the Yo rk.
The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of the
l sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the
Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert Willis. fourth side. The entrance -was by a strong gateway (U) to the
Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869. north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the
 ABBEY
church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devo- these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its
tions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south name from the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon,
was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are com- near which, about A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine clua
pletely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine
grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapter- and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was
house (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the
(K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid ruk
has perished completely. was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys,
Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while
dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance
"
Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the to the archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the
cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of 1 2th century the number of monasteries affiliated to
Cluny in
BOOTH** the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.
The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most
extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea
of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when,
A.D. 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals,

FIG. 5. Abbey Cluny, from Viollet-le-Duc.

of
FIG. 4. A. Gateway. F. Tomb of St Hugh. M. Bakehouse.
St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine). -Churton's Monastic Ruins.
B. Narthex. G. Nave. N. Abbey buildings.
C. Choir. H. Cloister. O. Garden.
A. Church. O. Offices. D. High-altar. K. Abbot's house. P. Refectory.
B. Chapter-house. P. Cellars. E. Retro-altar. L. Guest-house.
C. Vestibule to ditto. Q. Uncertain.
E. Library or scriptorium. R. Passage to abbot's house. a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthu-
F. Calefactory. S. Passage to common house. sians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons,
G. Necessary. T. Hospitium. the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of
H. Parlour. U. Great gate.
I. Refectory. . V. Porter's lodge. Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the
K. Great kitchen and court. W. Church of St Olaf. abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within
L. Cellarer's office. X. Tower. the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number.
M. Cellars. Y. Entrance from Bootham.
N. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent
Passage to cloister.
church, were swept away at the close of the i8th century. When
as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrange- the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruc-
ments deduced from the examples described may be regarded tion, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church,
as invariable. had been rebuilt.
The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay
The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resem-
and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in blance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was
material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first 656 ft. by 130 ft. wide. The nave was 102 ft. and the aisles 60
religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side.
until by the loth century the decay of discipline was so complete Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each
furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept
in France that the monks are said to have been frequently un-
was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated
acquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semi-
they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses circular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church,
or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked
generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic
by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large
orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modifica- stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of
tion of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the
i6 ABBEY
case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an nished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive works.
immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, accommodating The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, artificially
six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned
diverted from the small rivulets which flow through the precincts,
with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with
Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We furnishing the establishment with an abundant supply in every
are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings part, for the irrigation of the gardens and orchards, the sanitary
(N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the requirements of the brotherhood and for the use of the offices
entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse and workshops.
(M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.
The precincts are dividedacross the centre by a wall, running from
The English house of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes,
first N. to into an outer and inner ward,
S., the former containing
founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few the menial, the latter the monastic buildings. The precincts are
entered by a gateway (P), at the extreme western extremity, giving
fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best admission to the lower ward. Here the barns, granaries, stables,
preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, shambles, workshops and workmen's lodgings were placed, without
Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans any regard to symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.
of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They Advancing eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the
show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.
In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac
houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors
of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor
" "
become abbeys till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac
revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celeb-
rity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With
their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations
became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their
predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed.
The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in
the last years of the nth century, had a wider diffusion, and a
I n 8 er an<^ more honourable existence. Owing its real
Cistercian
origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedic-
tines, in the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorset-
shire, educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its
name from Citeaux (Cistercium) a desolate and almost inacces-
,

sible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and Bur-

gundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are
undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St
Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently
sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses,
the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116.
The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this
reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself
to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The
characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest sim-
plicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower a central one
was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary
pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was
omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it
A.
was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless
ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the FIG. 6. Clairvaux, No. I (Cistercian), General Plan.
candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be A. Cloisters. I. Wine-press and O. Public presse.
evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested B. Ovens, and corn hay-chamber. P. Gateway.
and oil mills. K. Parlour. R. Remains of old
itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more
C. St Bernard's cell. L. Workshops and monastery.
dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, D. Chief entrance. workmen's lodg- S. Oratory.
the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not E. Tanks for fish. ings. V. Tile-works.
merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monas-
F. Guest-house. M. Slaughter-house. X. Tile-kiln.
G. Abbot's house. N. Barnsand stables. Y. Water-courses.
teries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys.
H. Stables.
They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at
Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communica-
rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the tion between the two. On passing through the gateway, the outer
court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade of the
brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide
monastic church in front. Immediately on the right of entrance was
swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to the guest-house (F). On
forests, were their prevailing features. The " bright valley," the other side of the court were the stables, for the accommodation
" of the horses of the guests and their attendants (H). The church
Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the valley of Worm-
infamous as a den of robbers.
"
It was a savage dreary occupied a central position. To the south was the great cloister (A),
wood," surrounded by the chief monastic and farther to the east
buildings,
solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his com- the smaller cloister, opening out of which were the infirmary, novices'
panions were reduced to live on beech leaves." (Milman's Lai. lodgings and quarters for the aged monks. Still farther to the east,
Christ, vol. iii. p. 335.)
divided from the monastic buildings by a wall, were the vegetable
All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the gardens and orchards, and tank for fish. The large fish-ponds, an
indispensable adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the for-
locality forbadeit, were arranged according to one plan. The mation of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and
Clairvaux.8 enera l arrangement and distribution of the various which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these vast
buildings, which went to make up one of these vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls.
Plan No. 2 furnishes the ichnography of the distinctly monastic
establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own
buildings on a larger scale. The usually unvarying arrangement of
abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given. It will be observed the Cistercian houses allows us to accept this as a type of the monas-
that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, fur- teries of this order. The church (A) is the chief feature. It consists
 ABBEY
of a vast nave of eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept tory, as a rule; was placed on the east side of the cloister, running
and short apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb over the calefactory and chapter-house, and joined the south transept,
in all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and usually where a flight of steps admitted the brethren into the church for
square.) To the east of each limb of the transept are two square nocturnal services. Opening out of the dormitory was always the
chapels, divided according to Cistercian rule by solid walls. Nine necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and cleanli-
radiating chapels, similarly divided, surround the apse. The stalls ness, a water-course invariably running from end to end. The re-
of the monks, forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays fectory opens out of the south cloister at G. The position of the
of the nave. There was a second range of stalls in the extreme refectory is usually a marked point of difference between Benedictine
western bays of the nave for thefratres convent, or lay brothers. To and Cistercian abbeys. In the former, as at Canterbury, the refec-
the south of the church, so as to secure as much sun as possible, tory ran east and west parallel to the nave of the church, on the side
the cloister was invariably placed, except when local reasons forbade of the cloister farthest removed from it. In the Cistercian monas-
it. Round the cloister (B) were ranged the buildings connected with teries, to keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from
the monks' daily life. The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, at right
the east walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept. In angles to the axis of the church. It was often divided, sometimes
into two, sometimes, as here, into three aisles. Outside the refectory
door, in the cloister, was the lavatory, where the monks washed their
hands at dinner-time. The buildings belonging to the material life
of the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the church ,

to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer court was the
kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery and larder, and the im-
portant adjunct of a stream of running water. Farther to the west,
projecting beyond the line of the west front of the church, were vast
vaulted apartments (SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above
which was the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and
separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various work-
shops, which convenience required to be banished to the outer pre-
cincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned by water, and a currier's
shop (V), where the sandals and leathern girdles of the monks were
made and repaired.
Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small
cloister (I),opening from the north side of which were eight small
cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works for the
library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible by a turret
staircase. To the south of the small cloister a long hall will be noticed.
This was a lecture-hall, or rather a hall for the religious disputations
customary among the Cistercians. From this cloister opened the
infirmary (K), with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and
other dependencies. At the eastern verge of the vast group of build-
ings we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister near the
novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). Detached from
the great mass of the monastic edifices was the original abbot's house
(N),with its dining-hall (P). Closely adjoining to this, so that the eye
of the father of the whole establishment should be constantly over
those who stood the most in need of his watchful care, those who
were training for the monastic life, and those who had worn them-
selves out in its duties, was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed
buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the establish-
ment. The cemetery, the last resting-place of the brethren, lay to
the north side of the nave of the church (H).
It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement
of a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a
clearly
denned system, and admirably adapted to its purpose. The base
court nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings
belonging
to the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of
labour. Advancing into the inner court, the buildings devoted
to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those
connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren,
FIG. 7. Clairvaux No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic Buildings.
,
the kitchen, cellars, &c., form a court of themselves outside
A. Church. L. Lodgings of nov S. Cellars and store- the cloister and quite detached from the church. The church
B. Cloister. ices. houses.
C. Chapter-house. M. Old guest-house. T. Water-course. refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging to the pro-
D. Monks' parlour. N. Old abbot's lodg- U. Saw-mill and oil- fessional life of the brethren surround the great cloister. The
E. Calefactory. ings. mill. small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells, library, hall for
F. Kitchen and court. O. Cloister of super- V. Currier's work- the centre of the literary
disputations, &c., is life of the com-
G. Refectory. numerary shop,
H. Cemetery. monks. X. Sacristy. munity. The requirements of sickness and old age are carefully
I. Little cloister. P. Abbot's hall. Y. Little library. provided for in the infirmary cloister and that for the aged and
K. Infirmary. Q. Cell of St Bernard Z. Undercroft of dor- infirm members of the establishment. The same group contains
R. Stables. mitory. the quarters of the novices.
Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the illus-
by pillars
and arches into two or three aisles. Between it and the transept we tration of the mother establishmet of Clteaux.
find the sacristy (X), and a small book-room (Y), armariolum, where A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to the gate
the brothers deposited the volumes borrowed from the
library. On of the monastery, reached by an avenue of trees. On one side of the
the other side of the chapter-house, to the south, is a gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably the almonry,
passage (D) .

communicating with the courts and buildings beyond. This was with a dormitory above for the lower class of guests. On the
sometimes known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the other side is a chapel(D). As soon as the porter heard a stranger knock
privilege of conversation here. Here also, when discipline became at the gate, he rose, saying, Deo gratias,the opportunity for the exercise
relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, were allowed to of hospitality being regarded as a cause for thankfulness. On opening
display their goods. Beyond this we often find the calefactorium or :he door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing Benedicite.
day-room an apartment warmed by flues beneath the pavement, He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the abbot.
where the brethren, half frozen during the night offices, betook them- However important the abbot's occupations might be, he at once
selves after the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little lastened to receive him whom heaven had sent.
warmth, grease He also threw
their sandals and get themselves
ready for the work of the day. In limself at his guest's feet, and conducted him to the chapel (D) pur-
the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the south cloister built close to the After a short prayer, the abbot com-
x>sely gate.
walk, adjoining the refectory. The place usually assigned to it is mitted the guest to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it
occupied by the vaulted substructure of the dormitory (Z). The dormi- was to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he
i8 ABBEY
might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner gate-
house (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court (T), round
which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. On the eastern
side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, fratres conversi (G),
detached from the cloister, with cellars and storehouses below. At
H, also outside the monastic buildings proper, was the abbot's
house, and annexed to it the guest-house. For these buildings there
was a separate door of entrance into the church (S). The large
cloister, with its surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end
projects the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from the
base court. The long gabled building on the east side of the cloister
contained on the ground floor the chapter-house and calefactory,
with the monks' dormitory above (M), communicating with the south
transept of the church. At L was the staircase to the dormitory.
The small cloister is at W, where were the carols or cells of the
scribes, with the library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase. At
R we see a portion of the infirmary. The whole precinct is sur-
rounded by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches,

FIG. 8
 ABBEY
buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the
stream. We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the three-
aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from its
eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) and
buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk.

FIG. 10. Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire.

20 ABBEY
maintained its rigid austerity, till in the course of years wealth including the church, the sanctuary (A), divided from B, the monks'
choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south
impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence
(S) surrounded by the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X) these
and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England buildings occupying their normal position and the chapel of
shortly after A.D. 1140, and were first
settled at Newhouse, in Pontgibaud (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the re-
The ground-plan of Easby accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister.
Lincolnshire, near the Humber. fectory,
To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy (L), and the side
Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping chapels (M ) we find the cell of the sub-prior (a) with its garden. The
, ,

banks a The cloister is duly

of river, is singularly irregular. lodgings of the prior (G) occupy the centre of the outer court, im-
placed on the south side of the church,
and the chief buildings mediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gate-
occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as way of the convent (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is
before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), the
at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding build- stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns and granaries
ings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward
fashion. The At Z is the prison.
(Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T).
church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their (In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham,
northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave that to the there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the
Each tran- monks.) The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage
north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. (F), wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells
sept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great
The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave
or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This
church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion

to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is A. Church.

B. Monks' choir.
C. Prior's garden.
D. Great cloister.
E. Chapter-house.
F. Passage.
G. Prior's lodg-
ings.
H. Dovecot.
I. Cells.
K. Chapel of Pont-
gibaud.
L. Sacristy.
M. Chapel.
N. Stables.
O. Gateway.
P. Guest-cham-
FIG. II. St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol Cathedral). bers.
A. Church. H. Kitchen. S. Friars' lodging. Q. Barns and
B. Great cloister. I. Kitchen court. T. King's hall. granaries.
Little cloister. K. Cellars. V. Guest-house. R. Watch-tower.
C.
D. Chapter-house. L. Abbot's hall. W. Abbey gateway. S. Little cloister.
E. P. Abbot's gate way. X. Barns, stables, &c T. Bakehouse.
Calefactory.
F. Refectory. R. Infirmary. Y. Lavatory. V. Kitchen.
G. Parlour. X. Refectory.
Y. Cemetery.
not more than 25 ft. Stern Premonstratensian canons
broad. Z. Prison.
a. Cell of sub-
wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; there-
prior.
fore they built their church like a long room. b. Garden of do.
The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno,
about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and arrange-
ment of a monastic institution. The principle of this
order,which combined the coenobitic with the solitary FIG. 12. Carthusian monastery of Clermont.
life, demanded the
erection of buildings on a novel
cloister is 1 8. are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little
They
plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room (C), warmed by a
twelve companions at the original institution at Chartreux, stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), furnished with a bed, a table,
a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet (E). Between the cell and
near Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establish-
the cloister gallery (A) is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the
ments throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt
order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive sim- his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and
plicity of their buildings had been exchanged
for the magnifi- through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being
cence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the seen. At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance
of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose,
Certosas of Pavia and Florence. According to the rule of St H is the garden,
affording no view either inwards or outwards.
Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in cujtivated by
the occupant of the cell. At K
is the wood-house.

the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end.
detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded The above arrangements are found with scarcely any varia-
by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. tion in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The Yorkshire
In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland,
the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal
attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order,
the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English
the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter -house, example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order.
as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French The church a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless.
is

chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of Clermont, from Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the
Viollet-le-Duc. two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, re-
The whole establishment is surrounded by a wall, furnished at in-
fectory, &c., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain
tervals with watch towers(R) . The enclosure is divided into two courts, and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number.
f which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from
Clermont It is surrounded by a double stone wall, the two walls being
which the cottages of the monks (I) open, is much the larger.
The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own
 ABBEY 21
of two of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of
garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages,
or three rooms on the ground -floor, lighted by a larger and a towers; but in the I4th and isth centuries, tall, slender towers
smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir. The
the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good

through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally

his cell and the refuse of his garden to the

" "
eremus beyond. peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of
the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a
By
which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel
aisles, while the refectory a room of immense length, quite
turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in
or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch an arrange- detached from the cloister stretched across the area before the
ment belonging to all Carthusian houses exists at Miraflores, west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two
.near Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel.
The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister,
which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house
A. Cloister gallery.
and sacristy on the east. As examples of English
B. Corridor. friaries, the Dominican house at Norwich, and those QiOUCesier.
of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester,
C. Living-room.
may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich
D. Sleeping-room. departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's
Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier
E. Closets. examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and
aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing
F. Covered walk. The cloister and monastic buildings
at Lynn, has perished.
G. Necessary. remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent
at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side
H. Garden. of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west
side and on the south the dormitory of the i3th century. This
I. Hatch.
is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles
K. Wood-house. on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain.
On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date.

FIG. 13. Carthusian cell, Clermont. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the
ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a
There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower be-
earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded by tween the nave and the choir. Of the convents of the Carmelite
Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into England. or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey Hulne.
The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Rich- of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in
mond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 1414. The England, founded A.D. 1240. The church is a narrow oblong,
dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The
remarkably large. The great court measured 300 ft. by 250 cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, &c., to the
ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; the hall was no east, with the dormitory over. The pripr's lodge is placed to
ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth. The most celebrated the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance
historically is the Charter-house of London, founded by Sir gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of
Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which is preserved by the the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin
famous public school established on the site by Thomas Sutton Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated
A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming. date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very
An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of
without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of
Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or Domini- Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still
cans, the Grey or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name.
the Eremite or Austin Friars. These orders arose at the Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars
beginning of the i3th century, when the Benedictines, together afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine
with their various reformed branches, had terminated their "
of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: The friars who have been
active mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new re- founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of
ligious revival. Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous
and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated edifices, encirclingthem with lofty walls, lay up in them their
districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of
buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrange- poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their
ment, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. profession." Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival
Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of order just rising in popularity.
hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more
totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and smaller establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic
character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted Cetfj _

transepts. The nave veryusually consisted of two equal bodies, on some outlying estate. As an example, we may
one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left refer the small religious house of St Mary Magdalene's,
to
entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is a the great Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in
cell of
often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted the valley of the Witham, to the south-east of the city of
structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end Lincoln. This consists of one long narrow range of building, of
was usually square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a which the eastern part formed the chapel and the western
polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, contained the apartments of the handful of monks of which it
sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This was the home. To the east may be traced the site of the abbey
arrangement is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small mill, with its dam and mill-lead. These cells, when belonging to
friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities a Cluniac house, were called Obedientiae. The plan given by
22 ABBON OF FLEURY ABBOT
Viollet-le-Duc of the Priory of St Jean des Bans Hommes, a James Bible; and aided in the preparation of Caspar Rene
Cluniac cell, situated between the town of Avallon and the Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised Greek New Testament of
village of Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments Tischendorf. His principal single production, representing his
comprised every essential feature of a monastery, chapel, scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was The Author-
cloister, chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped ac- ship of the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences (1880; second
cording to the recognized arrangement. These Cluniac obedientiae edition, by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, 1889), originally a
differed from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of lecture, and in spite of the compression due to its form, up to
punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evi-
infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of peniten- dence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the com-
tiary. Here they were placed under the authority of a prior, pletes! treatment of the relation of Justin Martyr to this gospel.
and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling the Abbot, though a layman, received the degree of S. T. D. from
duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as farm- Harvard in 1872, and that of D.D. from Edinburgh in 1884.
servants. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of March
monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They 1884.
See S. Barrows, Ezra Abbot (Cambridge, Mass., 1884).
gave employment to a body of coniiersi and labourers under the J.

management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother Hospitaller ABBOT, GEORGE (1562-1633), English divine, archbishop of
the granges, like their parent institutions, affording shelter Canterbury, was born on the igth of October 1562, at Guildford
and hospitality to belated travellers. in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker. He studied,
AUTHORITIES. Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, Architecture monas- and then taught, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen master
tique (1852-1856) Dictionnaire raisonnee de I'archi- of University College in 1597, and appointed dean of Winchester
Vipllet-le-Duc,
;

lecture fran$aise; Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); in 1600. He was three times vice-chancellor of the university,
Kraus, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.) and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of
ABBON OF FLEURY, or ABBO FLORIACENSIS (c. 945- the New Testament. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the earl
1004), a learned Frenchman, born near Orleans about 945. He of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of
distinguished himself in the schools of Paris and Reims, and was and Scotland. He so pleased the king (James I.) in
England
especially proficient in science as known in his time. He spent this affair that he was made bishop of Lichfield and Coventry
two years in England, assisting Archbishop Oswald of York in in 1609, was translated to the see of London a month afterwards,
restoring the monastic system, and was abbot of Romsey. After
and in less than a year was raised to that of Canterbury. His
his return toFrance he was made abbot of Fleury on the Loire
puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treat-
(988). twice sent to Rome by King Robert the Pious
He was ment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to
(986, 996), and on each occasion succeeded in warding off a the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit
threatened papal interdict. He was killed at La Reole in 1004,
of the Lady Frances Howard against the earl of Essex, and again
in endeavouring to quell a monkish revolt. He wrote an in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the declara-
Epitome de vilis Romanorum pontificum, besides controversial tion permitting Sunday sports. He was naturally, therefore, a
treatises, letters, &c. (see Migne, Palrologia Latino, vol. 139). match between the elector palatine and the
of the
promoter
His life, written by his disciple Aimoin of Fleury, in which much
Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected mar-
of Abbon's correspondence was reproduced, is of great import-
Wales with the infanta of Spain. This
riage of the prince of
ance as a source for the reign of Robert II., especially with
reference to the papacy (cf. Migne, op. cit. vol. 139).
policy broughtupon him the hatred of Laud (with whom he
had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court,
See Ch. Pfister, Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (1885)
though the king himself never forsook him. In 1622, while
;
"
Cuissard-Gaucheron, L'Ecole de Fleury-sur-Loire a la fin du io e
siecle," in Memoires de la socicte archeol. de I'Orleanais, xiv. (Orleans, hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill, Hampshire, a bolt
1875) ; A. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France. from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of
ABBOT, EZRA (1810-1884), American biblical scholar, was the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly
born at Jackson, Waldo county, Maine, on the 28th of April distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melan-
1819. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1840; and in 1847, choly. His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this
at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, went to Cambridge, accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though
where he was principal of a public school until 1856. He was the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had
Harvard University from 1856 to 1872,
assistant librarian of led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully
and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue, indulge. The king had to refer the matter to a
commission of
combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary ten, though he said that "an angel might have miscarried after
catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more this sort." The commission was equally divided, and the king
general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic cata- gave a casting vote in the archbishop's favour, though signing
logue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of also a formal pardon or dispensation. After this the arch-
New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard bishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of
Divinity School. His studies were chiefly in Oriental languages his infirmities. He attended the king constantly, however, in
and the textual criticism of the New Testament, though his his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation
work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive of Charles I. His refusal to license the assize sermon preached
list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, by Dr Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on the 22nd of February
appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future 1626-1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's
Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute
published separately in 1864. His publications, though always non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led
of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them
extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concord- in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however,
ances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the archbishop's
&c.; but he took a more conspicuous and more personal part in powers. His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived
the preparation (with the Baptist scholar, Horatio B. Hackett) from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in
of the enlarged American edition of Dr (afterwards Sir) William undisputed ascendancy. He died at Croydon on the sth of
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1867-1870), to which he contri- August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place,
buted more than 400 articles besides greatly improving the where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of 300
bibliographical completeness of the work; was an efficient a year. Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in
member of the American revision committee employed in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Romanists.
connexion with the Revised Version (1881-1885) f tne King He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being
 ABBOT
his discursive Exposition on the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was AUTHORITIES. Brook's Puritans, iii. 182, 3; Walker's Sufferings,
His Geography, or a Brief Description of the ii.
183; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), i. 323; Palmer's Nonconf. Mem. ii.
reprinted in 1845.
218, which confuses him most oddly of all with one of the ejected
Whole World (1599), passed through numerous editions. ministers of 1662.
The best account of him is in S. R. Gardiner's History of England.
ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648), English writer, known as ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843), English actor, was born in
"
The Puritan," has been oddly and persistently mistaken for
Chelsea, and made his first appearance on the stage at Bath
others. He has been described as a clergyman, which he never in 1806, and his first London appearance in 1808. At Covent
was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writ- Garden in 1813, in light comedy and melodrama, he made his
ings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as first decided success. He was Pylades to Macready's Orestes in
by the nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the Ambrose Philips's Distressed Mother when Macready made his
sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he first appearance at that theatre (1816). He created the parts of
was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a Appius Claudius in Sheridan Knowles's Virginius (1820) and of
different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not Modus in his Hunchback (1832). In 1827 he organized the com-
clear which) of SirThomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East pany, including Macready and Miss Smithson, which acted
Yorkshire, having been born there in 1603-1604, his mother (or Shakespeare in Paris. On his return to London he played
grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his Romeo to Fanny Kemble's Juliet (1830). Two of Abbot's
earlylife and training nothing is known. He married a daughter melodramas, The Youthful Days of Frederick the Great (1817)
of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, Warwickshire, and as his and Swedish Patriotism (1819), were produced at Covent Garden.
monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, He died in poverty at Baltimore, Maryland.
he bravely held the manor house against Princes Rupert and ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac
Maurice during the civil war. As a layman, and nevertheless a abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form
theologian and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he abbad-em changed in i3th century under influence the
of
holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period. Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the i?th
The terseness of his Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and chief governor of a
easy for any to understand (1640, 4to), contrasts favourably with community of monks, called also in the East hegumenos or
the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators. archimandrite. The title had its origin in the monasteries of
His Vindiciae Sabbatki (1641, 8vo) had a profound and lasting Syria, whence it spread through the East, and soon became
influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His Brief Notes accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the
upon the Whole Book of Psalms (1651, 4to), as its date shows, head of a monastery. At first it was employed as a respectful
was posthumous. He died on the 2nd of February 1648. title for any monk, as we learn from St Jerome, who denounced
AUTHORITIES. MS. collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the custom on the ground that Christ had said,
"
Call no man
the name of Abbot, by J. T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington Dug- ; "
dale's Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730, p. 1099 Wood's Athenae
;
father on earth (in Epist. ad Gal. iv. 6, in Matt, xxiii. 9),
(Bliss), ii. Cox's Literature of the Sabbath.
141, 594; but it was soon restricted to the superior. The name "abbot/'
ABBOT, ROBERT (is88?-i662?), English Puritan divine. though general in the West, was never universal. Among the
Noted as this worthy was in his own time, and representative Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians, &c., the superior was
in various ways, he has often since been confounded with others, called Praepositus, "provost," and Prior; among the Francis-
"
e.g. Robert Abbot, bishop of Salisbury. He is also wrongly cans, Custos, guardian "; and by the monks of Camaldoli,
described as a relative of Archbishop Abbot, from whom he Major.
acknowledges very gratefully, in the first of his epistles dedi- In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of
catory of A
Hand of Fellowship to Helpe Keepc, out Sinne and the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Some-
" " "
Antichrist (1623, 4to), that he had received all his worldly times he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several,
" "
maintenance," as well as best earthly countenance and each of which had its own abbot as well. Cassian speaks of an
"
fatherly incouragements." The worldly maintenance was abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him, a number
the presentation in 1616 to the vicarage of Cranbrook in Kent. exceeded in other cases. By the rule of St Benedict, which, until
He had received his education at Cambridge, where he pro- the reform of Cluny, was the norm in the West, the abbot has
ceeded M.A., and was afterwards incorporated at Oxford. In jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevit-
1639, in the epistle to the reader of his most noticeable book able, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until
historically, his Triall of our Church-Forsakers, he tells us, "I the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme
have lived now, by God's gratious dispensation, above fifty years, abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order,
and in the place of my allotment two and twenty full." The was definitely recognized. New styles were devised to express
former date carries us back to 1588-1589, or perhaps 1587-1588 this new relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called
"
the Armada " year as his birth-time; the latter to 1616- abbas abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the titles
1617 (ut supra). In his Bee Thankfull London and her Sisters abbas generalis, or magister or minister generalis.
"
(1626), he describes himself as formerly assistant to a reverend Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the
divine . now with God," and the name on the margin is
. . abbot any exception. All orders of clergy, therefore, even the
" "
Master Haiward of Wool Church (Dorset)." This was doubt- doorkeeper," took precedence of him. For the reception of
less previous to his going to Cranbrook. Very remarkable and the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his
effective was Abbot's ministry at Cranbrook, where his parish- monks were commanded to attend the nearest church (Novellae,
"
ioners were as his own sons and daughters " to him. Yet, 133, c. ii.). This rule naturally proved inconvenient when a
Puritan though he was, he was extremely and often unfairly monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city,
antagonistic to Nonconformists. He remained at Cranbrook and necessity compelled the ordination of abbots. This innova-
until 1643, when, Parliament deciding against pluralities of tion was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity
ecclesiastical offices, he chose the very inferior living of South- being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but,
wick, Hants, as between the one and the other. He afterwards before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots
"
succeeded the " extruded Udall of St Austin's, London, where seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not pres-
according to the Warning-piece he was still pastor in 1657. He byters. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the
disappears silently between 1657-1658 and 1662. Robert Abbot's office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of
books are conspicuous amongst the productions of his time by the 7th century, and partially so up to the nth. Ecclesiastical
their terseness and variety. In addition to those mentioned councils were, however, attended by abbots. Thus at that held
above he wrote Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of Eutyches,
Children (1646), and A Christian Family builded by God, or Direc- 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, and, c. A.D.
tions for Governors of Families (1653). 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a canon, inhibiting
 ABBOT
bishops from compelling abbots to attend councils. Examples but this seems never to have been practically enforced. It was
are not uncommon in Spain and in England in Saxon times. necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of
Abbots were permitted by the second council of Nicaea, A.D. 787, legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no
to ordain their monks to the inferior orders. This rule was suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from
adopted in the West, and the strong prejudice against clerical another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct
monks having gradually broken down, eventually monks, others, one also who had learned how to command by having
almost without exception, took holy orders. practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was
Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot
continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the nth century. in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example
The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually en-
subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case croached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had
recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France,
control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs
Aries, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was
bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was
traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop.
increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of The ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot
exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of
control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at
an impulse from Gregory the Great. These exceptions, intro- the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the mem-
duced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil bers of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding
by the 1 2th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of
and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced
of influence in his diocese. In the i2th century the abbots of by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The
Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand,
more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.
of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held,
and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon.
and sandals. It has been maintained that the right to wear The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited,
mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general
nth century, but the documents on which this claim is based establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control. As a rule,
are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act without his
first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. in orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty to execute
1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monas- however unreasonable, until they were withdrawn.
his orders,
tery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The mitred Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind submission
abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by
Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, Col- those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will
Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's
chester, Croyland, as the highest excellence, are detailedby Cassian and others,
Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, e.g. a monk
watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or
Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winch- endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his
combe, St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was originally powers. St Jerome, indeed, lays down, as the principle of the
yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. compact between the abbot and his monks, that they should
(Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in obey their superiors in all things, and perform whatever they
which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eusloch. de custod. virgin.). So despotic
of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster. To distinguish did the tyranny become in the West, that in the time of Charle-
abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be magne it was necessary to restrain abbots by legal enactments
made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented from mutilating their monks and putting out their eyes; while
with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the rule of St Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment
the crook of their pastoral staff should turn inwards instead of for very slight offences. An abbot also had the power of ex-
outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their communicating refractory nuns, which he might use if desired
own house. by their abbess.
The adoption by abbots was followed
of episcopal insignia The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and
by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared
be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His
council, A.D. 1123. In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, letters were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the
with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted king. If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to

by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, to confer the tonsure kneel. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without
and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the his permission. The highest place was naturally assigned to
West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in A.D. him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded
1489 permitted by Innocent IV. to confer both the subdiaconate to eat with the other monks. In the West the rule of St Benedict
and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain
power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the guests and strangers. This permission opening the door to
religious habit. luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that the
When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the
abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest.
was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserv- These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to
ing to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the bene- secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds
diction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from episcopal with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate
jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot con-
by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses descended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon
of the new abbot's journey to Rome. By the rule of St Benedict, him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. At
the consent of the laity was in some undefined way required; St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the centre of the
 ABBOTSFORD
high table, and was served on silver plate, and sumptuously spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank
entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of quality. in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in
When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule of St the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in
Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject
provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to
to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus),
The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be but also as abbot (abbas legitimus, monasticus, regularis). When
the same as that of the monks. But by the loth century the the great reform of the nth century had put an end to the direct
rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot con-
of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. They tinued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late
sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and as the I3th century and later, the actual head of the community
assumed a secular dress. 1 This was a necessary consequence of retaining that of dean. The connexion of the lesser lay abbots
their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer;
that time only natural. With the increase of wealth and power, and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers
abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and (abbates milites) for centuries, together with certain rights over
become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the
celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with their West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the i2th
men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been
huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, handed over to laymen, benejiciarii, for life, or for part of their
c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare- lives, by the emperors.
hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place
vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior
gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on of the monastery were performed by a prior.
their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the Catholic
bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the
"
on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and English Father," being loosely applied to all who have re-
shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power ceived the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated
was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat
read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially mur- between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), to appoint abbis
dered by Henry VIII., that his house was a kind of well-ordered commendataires to most of the abbeys in France. The expecta-
court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, tion of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the
who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbes so formed
brought up, besides others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for abbes de cour they were sometimes called, and sometimes
the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an (ironically) abbes de sainte esptrance, abbes of St Hope came
honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 to hold a recognized position. The connexion many of them
persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly
vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate
and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a
to upwards of too persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendome distinctive dress a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.
were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many
In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility
to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, as as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbe.
to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy
Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, Abbas Curiae, or title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in people's minds

military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas Castrensis. It even with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient
came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief general term applicable to any clergyman.
magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called Abbas Populi. In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt)
Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives us Abbas Campanilis, is sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction,

Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries
Lay abbots (M.Lat. defensorcs, abbacomites, abbates laid, converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. Of
abbates abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, abbatiarii, or
milites, these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover,
sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome of the growth of founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of
the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum,
of commendation, by which to meet a contemporary emergency who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy
the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory of the
lord, in return for his protection, early suggested to the em- kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of abbot,
" "
perors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with prior and the convent of canons (Stiftsherren).
rich abbeys held in commendam. During the Carolingian epoch See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du Cange,
the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs Glossarium med. et inf. Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie Robertson, Hist,
or benefices, and by the loth century, before the great Cluniac of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond Martene, De antiquis
ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. F. R. de Montalembert, Les
reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of moines d'occident depuis S. Benott jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860-1877) ;

St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example Achille Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franqaises (Par. 1892).
of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by (E. V. W. A. P.)
;

making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without ABBOTSFORD, formerly the residence of Sir Walter Scott,
any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse situated on the S. bank of the Tweed, about 3 m. W. of Melrose,
was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts Roxburghshire, Scotland, and nearly i m. from Abbotsford
of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely Ferry station on the North British railway, connecting Selkirk
a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in and Galashiels. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of
lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the 100 acres, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e. muddy)
foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the
1
Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is charged by neighbouring house of Ashestiel. It was added to from time to
Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. time, the last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield
26 ABBOTT
(afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new of the Mount Vernon School for boys, in New York City. He was
house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general a prolific author, writing juvenile stories, brief histories and
ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side biographies, and religious books for the general reader, and a
overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish few works in popular science. He died on the 3ist of October
Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and 1879 at Farmington, Maine, where he had spent part of his time
curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of since 1839, and where his brother Samuel Phillips Abbott
the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his founded in 1844 the Abbott School, popularly called " Little
"
residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of Blue." Jacob Abbott's Rollo Books "Rollo at Work, Rollo
fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library at Play, Rollo in Europe, &c. (28 vols.) are the best known of
and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. his writings, having as their chief characters a representative
The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert boy and his associates. In them Abbott did for one or two
Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in ex- generations of young American readers a service not unlike that
change for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's performed earlier, in England and America, by the authors of
works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, Evenings at Home, Sandford and Merlon, and the Parent's
having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent Assistant. Of his other writings (he produced more than two
possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart J. R. Hope,
hundred volumes in all), the best are the Franconia Stories (10
Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the vols.), twenty-two volumes of biographical histories in a series
Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the of thirty-two volumes (with his brother John S. C. Abbott), and
" the Young Christian, all of which had enormous circulations.
Abbotsford Club," a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland
clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's- His sons, Benjamin Vaughan Abbott (1830-1890), Austin
honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected Abbott (1831-1896), both eminent lawyers, Lyman Abbott
with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. (q.v.), and Edward Abbott (1841-1908), a clergyman, were also
See Lockhart, Life of Scott; Washington Irving, Abbotsford and well-known authors.
Newstead Abbey; W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country. See his Young Christian, Memorial Edition, with a Sketch of the
ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT (1838- ), English school- Author by one of his sons, i.e. Edward Abbott (New York, 1882),
master and theologian, was born on the 2Oth of December 1838. with a bibliography of his works.
He was educated at the City of London school and at St John's ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877), American
College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honours in the writer, was born in Brunswick, Maine, on the i8th of September
classical, mathematical and theological triposes, and became 1805. He was a brother of Jacob Abbott, and was associated
fellow of his college. In 1862 he took orders. After holding with him in the management of Abbott's Institute, New York
masterships at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and at City, and in the preparation of his series of brief historical
Clifton College, he succeeded G. F. Mortimer as headmaster biographies. He is best known, however, as the author of a
of the City of London school in 1865 at the early age of twenty- partisan and unscholarly, but widely popular and very readable
six. He was Hulsean lecturer in 1876. He retired in 1889, and History of Napoleon Bonaparte (1855), in which the various
devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr Abbott's elements and episodes in Napoleon's career are treated with some
liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his skill in arrangement, but with unfailing adulation. Dr Abbott
educational views and in his books. His Shakespearian Gram- graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, prepared for the ministry
mar (1870) is a permanent contribution to English philology. at Andover Theological Seminary, and between 1830 and 1844,
In 1885 he published a life of Francis Bacon. His theo- when he retired from the ministry, preached successively at
logical writings include three anonymously published religious Worcester, Roxbury and Nantucket, Massachusetts. He died
romances Philochristus (1878), Onesimus (1882), Silanus ( 1 906) . at Fair Haven, Connecticut, on the I7th of June 1877. He was
More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological a voluminous writer of books on Christian ethics, and of his-
discussion The Kernel and the Husk (1886), Fhilomythus (1891), tories, which now seem unscholarly and untrustworthy, but
his book on Cardinal Newman as an Anglican (1892), and his were valuable in their time in cultivating a popular interest in
"
article The Gospels " in the ninth edition of the Encyclopaedia history. In general, except that he did not write juvenile fiction,
Britannica, embodying a critical view which caused considerable his work in subject and style closely resembles that of his brother,
stir inthe English theological world; he also wrote St Thomas Jacob Abbott.
of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles (i8g8),Johannine Vocabu- ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- ), American divine and author,

lary (1905), Johannine Grammar (1906). was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the i8th of December
His brother, Evelyn Abbott (1843-1901), was a well-known 1835, the son of Jacob Abbott. He graduated at the University
tutor of Balliol, Oxford, and author of a scholarly History of of New York in 1853, studied law, and was admitted to the bar
Greece. in 1856; but soon abandoned the legal profession, and, after
ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891), American singer, was born at studying theology with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, was ordained
Chicago and studied in Milan and Paris. She had a fine soprano a minister of the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor
voice, and appeared first in opera in London under Colonel of a church inTerre Haute, Indiana, in 1860-1865, and of the New

Mapleson's direction at Covent Garden, also singing at important England Church in New York City in 1865-1869. From 1865 to
concerts. She organized an opera company known by her name, 1868 he was secretary of the American Union (Freedman's)
and toured extensively in the United States, where she had a Commission. In 1869 he resigned his pastorate to devote him-
great reputation. In 1873 she married E. J. Wetherell. She self to literature. He was an associate editor of Harper's Maga-
died at Salt Lake City on the sth of January 1891. zine, was editor of the Illustrated Christian Weekly, and was
ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879), American writer of books for co-editor (1876-1881) of The Christian Union with Henry Ward
the young, was born at Hallowell, Maine, on the I4th of Beecher, whom he succeeded in 1888 as pastor of Plymouth
November 1803. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820; Church, Brooklyn. From this pastorate he resigned ten years
studied at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821, 1822, and later. From 1881 he was editor-in-chief of The Christian Union,
1824; was tutor in 1824-1825, and from 1825 to 1829 was renamed The Outlook in 1893; this periodical reflected his efforts
professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Amherst toward social reform, and, in theology, a liberality, humanitarian
College; was licensed to preach by the Hampshire Association and nearly Unitarian. The latter characteristics marked his
in 1826; founded the Mount Vernon School for young ladies in published works also.
Boston in 1829, and was principal of it in 1829-1833; was pastor His works include Jesus of Nazareth (1869) Illustrated Commentary
;

of Eliot Congregational Church (which he founded), at on the New Testament (4 vols., 1875); A Study in Human Nature
Roxbury,
(1885); Life of Christ (1894); Evolution of Christianity (Lowell
Mass., in 1834-1835; and was, with his brothers, a founder, and Lectures, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Chris-
in 1843-1851 a principal of Abbott's Institute, and in
1845-1848 tianity and Social Problems (1897) Life and Letters of Paul (1898)
; ;
 ABBOTTABAD ABBREVIATION 27
The Life that Really is (1899); Problems of Life (1900); The Rights B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti.
of Man
(1901) Henry Ward Beecher (1903) The Christian Ministry
; ; B.F. Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.
(1905); The Personality of Cod (1905); Industrial Problems (1905); g.J. Bona femina, Bona filia.
and Christ's Secret of Happiness (1907). He edited Sermons of B.H. Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres.
Henry Ward Beecher (2 vols., 1868). B.I. Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium.
ABBOTTABAD, a town of British India, 4120 ft. above sea- B.M. Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.
B.N. Bona npstra, Bonum nomen.
level, 63 m. from Rawalpindi, the headquarters of the Hazara BN.H.I. Bona hie invenies.
district in the N.W. Frontier Province, called after its founder, B.P. Bona paterna, Bonorum pptestas, Bonum publicum.
Sir James Abbott, who settled this wild district after the annexa- Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita.
tion of the Punjab. an important military cantonment and
It is B.RP.N. Bono reipublicae natus.
BRT. Britannicus.
sanatorium, being the headquarters of a brigade in the second B.T. Bonorum tutor, Breyi tempore.
division of the northern army corps. In 1901 the population of B.V. Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.
the town and cantonment was 7764. B.V.V. Balnea vina Venus.
ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening;
BX. Bixit, for vixit.
more particularly, an " abbreviation " is a letter or group of C.
C. Caesar, Caius, Caput, Causa, Censor,Civis, Cohors, Colonia ,

letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo,
them for the sake of brevity. Abbreviations, both of single Custos. ,

words and of phrases, having ameaning more or less fixed and C. Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.
C.B. Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui
recognized, are common in ancient writings and inscriptions
bono.
(see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and very many are in C.C. Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Con-
use at the present time. A distinction is to be observed between silium cepit, Curiae consulto.
abbreviations and the contractions that are frequently to be C.C.C. Calumniae cavendae causa.
met with in old manuscripts, and even in early printed books, C.C.F. Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Caius Caii filius.
CC.VV. Clarissimi viri.
whereby letters are dropped out here and there, or particular C.D. Caesaris decreto, Caius Decius, Comitialibus diebus.
collocations of letters represented by somewhat arbitrary sym- CES. Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.
bols. The commonest form of abbreviation is the substitution Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
for a word of its initial letter; but, with a view to prevent C.H. Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.
C.I. Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex.
ambiguity, one or more of the other letters are frequently CL. Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.
added. Letters are often doubled to indicate a plural or a CL.V. Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.
superlative. C.M. Caius Marius, Causa mortis.
I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS. The following list contains CN. Cnaeus.
a selection from the abbreviations that occur in the writings
COH. Coheres, Cohors.
COL. Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna.
and inscriptions of the Romans: COLL. Collega, Colpni, Coloniae.
A. COM. Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.
A. Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, CON. Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis.
Antique, Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, COR. Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
Aut. COS. Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.
A.A. Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum. C.P. Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit
AA. August!. AAA. Augusti tres. ponendum.
A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo. 1 C.R. Caius Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.
A.A.V. Alter ambove. Caesar, Communis, Consul.
A.C. Acta causa, Alius civis. C.V. Clarissimus or Consularis vir.
A.D. Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum. CVR. Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.
A.D.A. Ad dandosagros.
AED. D.
Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas.
AEM. and AIM. Aemilius, Aemilia. D. Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,
AER. Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico. Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus,
A-F. Actum Auli filius.
fide,
Donum.
AG. D.C. Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar.
Ager, Ago, Agrippa.
A.G. Animo grato, Aulus Gellius. D.D. Dea Dia.Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono
A.L.AE. and A.L.E. Arbitrium litis aestimandae. dedit.
A.M. and A.MILL.Ad milliarium. D. D. D. Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
AN. Aniensis, Annus, Ante.
D.E.R. De ea re.
ANN. Annales, Anni, Annona. DES. Designatus.
ANT. Ante, Antonius. D.I. Dedit imperatpr, Diis immprtalibus, Diis inferis.
D.I.M. Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.
A.O. Alii
pmnes, Amico optimo. D.M. Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.
AP. Appius, Apud.
A.P. Ad
pedes, Aedilitia potestate.
D.O.M. Deo Optimo Maximo.
A.P.F. Auro (or argento) publico feriundo. D.P.S. Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia
A.P.M. Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus. sua.
A.P.R.C. Anno post Romam conditam. E.
ARG. Argentum. Ejus, Eques, Erexit, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex.
AR.V.V.D.D. Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono EG. Aeger, Egit, Egregius.
dedit. E.M. Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.
AT. A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER. EQ.M. Equitum magister.
A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare opprtere. E.R.A. Ea res agitur.
AV. Augur, Augustus, Aurelius. F.
A.V. Annos vixit. F. Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix,
A.V.C. Ab urbe condita. Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit,
AVG. Augur, Augustus. Functus.
AVGG. AVGGG. Augusti tres.
Augusti (generally of two). F.C. Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissum, Fiduciae causa.
AVT.PR.R. Auctoritas provincial Romanorum. F.D. Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit.
B.
F.F.F. Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato.
B.
FL. Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius.
Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium,
F.L. Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.
Bonus, Brutus, Bustum. FR.
B. for V. Berna Bivus, Bixit. Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius.
B.A. Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis.
F.R. Forum Romanum.
BB. or B.B. Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus. G.
B.D. Bonae deae, Bonum datum. G. Gaius (
= Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemina, Gens,
B.DD. Bonis deabus. Gesta, Gratia.
1
G.F. Gemina fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F, Gemina
Describing the function of the triumviri monetales. pia fidelis.
 ABBREVIATION
GL. Gloria. PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii. Propraetor.
GN. Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus = Cnaeus). P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio Publicae
(
sumptu,
G.P.R. Genio populi Romani. saluti.
H. P.V. Pia victrix, Praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.
H. Habet, Heres, Hie, Homo, Honor, Hora. Q.
HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules.
H.L. Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.
Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,
H.M. Hoc monumentum, Honesta Hora mala. Quintus, Quirites.
raulier,
H.S.E. Hie sepultus est, Hie situs est. Qua de re.
.I.S.S.
8.D.R. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.
H.V. Haec urbs, Hie vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.
Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.
I. 8Q.
.R. Quaestor reipublicae.
I. Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, R.
Isis, Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus. R.
IA. Intra.
Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,
. Jam, Rufus, Rursus.
I.C. Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile. R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis.
ID. Idem, Idus, Interdum. RESP. and RP.
Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei.
Respublica.
RET. P. and RP. Retro pedes.
I.D.M. Jovi deo magno. S.
I.F. In foro, In fronte.
S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,
I.H. Jacet hie, In honestatem, Justus homo.
IM. Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub,
Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa. Suus.
IMP. Imperator, Imperium.
I.O.M. SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.
Jovi optimo maximo.
I. P. In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona. S.C. Senatus cpnsultum.
S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam
I.S.V.P. Impensa sua vivus posuit. dedit.
K. S.D.M. Sacrum
K.
diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.
Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra. SER. Servius, Servus.
K., KAL. and KL. Kalendae. S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis.
L. SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.
L. Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius, Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.
Lucius, Ludus. S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus.
LB. Libens, Liberi, Libertus. S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scriptum.
L.D.D.D. Locus datus decreto decurionum. S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.
LEG. Legatus, Legio.
LIB. T.
Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius.
LL. Leges, Libentissime, Liberti. T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma,
L.M. Libens merito, Locus monument!. Tutor.
L.S. Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer. TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius.
LVD. Ludus. TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus.
LV.P.F. Ludos publicos fecit. T.F. Testamentum fecit.Titi filius,Titulum fecit.Titus Flavius.
M. TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.
M. T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.
Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marius, TVL. Tullius, Tufius.
Marti, Mater,Memoria,Mensis, Miles, Monumentum,
V.
Mortuus, Mucius, Mulier.
M'. Manius. V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir,
M.D. Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit. Vivus, Vixit, Volo, Votum.
MES. Mensis. MESS. Menses. V.A. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annps.
M.F. Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit. V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.
M.I. Matri Idaeae, Matri Isidi, Maximo Jovi. V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.
MNT.andMON. Moneta. V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.
M.P. Male positus, Monumentum posuit. V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.
M.S. Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum. V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.
MVN. Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS.
M.V.S. Marti
II. Of the different kinds of
sacrum, Merito votum solvit.
ultori
abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are
N.
N. Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero, examples :

Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Nume- A.M. Ave Maria.
rius, Numerus, Nummus. B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus.
NEP. Nepos, Neptunus. CC. Carissimus (also plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.
N.F.C. Nostrae fidei commissum. D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux.
Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe. D.N.PP. Dominus noster Papa.
N.M.V. Nobilis memoriae vir. FF. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).
NN. Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum. I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus.
NOB. Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris. I.D.N. In Dei nomine.
N.P. Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parte diei), Non potest. KK. Karissimus (or -mi).
O. MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.
O. Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa. O.S.B. Ordmis Sancti Benedicti.
OB. Obiit, Obiter, Orbis. PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus.
O.C.S. Ob cives servatps. R.F. Rex Francorum.
O.H.F. Omnibus honoribus functus. R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.
O.H.S.S. Ossa hie sita sunt. S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas.
OR. Hora, Ordo, Ornamentum. S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia.
O.T.B.Q. Ossa tua bene quiescant. S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria.
P.
S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium.
P. S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.
Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,
V. Venerabilis, Venerandus.
Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,
V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.
Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.
P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia consti- III. NOW IN USE. The import of these
ABBREVIATIONS
tuta, Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate
censoria. will often be readily understood from the connexion in which
Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius. they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common
P.M. Piae memoriae, Plus minus, Pontifex maximus. abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture,
P.P. Pater patratus,Pater patriae,Pecunia publica.Praepositus,
months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and
Primipilus, Propraetor. "
PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.
mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like Mr," &c.
Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus. The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
P.R.C. Post Romam conditam. be conveniently classified under the following headings:
 ABBREVIATION 29
I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS. L.J. Lord Justice.
L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts.
A.A. Associate of Arts.
LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.
A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts. LL.D.
A.D.C.
(Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
Aide-de-Camp. LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.
A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts. L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.
A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy.
L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.
A.R.I. B. A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects. L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.
A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. M.A. Master of Arts.
B.A. Bachelor of Arts.
M.B. .
(Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine.
Bart. Baronet.
of Civil Law.
M.C. Member of Congress.
B.C.L. Bachelor
M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
B.D. Bachelor of Divinity.
M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.
B.LL. Bachelor of Laws.
of Science.
M.P. Member of Parliament.
B.Sc. Bachelor
M.R. Master of the Rolls.
C. Chairman.
M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
C.A. Chartered Accountant.
M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
C.B. Companion of the Bath. M.R.I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
C.E. Civil Engineer.
Order of the Indian Empire.
Mus.B. Bachelor of Music.
C.I.E. Companion of the Mus.D. Doctor of Music.
C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery. M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order.
C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George. N.P. Notary Public.
C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India. O.M. Order of Merit.
D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.
P.C. Privy Councillor.
D.D. Doctor of Divinity.
D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature. Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.
P.P. Parish Priest.
D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).
Doctor of Science.
P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy.
D.Sc.
R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.
D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order. R. & I. Rex et Imperator.
1
Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York. R.A.
F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.
R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music.
F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.
R.E. Royal Engineers.
F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons
Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
(Glasgow). R.M.
F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.
R.N. Royal Navy.
F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians S. or St. Saint.
in Ireland.
F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society. S.S.C. Supreme Courts [of Scotland]
Solicitor before the .

P.M. Field Marshal. S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred

F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society. Theology.
F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society. V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.
F.R.C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. V.G. Vicar-General.
F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.
F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland] .
Equivalent to Attorney.
F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society. 2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND
F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. MEASURES. 2
F.R.I. B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects. ac. acre, Ib. or Ib. (libra), pound (weight).
F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society. bar. barrel, m. or mi. mile, minute.
F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. bus. bushel, i>l. minim.
F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. c. cent. mo. month.
F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c. na. nail.
F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society. cwt. hundredweight. oz. ounce.
F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. d. (denarius), penny, pk. peck.
G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. deg. degree. po. pole.
G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover. dr. drachm dram,
or pt. pint.
G.C.I. E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian dwt. pennyweight, q. (quadrans), farthing.
Empire. f. franc, qr. quarter.
G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George. fl. florin. qt. quart.
G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India. ft. foot, ro. rood.
G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order. fur. furlong, Rs. 3 rupees.
H.H. His or Her Highness. gal. gallon, s. or/ (solidus), shilling.
H.I.H. His or Her Imperial Highness. s. or sec. second.
gr. grain,
H.I.M. His or Her Imperial Majesty. h. or hr. hour, sc. or scr. scruple^
H.M. His or Her Majesty. hhd. hogshead, sq. ft. &c. square foot, &c.
H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness. in. inch, St. stone.
H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness. kilo, kilometre. yd. yard.
Judge. 2 2
L., or /.
, (libra), pound
jic.D. (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor), Doctor of (money).
Canon or Civil Law.
J.U.D. (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law. 3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS.
P Justice of the Peace.
K C. A. Accepted.
King's Counsel. A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ.
K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath. Account.
K.C.I.E. Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire. ace., a/c. or acct.
K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George. A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
K. C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India. A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universe, 4 or Alles Erdreich
1st Oesterreich Unterthan.
K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.
K.G. Act. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.
Knight of the Garter. A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan
K.P. Knight of St Patrick.
K.T. era).
Knight of the Thistle.
L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.
L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor. 2
Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same
' " "
L.C.J. Lord Chief Justice. way; e.g. for "degrees, minutes, seconds (circular measure);
?i 3. 3
f r "ounces, drachms, scruples."
| is probably to be traced
1
An
archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes to the written form of the z in "oz."
for his surname the name of his see thus the prelates of Canterbury,
;
* These forms
(as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar)
York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves with their initials are placed before their amounts.
(Christian names only), followed by Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin.
4 It is
given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of
(sometimes London.), &c. Austria, first adopted by Frederick III.
 ABBREVIATORS ABDALLATIF
A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world. q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is sufficient.

A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon. q.v. (Quod vide), Which see.

Anon. Anonymous. R. or 5. (Recipe), T^ke.
A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building of the V (
= r.
for radix), The sign of the square root.
(i.e. Rome). R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace!). he rest in peace!
May
city
A.V. Authorized version of the Bible. R.S.V.P. (Respondez s'il vous plait), Please reply.
b. born. sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.
B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary. Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.
B.C. Before Christ. S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
c. about.
circa, seq.or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequentia), The following.
C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter. S.J. Society of Jesus.
C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer. s.p. (Sine prole), Without offspring.
cent. 1 (Centum), A hundred, frequently 100. S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare. S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.
Ch. or Chap. Chapter. S.T.D. )
C.M.S. Church Missionary Society. S.T.B. Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.
Co. Company, County. S.T.L. )
C.O.D. Cash on Delivery. Sup. (Supra), Above.
Cr. Creditor. s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).
curt. Current, the present month. T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
d. died. ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.
D.G. (Dei gratia). By the grace of God. U.S. United States.
Do. Ditto, the same. U.S.A. United States of America.
D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest. v. (Versus), Against.
Dr. Debtor. v. or vid. (Vide), See.
D.V. (Deo volente), God willing. viz. (Videlicet), Namely-
E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted. Xmas. Christmas. This X
is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.

e.g. (Exempli gratia), For example, See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai's
etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth. Tractatus de Sifjis Veterum Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati-
;

Ex. Example. narum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838);
F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer. Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des A brevia-
Fee. (Fecit), He made (or did) it. tions (3rd ed. 1866); Campelli, Dizionario di Abbreviature (1899).
fl. Flourished.
Fo. or Fol. Folio, ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery,
f.o.b. Free on board. whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the
G.P.O. General Post Office. pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are
H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service. written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first men-
Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.
tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII.
Id. (Idem), The same.
i.e. (Id est). That is. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the
I.H.S. A symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco
of the Greek (I H 2] the correct origin was lost sight
majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minori. The name
;

of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted

as standing for Jesus, Hominum Sahator, was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a
erroneously" " " "
the Latin h and Greek long e being confused. grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower
I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God. (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that
Inf. (Infra), Below. of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching
Inst. Instant, the present month.
of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who
I.O.U. I owe you.
i.q. (Idem quod). The same as. ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the
K.T.\. Et caetera, and the
(KO! TO. Xourd), rest. apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made
L. or Lib. (Liber), Book. essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they
Lat. Latitude.
obtained in course of time many important privileges. They
I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited.
Lon. or Long. Longitude. were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans-
L.S. (Locus sigilh). The place of the seal. ferred to the protonotarii apostolici participates (See CURIA .

Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum. ROMANA.)

MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated
N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.
N.B. North Britain (i.e. Scotland). physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers
N.D. No date. of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1 162. An interesting memoir
nem. con. (Nemine contrad icente) , No one contradicting. of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi-
No. (Numero), Number. tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary.
N.S. New Style.
N.T. New Testament. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth
ob. (Obiit),Died. of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study
Obs. Obsolete. of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing
O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service.
to the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology
O.S. Old Style. memory
O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines). and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After
O.T. Old Testament. attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif
P. Page. Pp. Pages. applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy
| (Per), For; e.g. Ib., For$ one pound. the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and
Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it.
P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.
afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation
P.O. Post Office, Postal Order. from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had
P.O.O. Post Office Order. "
long cherished to converse with Maimonides, the Eagle of the
P.P,C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.
P.R. Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle
Prize-ring.
(Proximo [mense]), Next month. of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem.
prox.
P.S. Postscript. He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus
Pt. Part. for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at
p.t. orpro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time.
P.T.O. Please turn over. Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different
Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question. parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a
q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say; as much as to say. pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal-
Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated. latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an
Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works
"Per cent." is often signified by%, a form traceable to"ioo.' mostly on medicine which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only,
 ABD-AR-RAHMAN
hisgraphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a
to beknown in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in
Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, Spain for two centuries and a half.
contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of
author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music
banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly
Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De memorable for having included the story of the " Martyrs of
Sacy in 1810. Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious
ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the history of the middle ages.
Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-96^ was the greatest and the
being rulers of great capacity. most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the
ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch general history of his reign see SPAIN, History). He ascended the
of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom- throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a
medan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the century. His life was so completely identified with the govern-
East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than
years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies some passages
with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its
enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor,
brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads.
by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by
common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by
of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly.
produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was
hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay- exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among
yad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans
Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or
farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri- secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele-
tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not
the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them
reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the
restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came
wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755 the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the
he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the
to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family, Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman
descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in-
in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup-
was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the
Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content
tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts be- with the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to
tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca
opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far
of his partisans he landed at Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph
in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to on the i6th of January 929, and the assumption of the title
be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain
venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd- and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom-
ar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega
This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see

probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a SPAIN, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of
better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of
renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions
cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is

being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation well to remember that he administered well not by means of
Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his
was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex-
the 1 6th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd- cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for
ar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded
the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the
improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra,
the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a
banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar- favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have
rahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which
and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic
themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordova, was built by his
grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included
to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is
personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it
compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most
acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of
he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of
camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. Gorze, who has left in his Vila an incomplete account of his
His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, embassy (in Pertz, Man. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He
repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said
 ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. ABD-EL-KADER
could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re-
confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his store his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched
"
long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the omnia on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com-
"
fui, el nil expedit of Septimius Severus. pletely overthrown (August igth) when near that city, and
In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain,two princes Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas-
of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother,
Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner
Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled
who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet,
in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.)
from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. ABD-EL-KADER 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great
(c.

Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near
Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descend-
workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated
The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histotre throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el-
des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.) Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman
ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in
Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth
years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action he was taken by his fatheron the pilgrimage to Mecca and
of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el- Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag-
Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little dad events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious
fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated
himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out
ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the
own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and
chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa-
sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey.
act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels,
and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He
do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short
and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria.
exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in- The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is
timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were given under ALGERIA. To the beginning of 1842 the contest
sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal
attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master.
taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born
strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per-
which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the
purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd- doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure
el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles,
accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat
spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the
to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez, French. On the 2ist of December 1847, the amir gave himself
this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country. up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his
The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then
out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would
things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith
came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were
support and protection against the inroads of France. On the detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in
advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There
conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was re-
reform, the sultan's desire being to ensuie a condition of affairs leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis-
which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa,
the control of the country, and would promote its welfare, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the Moslems
which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses
power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over
Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak
during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the
that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will French government, which granted the amir a pension of 4000,
respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In
tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at
viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose
August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to
usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew
at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France. to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical
In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858
endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers under the title of Rappel d I 'intelligent. Avis & I'indifffrent.
against his brother. From France he accepted the grand He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus
cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to on the 26th of May 1883.
negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further
See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807-1883 (Paris [1899]);
opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa vie polilique et militaire (Paris,
deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid. 1863) Col. C. H. Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867).
;
 ABDERA ABDOMEN 33
ancient seaport town on the south coast of A.D.
ABDERA, an
Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in
the district in- James II. of
England
Frederick Augustus of Poland .... 1688
1704
habited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians
as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under
Philip V. of Spain
Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia
Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey
....
....
1724
1730
1730
the Romans one of the more important towns in the province
Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) 1759
of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern
Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician
inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth)
and a
Stanislaus II. of Poland
Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia
Charles IV. of Spain
.... 1795
June 4, 1802
Mar. 19, 1808
tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made
the Joseph Bonaparte of Naples June 6, 1808
Gustavus IV. of Sweden Mar. 29, 1809
a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two
place Louis Bonaparte of Holland July 2, 1810
tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re- Napoleon I., French Emperor April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815
Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267.
lating to the Victor Emanuel of Sardinia , Mar. 13, 1821
Charles X. of France
ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of
J
Aug. 2, 1830
Pedro of Brazil April 7, 1831
the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda-
Miguel of Portgual May 26, 1834
tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from William I. of Holland Oct. 7, 1840
Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates Louis Philippe, king of the French Feb. 24, 1848
from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated Louis Charles of Bavaria Mar. 21, 1848
Ferdinand of Austria Dec. 2, 1848
to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke Mar. 23, 1849
Charles Albert of Sardinia
(Herod, i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical Leopold II. of Tuscany July 21, 1859
with that of Teos; the coinage noted for the beauty and
is Isabella II. of Spain June 25, 1870
variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined Amadeus I. of Spain Feb. 11,1873
The air of Alexander of Bulgaria Sept. 7, 1886
in importance after the middle of the 4th century.
Milan of Servia Mar. 6, 1889
Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its
citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from
town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the
small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana-
on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of tomical details the articles ALIMENTARY CANAL, and ANATOMY,
Superficial and Artistic.)
Polystylon.
Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel);
ABDOMINAL SURGERY. The diseases affecting this region
Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 21 1 K. F. Hermann, Ges.
;
are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, and
"
Abh. 90-111, 370 ff. under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term ab-
"
ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from dominal surgery covers generally the operations which involve
ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of
to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the
up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held. surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most
In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning part, in connexion with the anatomical description
of that
of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.) but here the ;general
word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed.
supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty Exploratory Laparotomy. In many cases of serious intra-
to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other- abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly
wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his
cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due
Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great care this not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad-
is
seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized.
resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist
whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a
latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often
Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without
"
spite of James's protest, that King James II. having endea- making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such
voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking circumstances provided only it is done soon enough the
the original contract between king and people, and, by the successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter.
advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted
the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the
this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the outlook is well-nigh hopeless.
throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish parliament pronounced Itprobable that if the question were put to any experienced
is
a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor- hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having
able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen,
the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand,
305. The following is a list of the more important abdications he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not
of later times: resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if
A.D.
only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band,
Benedict IX., pope 1048
of
some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been
Stephen II. Hungary 1131
Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg 1169 satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark
Ladislaus III. of Poland 1206 cavity, was accountable for the death. A
physician by himself
Celestine V., pope Dec. 13, 1294
helpless in these cases.
.
is
John Baliol of Scotland
John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East
Richard II. of England
.... 1296
1355
Sept. 29, 1399
Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in
the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela-
John XXIII., pope 1415 tionship which exists between the public and the surgical" pro-
Eric VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . .
1439 fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, If a
Murad II. .Ottoman Sultan 1444 and 1445
Charles V., emperor 1556 surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the
Christina of Sweden
1
Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but
'654
of Poland 1668 abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter.
John Casimir
5
I. 2
34 ABDOMEN
public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of
it,and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the " apothe- Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel
osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment of and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the
a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with
found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not respiration and circulation.
advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal
any rate, highly advisable.And this happy discovery has led surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the
to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and
truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate, the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower
and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of
"
to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs. this normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit.
Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into
of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and
as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in
effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the this condition.
services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay Gunshot Wounds of the Abdomen. If a revolver bullet passes
spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be
that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by
now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may
promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into
sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests
without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity
not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When
of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well
results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being
been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue made for performing that operation on the first appearance of
to improve. symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small
A
great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti- perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing
fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal
Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as
Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a
two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound,
bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse- whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If
" "
quently married the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly
fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials
of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an
and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other actionwounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the
cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful, many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being
as in the establishment of a permanent communication between made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic
the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the
between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by South African war of 1890-1902 showed that Mauser bullets
an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a
"
small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be- condition that, if treated by mere expectancy," more than
tween small and large intestine. The operative procedure goes 50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal
by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of
bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma- the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions
nent working communication can be set up between the gall- and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic
bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab-
intestine the last-named operation bears the precise but domen had best not be interfered with.
very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the
Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may
can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this, have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded.
in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be
importance. But there is this against the method that some- set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out
times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, if the belly^cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might

whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en-
passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore large the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect
prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material, and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly-
while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last- cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should
named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there
"
course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the toilet of
method of treatment. ^The cause of death in the case of intestinal "
the peritoneum would be duly made, and a drainage-tube
obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel
absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other
of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom, organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture,
therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of
of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel, antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations,
incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain
returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present time
of the absorption of this stagnant fluid or, at any rate, who a large number of them are saved.
firstsuggested the proper method of treating it was Lawson Intussusception. This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and
Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by,
 ABDUCTION ABD-UL-HAMID II. 35
the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura-
to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under

up the rectum under pressure a speculative method of treat- the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the
ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent
bowel, and often one might almost say generally failed to do that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female
what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that
that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland,
of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly
and more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a dealt with by practice.
rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to Mahmud II., was born on the gth of February 1830, and suc-
the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel ceeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal in-
could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing terference in government affairs was not very marked, and
cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex- extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the
tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth,
intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other
operation gives them by far the best chance. futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of
Cancer of the Intestine. With the introduction of aseptic "bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875
methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue
reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid
the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes-
bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. If the can- sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son
cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the
excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the
of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that
in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring
advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman
the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest
of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867,
to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight
formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits
by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other
recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal,
entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited
operation of inguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages: Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and
a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab- financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of
dominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after- Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi-
wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the
it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer "Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His
find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at deposition on the 3oth of May 1876 was hailed with joy through-
the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are out Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace
urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit, where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence
which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him:
into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of
to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha;
surface-wound. (E. O.*) Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born
ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law 1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket,
term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person, born 1872, died 1899.
limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim. ABD-UL-HAMID I. 1(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of
In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long
the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc- confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him
tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession
heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual
against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how-
from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will, ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the
with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c., any woman complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of
of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate, Kuchuk Kainarji (2ist July 1774), the most disastrous, especially
or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con-
of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to clude. (See TURKEY.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea
cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the
other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant
away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against
out of the possession and against the will of her parents or Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being
guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her
her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony. triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against
lie same act makes abduction without even the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four
any such intent a
nisdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six- months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged
en is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the sixty-four.
vill of her
parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con- ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of
ent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 2ist of September 1842,
asonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent Murad V., on the 3ist of August 1876. He accompanied his
 ABD-UL-MEJID
uncle Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised
in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893
manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to at Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in
be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out;
liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant
were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of
with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threaten-
of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal ing acts of the victims, and extending over many months and
developments. Default in the public funds and an empty throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The
treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited
war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its
Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition
rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could sailed to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which
expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of
groundless belief, forwhich British statesmen had, of late at frontier; then a few months later Crete was taken over "en
"
least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at depot by the Four Powers Germany and Austria not partici-
all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear pating, and Prince George of Greece was appointed their
to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of
should be instituted. The international Conference which met the German emperor and empress.
at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European
by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu- Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to over-
tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite whelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against
of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers; aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was en-
Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and couraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire
soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this often an obstacle to government were curtailed; the new railway
day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to dis-
with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty tant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This
of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the
were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia
to British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this time and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance
the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman
he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in population by a system of delation and espionage, and by whole-
his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of sale arrests ; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan
the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz.
employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia
army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his (q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the
empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis.
encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi
of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Com-
profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial mittee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see TURKEY :

embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on
over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Con-
many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the stantinople (July 23), at once capitulated. On the 24th an
Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders, trade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution
was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con- of 1875; next day, further irades abolished espionage and the
sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On
a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek the loth of December the sultan opened the Turkish parlia-
frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined ment with a speech from the throne in which he said that the
"
that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into first parliament had been temporarily dissolved until the
effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high
towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire."
showed less than his usual Astuteness, and the resulting con- The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from
solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary ele-
further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union ments in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude to-
in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of wards the counter-revolution of the i3th of April, when an
which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the
another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The com-
Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre- mittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abd-
hension was entertained of the results of the union until it was ul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 37th of April his brother
seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The
the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica.
towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on
running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II.
friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable
with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his
1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con- children, so that his son received no better education than that
ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the
succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the
and in concentrating the whole administration of the country affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the
into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constanti-
thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks nople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at
were dissatisfied, and from about 1890 the Armenians began a Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali;
 ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN 37
and the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alex- winning a desperate battle, when Abdur Rahman's reappear-
andria, where it was handed over by its commander, Ahmed ance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed
Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard.
advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim
the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, Khan, occupied Kabul (March 1866). The amir Shere Ali
and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See MEHEMET ALI.) In marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle
compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid that ensued at Sheikhabad on loth May he was deserted by a
set at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud large bodyof his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur
had devoted himself. In November 1839 was proclaimed an Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in Ghazni,
edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhane, consolidating and installed him upon the throne as amir of Afghanistan.
and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the Notwithstanding the new amir's incapacity, and some jealousy
close of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they
1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of again routed Shere Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in 1867;
the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and and when at the end of that year Afzul Khan died, Azim Khan
property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice succeeded to the rulership, with Abdur Rahman as his governor
impartially administered; and that all should have full religious in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868 Shere
liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulting in

opposition from the Mussulman governing classes and the ulema, their defeat at Tinah Khan on the 3rd of January 1869, forced
or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in them both to seek refuge in Persia, whence Abdur Rahman pro-
force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more ceeded afterwards to place himself under Russian protection at
than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on Samarkand. Azim died in Persia in October 1869.
account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by This brief account of the conspicuous part taken by Abdur
Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were the reorganization of the Rahman in an eventful war, at the beginning of which he was
army (1843-1844), the institution of a council of public instruc- not more than twenty years old, has been given to show the
tion (1846), the abolition of an odious arid unfairly imposed rough school that brought out his qualities of resource and
capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and various pro- fortitude, and the political capacity needed for rulership in
visions for the better administration of the public service and Afghanistan. He lived in exile for eleven years, until on the
for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of death, in 1879, of Shere Ali, who had retired from Kabul when
his times the disturbances and insurrections in different parts the British armies entered Afghanistan, the Russian governor-
of hisdominions throughout his reign, and the great war suc- general at Tashkent sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him
on against Russia by Turkey, and by England,
cessfully carried to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March 1880
France and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey (1853-1856) a report reached India that he was in northern Afghanistan;
see TURKEY, and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others and the governor-general, Lord Lytton, opened communications
sought refuge in Turkey after the failure of the Hungarian
,
with him to the effect that the British government were pre-
rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia pared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman
to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is as amir of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some
to his credit, too, that he would hot allow the conspirators districts adjacent. After some negotiations, an interview took
against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character place between him and Mr (afterwards Sir) Lepel Griffin, the
of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government,
easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his ex- who described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with
cessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners,
He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand. At
brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of the durbar on the 22nd of July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially
Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and recognized as amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and
Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further
reign was begun, the reckless system of foreign loans, carried to aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he followed
excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which British advice in regard to his external relations. The evacua-
led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey and, tion of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in
indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz. 1881 the British troops also made over Kandahar to the new
ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN, 'amir of Afghanistan (c. 1844- amir; but Ayub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, marched upon
1901), was the son of Afzul Khan, who was the eldest son of that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and
Dost Mahomed Khan, the famous amir, by whose success in occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the
war the Barakzai family established their dynasty in the ruler- amir, who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a
ship of Afghanistan. Before his death at Herat, 9th June 1863, force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the
Dost Mahomed had nominated as his successor Shere Ali, his complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly
third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated
zim Khan; and at first the new amir was quietly recognized. on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years
But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppress-
the northern province, between the Hindu Kush mountains and ing insurrections by a sharp and relentless use of his despotic
the Oxus, where he had been governing when his father died; authority. Against the severity of his measures the powerful
and then began a fierce contest for power among the sons of Ghilzai tribe revolted, and were crushed by the end of 1887.
Dost Mahomed, which lasted for nearly five years. In this In that year Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia;
war, which resembles in character, and in its striking vicissitudes, and in 1888 the amir's cousin, Ishak Khan, rebelled against
he English War of the Roses at the end of the isth century, him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing.
Abdur Rahman soon became distinguished for ability and daring In 1885, at the moment when (see AFGHANISTAN) the amir
nergy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in
hese qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shere Ali, the India, the news came of a collision between Russian and Afghan
son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation
suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to of the north-western frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's
Cabul, fled across the Oxus into Bokhara. Shere Ali threw attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political
Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in south sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth
Afghanistan; but the amir had scarcely suppressed it by up, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment
 ABECEDARIANS ABEKEN
and the forcible seizure of some debateable frontier lands was Din (Light of the nation and religion); and his zeal for the
an untoward incident; but it was no sufficent reason for calling cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on Jehad. His
eldest son Habibullah Khan, with his brother Nasrullah Khan,
upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's
integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities
which would was born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar
certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by
and would compel his British allies to throw an army into descent with the Barakzai family.
Afghanistan from the south-east. His interest lay in keeping See also S. Wheeler, F.R.G.S., The Amir Abdur Rahman (London,
1895); The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan, G.C.B.,
powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his king-
G.C.S.I., edited by Mir Munshi, Sultan Mahommed Khan (avols.,
dom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be sup-
London, 1900) At the Court of the Amir, by J. A. Grey (1895).
;

ported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a (A. C. L.)
rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian govern- ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme
ment made ready for that contingency, the amir's reserved and Anabaptists (<?..), who regarded the teaching of the Holy Spirit
circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn as that was necessary, and so despised all human learning
all
the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced and even the power of reading the written word.
towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who A BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856), English writer,
met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, was born in north London on
the 9th of January 1811. He
with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications belonged to a family claiming descent from the father of St
of the implacable severity that too often marked his administra- Thomas Becket. His elder brother, Sir William a Beckett
tion. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of (1806-1869), became chief justice of Victoria (Australia). Gil-
the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much bert Abbott a Beckett was educated at Westminster school,
pleasure. and was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1841. He edited
From the end of 1888 the amir passed eighteen months in Figaro in London, and was one of the original staff of Punch
his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was and a contributor all his life. He was an active journalist on
engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by The Times and The Morning Herald, contributed a series of
revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known light articles to The Illustrated London News, conducted in 1846
or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly after- The Almanack of the Month and found time to produce some
wards (1892) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance
fifty or sixty plays, among them dramatized versions of
Dickens's
of the Hazara tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their shorter stories in collaboration with Mark Lemon. As poor-law
immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central commissioner he presented a valuable report to the home
authority at Kabul. secretary regarding scandals in connexion with the Andover
In 1893 Sir Henry Durand was deputed to Kabul by the Union, and in 1849 he became a metropolitan police magistrate.
government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of He died at Boulogne on the 3oth of August 1856 of typhus fever.
territory required by the demarcation of 'the boundary between His eldest son GILBERT ARTHUR A BECKETT (1837-1891) was
north-eastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in born at Hammersmith on the 7th of April 1837. He went up
order to discuss with the amir other pending questions. The to Christ Church, Oxford, as a Westminster scholar in 1855,
amir showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his graduating in 1860. He was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but gave
tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a his attention chiefly to the drama, producing Diamonds and
sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial Hearts at the Hay market in 1867, which was followed by other
exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and
the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, pantomimes, the libretti of Savonarola (Hamburg, 1884) and of
were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the The Canterbury Pilgrims (Drury Lane, 1884) for the music of
important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan Dr (afterwards Sir) C. V. Stanford. The Happy Land (Court
on the east, towards India. In 1895 the amir found himself Theatre, 1873), a political burlesque of W. S. Gilbert's Wicked
unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from World, was written in collaboration with F. L. Tomline. For
Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of Punch.
Khan went in his stead. His health was seriously affected in 1889 by the death of his
Abdur Rahman died on the ist of October 1001, being succeeded only son, and he died on the isth of October 1891.
by his son Habibullah. He had
defeated all enterprises by A younger son, ARTHUR WILLIAM A BECKETT (1844-1909),
rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of a well-known journalist and man of letters, was also on the
local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders staff of Punch from 1874 to 1902, and gave an account of his
were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His govern- father and his own reminiscences in The A Becketts of Punch
ment was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed (1903). He died in London on the i4th of January 1909.
army; it was administered through officials absolutely sub- See also M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895).
servient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread ABEDNEGO, the name given in Babylon to Azariah, one of
the companions of Daniel (Dan. i. 7, &c.). It is probably a
system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority "
was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held corruption, perhaps deliberate, of Abednebo, servant of

open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of Nebo," though G. Hoffmann thinks that the original form was
"
servant of the god Nergal."
justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable. Abednergo, for Abednergal,
He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the C. H. Toy compares Barnebo, "son of Nebo," of which he
fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself regards Barnabas as a slightly disguised form (Jewish Ency-
of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while clopaedia).
he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like rail- ABEKEN, HEINRICH (1809-1872), German theologian and
ways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within Prussian official,- was born at Berlin on the 8th of August 1809.
his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the He studied theology at Berlin and in 1834 became chaplain
position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the to the Prussian embassy in Rome. In 1841 he visited England,
Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in being commissioned by King Frederick William IV. to make
dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure arrangements for the establishment of the Protestant bishopric of
Prussian
in contemporary Asiatic politics and will mark his reign as an Jerusalem. In 1848 he received an appointment in the
epoch in the history of Afghanistan. ministry for foreign affairs, and in 1853 was promoted to be privy
The amir received an annual subsidy from the British govern- councillor of legation (Geheimer Legationsrath). He was much
ment of i8j lakhs of rupees. He was allowed to import muni- employed by Bismarck in the writing of official despatches,
tions of 'war. In 1896 he adopted the title of Zia-ul-Millat-ud- and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often
 ABEL 39
accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes (1884). He also wrote
office. He was present with the king during the campaigns of several important articles in the ninth edition of the Encyclo-
1866 and 1870-71. In 1851 he published anonymously Babylon paedia Britannica.
und Jerusalem, a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess ABEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1725-1787), German musician,
von Hahn-Hahn (q.v.). was born in Kothen in 1725, and died on the 2Oth of June
See Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit (Berlin, 1787 in London. He was a great player on the viola da gamba,
1898), by his widow. This is valuable by reason of the letters written and composed much music of importance in its day for that
from the Prussian headquarters. instrument. He studied under Johann Sebastian Bach at the
ABEL (Hebrew for breath], the second son of Adam, slain by Leipzig Thomasschule; played for ten years (1748-1758) under
Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16). The narrative in Genesis A. Hasse in the band formed at Dresden by the elector of Saxony;
"
which tells us that the Lord had respect unto Abel and to his and then, going to England, became (in 1759) chamber-musician
offering, but unto Cain and to his offering he had not respect," to Queen Charlotte. He gave a concert of his own compositions
is supplemented by the statement of the New Testament, that in London, performing on various instruments, one of which,
"
by faith Abel unto God
offered a more excellent sacrifice the pentachord, was newly invented. In 1762 Johann Christian
than Cain" (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain slew Abel "because his Bach, the eleventh son of Sebastian, came to London, and the
own works were evil and his brother's righteous" (i John iii. friendship between him and Abel led, in 1764 or 1765, to the
12). See further under CAIN. The name has been identified establishment of the famous concerts subsequently known as
with the Assyrian ablu, "son," but this is far from certain. the Bach and Abel concerts. For ten years these were organ-
"
It more probably means herdsman " (cf. the name Jabal), ized by Mrs Cornelys, whose enterprises were then the height
and a distinction is drawn between the pastoral Abel and the of fashion. In 1775 the concerts became independent of her,
agriculturist Cain. If Cain is the eponym of the Kenites it is and were continued by Abel unsuccessfully for a year aft^r
quite possible that Abel was originally a South Judaean demigod Bach's death in 1782. At them the works of Haydn were first
or hero; on this, see Winckler, Gesch. Israels, ii. p. 189; produced in England. After the failure of his concert under-
E. Meyer, Israeliten, p. 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to takings Abel still remained in great request as a player on various
have lived in North Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De instruments new and old, but he took to drink and thereby
Haeresibus, Ixxxvi.). hastened his death. He was a man of striking presence, of
ABEL, SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BART. (1827-1902), whom several fine portraits, including two by Gainsborough,
English chemist, was born in London on the I7th of July 1827. exist.
After studying chemistry for six years under A. W. von Hofmann ABEL, NIELS HENRIK (1802-1829), Norwegian mathe-
at the Royal College of Chemistry (established in London matician, was born at Findoe on the 25th of August 1802. In
in 1845), he became professor of chemistry at the Royal 1815 he entered the cathedral school at Christiania, and three
Military Academy in 1851, and three years later was appointed years later he gave proof of his mathematical genius by his
chemist to the War Department and chemical referee to the brilliant solutions of the original problems proposed by B.
government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted Holmboe. About this time, his father, a poor Protestant
until 1888, he carried out a large amount of work in connexion minister, died, and the family was left in straitened circum-
with the chemistry of explosives. One of the most important stances; but a small pension from the state allowed Abel to
of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of gun- enter Christiania University in 1821. His first notable work
cotton, and he developed a process, consisting essentially of was a proof of the impossibility of solving the quintic equation
reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to by radicals. This investigation was first published in 1824
be prepared with practically no danger and at the same time and in abstruse and difficult form, and afterwards (1826) more
yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness. elaborately in the first volume of Crelle's Journal. Further
This work to an important extent prepared the way for the state aid enabled him to visit Germany and France in 1825,
" "
smokeless powders which came into general use towards and having visited the astronomer Heinrich Schumacher (1780-
the end of the igth century; cordite, the particular form 1850) at Hamburg, he spent six months in Berlin, where he
adopted by the British government in 1891, was invented became intimate with August Leopold Crelle, who was then
jointly by him and Professor James Dewar. Our knowledge about to publish his mathematical journal. . This project was
of the explosion of ordinary black powder was also greatly warmly encouraged by Abel, who contributed much to the
added to by him, and in conjunction with Sir Andrew Noble success of the venture. From Berlin he passed to Freiberg,
he carried out one of the most complete inquiries on record and here he made his brilliant researches in the theory of func-
into its behaviour when fired. The invention of the apparatus, tions, elliptic, hyperelliptic and a new class known as Abelians
legalized in 1879, for the determination of the flash-point of being particularly studied. In 1826 he moved to Paris, and
petroleum, was another piece of work which fell to him by virtue during a ten months' stay he met the leading mathematicians
of his official position. His first instrument, the open-test of France but he was little appreciated, for his work was
;

apparatus, was prescribed by the act of 1868, but, being found scarcely known, and hismodesty restrained him from pro-
to possess certain defects, was superseded in 1879 by the
it
claiming his researches. Pecuniary embarrassments, from
Abel close- test instrument (see PETROLEUM). In electricity Abel which he had never been free, finally compelled him to abandon
studied the construction of electrical fuses and other applica- his tour, and on his return to Norway he taught for some time
tions of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems at Christiania. In 1829 Crelle obtained a post for him at Berlin,
of steel manufacture won him in 1897 the Bessemer medal of but the offer did not reach Norway until after his death near
the Iron and Steel Institute, of which from 1891 to 1893 he was Arendal on the 6th of April.
president. He was president of the Institution of Electrical The early death of this talented mathematician, of whom
"
Engineers (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877. Legendre said quelle tete celle du jeune NoraegienI", cut short
He became a member of the Royal Society in 1860, and received a career of extraordinary brilliance and promise. Under Abel's
a royal medal in 1887. He took an important part in the work guidance, the prevailing obscurities of analysis began to be
of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 cleared, new fields were entered upon and the study of functions
became organizing secretary and first director of the Imperial so advanced as to provide mathematicians with numerous
Institute, a position he held till his death, which occurred in ramifications along which progress could be made. His works,
London on the 6th of September 1902. He was knighted in the greater part of which originally appeared in Crelle's Journal,
1891, and created a baronet in 1893. were edited by Holmboe and published in 1839 by the Swedish
Among his books were Handbook of Chemistry (with C. L. government, and a more complete edition by L. Sylow and
Bloxam) Modern History of Gunpowder ( 1 866) Gun-cotton (1866),
, , S. Lie was published in 1881.
On Explosive Agents (1872), Researches in Explosives (1875), and For further details of his mathematical investigations see
 ABEL ABELARD
the articles GROUPS, THEORY OF, and FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX Few sway as Abelard now did for a
teachers ever held such
VARIABLES. time. Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen sur-
See C. A. Bjerknes, Niels Henrik Abel: Tableau de sa vie et son rounded by crowds it is said thousands of students, drawn
action scientifique (Paris, 1885);Lucas de Peslouan, Niels Henrik from all countries by the fame of his teaching, in which acuteness
Abel (Paris, 1906).
of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of exposition.
ABEL (better ABELL), THOMAS (d. 1540), an English priest Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and feasted with universal
who was martyred during the reign of Henry VIII. The admiration, he came, as he says, to think himself the only
place and date of his birth are unknown. He was educated at philosopher standing in the world. But a change in his fortunes
Oxford and entered the service of Queen Catherine some time was at hand. In his devotion to science, he had hitherto lived
before 1528, when he was sent by her to the emperor Charles V. a very regular life, varied only by the excitement of conflict:
on a mission relating to the proposed divorce. On his return now, at the height of his fame, other passions began to stir
he was presented by Catherine to the living of Bradwell, in within him. There lived at that time, within the precincts of
Essex, and remained to the last a staunch supporter of the Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert,
unfortunate queen. In 1533, he published his Invicta Veritas a young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about
(with the fictitious pressmark of Luneberge, to avoid suspicion), noi. Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, which
which contained an answer to the numerous tracts supporting extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, she
Henry's ecclesiastical claims. After an imprisonment of more awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and with
than six years, Abel was sentenced to death for denying the intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in Fulbert's
royal supremacy in the church, and was executed at Smithfield house as a regular inmate. Becoming also tutor to the maiden,
on the 3oth of July 1 540. There is still to be seen on the wall he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained over her
of his prison in the Tower the symbol of a bell with an A upon for the purpose of seduction, though not without cherishing a
it and the name Thomas above, which he carved during his real affection which she returned in unparalleled devotion.
confinement. He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. Their relation interfering with his public work, and being,
See J. Gillow's Bibl. Dictionary of Eng. Catholics, vol. i.; Calendar moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became known
of State Papers of Henry VIII., vols. iv.-vii. passim. to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, when
ABELARD, PETER (1070-1142), scholastic philosopher, was at last it could not escape even his vision, they were separated
born at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079. He was only to meet in secret. Thereupon Heloise found herself preg-
the eldest son of a noble Breton house. The name Abaelardus nant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, where she
(also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other ways) gave birth to a son. To appease her furious uncle, Abelard
issaid to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted by himself now proposed a- marriage, under the condition that it should be
for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a student. As kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement
a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of apprehension, in the church; but of marriage, whether public or secret, Heloise
and, choosing a learned life instead of the knightly career natural would hear nothing. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for
to a youth of his birth, early became an adept in the art of her the independence of his life, nor did she finally yield to the
dialectic, under which name philosophy, meaning at that time arrangement without the darkest forebodings, only too soon
chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted through Latin channels, to be realized. The secret of the marriage was not kept by
was the great subject of liberal study in the episcopal schools. Fulbert; and when Heloise, true to her singular purpose, boldly
Roscellinus, the famous canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by denied it, life was made so unsupportable to her that she sought
himself as his teacher; but whether he heard this champion of refuge in the convent of Argenteuil. Immediately Fulbert,
extreme Nominalism in early youth, when he wandered about believing that her husband, who aided in the flight, designed to
from school to school for instruction and exercise, or some years be rid of her, conceived a dire revenge. He and some others
later, after he had already begun to teach for himself, remains broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and perpetrated on him
uncertain. His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still the most brutal mutilation. Thus cast down from his pinnacle
under the age of twenty. There, in the great cathedral school of greatness into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left
of Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William to the brilliant master only the life of a monk. The priesthood
of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him. Heloise,
Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice at the
master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued in call of his jealous love, and took the veil.
the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till then It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged forty,
dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth of opposi- sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight. Finding,
tion from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only twenty-two, however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude, and having
he proceeded to set up a school of his own at Melun, whence, for gradually turned again to study, he yielded after a year to urgent
more direct competition, he removed to Corbeil, nearer Paris. entreaties from without and within, and went forth to reopen
The success of his teaching was signal, though for a time he had his school at the priory of Maisoncelle (1120). His lectures,
to quit the field, the strain proving too great for his physical now framed in a devotional spirit, were heard again by crowds
strength. On his return, after 1 108, he found William lecturing of students, and all his old influence seemed to have returned;
no longer at Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the but old enmities were revived also, against which he was no longer
city, and there battle was again joined between them. Forcing able as before to make head. No sooner had he put in writing
upon the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once his theological lectures (apparently the Introductio ad Theolo-
more victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme. His dis- giam that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul
comfited rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in of his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.
Paris, but soon failed in this last effort also. From Melun, Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial synod
where he had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular practices
and set up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made to throw
over Notre-Dame. From his success in dialectic, he next turned his book into the flames and then was shut up in the convent of
to theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon. His St Mddard at Soissons. After the other, it was the bitterest
triumph over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able possible experience that could befall him, nor, in the state of
to give lectures, without previous training or special study, mental desolation into which it plunged him, could he find any
which were acknowledged superior to those of the master. comfort from being soon again set free. The life in his own
Abelard was now at the height of his fame. He stepped into the monastery proved no more congenial than formerly. For this
chair at Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the Abelard himself was partly responsible. He took a sort of
year 1115. malicious pleasure in irritating the monks. Quasi jocando, he
 ABELIN 41
cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the Areopagite had been to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, he died on
bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon the statement of the the 2ist of April 1142. First buried at St Marcel, his remains
abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of Athens. When this soon after were carried off in secrecy to the Paraclete, and given
historical heresy led to the inevitable persecution, Abelard over to the loving care of Heloise, who in time came herself to
wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in which he preferred to the rest beside them (1164). The bones of the pair were shifted
authority of Bede that of Eusebius' Historia Ecclesiastica and more than once afterwards, but they were marvellously pre-
St Jerome, according to whom Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, served even through the vicissitudes of the French Revolution,
was distinct from Dionysius the Areopagite, bishop of Athens and now they lie united in the well-known tomb in the cemetery
and founder of the abbey, though, in deference to Bede, he of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris.
suggested that the Areopagite might also have been bishop of Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds
Corinth. Life in the monastery was intolerable for such a of his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he
troublesome spirit, and Abelard, who had once attempted to has been little known in modern times but for his connexion
escape the persecution he had called forth by flight to a monastery with Heloise. Indeed, it was not till the igth century, when
at Provins, was finally allowed to withdraw. In a desert place Cousin in 1836 issued the collection entitled Outrages inedits
near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and d' Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged

reeds, and turned hermit. But there fortune came back to him at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, the
with a new surprise. His retreat becoming known, students ethical treatise Scilo te ipsum, having been published earlier,
flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him namely, in 1721. Cousin's collection, besides giving extracts
with their tents and huts. When he began to teach again he from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage of opposite
found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the Fathers as a basis
oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete. for discussion, the main interest in which lies in the fact that

Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard there is no attempt to reconcile the different opinions), includes
left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting an the Dialectica, commentaries on logical works of Aristotle,
invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys, Porphyry and Boethius, and a fragment, De Generibus et
on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. It proved a wretched Speciebus. The last-named work, and also the psychological
exchange. The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey treatise De Intellectibus, published apart by Cousin (in Fragment
to lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly. Philosophiques, vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal
Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate evidence not to be by Abelard himself, but only to have sprung
before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under out of his school. A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphy-
peril of violent death. The misery of those years was not, rium, from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph
however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking up Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript.
of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as head of The general importance of Abelard lies in his having fixed
a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and in the more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner
capacity of spiritual director he often was called to revisit the of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally rational
spot thus made doubly dear to him. All this time Heloise had expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine. However
lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and character, his own particular interpretations may have been condemned,
uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon her they were conceived in essentially the same spirit as the general
youth; but now, at last, the occasion came for expressing all scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in the i3th century
the pent-up emotions of her soul. Living on for some time with approval from the heads of the church. Through him
apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy of the philo-
Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia sophical authority of Aristotle, which became firmly established
Calamitatum, and thus moved her to pen her first Letter, which in the half-century after his death, when first the completed
remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and womanly Organon, and gradually all the other works of the Greek thinker,
devotion; the first being followed by the two other Letters, in came to be known in the schools: before his time it was rather
which she finally accepted the part of resignation which, now upon the authority of Plato that the prevailing Realism sought
as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to her. He not to lean. As regards his so-called Conceptualism and his attitude
long after was seen once more upon the field of his early triumphs to the question of Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM. Outside of his
lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 1136 (when he was heard dialectic, it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity
by John of Salisbury), but it was only for a brief space: no new of philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon
triumph, but a last great trial, awaited him in the few years to the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral char-
come of his chequered life. As far back as the Paraclete days, acter, at least the moral value, of human action. His thought
he had counted as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, in this direction, wherein he anticipated something of modern
in whom was incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating speculation, is the more remarkable because his scholastic
faith,from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt, successors accomplished least in the field of morals, hardly
and now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance venturing to bring the principles and rules of conduct under
of others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest pure philosophical discussion, even after the great ethical
offender. After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard inquiries of Aristotle became fully known to them.
was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his BIBLIOGRAPHY. Abelard's own works remain the best sources for
strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard, his life, especially his Historia Calamitatum, an autobiography, and
the correspondence with Heloise. The literature on Abelard is
formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was
extensive, but consists principally of monographs on different
prepared to plead his cause. When, however, Bernard, not aspects of his philosophy. Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols.,
without foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubt- 1845) remains an authority-; it must be distinguished from his drama
able dialectician, had opened the case, suddenly Abelard ap- Abelard (1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval
pealed to Rome. The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard,
life. McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from the sources.
See also the valuable analysis by Nitsch in the article "Abalard"
who had power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed in Hauck's Realencyklopadie f. prot. Theol. u. Kirche, 3rd ed., 1896.
at the council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation There is a comprehensive bibliography in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des
was procured at Rome in the following year. Meanwhile, on sources hist, du moyen dge, s. "Abailard." (G. C. R. J. T. S.*)
;

his way thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken ABELIN, JOHANN PHILIPP, an early 16th-century German
down at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man, chronicler, was born, probably, at Strasburg, and died there
with spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual between the years 1634 and 1637. He wrote numerous histories
force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of over the pseudonyms of Philipp Arlanibaus, Abeleus and Johann
death. Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his sufferings, Ludwig Gottfried or Gotofredus, his earliest works of importance
 ABENCERRAGES ABEOKUTA
being his history of the German wars of Gustavus Adolphus, shorter commentary on Exodus was not printed until 1840.
entitled Arma Suecica (pub. 1631-1634, in 12 parts), and the The great editions of the Hebrew Bible with rabbinical com-
Inventarium Sueciae (1632) both compilations from existing mentaries contained also commentaries of Ibn Ezra's on the
records. His best known work is the Theatrum Europaeum, following books of the Bible: Isaiah, Minor Prophets, Psalms,
a series of chronicles of the chief events in the history of the Job, Pentateuch, Daniel; the commentaries on Proverbs, Ezra
world down to 1619. He was himself responsible for the first and Nehemiah which bear his name are really those of Moses
two volumes. It was continued by various writers and grew to Kimhi. Ibn Ezra wrote a second commentary on Genesis as
twenty-one volumes (Frankf. 1633-1738). The chief interest he had done on Exodus, but this was never finished. There are
of the work is, however, its illustration by the beautiful copper- second commentaries also by him on the Song of Songs, Esther
plate engravings of Matthaus Merian (1593-1650). Abelin also and Daniel. The importance of the exegesis of Ibn Ezra con-
wrote a history of the antipodes, Historia Antipodum (post- sists in the fact that it aims at arriving at the simple sense of
"
humously pub. Frankf. 1655), and a history of India. the text, the so-called Pesohat," on solid grammatical prin-
See G. Droysen, Arlanibaeus, Godofredus, Abelinus (Berlin, 1864) ; ciples. It is in this that, although he takes a great part of his
and notice in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. exegetical material from his predecessors, the originality of his
ABENCERRAGES, a family or faction that is said to have mind iseverywhere apparent, an originality which displays
held a prominent position in the Moorish kingdom of Granada the witty and lively language of his commentaries.
itself also in
in the i5th century. The name appears to have been derived To judge by certain signs, of which Spinoza in his Tractatus
from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time Theologico Politicus makes use, Ibn Ezra belongs to the earliest
of Mahommed VII., who did that sovereign good service in his pioneers of the criticism of the Pentateuch. His commentaries,
struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times de- and especially some of the longer excursuses, contain numerous
prived. Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but contributions to the philosophy of religion. One writing in
the name is familiar from the interesting romance of Gines particular, which belongs to this province (Yosod Mera), on the
Perez de Hita, Guerras civiles de Granada, which celebrates the division and the reasons for the Biblical commandments, he
feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, wrote in 1158 for a London friend, Joseph b. Jacob. In his
and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. philosophical thought neo-pla tonic ideas prevail; and astrology
J. P. de Florian's Gonsahe de Cordoue and Chateaubriand's Le also had a place in his view of the world. He also wrote various
dernier des Abencerrages are imitations of Perez de Hita's work. works on mathematical and astronomical subjects. Ibn Ezra
The hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra takes its name died on the 28th of January 1167, the place of his death being
from being the reputed scene of the massacre of the family. unknown.
ABENDANA, the name of two Jewish theologians, (i) Among the literature on Ibn Ezra may be especially mentioned :

M. Friedlander, Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra (London, 1877)

JACOB (1630-1695), rabbi (Hakham) of the Spanish Jews in
;

W. Bacher, Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker (Strasburg, 1882);

London from 1680. Like his brother Isaac, Jacob Abendana M. Steinschneider, Abraham Ibn Ezra, in the Zeitschrift fur Mathe-
had a circle of Christian friends, and his reputation led to the matik und Physik, Band xxv., Supplement; D. Rosin, Die Religions-
appreciation of Jewish scholarship by modern Christian theo- philosophic Abraham Ibn Ezra'sin vols. xlii. and xliii. of the Monat-
(2) ISAAC 1650-1710), his brother, taught Hebrew schrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums; his Diwan
logians. (c.
was edited by T. Egers (Berlin, 1886) a collection of his poems,
at Cambridge and afterwards at Oxford. Hecompiled a Jewish
;

Reime und Gedichte, with translation and commentary, were pub-

Calendar and wrote Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil lished by D. Rosin in several annual reports of the Jewish theological
Polity of the Jews (1706). Seminary at Breslau (1885-1894). (W. BA.)
ABENEZRA (!BN EZRA), or, to give him his full name, ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
ABRAHAM BEN MEIR IBN EZRA (1092 or 1093-1167), one of the on the Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m. S.W. of Regens-
most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the burg, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. 2202. It has a
Middle Ages. He was born at Toledo, left his native land of Spain small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of
before 1140 and led until his death a life of restless wandering, rheumatism and gout. The town is the Castra Abusina of the
which took him to North Africa, Egypt, Italy (Rome, Lucca, Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.
Mantua.Verona) Southern France(Narbonne, Beziers) Northern
, , Here, on the 2oth of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal
France (Dreux), England (London), and back again to the South victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and
of France. At several of the above-named places he remained General Hiller.
for some time and developed a rich literary activity. In his ABEOKUTA, a town of British West Africa in the Egba
native land he had already gained the reputation of a distin- division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. It is
guished poet and thinker; but, apart from his poems, his works, situated in 7 8' N., 3 25' E., on the Ogun river, 64 m. 'N.
which were all in the Hebrew language, were written in the of Lagos by railway, or 81 m. by water. Population, approxi-
second period of his life. With these works, which cover in the mately 60,000. Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country,
first instance the field of Hebrew philology and Biblical exegesis, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite. It
he fulfilled the great mission of making accessible to the Jews is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud

of Christian Europe the treasures of knowledge enshrined in walls 18 miles in extent. Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal
the works written in Arabic which he had brought with him of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early
from Spain. His grammatical writings, among which Moznayim years of the 2oth century. Law courts, government offices,
("the Scales," written in 1140) and Zahot ("Correctness," prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made,
written in 1141) are the most valuable, were the first expositions and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed. The streets
of Hebrew grammar in the Hebrew language, in which the are generally narrow and the houses built of mud. There are
system of Hayyuj and his school prevailed. He also translated numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in
into Hebrew the two writings of Hayyuj in which the founda- native products and articles of European manufacture. Palm-
tions of the system were laid down oil, timber, rubber, yams and shea-butter
Of greater original value are the chief articles
than the grammatical works of Ibn Ezra are his commentaries of trade. An official newspaper is published in the Yoruba and
on most of the books of the Bible, of which, however, a part English languages. Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba
has been lost. His reputation as an intelligent and acute ex- branch of the Church Missionary Society, and British and
pounder of the Bible was founded on his commentary on the American missionaries have met with some success in their
Pentateuch, of which the great popularity is evidenced by civilizing work. In their schools about 2000 children are edu-
the numerous commentaries which were written upon it. In cated. The completion in 1899 of a railway from Lagos helped
the editions of this commentary (ed. princ. Naples 1488) the not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the in-
commentary on the book of Exodus is replaced by a second, fluence of the white man.
more complete commentary of Ibn Ezra, while the first and Abeokuta (a word meaning "under the rocks"), dating
 ABERAVON ABERCROMBY 43
from 1825, owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the slave- trict of boroughs, uniting with Kenfig, Loughor, Neath and
hunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the Swansea to return one member; but in 1885 the older portion
village populations scattered over the open country to take of Swansea was given a separate member.

refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy. ABERCARN, an urban district in the southern parliamentary
Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many division of Monmouthshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Newport
distinct tribal groups, each preserving the traditional customs, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 12,607. There are
religious rites and even the very names of their original villages. collieries, ironworks and tinplate works in the district; the
Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground suc- town, which- lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley,
cessfully against the powerful armies often sent against the being situated on the south-eastern flank of the great mining
place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the region of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire.
people of Ibadan from the north-east. ABERCORN, JAMES HAMILTON,isx EARL OF (c. 1575-1618),
The district of Egba, of which Abedkuta is the capital, has an was the eldest son of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of
estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000. James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of
It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the Southern Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made
Nigeria protectorate. It contains luxuriant forests of palm- sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in

trees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people. Cotton Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of Abercorn,
is indigenous and is grown for export. The Egbas are enthusi- and on the icth of July 1606 was rewarded for his services in
astic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of the matter of the union by being made earl of Abercorn, and
cultivation. They are very tenacious of their independence, Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick. He married
but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left five sons,
protectorate, which, while putting a stop to inter-tribal warfare, of whom the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded him as 2nd
slave-raiding and human sacrifices, and exercising control over earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March 1618. The
the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton family,

autonomy. The administration is in the hands of a council of became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, the
chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, 2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist
judicial functions. The president of this council, or ruling chief politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company.
chosen from amongthe members of the two recognized reign- ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician,
ing families is the alake, a word meaning "Lord of
called was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen,
Ake," Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta, where he was born on the loth of October 1780. He was edu-
after the ancient capital of the Egbas. The alake exercises cated at the university of Edinburgh, and after graduating as
little authority apart from his council, the form of government M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he
being largely democratic. Revenue is chiefly derived from soon attained a leading position. From 1816 he published
tolls or import duties. A visit of the alake to England in 1904 various papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,
evoked considerable public interest. The chief was a man of which formed the basis of his Pathological and Practical Re-
great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his
ardent agriculturist. Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and
See the publications of the Church Missionary Society dealing other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also
with the Yoruba Mission; Col. A. B. Ellis's The Yoruba-speaking
found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he pub-
Peoples (London, 1894); and an article on Abeokuta by Sir Wm.
lished his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man
Macgregor, sometime governor of Lagos, in the African Society's
Journal, No. xii. (London, July 1904). and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by
ABERAVON, a contributory parliamentary and municipal a sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works,
borough of Glamorganshire, Wales, on the right bank of the though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide
Avon, near its mouth in Swansea Bay, n
m. E.S.E. of Swansea popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the i4th of November
and 170 m. from London by rail. Pop. (1901) 7553. It has a 1844.
station on the Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway and is also on ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician
the main South Wales line of the Great Western, whose station, who was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable
however, is at Port Talbot, half a mile distant, on the eastern date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis reprinted
side of the Avon. The valley of the Avon, which is only some at Paris in 1740. During his lifetime his Tula ac ejficax luis
three miles long, has been from about 1840 a place of much venereae saepe absque mercuric ac semper absque salivatione
metallurgical activity. There are tinplate and engineering works mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was translated into French,
within the borough. At Cwmavon, if m. to the north-east, Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus
are large copper-smelting works established in 1838, acquired Varialione (London, 1685), and Ars explorandi medicas facultates
two years later by the governor and Company of the Copper plantarum ex solo sapore (London, 1685-1688). His Opuscula
Miners of England, but now worked by the Rio Tinto Copper were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a
Company. There are also iron, steel and tinplate works both place and memorial in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae
at Cwmavon and at Port Talbot, which, when it consisted only Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice
of docks, was appropriately known as Aberavon Port. rather by his remarkable controversial books in theology and
The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted philosophy than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as
from Avan), which also gave its name to a medieval lordship. a Jesuit, he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved
On the Norman conquest at Glamorgan, Caradoc, the eldest son Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But the most noticeable
of the defeated prince, Lestyn ab Gwrgan, continued to hold of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685),
this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river which contains some of the most characteristic and most
built here a castle whose foundations are still traceable in a definitely-put metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy
field near the churchyard. His descendants (who from the of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum
i3th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene) (1687), and by A Moral Treatise of the Power of Interest (1690),
established, under the protection of the castle, a chartered town, dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines,
which in 1372 received a further charter from Edward Le De- by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James
spenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but ac-
of lands. In modern times these charters were not acted upon, cording to Haller he was alive early in the i8th century.
the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in 1861 ABERCROMBY, PATRICK (i656-c. 1716), Scottish physician
it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act. and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby
Since 1832 it has belonged to the Swansea parliamentary dis- of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of Francis Aber-
44 ABERCROMBY ABERDARE
cromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He York, for service in Holland. He commanded the advanced
was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic guard in the action at Le Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen.
family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered The duty fell to him of protecting the British army in its dis-
the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. astrous retreat out of Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795. In
in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years 1795 he received the honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in
abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of acknowledgment of his services. The same year he was ap-
Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to pointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of
him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (<?..). On his return to the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796 Grenada was
Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh, suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army
where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession of the
characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was appointed settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South America,
physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution deprived and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad. He
him of the post. Living during the agitations for the union returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for his important
of England and Scotland, he took part in the war of pamphlets services, was appointed colonel of the regiment of Scots Greys,
inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on both sides entrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort-George
of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less redoubtable and Fort- Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general.
a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the Act of Security He held, in 1797-1798, the chief command of the forces in Ire-
compared with those of the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707), land. There he laboured to maintain the discipline of the army,
and A Vindication of the Same against Mr De Foe (ibid.). A to suppress the rising rebellion, and to protect the people from
minor literary work of Abercromby's was a translation of military oppression, with a care worthy alike of a great general
Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre d'Ecosse (1556) which and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was
appeared in 1707. But the work with which his name is perma- appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country
nently associated is his Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation, by the French was confidently anticipated by the English govern-
issued in two large folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the ment. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an
title-page and preface to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he
being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing
alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian. the supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military
Even though, read in the light of later researches, much of the to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for
first volume must necessarily be relegated to the region of the the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order.
mythical, none the less was the historian a laborious and accom- Finding that he received no adequate support from the head of
plished reader and investigator of all available authorities, as the Irish government, and that all his efforts were opposed and
well manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he
who aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the resigned the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply
time, from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily
Alexander Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Aber- followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated,
cromby's death is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured
1715, 1716, 1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left to prevent. After holding for a short period the office of com-
a widow in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abercrombys, mander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir Ralph, when the enterprise
commonly attributed to him, do not appear to have been pub- against Holland was resolved upon in 1799, was again called to
lished. command under the duke of York. The campaign of 1799
See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson, ended in disaster, but friend and foe alike confessed that the most
Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Diet., s.v.; George
Scottish Nation, s.v.; decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the
Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe. talents of this distinguished officer. His country applauded the
ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant- choice when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the
general, was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody, French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the West
Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was
at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits and with
Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding to the the requisite supplies, in spite of very great difficulties, to the
Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he expressed a destined scene of action. The debarkation of the troops at
strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet's Aboukir, in the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked
commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English
the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his regiment in the army. A battle
in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March 21,
Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus afforded him of 1801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it was
studying the methods of the great Frederick moulded his military Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was
character and formed his tactical ideas. He rose through the struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died
intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the seven days after the battle. His old friend and commander the
regiment (1773) and brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781 he duke of York paid a just tribute to the great soldier's memory
became colonel of the King's Irish infantry. When that regi- "
in general orders: His steady observance of discipline, his
ment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half-pay. That ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops,
up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active service the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his
was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy of the govern- military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the
ment, and especially to his sympathies with the American heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire,
colonists in their struggles for independence; and his retirement like him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote of
is no doubt to be ascribed to similar feelings. On leaving the the House of Commons, a monument was erected in his honour
army he for a time took up political life as member of Parlia- in St Paul's cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Aber-
ment for Clackmannanshire. This, however, proved uncongenial, cromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of 20x30
and, retiring in favour of his brother, he settled at Edinburgh a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title.
and devoted himself to the education of his children. But on A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his third
France declaring war against England in 1793, he hastened to son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 1835-1839,
and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 1861. For a
resume his professional duties; and, being esteemed one of the shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see Wilkinson, Twelve
ablest and most intrepid officers in the whole British forces, he British Soldiers (London, 1899).
was appointed to the command of a brigade under the duke of ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, IST BARON (1815-
 ABERDARE ABERDEEN 45
1895), English statesman, was born at Duffryn, Aberdare, considerable public improvements were effected in the town,
Glamorganshire, on the i6th of April 1815, the son of John making it, despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place
Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Bruce's original of residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate theo-
family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he logical college (opened in connexion with the Church of England
assumed the name of Bruce, his mother, through whom he in- in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). There is
herited the Duffryn estate, having been the daughter of William a public park of fifty acres with two small lakes. Aberdare,
Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Bruce with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Pagan's (Trecynon) and
was educated at Swansea grammar school, and in 1837 was Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, has some twelve
called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practise, the Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in
discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey)
Valley estates brought the family great wealth. From 1847 to and over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the
1852 he was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and majority of the chapels are in Welsh. The whole parish falls
Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydvil. The
entered parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil. urban district includes what were once the separate villages of
In 1862 he became under-secretary for the home department, Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwyd-
and in 1869, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being coed and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains
re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by of a circular British encampment on the mountain between
W. E. Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 m. to the N.W. of
a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at
Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the
licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and lestyn ab

public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan.
of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, EARL or (1637-1720),
IST
Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council, John Gordon, ist baronet
lord chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir
and was almost simultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in
Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following 1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated M.A.,
year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he sub- and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658.
sequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At
questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 to 1892 the Restoration the sequestration of his father's lands was
he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881 annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder
he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. In brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in
1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which lasted the 1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high legal
rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish
African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his
in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two

Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government, legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor
its being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria.
territories for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo.
West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord He was a leading member of the duke of York's administration,
Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts was created a lord of session in June and in November 1681
that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university of Wales president of the court. The same year he is reported as moving
at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a G.C.B., in the council for the torture of witnesses. 1 In 1682 he was
presided over several Royal Commissions at different times. made lord chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the I3th
He died in London on the 25th of February 1895. His second of November, earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord
wife was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage,
the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited. being appointed also sheriff principal of Aberdeenshire and
ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, Midlothian. Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him
" "
situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and a proud and covetous man," and declares the new chancellor
Cynon, the latter being a tributary of the Taff. Pop. of urban exceeded all that had gone before him." 2 He executed the laws
district (1901), 43,365. It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24 enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish
from Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has a station churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny pre-
on the Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western scribed by the English government; and in consequence of an
railway, and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant intrigue of theduke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained
stations which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Taff Vale the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of 27,000, he was
line (opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan dismissed in 1684. After his fall he was subjected to various
canal has also a branch (made in 1811) running from Abercynon petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of
to Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the igth century, discovering some act of maladministration on which to found
a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly a charge against him, but the investigations only served to
in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, strengthen his credit. He took an active part in parliament
and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1486 in in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of
1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. Iron- William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance,
works were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on
1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman the nth of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in 1707,
in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked since about while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the
1875, and the only metal industries remaining in the town are act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to
an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate works at Gadlys support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from
(established in 1868). Previous to 1836, most of the coal worked attending parliament when the treaty was settled. He died on
in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but the 20th of April 1720, after having amassed a large fortune.
in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun, He is described by John Mackay as " very knowing in the laws
pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which at and constitution of his country and is believed to be the solidest
least since 1875 has been the chief support of the town, soon statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure."
reached huge dimensions. There are also several brickworks 1
Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297.
and breweries. During the latter half of the igth century, 1
Hist, of his own Times, i. 523.
46 ABERDEEN
"
His person was said to be deformed, and his want of mine or in the disruption of 1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle
" the vexed question of patronage; but disliked by a majority
deportment was alleged as a disqualification for the office of
lord chancellor. He married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of in the general assembly of the Scotch church, and unsupported
George Lockhart of Torbrecks, by whom he had six children, by the government, it failed to become law, and some opprobrium
his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of was cast upon its author. In 1843 he brought forward a similar
Aberdeen. measure " to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers
See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding to benefices." This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called,
Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of the College of Justice, passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties.
by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 408; G. Crawfurd's Lives of During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834
the Officers of State (1726), p. 226; Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by
SirG. Mackenzie (1821), p. i.j.8; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for the
Journals (Scottish Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again under Peel,
Memoirs (1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist, of Scotland, iii. 369, 376. '
on this occasion as foreign secretary; the five years during
(P. C. Y.) which he held this position were the most fruitful and successful
ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF of his public life. He owed his success to the confidence placed
(1784-1860), English statesman, was the eldest son of George in him by Queen Victoria, to his wide knowledge of European
Gordon, Lord Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William intimate friendship with Guizot, and not least to
poh'tics, to his
Baird of Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, his own conciliatory disposition. Largely owing to his efforts,
3rd earl of Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January causes of quarrel between Great Britain and France in Tahiti,
1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as over, the marriage of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other direc-
his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to reside tions, were removed. More important still were his services
with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At the age of in settling the question of the boundary between the United
fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name his own States and British North America at a time when a single in-
curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt and Dundas judicious word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845
for this office he spent much of his time at their houses, thus he supported Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to
meeting many of the leading politicians of the day. He was suspend the duty on foreign corn,' and left office with that
educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where minister in July 1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became
he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time, however, the recognized leader of the Peelites' although since his resigna-
he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in tion his share in public business had been confined to a few
1801, and had travelled over a large part of the continent of speeches on foreign affairs. His dislike of the Ecclesiastical
Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte and other Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure
persons of distinction. He also spent some time in Greece, and in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord
on his return to England founded the Athenian Society, member- John Russell, or from forming an administration himself in
ship of which was confined to those who had travelled in that this year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of
country. Moreover, he wrote an article in the Edinburgh Review the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and
of July 1805 criticizing Sir William Gill's Topography of Troy, Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general on ques-
and these circumstances led Lord Byron to refer to him in tions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained Lord
"
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers as the travell'd thane, Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to Aberdeen,
Athenian Aberdeen." Having attained his majority in 1805, was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. The strong
he married on the 28th of July Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton, and masterful character of these and other colleagues made the
daughter of John James, ist marquess of Abercorn. In De- task of the prime minister one of unusual difficulty, a fact which
cember 1806 he was elected a representative peer for Scotland, was recognized by contemporaries. Charles Greville in his
and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords, but for some Memoirs says, " In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate
years he took only a slight part in public business. However, men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely
by his birth, his abilities and his connexions alike he was marked to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any
out for a high position, and after the death of his wife in February other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler
1812 he was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister and more important than their premier"; and Sir James
plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz Graham wrote, " It is a powerful team, but it will require good
between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813 and
; driving." The first year of office passed off successfully, and it
accompanying the emperor Francis I. through the subsequent was owing to the steady support of the prime minister that
campaign against France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig. Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the cabinet.
He was one of the British representatives at the congress of This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute between
Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was present France and Turkey over the guardianship of the holy places at
during the negotiations which led to the treaty of Paris in the Jerusalem, which, after the original cause of quarrel had been
following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the forgotten, developed into the Crimean war. The tortuous
United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and negotiations which preceded the struggle need not be discussed
made a member of the privy council. On the isth of July 1815 here, but in defence of Aberdeen it may be said that he hoped
he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John Douglas, and and strove for peace to the last. Rightly or wrongly, however,
widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus became doubly he held that Russell was indispensable to the cabinet, and that
connected with the family of the marquess of Abercorn. During a resignation would precipitate war. His outlook, usually so
the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part clear, was blurred by these considerations, and he lacked the
in public affairs, although he succeeded in passing the Entail strength to force the suggestions which he made in the autumn
(Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in touch, however, with foreign of 1853 upon his imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported
politics,and having refused to join the ministry of George by Russell and weU served by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,
Canning in 1827, became a member of the cabinet of the duke of British ambassador at Constantinople, favoured a more aggres-
Wellington as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in January sive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and
1828. In the following June he was transferred to the office of unwilling to let Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame.
secretary of state for foreign affairs, and having acquitted himself When the war began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but
with credit with regard to the war between Russia and Turkey, the stories of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war
and to affairs in Greece, Portugal and France, he resigned with deprived the ministry of public favour. Russell resigned; and
Wellington in November 1830, and shared his leader's attitude on the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for
towards the Reform Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the con-
was interested in the ecclesiastical controversy which culminated duct of the war, was carried in the House of Commons by a
 ABERDEEN 47
large majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence in the constituency of Kincardineshire) to the south of the Dee,
Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed having been incorporated in 1891. The city comprises eleven
upon him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for wards and eighteen ecclesiastical parishes, and is under the
Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon re- jurisdiction of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer and
mained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and was dean of guild. The corporation owns the water (derived from
consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the the Dee at a spot 21 m. W.S.W.of the city) and gas supplies,
I4th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at electric lighting and tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned
Stanmore. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters, two members to Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Cale-
all of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who donian, Great North of Scotland and North British railways
died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His (occupying a commodious joint railway station), and there is
eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th earl; his second regular communication by sea with London and the chief ports
son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his on the eastern coast of Great Britain and the northern shores
third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton- Gordon; and of the Continent. The mean temperature of the city for the year
hisyoungest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various high is 45-8 F., for summer 56 F., and for winter 37-3 F. The
under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893.
offices average yearly rainfall is 30-57 inches. The city is one of the
Among the public offices held by the earl were those of lord- healthiest in Scotland.
lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of Anti- Streets and Buildings. Roughly, the extended city runs north
quaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society. and south. From the new bridge of Don to the " auld brig " of
Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory Dee there is tramway communication via King Street, Union
and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life Street and Holburn Road a distance of over five miles. Union
was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares in the British
loftiness of his character. His manner was reserved, and as a Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. for nearly a mile, is
speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public life 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal shops and most of
he was remarkable for his generosity to his political opponents, the modern public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street
and for his sense of justice and honesty. He did not, however, crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great
possess the qualities which impress the populace, and he lacked North of Scotland railway) by a fine granite arch of 132 ft.
the strength which is one of the essential gifts of a statesman. span, portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, fifty feet
His character is perhaps best described by a writer who says below the level of Union Street. Amongst the more conspicuous
"
his strength was not equal to his goodness." His foreign secular buildings in the street may be mentioned the Town and
policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention, and in County Bank, the Music Hall, with sitting accommodation for
pursuing it he was accused of favouring the despotisms of 2000 persons, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (origin-
Europe. Aberdeen was a model landlord. By draining the land, ating in various years between 1398 and 1527, and having charit-
by planting millions of trees and by erecting numerous build- able funds for poor members, widows and orphans), containing
ings, he greatly improved the condition of his Aberdeenshire some portraits by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved
estates, and studied continually the welfare of his dependants. oak chairs, dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with
A bust of him by Matthew Noble is in Westminster Abbey, and quaint inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one
his portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He wrote of the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture Palace Hotel; the office of the Northern Assurance Company,
(London, 1822), and the Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a con-
has been printed privately under the direction of his son, Lord tinuation eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal
Stanmore. and County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices in
The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, was Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 1867-1878.
drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother John Campbell They are of four stories and contain the great hall with an open
Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1847), a prominent Liberal timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House;
who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1886, governor-
politician, the Town Hall, with excellent portraits of Prince Albert (Prince
general of Canada 1893-1898, and again the lord-lieutenant of Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, the various lord provosts
Ireland when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the en-
ministry at the close of 1905. trance corridor stands a suit of black armour believed to have
See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); been worn by Provost Sir Robert Davidson, who fell in the battle
C. C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888); of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 1411. From the south-western
Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), and Life corner a grand tower rises to a height of 210 ft., commanding a
of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W. Kinglake, Invasion of
the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); Sir T. Martin, Life of tht Prince fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the
Consort (London, 1875-1880) J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London,
; municipal buildings is the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek
1903). (A. W. H.*) design, with a portico of Corinthian columns, the capitals of
ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, capital which are exquisitely carved. On the opposite side of the street
of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of Scotland. is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of
It is the fourth Scottish town in population, industry and wealth, Castle Street stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective
" "
and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of castellated mansion, the most imposing barracks possessed
the Don and Dee, 1303 m. N. E. of Edinburgh by the North anywhere by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross,
British railway. Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in diameter
city suburbs to the southern banks of the Don, has a separate and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682 by John
charter, privileges and history, the distinction between it and Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was removed
New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist; and for parlia- hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better style. On the
mentary, municipal and other purposes, the two towns now form entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are panels contain-
practically one community. Aberdeen's popular name of the ing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James I. to James VII.
"
Granite City is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town From the centre rises a shaft, 123 ft. high, with a Corinthian
is built of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation capital on which is the royal unicorn rampant. On an eminence
"
of the Silver City by the Sea," it should be seen after a heavy east of Castle Street are the military barracks. In Market Street
rainfall when its stately structures and countless houses gleam are the Mechanics' Institution, founded in 1824, with a good
pure and white under the brilliant sunshine. The area of the library; the Post and Telegraph offices; and the Market, where
city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of Old Aberdeen and provisions of all kinds and general wares are sold. The Fish
Woodside, and the district of Torry (for parliamentary purposes Market, on the Albert Basin, is a busy scene in the early morning.
48 ABERDEEN
The Art Gallery and Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian building from the barons of the Mearns
after they had robbed
Renaissance style of red and brown granite, contains an excellent St Machar's of its bells and lead. Marischal College is a stately
collection of pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contem- modern building, having been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly
porary artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional extended several years later at a cost of 100,000. The additions
interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public to the buildings opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been
library, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 already mentioned. The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named
volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of dra- from the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who provided the
matic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety enter- splendid graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895
tainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting signalized the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary
Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one of the foundation of the university. The University Library
of the most splendid examples of modern architecture, in Great comprises nearly 100,000 books. A Botanic Garden was pre-
Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native sented to the university in 1899. Aberdeen and Glasgow Uni-
of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to the versities combine to return one member to Parliament. The
design of a noble building with the originality of genius. United Free Church Divinity Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor
Churches. Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well Gothic style, dates from 1850. The Grammar School, founded in
equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but few 1263, was removed in 1861-1863 fro m its old quarters in Schoolhill
of special interest. The East and West churches of St Nicholas, to a large new building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene
their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic facade, Street. Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in
1475 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous building, 220 ft. 1729 by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816
in length, including the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted (as
the Irvines of Drum) and the Collison Aisle, which divide them Gordon's Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the
and which formed the transept of the 12th-century church of St sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was re-
Nicholas. The West Church was built in 1775, in the Italian organized in 1 88 1 as a day and night school for secondary and
style, the East originally in 1834 in the Gothic. In 1874 a fire technical education, and has since been unusually successful.
destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its Besides a High School for Girls and numerous board schools,
"
fine peal of nine bells, one of which, Laurence or Lowrie," there are many private higher-class schools. Under the Endow-
was 4 ft. in diameter at the mouth, 3! ft. high and very thick. ments Act 1882 an educational trust was constituted which
The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected possesses a capital of 155,000. At Blairs, in Kincardineshire,
over the intervening aisles at the cost of the municipality, a five miles S. W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College
new peal of 36 bells, cast in Holland, being installed to com- for the training of young men intended for the priesthood.
memorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic Charities. The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established
Cathedral in Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and largely
1859. The see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee;
Banffshire by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan Asylum,
over the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, in Huntly
to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of St Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital for Sick Chil-
Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. dren; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; the City
Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone (1484-1511), Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb Institu-
the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed tion; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East and West
him in 1518, was enabled to complete the structure by adding Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted to
the two western spires and the southern transept. The church specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of the charit-
suffered severely at the Reformation, but is still used as the parish able institutions. There are, besides, industrial schools for boys
church. It now consists of the nave and side aisles. It is chiefly and girls and Roman Catholic children, a Female School
for
built of outlayer granite, and, though the plainest cathedral in of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth House and
Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's Conva-
unique distinction. On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave lescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the Convent
are the heraldic shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School.
shared in its erection, and the great west window contains Parks and Open Spaces. Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift'of
modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an
cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park (13
links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are situated
Roads, and Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart Park (n
Park. acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 1893. The
Education. Aberdeen University consists of King's College capacious links bordering the sea between the mouths of the two
in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, and rivers are largely resorted to for open-air recreation; there is
Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by George here a "
range where a
rifle wapinschaw," or shooting tourna-
Keith, sth earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 1860. ment, held annually.
is Part is laid out as an i8-hole golf course;
Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine and science a section is reserved for cricket and football; a portion has been
at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800 yearly. The railed off for a race-course, and a bathing-station has been
buildings of both colleges are the glories of Aberdeen. King's erected. Union Terrace Gardens are a popular rendezvous in
forms a quadrangle with interior court, two sides of which have the heart of the city.
been and a library wing has been added. The Crown
rebuilt, Statues. In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue
Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 150x3. The in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A.
former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. high, consisting (1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns and
of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both sculptured, and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert. In front of
resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips Gordon's College the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, A.R.S.A.,
is

rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. The choir of General Gordon
(1888). At the east end of Union Street is
of the chapel contains the original oak canopied stalls,
still the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the
miserere seats and open screens in the French flamboyant
lofty royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite
style, and of unique beauty of design and execution. Their statue of the sth duke of Gordon (d. 1836). Here may also be
preservation was due to the enlightened energy of the principal mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead granite, 70 ft. high, erected
at the time of the Reformation, who armed his folk to save the in the square of Marischal College to the memory of Sir James
 ABERDEEN ABERDEENSHIRE 49
all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse
M'Grigor (1778-1831), the military surgeon and director-general but the gates were
of theArmy Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord was harbour mouth as a protection against the
built at the
rector of the College. English. During the struggles between the Royalists and
Bridges. The Dee is crossed by four bridges, the old bridge, Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides.
the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, and Vic- In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at
toria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till 1832 the Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland resided for a
only access to the city from the south, consists of seven semi- short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender.
circular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and was built early The motto on the city arms is " Bon Accord," which formed the
in the i6th century by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding Robert Bruce in
was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from his battles with the English.

14! to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has five granite arches, each Population. In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801
75 ft. in span, and was built in 1827-1832. A little to the west is it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623;
the Auld Brig Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning
o' (1901) 153,503.
the deep black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., AUTHORITIES. The charters of the burgh; extracts from the
council register down to 1625, and selections from the letters,
and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan.
guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. of the Spalding
Harbour. A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis, Spalding
bar at its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but Club; Walter Thorn, The History of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson,
under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The Historical Account and Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William

north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly Kennedy, The Annals of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Description of the
Chanonry, Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725
by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North (1830) Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated Architecture
;

Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few feet of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of Old Castellated Houses of Aberdeen
to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at neap. A (1838); James Bryce, Lives of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841);
J. Gordon, Description of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club,
wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, was completed
1842); Joseph Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839);
in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit W. Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 1893);
to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour was diverted 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, Provosts and Lord
Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897) P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c.,
from the south at a cost of 80,000, and go acres of new ground
;

illustrating the History of the Royal Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen,

(in addition to 25 acres formerly made up) were provided on the 1890) Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New Spalding
;

north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), Club, 1889, 1898-1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of the Church of St
Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); G. Cadenhead, Sketch of
quays and warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long,
the Territorial History of the Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876);
was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection W. Cadenhead, Guide to the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897);
against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point A. Smith, History and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen,
of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the harbour 1882).
mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county,
Industry. Owing to the variety and importance of its chief South Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890)
industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905)
Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 5841; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Mil-
Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed waukee and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and
"
paving setts," kerb and building stones, and monumental St Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is
and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the state,
from the district to all parts of the world. This, though once a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks and a
the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the deep-sea number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the Northern
fisheries, which derived a great impetus from beam-trawling, Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, and has a
introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing in 1889, and threaten Carnegie library; the principal buildings are the court house
to rival if not to eclipse those of Grimsby. Fish trains are and the government buildings. Artesian wells furnish good
despatched to London daily. Most of the leading industries date water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms,
from the i8th century, amongst them woollens (1703), linen chemicals and flour are manufactured. The municipality owns
(1749) and cotton (1779). These give employment to several and operates the water- works. Aberdeen was settled in 1880,
thousands of operatives. The paper-making industry is one of and was chartered as a city in 1883.
the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland,
made in Aberdeen in 1694. Flax-spinning and jute and comb- bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar
making factories are also very flourishing, and there are suc- and Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line
cessful and engineering works. There are large
foundries of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying
distilleries and breweries, and chemical works employing many 1,261,887 acres or 1971 sq. m. The county is generally hilly,
hands. In the days of wooden ships ship-building was a flourish- and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, the
ing industry, the town being noted for its fast clippers, many of Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the north-east.
"
which established records in the tea races." The introduction The shire is popularly divided into five districts. Of these the
of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance first is Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, which nearly
of the city from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of covers the southern half of the county and contains the city of
iron vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted Aberdeen. It is mountainous, especially Braemar (q.v.), which
meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in contains the greatest mass of elevated land in the British Isles.
strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. The soil on the Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second
History. Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the district, Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a
1 2th century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to sandy coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled
which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land.
granted by David I. The city received other royal charters Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, com-
iter. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in prising the north-east of the county, is next in size to Mar, parts
1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, low, flat,
Vberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland. They undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6 m. S. of Peter-
egin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to the head, are the Bullers of Buchan a basin in which the sea, enter-
present day. For many centuries the city was subject to ing by a natural arch, boils up violently in stormy weather.
attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of Scotland. The fourth
 ABERDEENSHIRE
district, Garioch, in the centre of the shire, is a beautiful, undu- been obtained from an exposure of limestone and. associated
lating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called the granary of beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that
Aberdeen. Strathbogie, the fifth district, occupying a consider- river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting
able area south of the Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have
and mosses. The mountains are the most striking of the physical been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie,
features of the county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The
mass, the second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which,
(4248), Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands
(3843), "dark" Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known of andesite indicating
contemporaneous volcanic action. Small
song by Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently
outliers of
( 2 9S3)> are the principal heights
in the division of Mar. Farther been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The
north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border, glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast
Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence.
from its central position is a landmark visible from many different The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the
parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's Dee and the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the
"
song, O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland (1529). Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a
The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, 82 m. the ;
certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel
Ythan, 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m., with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of
and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire. Aberdeen. At a later date the local glaciers laid down materials
The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel on top of the redclay. The committee appointed by the British
occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish Association (Report for 1897, P- 333) proved that the Greensand,
crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat,
the few lakes in the county, 1310 ft. above the sea, 25 m. long in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably
and \ to \ m. broad, lies some 8| m. S.W. of Ballater, and has on granite.The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were
Altnagiuthasach, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end. derived are not now found in place in that part of Scotland, but
Loch Strathbeg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that
the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aptien stage
springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater. of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift
Geology. The greater part of the county is composed of between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch
crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between
Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the Dee Logic Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr)
and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most occurs beneath the peat.
characteristic are (i) the black schists and phyllites, with calc- Flora and Fauna. The tops of the highest mountains have
flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft.
Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses,
folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-east &c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at
and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a 1300 above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch,
ft.

considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the grow well, and Kraemar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass
highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak
component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing.
above Braemar. Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at
northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head 1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits
and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Braemar, the deer
of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt forest being the most extensive in Scotland.
of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along Climate and Agriculture. The climate, except in the moun-
the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity
the Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature
metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, at Braemar is 43-6 F., and at Aberdeen 45-8. The mean
some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the yearly rainfall varies from about 30 to 37 in. The summer
strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most
sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft.
Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North
in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse- Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but
quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern
the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part
stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such
north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much
at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines
later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in are in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend
the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn. entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those
The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter- in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop,
head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has
of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed-
Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for
schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported
intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli- on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly
manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done
rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in
of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate large numbers.
hornfels occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of Fisheries. A large fishing population in villages along the
Braemar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the next
garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has most important industry to agriculture, its development having
 ABERDEENSHIRE
been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam trawlers. and other technical subjects, in addition
in agriculture, fishery
The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of
and a third consists of herrings, amounts to 1,000,000. Had- Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been
docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans). thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils
The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to
Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in- the university.
cludes also three Kincardine'shire ports. The herring season The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny,
for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon-
September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from
from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon- the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather
fishings rod, net and stake-net on the Dee, Don, Ythan and angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in
Ugie. The average annual despatchof salmon from Aberdeen- diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for o or ,/for wh, d for
shire about 400 tons.
is t/i, &c. So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of
Other Industries. Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used.
near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts History. The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen
there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work, and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom
brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, casting Ptolemy called Taixali, the territory being named Taixalon.
and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Deeside Their town of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber-
and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel- deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in
staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments, the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient
most of them on the Don near Aberdeen. camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station
The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite, on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have
which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else- also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but
where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded 40 to evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces
50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal.
are also quarried at different parts. The imports are mostly Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics
coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, or Kinnord,
manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, S m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of
New Machar and
1

alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite (rough- elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at
dressed and polished), flax, woollen and .cotton goods, paper, Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra
combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle. near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and
Communications. From the south Aberdeen city is approached other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical"
by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples
North British (via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways, of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts
and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century,
railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old
and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they
up the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban
by Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the
Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam) ,
Pictish king Nectan in the 8th century undid most of the
from Kintore to Alford, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi-
also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the
London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor-
Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth
roads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill
above sea-level. marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of
Population and Government. In 1891 the population num- England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous
bered 284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in
the country Flemings
were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming,
8 persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted
and English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors
153,503), Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex-
Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The ander 1124) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally
I. (d.

Supreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from called Aberdon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re-
the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three ceived its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which date
counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin,
resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a
Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi-
and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the
one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen- bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1 1 50. In the
shire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members. 1 2th and i3th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families

Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group arose, including the earl of Mar (c. 1122), the Leslies, Freskins
of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff, (ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets,
Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board juris- Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases
diction, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their
higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take
Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the
schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The wars of the Scots independence, and made common cause with
County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum, the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of
partly granted by the education department and partly con- the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in
tributed by local authorities from the "residue" grant, and the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296
ipport, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the
 ABERDOUR ABERFOYLE
more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacobitism and
the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle. episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical,
In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte-
of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt
shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots in Braemar (6th of September 1715); a fortnight later James
and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De- was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at
spite the seizure of KildrummyCastle by the English in 1306, Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 1716 he
Bruce's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined
Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred
years after Robert Bruce's death (1329) there was intermittent thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic,
anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord
in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward
Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis- at Inverurie (23rd of December 1745). The duke of Cumberland
possessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself with some relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April
of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people
abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen- devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and commerce, .

shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally
at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 1411. In the remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of
1 5th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most
Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and prosperous in Scotland.
Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 an ^ earl of Huntly See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 1900);
in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited

period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) Sir A. Leith-Hay, Castles
;

of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the

the i6th century, when their domains, already vast,
first half of Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878); Pratt, Buchan (rev. by
were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the R. Anderson), (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside .(Aber-
earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the deen, 1895).
Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp- ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly
vere, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the situated qn the shore of the Firth of Fortfi, 175 m. N.W. of
Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Leith
of King's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing.
a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed church, which
clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni-
structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the
decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl
acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, f m.
in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name
damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The
behalf of the Catholics, to the influence of Lord James Stuart, primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a
afterwards the Regent Murray, but was defeated and killed at hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1123
Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a
apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable low square tower, church, and small chapter-
cloisters, refectory
than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for house. The island of Columba was
occasionally plundered by
generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi- English and other rovers, but in the i6th century it became the
astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl
ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the
that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following ist earl. From it comes the Lord St Colme (1611).
earl's title of

year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi
the county frontier), a
is

to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian
affair called the Trot of Turriff (1639), in which the first blood railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful
of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary,
hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and
Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry
choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however, to Berth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub-
" " " "
soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under merged bells of Aberdovey (since Seithennin the drunkard
Cord. Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine. caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh
He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort.
of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford. ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland,
Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the 34i m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop.
Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of
Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head-water of
little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed
head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re- a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older
mained till 1659, and next year the Restoration was effusively road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be-
hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine.
Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in Loch Ard, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea.
the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and i m.
else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle),
Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two
clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable, m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 290 ft. above the sea, if m. long, and
hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be about 5 m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard,
recognized as the national form of Church government. Her which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries on
death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor, Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle.
 ABERGAVENNY ABERNETHY 53
ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in intellectual and social attainments gained him a ready entrance
the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received
London licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty-one.
14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the
and North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 7795. It is situated In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important
at the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years,
river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there
very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the
on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a
remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an
scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin- evangelist. In 1712 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan) and the ,

ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the i2th

cen- loss desolated his life for many years. In 1717 he was invited to
The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen- the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane-
tury.
dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The
I3th to the 1 7th century. There is a free grammar school, which synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he
till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries, declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was
ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour- regarded then as ecclesiastical high-treason; and a controversy
hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber- of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber-

gavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is governed by a mayor, nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres. sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro-
This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the road versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con-
along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among the hill tribes.
" " "
flict, the Subscribers and the Non-subscribers." Out-and-
There is practically no trace of this fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question
grew up under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose
that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle
title dated from William I. Owing to its situation, the town was
frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the I2th and I3th (1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Cooke,
centuries, and Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1175 the castle the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church
was seized by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Aber- were thrown out. Much of what he contended for, and which the
gavenny, founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently " "
endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits of the Subscribers opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the
castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this en- lapse of time. In 1726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost
dowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were
the passing to the Gunter family.
site itself During the Civil War cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian
prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Aber-
Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited
gavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams
and other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on
charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in
charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears
relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire
never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to "
the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath question of tests and disabilities. His stand was against all
of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions
the town subsequently declined in prosperity. The act of 27 and forms of worship, excluded men of and
integrity ability
Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town, from serving their country." He was nearly a century in ad-
should return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other
ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a
payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and
on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being ability." His Tracts afterwards collected did fresh service,
in 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a
charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 1211). The
generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love
freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740.
right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto
held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762); Diary in MS.,
production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst 6 vols. 410; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234.
the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair.
The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson
Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the
of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. 3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Edu-
He married the heiress of Richard, earl of Worcester, whose father cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed
had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum- in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar-
moned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward
Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in 1450. His
tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical
direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Neville, but a lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London
cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony in Hospital, and was early employed to assist as "demonstrator";
1604. From him it has descended continuously, the title being he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo-
increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic),
mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On
5th earl (b. 1826), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the
Conservative party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's,
NEVILLE.) Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-s,urgeon, succeeded him,
ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT (1848-1881), Anglo- and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this
Indian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew
of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the
Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart- hospital built a regular theatre (1790-1791), and Abernethy thus
ment in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo-
College in 1873, .tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital
of the Rajkumar College at Indcre in 1877. He is best known for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was
for his book Twenty-one Days in India (1878-1879)^ satire elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap-
upon
Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons
promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at (1814). Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is
the age of thirty-three. associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the
ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-1740), Irish Presbyterian divine, external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu-
was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809) known as
was Nonconformist minister, on the igth of October 1680. In "
My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred
his thirteenth year he entered the university of
Glasgow, and on his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that
concluding his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his name was one of the earliest popular works on medical science.
54 ABERRATION
He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no doubt;
disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated and was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity
it

by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex- that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated
ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances
attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated as to whether the stars possessed appreciable parallaxes. The
his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he Copernican theory of the solar system that the earth revolved
exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial annually about the sun had received confirmation by the ob-
in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical
and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas
so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry. Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a
The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar
great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive
manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have
with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioli
even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers,
courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680
just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo- Jean Picard, in his Voyage d'Uranibourg, stated, as a result of
mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited
the 20th of April 1831. variations in its position amounting to 40" annually; some
A collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A bio- astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these
graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that
in 1853. which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure-
ABERRATION from or away, errare, to wander),
(Lat. ab, ments made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quad-
a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense :
rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star
as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674,
derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development published his observations of y Draconis, a star of the second
or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications: magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of
(i) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems. London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free
These subjects receive treatment below. from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction,
and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July
I. ABERRATION OF LIGHT
than in October.
This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this
motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently
orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes
star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis- had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of
placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to definitely answering this question that these astronomers
the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew.
observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about They determined to reinvestigate the motion of y Draconis; the
the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations. telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele-
Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney-
falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the
tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary, eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical,
rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides; was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and
if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 1725,
at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may and observations on y Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth,
traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus- and 1 2th of December. There was apparently no shifting of
tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly
be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain point. On the I7th of December, however, Bradley observed
enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown
best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position by observations on the 2oth. These results were unexpected,
in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk- and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina-
ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were
vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure, not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued,
pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until
when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than
ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity its December position. After March it began to pass north-
of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June
velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De-
these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly
let AB represent the velocity of the rain, and
(fig. i) position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle
AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the between the March and September positions, being 40".
tube. The diagonal AD
of the parallelogram, of This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case,
which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent, the maximum range should be between the June and December
FIG. i. both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley
rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of
rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while y Draconis was
angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements
the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth
is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two
" "
the stick points along the resultant AD. distinct ways; distinguished as nutation of the axis and
The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James " "
the form of oscilla-
variation of latitude. Nutation, only
Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of tion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's
 ABERRATION 55
axis is fixed with respect to the earth, i.e. the north and south is displaced to a point a, its displacement sa being parallel to
poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star
is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation appears at b; and so on
of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis throughout an orbital re-
within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole volution of the earth. Every
Varies. star, therefore, describes an
Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent apparent orbit, which, if the
motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar line joining the sun and the
distance as 7 Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion star be perpendicular to
after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars the plane ABCD, will be ex-
satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of actly similar to that of the
7 Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Moly- earth, i.e. almost a circle.
neux's telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension As the star decreases in lati-
nearly equal to that of 7 Draconis, but in the opposite sense, tude, this circle will be
was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen viewed more and more ob-
to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a liquely, becoming a flatter
consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its and flatter ellipse until, with A j
declination varied only one half as much as in the case of 7 Dra- zero latitude, it degenerates
conis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite into a straight line (fig. 4).
solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to an The major axis of any
irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving such aberrational ellipse is
abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investi- always parallel to AC, i.e. the
gated; here, again, negative results were obtained. ecliptic, and since it is equal
Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars to the ratio of the velocity
previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina- of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant.
tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to This constant length subtends an angle of about 40" at the
the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized
" "
earth; the constant of aberration is half this angle. The
the necessity for more observations before any generalization generally accepted value is 20-445", due to Struve; the last two
could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed
Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his isthat the value lies between 20-43" an(i 20-48". The minor axis,
uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations on the other hand, is not constant, but, as w'e have already
of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the ipth of seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of
August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, the major axis into the sine of the latitude.
its range extending over 6j on each side of the zenith, thus Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor-
covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the rected his observations for aberration, but he found
British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, that there still remained a residuum which was evi-
of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual
conclusions may be thus summarized: (i) only stars near the cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of
solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery
when the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was at its that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see
maximum positions when passed the zenith at six o'clock
it ASTRONOMY). Bradley recognized the fact that the
morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, experimental determination of the aberration constant
and found the greatest change in declination to be proportional gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the
to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of all stars earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known, Lat. a"
at about the same time was in the same direction. the velocity of light is determined. In recent years
A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as much attention has been given to the nature of the FIG. 4.
to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the ea.rth, the
was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in argument generally being centred about the relative effect of
simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is
with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. discussed in the articles AETHER and LIGHT.
Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the REFERENCES. A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in
shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course; S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hutton,
Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (J795); a particularly
and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant
clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical
that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he
Discovery (1904). The subject receives treatment in all astronomical
realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined works.
by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The
II. ABERRATION IN OPTICAL SYSTEMS
application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so
long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a
his theory of the aberration of light a corner-stone of the series ofthem, may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays
edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the from the points of an object after transmission through the
s observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a
perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical
at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the
however, he traverses the distance BA in the same instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles
time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will REFLEXION, REFRACTION, and CAUSTIC for the general char-
appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob- acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article LENS considers
server is not conscious of his own translatory motion in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be
FIG. 2. w ;th the earth in its
orbit, the star appears to have consulted) in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties
;

a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of
of the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker.
ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star. Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr.
When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of
,
 ABERRATION
the light generally applied white
is dispersed
(e.g. light), which lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the
by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. one) aberrations fiovos, aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the dia-
produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro- phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil"; the "exit
matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any "
is the image formed by the
pupil component S 2 which is placed
,

coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass
light of single wave length. through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and
(a) Monochromatic Aberration. exit pupils, since these areimages of the aperture stop. Since
The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle
" " u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni-
Rays of light proceeding from any object point unite in an
and therefore an tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and
"image point"; "object space" is repro-
" diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind
duced in an image space." The introduction of simple auxiliary
the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (" front
terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Got-
tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits stop ") ; if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop ").
If the object point be infinitely distant, all
the determination of the image of any object for any system rays received by
The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter-
(see LENS).
as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet- sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their
"
rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal perpendicular height of incidence," i.e. their distance from
and lenses; in practice these conditions are not the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding
objects, images
realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance
in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper- pupil, is its maximum value.
ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The (2)Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles
investigations
to the axis. If rays issuing from O
of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math., (fig. 5) be concurrent, it
1 does not follow
1858, and Ernst Abbe ) showed that the properties of these
i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the
that points in a
reproductions,
images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces- portion of a plane
sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro- perpendicular at
duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes O to the axis

a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner will be also con- O

in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, current, even if

the part of the
however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions,
since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion plane be very
and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies small. With
a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no con- a considerable
structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. aperture, the
All FIG. 5.
that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane neighbouring
in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis- point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com-

factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is im- parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided
"
if, according to Abbe, the sine condition," sin w'i/sin i = sin
probable that these will ever be entirely corrected.
w' 2 /sin u-i, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the
This, and related general questions, have been treated besides
the above-mentioned authors by M
Thiesen (Berlin A kad. Sitzber.
. .
,
object point O be infinitely distant, MI and M 2 are to be replaced
"
1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin.Phys.Ges.Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. by h\ and hi, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the sine
"
Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton! then becomes sin MVAi = sin A
'
condition 2 //i 2
.
system ful-
"characteristic function" (Irish Acad. Trans., "Theory of Systems
of Rays," 1828, et Reference may also be made to the treatise filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called
seq.). " "
of Czapski-Eppenstem, pp. 155-161. aplanatic (Greek a-, privative, ir\a.vr), a wandering). This
Areview of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given, word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac-
tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a
(i) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re-
stricted sense). If be any optical system, rays pro-
S (fig. 5)
superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to
denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration
ceeding from an axis point O under an angle u\ will unite in the
of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly
axis point O'i and those under an angle u 2 in the axis point O' 2
; .

If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture.
a thin positive lens, O' 2 will lie in front of O'i so long as the angle (3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis)
with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. A point O (fig. 6) at a
2 is greater than u\ (" under correction ") and conversely ;
finite distance from the
with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The
axis (or with an infinitely {
caustic, in the resembles the sign > (greater than) ;
first case,
in the second < If the angle
(less than). i be very small, O'i
distantobject, a point
is the Gaussian image; and O'i O' 2 is termed the
" which subtends a finite
longitudinal
" " angle at the system) is,
aberration," and O'iR the lateral aberration of the pencils
If the pencil with the angle w 2 be that of the
in general, even then not
with aperture 2 .

maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a sharply reproduced, if

" the pencil of rays issuing
plane perpendicular to the axis at O'i there is a circular disk FIG. 6.
of confusion" of radius O'iR, and in a parallel plane at O's
from it and traversing
another one of radius O'2R 2 between these two is situated the the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture
;

" stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from
disk of least confusion."
The largesc opening of the pencils, which take part in the the object point through the now infinitely small entrance
pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil
reproduction of O, i.e. the angle is generally determined by ,

the margin of one of the lenses or by a. hole in a thin plate placed does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles;
therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ori-y^a, a point).
between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole
is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the
" " " "
aperture stop for both the hole and the limiting margin of the
axis of the pencil or principal ray," we can say: the rays
of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines,
'The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally
published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray;
S. Czapski in 1893. See below, AUTHORITIES. of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and
 ABERRATION 57
" "
the axis of the system, i.e. in the first principal section or and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From
" meridional follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the
section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in this it

the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature
therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as,
of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ =a'
" "
for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; tan w'/a tan w=i/N, where is the N
scale or magnification
on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are of the image. For N
to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w' I
a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a' /a be sufficiently
separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed),
and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion. constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the
"
The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, condition of Airy," i.e. tan ui''/ tan a>=a constant. This
in general, with the angle W
made by the principal ray OP with simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. i) is fulfilled
the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two " astig- in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their
" "
matic image surfaces correspond to one object plane; and these diaphragm (briefly named symmetrical or holosymmetrical
are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized,
on the other those of the second. Systems in
of the first kind, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their
which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana- size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical

stigmatic or stigmatic. objectives); in these systems tan in' I tan wi=i. The constancy
Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigraation; of a' la necessary for this re-
the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas lation to hold was pointed out
Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ.
the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand.
Photog., 1861), and Thomas
Arch.f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat.
Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch.f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). Sutton (Photographic Notes,
A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilder- 1862); it has been treated by
zeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). O. Lummer and by M. von
(4) Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma. Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., FIG. 8.
By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4).
points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced
this case they are much more complicated. The course of the in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical
rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling
principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there neither Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio
the
appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not sym- a! w will be constant for one distance of the object.
tan w'/a tan
metrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical
comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. objectives reproducing with the scale i, and by hemisymmetrical,
From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of

of the meridional pencil formerly the only one considered is the two components.
coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been Analytic Treatment of Aberrations. The preceding review of
"
treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.) and more recently , the several errors of reproduction belongs to the Abbe theory
by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ-
(5) Curvature of the field of the image. If the above errors
ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction
be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi-
image obtained with a wide aperture there remains the necessity nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the
to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re-
image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all
In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is
If now the image be sufficiently "
(6) Distortion of the image. only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be in-
sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite
meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to
that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations
This error consists in the different parts of the object being re- is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories
produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of
parts than the outer (" barrel-
may differ in greater magnification indefinite series.
shaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion") A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be de-
"
(see fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called ortho-
"
fined by the co-ordinates (, 17) of this point O in an object plane I,
scopic (6p96s, right, at right angles
o-KOTTflv, to look) . to the axis, and
This aberration is two other co-
quite distinct from ordinates (x, y),
that of the sharpness the point in
Cushion shaped
of reproduction in ; which the ray
Object Barrel shaped

Distorted image unsharp reproduction, intersects the

FIG. the question of dis- entrance pupil,
7.
tortion arises if only i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may
parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in be defined by the points (',17'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and
an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be
point, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre-
as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv-
sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates
ing the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing ^',tl',x',y' are functions of ,i),x,y; and if it be assumed that the
through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then ij, x, y ,

a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when are of the same order
of infinitesimals; consequently by expand-
the aperture is diminished; in practice, this are ob-
generally occurs. ing ', jj', x', y' in ascending powers of rj, x, y, series ,

This ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers.
with the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the
through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis
 ABERRATION
and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs power of the lens remaining constant) The total aberration of
.

of ,77, x, y, the values ', if, x, y

must likewise change their sign, two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the
but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the
are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. lenseshave the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with
The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding =i-S, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the
from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical
will not be the case, for ', t\ vary if t\ be constant, but x, y
, importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of
variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc-
drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a
rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however,
extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality,
'
may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained.
the Gauss image point O'o, with co-ordinates 0) ij'o, of the It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect
point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and
Writing A' = and ATJ' = TJ' TJ'O, then A' and AT;' are
' '
likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin
the aberrations belonging to 77 and x, y, and are functions of
,
lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro-
these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from
odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant,
"
of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of is known as Herschel's condition." All these rules are valid,
light, depending in on the lowest powers of
size r/, , x, y which inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not
the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These to be taken into account.
degrees, named by J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger (2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is
dioptrischer Untersuchungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber., also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as
" "
Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) the numerical orders of the image," Fraunhofer's Condition." After eliminating the aberration
(4)
are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for- on the axis, coma and astigmatism,
the relation for the flatness
mation of an image of the wzth order is that in the series for A' of the field in the third order is expressed by the " Petzval
and AT;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . .
equation," 2i/r(n'-w)= o, where r is the radius of a refracting
(w-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring
being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.
of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd Practical Elimination of Aberrations. The existence of an
degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on
in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical
vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly
The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants suffices for the special
purpose of each species of instrument.
of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices The problem system which reproduces a given object
of finding a
and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr.
Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait
upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber-
rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by
objective, unexcelled even at the present day, from similar cal-
culations, which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however,
Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, the analytical difficulties are too great. Solutions, however, have
p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Miinchen. been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's
Akad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous
Die BUderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad.
paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (Miinchen. Akad.
Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395) a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Bei-
; Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2and3). At the present time constructors
trdge zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-^). A. Konigand M. von Rohr almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a
(see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp.
system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test,
3' 7-3 2 3) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the
Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays,
method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples
(pp. 212-316). are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik,
The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char-
acteristic function
"
of the system and its differential coefficients, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances
instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not are continually altered until the errors of the image become
immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro-
number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all,
(British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of of those named above.
the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by
The analytical approximation theory
is often employed provisionally, since its
Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874-1875; see also the accuracy does not
treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. generally suffice.
Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys.Ber., In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation
1895, 21 p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild
,
from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture,
(Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. l), who thus discovered the
aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture * (with
the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*)
(vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to
of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.
one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller
The aberrations of the third order are: (i) aberration of the than the largest aperture U or II to be used in the system).
axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the The Tays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not
Aberra- ax 's * s verv sm all, less than of the third order the have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio;
tioas of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en-
the third
together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for
of the field; (5) distortion. the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w:
(i) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated
in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec- for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature of
tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher
"
field and distortion attend smaller values of w. The practical
orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of
and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the aperture u* (the height of incidence h*), or the angle of field of
radii r: r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value view w*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios
of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture,
 ABERRATION 59
in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur- confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent
"
faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as of the focal length (vide supra, Monochromatic Aberration of the
functions of the angles of the field of view. Axis Point ") and since this disk becomes the less harmful with
;

The final form of a practical system consequently rests on an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal
compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor-
of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the
" relative
may be regarded as typical: (i) Largest aperture; necessary aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in
corrections are for the axis point, and sine condition; errors vogue before the discovery of achromatism.)
of the field of view are almost disregarded; example high- Examples. (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant
of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the
power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; neces-
for astigmatism, curvature of field and distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index
sary corrections are
errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex- for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or
distortion;
amples photographic widest angle objectives and oculars. reciprocals of the focal lengths, be <and <j>-{-d(j>, then (i) d<j>/4>
Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photo- = dn/(n- i) = i/v; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis-
graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with persive power of the glass.
regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to (b) Two thin lenses in contact: let <fr and <j> 2 be the powers

the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n\ and n^ and
radii r'\, r"\, and r*t, r"z respectively; let $ denote the total
very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should,
however, possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the power, and d<t>, dn\, dn^ the changes of <f>, i, and HI with the
are the best for analytical computation. colour. Then the following relations hold:
simplest manner. They
(2) 4>
= 4>1 +<fc= ( ni - iXi/Vi- i/r'\) + (n,- i)(i/r' 2 - i/r',) =
(b) Chromatic or Colour A berration.
(ni-i)ki+(nz-i)k 2 and ;

In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude (3) dcj>

= kidni kzdni. For achromatism d<t> o, hence,
+
and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of from (3),
"
the glass employed (see LENS, and above, Monochromatic Therefore <j>i and 4>j
(4) ki/kz= -dnz/dni, or <t>i/(f>i= -Vi/**
Aberration ") Since the index of refraction varies with the colour
.
must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be com-
or wave length of the light (see DISPERSION), it follows that a
posed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the
system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different powers of the two must be different (in order that be not zero <j>

colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ-

" " (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different
ent aberrations; i.e. there are chromatic differences of
(according to 4).
the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono- Newton to perceive the existence of media of different
failed
chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white dispersive required by achromatism; consequently he
powers
constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory
light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti-
and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con-
mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing
ception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by
screen of a camera, &c.), they cause a confusion, named chro- Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond
matic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes.
dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or (See TELESCOPE.)
narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma- Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named
" "
tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. crown glass "; that with greater dispersive power, flint
"
A system is said to be chromatically under-corrected " when it glass." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens
shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, ((j> positive) it follows, by
means of equation (4), that a collec-
"
otherwise it is said to be over-corrected." crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass
tive lens I. of
If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the
in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted then every other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an
reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted.
and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, This is, at the present day, the ordinary type,
as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro- e.g.,of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values
duction. These constants are determined by the data of the of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2)
system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses) ; and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos-
therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse- tulated: one is always the elimination of the
quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given aberration on the axis; the second either the
"
in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen "Herschel" or Fraunhofer condition," the
"
Instruments (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different latter being the best (vide supra, Monochromatic
wave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often
In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one more useful to avoid the second condition by FIG. 10.
constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal
this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog.,
with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin
plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the
of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive
all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of
"
system is said to be in stable achromatism." astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens
In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval
the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nackr., 1856, p. 289). Should the
intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must
a sum in which each component contains the amount due to be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs
each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, -op. cit. p. 170; the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, crown
A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bttderzeugung, p. 340). glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater
In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier
colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con- kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with
" "
fusion caused by two zones in spherical aberration. For the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but
infinitely distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and 0. Schott were crown
6o ABERRATION
glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially
such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, adopted in objectives for astronomical photography ("pure
are called the "new achromats," and were employed by P. actinic achromatism"). For ordinary photography, however,
" "
there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen
Rudolph in the first anastigmats (photographic objectives).
Instead of making d<j> vanish, a certain value can be assigned and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate
to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference
desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the

present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordi-
cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, nary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic
then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place;
by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as
" " "
achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its the actinic correction or freedom from chemical focus ").
chromatic effect (d<t>/<t>) be greater than that of the same lens, Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths
this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em- for three colours a, b,and c, i.e. /<.=/&=/=/, then the relative
"
ployed, it is termed hyper-chromatic." partial dispersion (n e-n &) (n a-n &) must be equal for the two
For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation
for achromatism is D = (u 1/1+ 02/2) ("i+flz); if t>i
= 2 (* (4) for the two pairs of colours ac and be. Until recently no
if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption;
D=^ (/i+/2), known as the "condition for oculars." but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and
a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length,
If F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses
be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which re-
colours, if. two different glasses are employed. For example, duced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was
the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe
is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn 2 /dn i varies and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dis-
within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. persion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two
Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three
in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper- lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses.
sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet In uniting three colours an " achromatism of a higher order "
(the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, is derived; there is yet a residual "tertiary spectrum," but it

for two colours, a and b, / =/& =/, then for a third colour, c, the can always be neglected.
focal length is different, viz. if c lie between a and 6, then fc </, The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochro-
and wee versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that matic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different
towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass pre- for different colours; and should they be compensated for one

ponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing.
chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration
colours, are called the "secondary spectrum," and depend of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image,
upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appro-
primary chromatic errors do. priate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected
In fig. n, taken from M. von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account
des pholographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths, of the greater dispersion in the negative components the flint
and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer glasses, over-correction will arise for the shorter wave-
lines used are lengths (this being the error of the negative components), and
A' C D Green Hg. F G' Violet Hg. under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown
767-7 656-3 5 8 9-3 546-1 486-2 434-1 405-1 MM, glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated
and the focal lengths are by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F.
10 20 30 +4O
800 made equal for the lines C Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more
and F. In the neighbourhood important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum
of 550 nfj. the tangent to the of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be
curve is parallel to the axis eliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it
700 must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which
of wave-lengths; and the
focal length varies least over are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical
a fairly large range of colour, representation of this error is given in M- von Rohr, Theorie
therefore in this neighbour- und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs).
hood the colour union is at The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in
its best.Moreover, this region the place of a sharply reproduced point the constant of the
Cr.Hg.
of the spectrum is thai which sine relation must also be fulfilled with large apertures for
500 appears brightest to the several colours. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope
F human eye, and consequently objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the
this curve of the secondary sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to
"
spectrum, obtained by making were
his definition, aplanatic for several colours "; such sys-
/C=/F, according to the
is, tems he termed " apochromatic." While, however, the magnifi-
experiments of Sir G. G. cation of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for
WT7 Stokes (Proc. Roy.Soc., 1878), red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnifica-
the most suitable for visual tion. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite
sense, by the oculars, which are used with these objectives
108. Optical correction /c =/ = matlsm ) In a similar man- (" compensating oculars "), so that it is eliminated in the image
100 mm. The ordinates give the ner, for systems used in photo- of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and
wave-lengths in w>. The ab- graphy, the vertex of the photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also
scissae give /X -/c in o-oi mm.,
colour curve must be placed apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality
commencing at felt- ... r .

in the position of the man-

.

(From M.v. Rohr, <,p. a,.)

of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic
sensibilitymum
of the plates; differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical
this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the importances.
 ABERSYCHAN ABGAR 61
AUTHORITIES. The standard treatise in English is H. D. Taylor, (with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence
A System of Applied Optics (1906); reference may also be made to of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable
R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895); and
L. A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (1900). The ideas to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence. A
of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, Theorie der optischen person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the
Instrumente nach Abbe, published separately at Breslau in 1893, commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a
and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik in 1894; a
principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in
second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at
Leipzig in 1903 with the title, Grwidzuge der Theorie der optischen
aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt
Instrumente nach Abbe, and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.
Handbuch der Physik. The collection of the scientific staff of Carl ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping"), a state of expectancy
Zeiss at Jena, edited by M. von Rohr, DieBilderzeugung in optischen
in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them
Inslrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik (Berlin, 1904),
is not vested in any one person, but awaits the appearance or
contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with
aberrations. (O. E.) determination of the true owner. In law, the term abeyance
ABERSYCHAN, an urban district in the northern parlia- can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, ii m. N. by W. or possibly may not vest. For example, an estate is granted
of Newport, on the Great Western, London and North- Western, to A for life, with remainder to the heir of B, the latter being
and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 17,768. It lies in the alive; the remainder is then said to be in abeyance, for until
narrow upper valley of the Afon Lwyd on the eastern edge of the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is. Similarly the
the great coal and iron mining district of Glamorganshire and freehold of a benefice, on the death of the incumbent, is said
Monmouthshire, and its large industrial population is occupied to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.
in the mines and ironworks. The neighbourhood is wild and The most common use of the term is in the case of peerage
mountainous. dignities. If a peerage which passes to heirs-general, like the
ABERTILLERY, an urban district in the western parlia- ancient baronies by writ, is held by a man whose heir-at-law
mentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 16 m. N.W. of is neither a male, nor a woman who is an only child, it goes into

Newport, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1891) 10,846; abeyance on his death between two or more sisters or their
(1901) 21,945. It h' es m the mountainous mining district of heirs, and is held by no one till the abeyance is terminated; if
Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw eventually only one person represents the claims of all the
Each, and the large industrial population is mainly employed sisters, he or she can claim the termination of the abeyance as
in the numerous coal-mines, ironworks and tinplate works. a matter of right. The crown can also call the peerage out of
Farther up the valley are the mining townships of NANTYGLO abeyance at any moment, on petition, in favour of any one of
and BLAINA, forming an urban district with a population (1901) the sisters or their heirs between whom it is in abeyance. The
of 13,489. question whether ancient earldoms created in favour of a man
ABERYSTWYTH, a municipal borough, market-town and and his " heirs " go into abeyance like baronies by writ has been
seaport of Cardiganshire, Wales, near the confluence of the raised by the claim to the earldom of Norfolk created in 1312,
rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, about the middle of Cardigan Bay. discussed before the Committee for Privileges in 1906. It is
Pop. (1901) 8013. It is the terminal station of the Cambrian common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are
railway, and also of the Manchester and Milford line. It is the dormant (i.e.unclaimed) as being in abeyance. (j. H. R.)
most popular watering-place on the west coast of Wales, and ABGAR, a name or title borne by a line of kings or toparchs,
possesses a pier, and a fine sea-front which stretches from Consti- apparently twenty-nine in number, who reigned in Osrhoene
tution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth and had their capital at Edessa about the time of the Christian
of the harbour. The town is of modern appearance, and con- era. According to an old tradition, one of these princes, perhaps
tains many public buildings, of which the most remarkable is "
Abgar V. (Ukkama or Uchomo, the black "), being afflicted
the imposing but fantastic structure of the University College with leprosy, sent a letter to Jesus, acknowledging his divinity,
of Wales near the Castle Hill. Much of the finest scenery in craving his help and offering him an asylum in his own residence,
mid- Wales lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth. but Jesus wrote a letter declining to go, promising, however,
The history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples. These
time of Gilbert Strongbow, who in 1109 erected a fortress on letters are given by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. i. 13), who declares
the present Castle Hill. Edward I. rebuilt Strongbow's castle that the Syriac document from which he translates them had
in 1277, after its destruction by the Welsh. Between the years been preserved in the archives at Edessa from the time of Abgar.
1404 and 1408 Aberystwyth Castle was in the hands of Owen Glen- Eusebius also states that in due course Judas, son of Thaddaeus,
dower, but finally surrendered to Prince Harry of Monmouth, and was sent (in 34O=A.D. 29). In another form of the story, de-
shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of rived from Moses of Chorene, it is said further that Jesus sent
Ville de Lampadarn, the ancient name of the place being Llan- his portrait to Abgar, and that this existed in Edessa (Hist.
badarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it Armen., ed. W. Whiston, ii. 29-32). Yet another version is
from Llanbadarn Fawr, the village one mile inland. It is thus found in the Syriac Doctrina Addaei (Addaeus = Thaddaeus),
styled in a charter granted by Henry VIII., but by Elizabeth's edited by G. Phillips (1876). Here it is said that the reply of
time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all docu- Jesus was given not in writing, but verbally, and that the event
ments. In 1647 the parliamentarian troops razed the castle to took place in 343 (A.D. 32). Greek forms of the legend are
the ground, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though found in the Ada Thaddaei (C. Tischendorf, Acta apostolorum
portions of three towers still exist. Aberystwyth was a contri- apocr. 261 ff.).
butory parliamentary borough until 1885, when its representation These stories have given rise to much discussion. The testi-
was merged in that of the county. In modern times Aberyst- mony and Jerome is to the effect that Jesus wrote
of Augustine
wyth has become a Welsh educational centre, owing to the nothing. The correspondence was rejected as apocryphal by
erection here of one of the three colleges of the university of Pope Gelasius and a Roman Synod (c. 495), though, it is true,
Wales (1872), and of a hostel for women in connexion with it. this view has not been shared universally by the Roman church
In 1905 it was decided to fix here the site of the proposed Welsh (Tillemont, Memoires, i. 3, pp. 990 ff.). Amongst Evangelicals
National Library. the spuriousness of the letters is almost generally admitted.
ABETTOR (from " to abet," O. Fr. abeter, a and beter, to bait, Lipsius (Die Edessenische Abgarsage, 1880) has pointed out
urge dogs upon any one ;
this word is probably of Scandi- anachronisms which seem to indicate that the story is quite
navian origin, meaning to cause to bite), a law term implying unhistorical. The first king of Edessa of whom we have any
one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an trustworthy information is Abgar VIII., bar Ma'nu (A.D. 176-
offence. An abettor differs from an accessory (q.v.) in that he 213). It is suggested that the legend arose from a desire to
must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors trace the christianizing of his kingdom to an apostolic source.
62 ABHIDHAMMA ABILA
Eusebius gives the legend in its oldest form; it was worked up ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebydthar, "the [divine] father is pre-
in the Doctrina Addaei in the second half of the 4th century; eminent"), in the Bible, son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, priest at
and Moses of Chorene was dependent upon both these sources. Nob. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre,
BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Schmidt in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie; he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (i Sam.
Lipsius, Die Edessenische Abgarsage kritisch untersuchl (1880); xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especi-
Matthes, Die Edessenische Abgarsage auf ihre Fortbildung untersucht
ally at the time of the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29,
(1882); Tixeront, Les Origines de I'eglise d'Edesse el la legends d'A.
35, xx. 25). In i Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found
(1888) A. Harnack, Geschichte d. altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 2 (1893)
; ;

L. Duchesne, Bulletin critique, 1889, pp. 41-48; for the Epistles

"
acting together as priests under Solomon. In i Kings i. 7, 19,
see APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, sect. New Testament (c). 25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and
ABHIDHAMMA, the name one of the three Pitakas, or
of in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and
baskets of tradition, into which the Buddhist scriptures (see banished to Anathoth. In 2 Sam. viii. 17 "Abiathar, the son
BUDDHISM) are divided. It consists of seven works: i. Dhamma of Ahimelech" should be read, with the Syriac, for "Ahimelech,
Sanganl (enumeration of qualities). 2. Vibhanga (exposition). the son of Abiathar." For a similar confusion see Mark ii. 26.
3. Katha Vatthu (bases of opinion). 4. Puggala Pannatti (on ABICH, OTTO WILHELM HERMANN VON (1806-1886),
individuals). 5. Dhatu Katha (on relations of moral disposi- German mineralogist and geologist, was born at Berlin on the
tions). 6. Yamaka (the pairs, that is, of ethical states). 7.' nth of December 1806, and educated at the university in that
Palthana (evolution of ethical states). These have now been city. His earliest scientific work related to spinels and other
published by the Pali Text Society. The first has been trans- minerals, and later he made special studies of fumaroles, of the
lated into English, and an abstract of the third has been pub- mineral deposits around volcanic vents and of the structure of
lished. The approximate date of these works is probably from volcanoes. In 1842 he was appointed professor of mineralogy
about 400 B.C. to about 250 B.C., the first being the oldest and in the university of Dorpat, and henceforth gave attention to
the third the latest of the seven. Before the publication of the geology and mineralogy of Russia. Residing for some time
the texts, when they were known only by hearsay, the term at Tiflis he investigated the geology of the Caucasus. Ultimately
A bhidhamma was usually rendered "Metaphysics." This is now he retired to Vienna, where he died on the ist of July 1886. The
seen to be quite erroneous. Dhamma means the doctrine, and mineral Abichite was named after him.
Abhidhamma has a relation to Dhamma similar to that of by- PUBLICATIONS. Vues Mustratives de quelques phenom^nes geolo-
law to law. It expands, classifies, tabulates, draws corollaries giques, prises sur le Vesuve et I'Etna, pendant les annees 1833 et
1834 (Berlin, 1836); Ueber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der
from the ethical doctrines laid down in the more popular treat- vulcanischen Bildungen (Brunswick, 1841); Geologische Forschungen
ises. There is no metaphysics in it at all, only psychological in den Kaukasischen Landern (3 vols., Vienna, 1878, 1882, and 1887).
ethics of a peculiarly dry and scholastic kind. And there is no ABIGAIL (Heb. Abigayil, perhaps "father is joy"), or ABIGAL
originality in it; only endless permutations and combinations (2 Sam. iii. 3), in the Bible, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite,
of doctrines already known and accepted. As in the course of on whose death she became the wife of David (i Sam. xxv.).
centuries the doctrine itself, in certain schools, varied, it was felt By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of
necessary to rewrite these secondary works. This was first done, 2 Sam. iii. 3 as Chileab, in the Septuagint as Daluyah, and in
so far as is at present known, by the Sarvastivadins (Realists), i Chron. iii. i as Daniel. The name Abigail was also borne by
who in the century before and after Christ produced a fresh a sister of David (2 Sam. xvii. 25; i Chron. ii. 16 f.). From the
set of seven Abhidhamma books. These are lost in India, but former (self-styled "handmaid" i Sam. xxv. 25 f.) is derived
still exist in Chinese translations. The translations have been the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail,
analysed in a masterly way by Professor Takakusu in the article the "waiting gentlewoman," in Beaumont and Fletcher's
mentioned below. They deal only with psychological ethics. Scornful Lady).
In the course of further centuries these books in turn were ABIJAH (Heb. Abiyyah and Abiyyahu, "Yah is father"), a
superseded by new treatises; and in one school at least, that of name borne by nine different persons mentioned in the Old
the Maha-yana (great vehicle) there was eventually developed Testament, of whom the most noteworthy are the following.
a system of metaphysics. But the word Abhidhamma then fell (1) The son and successor of Rehoboam, king of Judah (2 Chron.
out of use in that school, though it is still used in the schools xii. i6-xiii.), reigned about two years (918-915 B.C.). The ac-
that continue to follow the original seven books. counts of him in the books of Kings and Chronicles are very con-
See Buddhist Psychology by Caroline Rhys Davids (London, 1900), flicting (compare i Kings xv. 2 and 2 Chron. xi. 20 with 2 Chron.
a translation of the Dhamma Sangant, with valuable introduction; xiii.2). The Chronicler tells us that he has drawn his facts from
"Schools of Buddhist Belief," by T. W. Rhys Davids, in Journal
the Midrash (commentary) of the prophet Iddo. This is perhaps
of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1892, contains an abstract of the Katlia
Vatthu; "On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins," by
sufficient to explain the character of the narrative. (2) The
Prof. Takakusu, in Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1905. second son of Samuel (i Sam. viii. 2; i Chron. vi. 28 [13]). He
(T. W. R. D.) and his brother Joel judged at Beersheba. Their misconduct
ABHORRERS, the name given in 1679 to the persons who was made by the elders of Israel a pretext for demanding a king
expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed (i Sam. viii. 4). (3) A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel; he
petitions urging King Charles II. to assemble parliament. Feel- died young (i Kings xiv. i ff., 17). (4) Head of the eighth order
ing against Roman Catholics, and especially against James, of priests (i Chron. xxiv. 10), the order to which Zacharias, the
duke York, was running strongly; the Exclusion Bill had
of father of John the Baptist, belonged (Luke i. 5).
been passed by the House of Commons, and the popularity of The alternative form Abijam is probably a mistake, though
James, duke of Monmouth, was very great. To prevent this it is upheld by M. Jastrow.
bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in ABILA, (i) a city of ancient Syria, the capital of the tetrarchy
July 1679, and in the following October had prorogued its suc- of Abilene, a territory whose extent it is impossible to define.
cessor without allowing it to meet. He was then deluged with It is generally called Abila of Lysanias, to distinguish it from
petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was (2) Abila was an important town on the imperial high-
below.
opposed by Sir George Jeffreys (q.v.) and Francis Wythens, who way from Damascus to Heliopolis (Baalbek). The site is indi-
presented addresses expressing "abhorrence" of the "Peti- cated by ruins of a temple, aqueducts, &c., and inscriptions on
tioners," and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who the banks of the river Barada at Suk Wadi Barada, a village
supported the action of the king. "The
frolic went all over called by early Arab geographers Abil-es-Suk, between Baalbek
England," says Roger North; and the addresses of the Ab- and Damascus. Though the names Abel and Abila differ in
horrers which reached the king from all parts of the country derivation and in meaning, their similarity has given rise to the
formed a counterblast to those of the Petitioners. It is said tradition that this was the place of Abel's burial. According to
that the terms Whig and. Tory were first applied to English poli- Josephus, Abilene was a separate Iturean kingdom till A.D. 37,
tical parties in consequence of this dispute. when it was granted by Caligula to Agrippa I.; in 52 Claudius
 ABILDGAARD ABINGER
granted it to Agrippa II. (See also LYSANIAS.) (2) A city in destroying Shechem, proceeded against Thebez, which had also
Perea, now Abil-ez-Zeit. revolted. Here, while storming the citadel, he was struck on
ABILDGAARD, NIKOLAJ ABRAHAM(1744-1809), called the head by a fragment of a millstone thrown from the wall by
"
the Father of Danish Painting," was born at Copenhagen, the a woman. To avoid the disgrace of perishing by a woman's
son of Soren Abildgaard, an antiquarian draughtsman of repute. hand, he begged his armour-bearer to run him through the body,
He formed his style on that of Claude and of Nicolas Poussin, but his memory was not saved from the ignominy he dreaded
and was a cold theorist, inspired not by nature but by art. As (2 Sam. xi. 21). It is usual to regard Abimelech's reign as the
a technical painter he attained remarkable success, his tone being first attempt to establish a monarchy in Israel, but the story is

very harmonious and even, but the effect, to a foreigner's eye, is mainly that of the rivalries of a half-developed petty state, and
rarely interesting. His works are scarcely known out of Copen- of the ingratitude of a community towards the descendants of

hagen, where he won an immense fame in his own generation. its deliverer. (See, further, JEWS, JUDGES.) (S. A. C.)
He was the founder of the Danish school of painting, and the ABINGDON, a market town and municipal borough in the
master of Thorwaldsen and Eckersberg. Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 6 m. S.
ABIMELECH (Hebrew for "father of [or is] the king ") (i) of Oxford, the terminus of a branch of the Great Western railway
A king of Gerar in South Palestine with whom Isaac, in the Bible, from Radley. Pop. (1901) 6480. It lies in the fiat valley of
had The patriarch, during his sojourn there, alleged
relations. the Thames, on the west (right) bank, where the small river
Rebekah was his sister, but the king doubting this
that his wife Ock flows in from the Vale of White Horse. The church of
remonstrated with him and pointed out how easily adultery St Helen stands near the river, and its fine Early English tower
might have been unintentionally committed (Gen. xxvi.). with Perpendicular spire is the principal object in the pleasant
" views of the town from the river. The body of the church, which
Abimelech is called king of the Philistines," but the title is
clearly an anachronism. A very similar story is told of Abraham has five aisles, is principally Perpendicular. The smaller church
and Sarah (ch. xx.), but here Abimelech takes Sarah to wife, of St Nicholas is Perpendicular in appearance, though parts of
although he is warned by a divine vision before the crime is the fabric are older. Of a Benedictine abbey there remain a
actually committed. The incident is fuller and shows a great beautiful Perpendicular gateway, and ruins of buildings called
advance in ideas of morality. Of a more primitive character, the prior's house, mainly Early English, and the guest house,
however, is another parallel story of Abraham at the court of with other fragments. The picturesque narrow-arched bridge
Pharaoh, king of Egypt (xii. 10-20), where Sarah his wife is taken over the Thames near St Helen's church dates originally from
into the royal household, and the plagues sent by Yahweh lead 1416. There may be mentioned further the old buildings of the
to the discovery of the truth. Further incidents in Isaac's life grammar school, founded in 1563, and of the charity called
at Gerar are narrated in Gen. xxvi. (cp. xxi. 22-34, time of Christ's Hospital (1583); while the town-hall in the market-
Abraham), notably a covenant with Abimelech at Beer-sheba place, dating from 1677, is attributed to Inigo Jones. The
(whence the name is explained "well of the oath"); (see grammar school now occupies modern buildings, and ranks
ABRAHAM). By a pure error, or perhaps through a confusion among the lesser public schools of England, having scholarships
in the traditions, Achish the Philistine (of Gath, i Sam. xxi., at Pembroke College, Oxford. St Peter's College, Radley, 2 m.
xxvii.), to whom David fled, is called Abimelech in the super- from Abingdon, is one of the principal modern public schools.
scription to Psalm xxxiv. It was opened in 1847. The buildings lie close to the Thames,
(2) A son of Jerubbaal or Gideon (q.v.), by his Shechemite and the school is famous for rowing, sending an eight to the

concubine (Judges viii. 31, ix.). On the death of Gideon, regatta at 'Henley each year. Abingdon has manufactures of
Abimelech set himself to assert the authority which his father clothing and carpets and a large agricultural trade. The borough
had earned, and through the influence of his mother's clan won is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area,
over the citizens of Shechem. Furnished with money from the 730 acres.
treasury of the temple of Baal-berith, he hired a band of followers
and slew seventy (cp. 2 Kings x. 7) of his brethren at Ophrah, his Abingdon (Abbedun, Abendun) was famous for its abbey, which
was of great wealth and importance, and is believed to have been
father's home. This is one of the earliest recorded instances of founded in A.D. 675 by Cissa, one of the subreguli of Centwin. Abun-
a practice common enough on the accession of Oriental despots. dant charters from early Saxon monarchs are extant confirming
Abimelech thus became king, and extended his authority over various laws and privileges to the abbey, and the earliest of these,
from King Ceadwalla, was granted before A.D. 688. In the reign of
central Palestine. But his success was short-lived, and the sub-
Alfred the abbey was destroyed by the Danes, but it was restored
sequent discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites was by Edred, and an imposing list of possessions in the Domesday
regarded as a just reward for his atrocious massacre. Jotham, survey evidences recovered prosperity. William the Conqueror
the only one who is said to have escaped, boldly appeared on in 1084 celebrated Easter at Abingdon, and left his son, afterwards

Mount Gerizim and denounced the ingratitude of the townsmen Henry I., to be educated at the abbey. After the dissolution in
1538 the town sank into decay, and in 1555, on a representation of
towards the legitimate sons of the man who had saved them its pitiable condition, Queen Mary granted a charter establishing
" "
from Midian. Jotham's fable of the trees who desired a king it as a free borough corporate with a common council consisting
of a mayor, two bailiffs, twelve chief burgesses, and sixteen second-
may be foreign to the context; it is a piece of popular lore, and
cannot be pressed too far: the nobler trees have no wish to rule ary burgesses, the mayor to be clerk of the market, coroner and a
" " justice of the peace. The council was empowered to elect one
over others, only the bramble is self-confident. The fable
burgess to parliament, and this right continued until the Redistri-
appears to be antagonistic to ideas of monarchy. The origin bution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were
of the conflicts which subsequently arose is not clear. Gaal, a also appointed, and the town boundaries described in great detail.
Later charters from Elizabeth, James \., James II., George II. and
new-comer, took the opportun'ty at the time of the vintage,
when there was a festival in ihs temple, to head a revolt and George III. made no considerable change. James II. changed the
style of the corporation to that of a mayor, twelve aldermen and
seized Shechem. Abimelech, warned by his deputy Zebul, left twelve burgesses. The abbot seems to have held a market from
his residence at Arumah and approached the city. In a fine bit very early times, and charters for the holding of markets and fairs
of realism we are told how Gaal observed the approaching foe were granted by various sovereigns from Edward I. to George II.
In the I3th and I4th centuries Abingdon was a flourishing agri-
and was told by Zebul, " You see the shadow of the hills as men," cultural centre with an extensive trade in wool, and a famous weav-
and as they drew nearer Zebul's ironical remark became a taunt, ing and clothing manufacture. The latter industry declined before
"
Where is now thy mouth ? is not this the people thou didst the reign of Queen Mary, but has since been revived.
The present Christ's Hospital originally belonged to the Gild
despise? go now and fight them!" This revolt, which Abime-
of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI. founded
lech successfully quelled, appears to be only an isolated episode.
the hospital under its present name.
Another account tells of marauding bands of Shechemites See Victoria County History, Berkshire', Joseph Stevenson,
which disturbed the district. The king disposed his men (the Chronicon Monasterii de Abingdon, A.D. 201-1189 (Rolls Series,
whole chapter is specially interesting for the full details it gives 2 vols., London, 1858).
of the nature of ancient military operations), and after totally ABINGER, JAMES SCARLETT, IST BARON (1760-1844),
64 ABINGTON ABIOGENESIS
"
English judge, was born on the i3th of December 1769 in adopted and known as the Abington cap." She died on the
Jamaica, where his father, Robert Scarlett, had property. In 4th of March 1815.
the summer of 1785 he was sent to England to complete his ABIOGENESIS, in biology, the term, equivalent to the older
"
education, and went to Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his terms spontaneous generation," Generatio aequiwca, Generatio
B.A. degree in 1789. Having entered the Inner Temple he was primaria, and of more recent terms such as archegenesis and
called to the bar in 1791, and joined the northern circuit and the archebiosis, for the theory according to which fully formed living
Lancashire sessions. Though he had no professional connexions, organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter. Aristotle
by steady application he gradually obtained a large practice, explicitly taught abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed
ultimately confining himself to the Court of King's Bench and fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that plant-
the northern circuit. He took silk in 1816, and from this time lice arise from the dew which falls on plants, that fleas are
till the close of 1834 he was the most successful lawyer at the developed from putrid matter, and so forth. T. J. Parker
bar; he was particularly effective before a jury, and his income (Elementary Biology) cites a passage from Alexander Ross, who,
reached the high-water mark of 18,500, a large sum for that "
commenting on Sir Thomas Browne's doubt as to whether mice
period. He began life as a Whig, and first entered parliament may be bred by putrefaction," gives a clear statement of the
in 1819 as member for Peterborough, representing that constitu- common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries
ency with a short break (1822-1823) till 1830, when he was elected ago. Ross wrote: " So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt
for the borough of Malton. He became attorney-general, and whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles
was knighted when Canning formed his ministry in 1827; and and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers,
though he resigned when the duke of Wellington came into power shell-fish, snails, eels, and suchlike, be procreated of putrefied
in 1828, he resumed office in 1829 and went out with the duke of matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which
Wellington in 1830. His opposition to the Reform Bill caused it is by formative power disposed. To question this is to question
his severance from the Whig leaders, and having joined the Tories reason, sense and experience. If he doubts of this let him go
he was elected, first for Colchester and then in 1832 for Norwich, to Egypt, and there he will find the fields swarming with mice,
for which borough he sat until the dissolution of parliament. He begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the in-
was appointed lord chief baron of the exchequer in 1834, and habitants."
presided in that court for more than nine years. While attending The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of abio-
the Norfolk circuit on the 2nd of April he was suddenly seized genesis was taken by the Italian Redi, who, in 1668, proved
with apoplexy, and died in his lodgings at Bury on the 7th of " "
that no maggots were bred in meat on which flies were pre-
April 1844. He had been raised to the peerage as Baron Abinger vented by wire screens from laying their eggs. From the i7th
in 1835, taking his title from the Surrey estate he had bought in century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case
1813. The qualities which brought him success at the bar were of all the higher and readily visible organisms, abiogenesis did
not equally in place on the bench; he was partial, dictatorial not occur, but that omne vivum e vivo, every living thing came
and vain; and complaint was made of his domineering attitude from a pre-existing living thing.
towards juries. But his acuteness of mind and clearness of ex- The discovery of the microscope carried the refutation further.
pression remained to the end. Lord Abinger was twice married In 1683 A. van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, and it was
(the second time only six months before his death), and by his soon found that however carefully organic matter might be
first wife (d. 1829) had three sons and two daughters, the title
protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles,
passing to his eldest son Robert (1794-1861). His second son, putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the
General Sir James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), leader of the appearance of myriads of bacteria and other low organisms. As
heavy cavalry charge at Balaclava, is dealt with in a separate knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent
article; and his elder daughter, Mary, married John, Baron possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting
Campbell, and was herself created Baroness Stratheden (Lady hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by
Stratheden and Campbell) (d. 1860). Sir Philip Anglin Scarlett generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic
(d. 1831), Lord Abinger's younger brother, was chief justice of fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms
Jamaica. continued to under suitable conditions, from inorganic
arise,
See P. C. Scarlett, Memoir of James, ist Lord Abinger (1877); matter. It was duechiefly to L. Pasteur that the occurrence
Foss's Lives of the Judges; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904). of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much
ABINCTON, FRANCES (1737-1815), English actress, was the as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter

daughter of a private soldier named Barton, and was, at first, a were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination
flower girl and a street singer. She then became servant to a from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter re-
French milliner, obtaining a taste in dress and a knowledge of mained free from microbes. The nature of sterilization, and the
French which afterwards stood her in good stead. Her first difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme deh'cacy of the

appearance on the stage was at the Haymarket in 1755 as manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time
Miranda in Mrs Centlivre's Busybody. In 1756, on the recom- to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase omne vivum e
mendation of Samuel Foote, she became a member of the Drury vivo to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few
Lane company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard belated supporters of abiogenesis. Subjection to the tempera-
and Kitty Clive. In 1759, after an unhappy marriage with her ture of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient
music-master, one of the royal trumpeters, she is mentioned in mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of
the bills as Mrs Abington. Her first success was in Ireland as bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only
Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as
invitation of Garrick, that she returned to Drury Lane. There an efficient process of sterilization. Moreover, the presence of
she remained for eighteen years, being the original of more than bacteria, or their spores, so universal that only extreme pre-
is

thirty important characters, notably Lady Teazle (1777). Her cautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material.
Beatrice, Portia, Desdemona and Ophelia were no less liked It may now be stated definitely that all known living organisms
than her Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue. arise only from pre-existing living organisms.
It was in the last character in Love for Love that Reynolds So far the theory of abiogenesis may be taken as disproved.
painted his best portrait of her. In 1782 she left Drury Lane for It must be noted, however, that this disproof relates only to
Covent Garden. After an absence from the stage from 1790 known existing organisms. All these are composed of a definite
until 1797, she reappeared, quitting it finally in 1799. Her am- substance, known as protoplasm (q.v.), and the modern refutation
bition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished of abiogenesis applies only to the organic forms in which proto-
position in society, in spite of her humble origin. Women of plasm now exists. It may be that in the progress of science it
fashion copied her frocks, and a head-dress she wore was widely may yet become possible to construct living protoplasm from
 ABIPONES ABLUTION
non-living material. The refutation of abiogenesis has no further and on the S.W. by the Black Sea. Though the country is

bearing on this possibility than to make it probable that if generally mountainous, with dense forests of oak and walnut,
there are some deep, well-watered valleys, and the climate is
protoplasm ultimately be formed in the laboratory, it will be by
a series of stages, the earlier steps being the formation of some mild. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, maize, grapes, figs,
substance, or substances, now unknown, which are not proto- pomegranates and wine. Cattle and horses are bred. Honey
plasm. Such intermediate stages may have existed in the past, is produced; and excellent arms are made. This country was
and the modern refutation of abiogenesis has no application to subdued (c. 550) by the Emperor Justinian, who introduced
the possibility of these having been formed from inorganic Christianity. Native dynasties ruled from 735 to the isth
matter at some past time. Perhaps the words archebiosis, or century, when the region was conquered by the Turks and
archegenesis, should be reserved for the theory that protoplasm became Mahommedan. The Russians acquired possession of it
in the remote past has been developed from not-living matter piecemeal between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not
by a series of steps, and many of those, notably T. H. Huxley, firmly established until after 1864. Area, 2800 sq. m. The
who took a large share in the process of refuting contemporary principal town is Sukhum-kaleh. Pop. 43,000, of whom two-
abiogenesis, have stated their belief in a primordial archebiosis. thirds are Mingrelians and one-third Abkhasians, a Cherkess or

(See BIOGENESIS and LIFE.) (P. C. M.) Circassian race. The total number of Abkhasians in the two
ABIPONES, a tribe of South American Indians of Guaycuran governments of Kutais and Kuban was 72,103 in 1897; large
stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe numbers emigrated to the Turkish empire in 1864 and 1878.
and St lago. They originally occupied the Chaco district of ABLATION (from Lat. ablatus, carried away), the process of
Paraguay, but were driven thence by the hostility of the Spaniards. removing anything; a term used technically in geology of the
According to Martin Dobrizhoffer, a Jesuit missionary, who, wearing away of a rock or glacier, and in surgery for operative
towards the end of the i8th century, lived among them for a removal.
period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5000. ABLATITIOUS (from Lat. ablatus, taken away), reducing or
They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and withdrawing; in astronomy a force which interferes between
aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards. The hair from the moon and the earth to lessen the strength of gravitation is
" " "
the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this con- called ablatitious," just as it is called addititious when it

stituting a tribal mark. The faces, breasts and arms of the increases that strength.
women were covered with black figures of various designs made ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. casus, from ablalum, taken
with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and away), in grammar, a case of the noun, the fundamental sense
blood. The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced. The men of which is direction from; in Latin, the principal language in
were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear. which the case exists, this has been extended, with or without a
No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were preposition, to the instrument or agent of an act, and the place
made of foxes' entrails. In battle the Abipones wore an armour or time at, and manner in, which a thing is done. The case is
of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn. They were also found in Sanskrit, Zend, Oscan and Umbrian, and traces
"
excellent swimmers and good horsemen. For five months in the remain in other languages. The Ablative Absolute," a gram-
year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in matical construction in Latin, consists of a noun in the ablative
shelters built in the trees. They seldom married before the age case, with a participle, attribute or qualifying word agreeing
"
of thirty, and were singularly chaste. With the Abipones," with it, not depending on any other part of the sentence, to
"
says Darwin, when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the express the time, occasion or circumstance of a fact.
ABLUTION "
parents about the price. But it frequently happens that the (Lat. ablulio, from abluere, to wash off "), a
girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents washing, in its religious use, destined to secure that ceremonial
and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of or ritualistic purity which must not be confused with the
marriage. She often runs away and hides herself, and thus physical or hygienic cleanliness of persons and things obtained
by the use of soap and water.
1
eludes the bridegroom." Infanticide was systematic, never Indeed the two states may con-
more than two children being reared in one family, a custom tradict each other, as in the case of the 4th-century Christian
doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence. The young pilgrim to Jerusalem who boasted that she had not washed
were suckled for two years. The Abipones are now believed to tier face for eighteen years for fear of removing therefrom the

be extinct as a tribe. holy chrism of baptism. The purport, then, of ablutions is to

Martin Dobrizhoffer's Latin Historia deAbiponibus (Vienna, 1784) remove, not dust and dirt, but the to us imaginary stains
was translated into English by Sara Coleridge, at the suggestion of contracted by contact with the dead, with childbirth, with
Southey, in 1822, under the title of An Account of the Abipones menstruous women, with murder whether wilful or involuntary,
(3 vols.).
with almost any form of bloodshed, with persons of inferior
ABITIBBI, a lake and river of Ontario, Canada. The lake, in caste, with dead animal refuse, e.g. leather or excrement, with
49 N., 80 W., is 60 m. long and studded with islands. It is leprosy, madness and any form of disease. Among all races
shallow, and the shores in its vicinity are covered with small in a certain grade of development such associations are vaguely
timber. It was formerly employed by the Hudson's Bay Com- felt tobe dangerous and to impair vitality. In a later stage the
pany as part of a canoe route to the fur lands of the north. The taint regarded as alive, as a demon or evil spirit alighting on
is
construction of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway through this and passing into the things and persons exposed to contamina-
district has made it ofsome importance. Its outlet is Abitibbi tion. In general, water, cows' urine and blood of swine are the
river, a rapid stream, which after a course of 200 m. joins the materials used in ablutions. Of these water is the commonest,
Moose river, flowing into James Bay. and its efficacy is enhanced if it be running, and still more if a
ABJURATION (from Lat. abjurare, to forswear), a solemn magical or sacramental virtue has been imparted to it by ritual
repudiation or renunciation on oath. At common law, it signified blessing or consecration. Some concrete examples will best
the oath of a person who had taken sanctuary to leave the realm illustrate the nature of such ablutions. In the Atharva-Veda,
for ever; this was abolished in the reign of James I. The Oath we have this allopathic remedy for fever. The patient's
vii. 1 16,
1

of Abjuration, in English history, was a solemn disclaimer, taken skin burns, that of a frog is cold to the touch; therefore tie to
by members of parliament, clergy and laymen against the
1

the foot of the bed a frog, bound with red and black thread,
i
right of the Stuarts to the crown, imposed by laws of William III., and wash down the sick man so that the water of ablution falls
George I. and George III.; but its place has since been taken
1
Intechnical ecclesiastical sense the ablution is the ritual
its
by the oath of allegiance.
washing of the chalice and of the priest's fingers after the celebration
ABKHASIA, or ABHASIA, a tract of Russian Caucasia, govern- of Holy Communion in the Catholic Church. The wine and water
ment of Kutais. The Caucasus mountains on the N. and N.E. used for this purpose are themselves sometimes called "the
divide itfrom Circassia; on the S.E. it is,bounded by Mingrelia; ablution."
i-3
66 ABNAKI ABO
on the frog. Let the medicine man or magician pray that the called Terrateens by the New England tribes and colonial
fever may pass into the frog, and the frog be forthwith re- writers. It included the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Norridge-

leased, and the cure will be effected. In the old Athenian wock, Malecite and other tribes. It formerly occupied what is
Anthesteria the blood of victims was poured over the unclean. now Maine and southern New Brunswick. All the tribes were
A bath of bulls' blood was much in vogue as a baptism in the loyal to the French during the early years of the i8th century,
mysteries of Attis. The water must in ritual washings run off but after the British success in Canada most of them withdrew
in order to carry away the miasma or unseen demon of disease; to St Francis, Canada, subsequently entering into an agreement
and accordingly in baptism the early Christians used living or with the British authorities. The Abnaki now number some
running water. Nor was it enough that the person baptized 1600.
should himself enter the water; the baptizer must pour it over For details see Handbook of American Indians, edited by F. W.
Similarly the Brahman
his head, so that it run down his person. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
wipe the cathartic water
takes care, after ablution of a person, to ABNER (Hebrew for "father of [or is a] light"), in the Bible,
off from head to feet downwards, that the malign influence may first cousin of Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (i Sam.

pass out through the feet. The same care is shown in ritual xiv. 50, xx. 25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's
ablutions in the Bukovina and elsewhere. history (i Sam. xvii. 55, xxvi. 5), and is not mentioned in the
Water and fire, spices and sulphur, are used in ritual cleans- account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power
ings, says lamblichus in his book on mysteries (v. 23), as being was crushed. Seizing the only surviving son, Ishbaal, he set

specially full of the divine nature. Nevertheless in all religions, him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan.
and especially in the Brahmanic and Christian, the cathartic David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was mean-
virtue of water is enhanced by the introduction into it by means while reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried
of suitable prayers and incantations of a divine or magical power. on between the two parties. The only engagement between the
Ablutions both of persons and things are usually cathartic, rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch
that is, intended to purge away evil influences (nadaipeiv, to as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve
make KaBapos, pure). But, as Robertson Smith observes, "holi- chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem
ness is contagious, just as uncleanness is "; and common things to have perished (2 Sam. ii. I2). 1 In the general engagement
and persons may become taboo, that is, so holy as to be dangerous which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was
and useless for daily life through the mere infection of holiness. closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have
"
Thus in Syria one who touched a dove became taboo for one been light of foot as a wild roe." As Asahel would not desist
whole day, and if a drop of blood of the Hebrew sin-offering fell from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay
on a garment it had to be ritually washed off. It was as neces- him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between
sary in the Hebrew religion for the priest to wash his hands the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, 'as next of kin to
after handling the sacred volume as before. Christians might not Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger
enter a church to say their prayers without first washing their of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on,
hands. So Chrysostom says: "Although our hands may be the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length
already pure, yet unless we have washed them thoroughly, we Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrat-
do not spread them upwards in prayer." Tertullian (c. 200) ing with Abner for marrying Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines,
had long before condemned this as a heathen custom; none the an alliance which, according to Oriental notions, implied pre-
less, it was insisted on and is a survival of the pagan
in later ages, tensions to the throne (cp. 2 Sam. xvi. 21 sqq.; i Kings ii. 21
lustrations or TrtpippavTripia. Sozomen (vi. 6) tells how a priest sqq.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and im-
sprinkled Julian and Valentinian with water according to the mediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him
heathen custom as they entered his temple. The same custom on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him.
prevails among Mahommedans. Porphyry (de Abst. ii. 44) This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast.
relates that one who touched a sacrifice meant to avert divine Almost immediately after, however. Joab, who had been sent
anger must bathe and wash his clothes in running water before away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the
returning to his city and home, and similar scruples in regard gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination
to holy objects and persons have been observed among the was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient
natives of Polynesia, New Zealand and ancient Egypt. The justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the
rites, met within all lands, pf pouring out water or bathing in time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show
order to produce rain from heaven, differ in their significance that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not ven-
from ablutions with water and belong to the realm of sympa- ture to punish its perpetrators (2 Sam. iii. 31-39; cp. i Kings ii.
thetic magic. 31 seq.). (See DAVID.)
There are certain forms of purification which one does not ABO (Finnish Turku), a city and seaport, the capital of the
know whether to describe as ablutions or anointings. Thus province of Abo-Bjorneborg, in the grand duchy of Finland, on
" "
Demosthenes in his speech On the crown accused Aeschines the Aura-joki, about 3 m. from where it falls into the gulf of
" them clean with
of having purified the initiated and wiped Bothnia. Pop. (1810) 10,224; (1870) 19,617; (1904) 42,639.
(not from) mud and pitch." Smearing with gypsum (rLravos, It is 381 m. by rail from St Petersburg via Tavastehus, and is
*
titanos) had a similar purifying effect, and it has been suggested in regular steamer communication with St Petersburg, Vasa,
that the Titans were no more than old-world votaries who had Stockholm, Copenhagen and Hull. It was already a place of
so disguised themselves. Perhaps the use of ashes in mourning importance when Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden.
had the same origin. In the rite of death-bed penance given in When the Estates of Finland seceded from Sweden and accepted
the old Mozarabic Christian ritual of Spain, ashes were poured the Emperor Alexander of Russia as their grand duke at the
over the sick man. Diet of Borga in 1809, Abo became the capital of the new state,
AUTHORITIES. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites; Jul. Well- and so remained till 1819 when the seat of government was
hausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, transferred to Helsingfors. In November 1827 nearly the
iii. 2nd ed., Berlin, 1897); John Spencer, De legibus "
Hebraeorum whole city was burnt down, the university and its valuable
rilualibus (Tubingae, 1732) Art. "Clean and Unclean in Hastings'
;
library being entirely destroyed. Before this calamity Abo
Bible Dictionary and in Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. iv. J. G. Frazer,
;

Adonis, Attis, Osiris (London, 1906); Joseph Bingham, Antiquities

contained i no houses and
13,000 inhabitants; and its university
of the Christian Church, bk. viii. Hermann Oldenberg, Die Religion
;
had 40 professors, more than 500 students, and a library of up-
des Veda's, Berlin, 1894. (F. C. C.) wards of 30,000 volumes, together with a botanical garden, an
ABNAKI (" the whitening sky at daybreak," i.e. Easterners), 1
The object of the story of the encounter is to explain the name
a confederacy of North American Indians of Algonquian stock, Helkath-hazzurim, the meaning of which is doubtful (Ency. Bib.
1
By J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion, p. 493. col. 2006; Batten in Zeit.f. alt-test. Wissens. 1906, pp. 90 sqq.).
 ABO-BJORNEBORG ABORTION 67
observatory and a chemical laboratory. university hasThe or ceremonial practices which were impure. An incorrect deri-
since been removed to Helsingfors. Abo remains the ecclesias- vation was ab homine (i.e. inhuman), and the spelling of the
" "
tical capital of Finland, is the seat of the Lutheran archbishop adjective abominable in the first Shakespeare folio is always
abhominable." Colloquially " abomination " and " abomin-
"
and contains a fine cathedral dating from 1258 and restored
"
after the fire of 1827. The cathedral is dedicated to St Henry, able are used to mean simply excessive in a disagreeable sense.
the patron saint of Finland, an English missionary who intro- ABOR HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier
duced Christianity into the country in the i2th century. Abo of India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Abors.
is the seat of the first of the three courts of appeal of Finland. It lies north of Lakhimpur district, in the province of eastern
It has two high schools, a school of commerce and a school of Bengal and Assam, and is bounded on the east by the Mishmi
navigation. The city is second only to Helsingfors for its trade ;
Hills and on the west by the Miri Hills, the villages of the tribe

sail-cloth,cotton and tobacco are manufactured, and there are extending to the Dibong river. The term Abor is an Assamese
extensive saw-mills. There is also a large trade in timber and word, signifying "barbarous" or "independent," and is applied
a considerable butter export. Ship-building has considerably ina general sense by the Assamese to many frontier tribes; but
developed, torpedo-boats being built here for the Russian navy. in its restricted sense it is specially given to the above tract.

Vessels drawing 9 or 10 feet come up to the town, but ships of The Abors, together with the cognate tribes of Miris, Daphlas
greater draught are laden and discharged at its harbour (Born- and Akas, are supposed to be descended from a Tibetan stock.
holm, on Hyrvinsala Island), which is entered yearly by from They are a quarrelsome and sulky race, violently divided in
700 to 800 ships, of about 200,000 tons. their political relations. In former times they committed fre-
ABO-BJORNEBORG, a province occupying the S.W. corner of quent raids upon the plains of Assam, and have been the object
Finland and including the Aland islands. It has a total area of of more than one retaliatory expedition by the British govern-

24,171 square kilometres and a population (1900) of 447,098, ment. In 1893-94 occurred the first Bor Abor expedition.
of whom 379,622 spoke Finnish and 67,260 Swedish; 446,900 Some military police sepoys were murdered in British territory,
were of the Lutheran religion. The province occupies a promi- and a force of 600 troops was sent, who traversed the Abor
nent position in Finland for its manufacture of cottons, sugar country, and destroyed the villages concerned in the murder
refinery, wooden goods, metals, machinery, paper, &c. Its and all other villages that opposed the expedition. second A
chief towns are: Abo (pop. 42,639), Bjorneborg (16,053), Raumo expedition became necessary later on, two small patrols having
(5501), Nystad (4165), Mariehamn (1171), Nadendal (917). been treacherously murdered; and a force of too British troops
" "
ABODE abide," to dwell, properly
(from to wait for ," to traversed the border of the Abor country and punished the tribes,
bide) generally, a dwelling.
,
In English law this term has a more while a blockade was continued against them from 1894 to 1900.
restricted meaning than domicile, being used to indicate the See Colonel Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, 1872.

place of a man's residence or business, whether that be either ABORIGINES, a mythical people of central Italy, connected
temporary or permanent. The law may regard for certain in legendary history with Aeneas, Latinus and Evander. They
purposes, as a man's abode, the place where he carries on busi- were supposed to have descended from their mountain home
ness, though he may reside elsewhere so that the term has
;
near Reate (an ancient Sabine town) upon Latium, whence they
come to have a looser significance than residence, which has been expelled the Siceli and subsequently settled down as Latini
"
defined as where a man lives with his family and sleeps at under a King Latinus (Dion Halic. i. 9. 60). The most gener-
night" (R. v. Hammond, 1852, 17 Q.B. 772). In serving a ally accepted etymology of the name (ab origine), according to
notice of action, a solicitor's place of business may be given as which they were the original inhabitants ( = Gk. avroxQoves) of the
hisabode (Roberts v. Williams, 1835, 5 L.J.M.C. 23), and in more country, is inconsistent with the fact that the oldest authorities
recent decisions it has been similarly held that where a notice (e.g. Cato in his Origines) regarded them as Hellenic immigrants,
was required to be served under the Public Health Act 1875, not as a native Italian people. Other explanations suggested
either personally or to some inmate of the owner's or occupier's are arborigines, "tree-born," and aberrigines, "nomads." His-
" "
place of abode, a place of business was sufficient. torical and ethnographical discussions have led to no result;
"
ABOMASUM (caillette), the fourth or rennet stomach of the most that can be said is that, if not a general term, abori-
"
Ruminantia. From the omasum the food is finally deposited gines may be the name of an Italian stock, about whom the
in the abomasum, a cavity considerably larger than either the ancients knew no more than ourselves.
second or third stomach, although less than the first. The base In modern times the term "Aborigines" has been extended in
of the abomasum is turned to the omasum. It is of an irregular signification, and is used to indicate the inhabitants found in a
conical form. It is that part of the digestive apparatus which country at its first discovery, in contradistinction to colonies or
is analogous to the single stomach of other Mammalia, as the new races, the time of whose introduction into the country is
food there undergoes the process of chymification, after being known.
macerated and ground down in the three first stomachs. The
Aborigines' Protection Society was founded in 1838 in
ABOMEY, capital of the ancient kingdom of Dahomey, West England as the result of a royal commission appointed at the
Africa, now included in the French colony of the same name. instance of Sir T. Powell Buxton to inquire into the treatment
It is 70 m. N. by rail of the seaport of Kotonu, and has a popula- of the indigenous populations of the various British colonies.
tion of about 15,000. Abomey is built on a rolling plain, 800 ft. The inquiry revealed the gross cruelty and injustice with which
above sea-level, terminating in short bluffs to the N.W., where it the natives had been often treated. Since its foundation the
is bounded by a long depression. The town was surrounded by a society has done much to make English colonization a synonym
mud wall, pierced by six gates, and was further protected by a for humane and generous treatment of savage races.
ditch 5 ft. deep, filled with a dense growth of prickly acacia, ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish),
the usual defence of West African strongholds. Within the in obstetrics, the premature separation and expulsion of the
walls, which had a circumference of six miles, were villages contents of the pregnant uterus. It is a common terminology
separated by fields, several royal palaces, a market-place and to call premature labour of an accidental type a "miscarriage,"
a large square containing the barracks. In November 1892, in order to distinguish "abortion" as a deliberately induced
Behanzin, the king of Dahomey, being defeated by the French, act, whether as a medical necessity by the accoucheur, or as
set fire to Abomey and fled northward. Under French adminis- a criminal proceeding (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE) otherwise ;

tration the town has been rebuilt, placed (1905) in railway the term "abortion" would ordinarily be used when occurring
" "
communication with the coast, and given an ample water supply before the eighth month of gestation, and premature labour
by the sinking of artesian wells. subsequently. As an accident of pregnancy, it is far from un-
ABOMINATION (from Lat. ab, from, and ominare, to fore- common, although its relative frequency, as compared with
bode), anything contrary to omen, and therefore regarded with that of completed gestation, has been very differently estimated
aversion; a word used often in the Bible to denote evil doctrines by accoucheurs. It is more liable to occur in the earlier than
68 ABORTION
in the later months of pregnancy, and it would also appear to demeanour any attempt to effect the destruction of such an
occur more readily at the periods corresponding to those of the infant, though unsuccessful. Blackstone (1723-1780), to be
"
menstrual discharge. It may be induced by numerous causes, sure, a hundred years later, says that, if a woman is quick

both of a local and general nature. Malformations of the pelvis, with child, and by poison or otherwise killeth it in her womb,
accidental injuries and the diseases and displacements to which or if any one beat her, whereby the child dieth in her body, and
the uterus is liable, on the one hand; and, on the other, various she is delivered of a dead child, this, though not murder, was,
morbid conditions of the ovum or placenta leading to the death by the ancient law, homicide or manslaughter." Whatever
of the foetus, are among the direct local causes. The general may have been the exact view taken by the common law, the
causes embrace certain states of the system which are apt to offence was made statutory by an act of 1803, making the
exercise a more or less direct influence upon the progress of attempt to cause the miscarriage of a woman, not being, or not
utero-gestation. The tendency to recurrence in persons who being proved, to be quick with child, a felony, punishable with
have previously miscarried is well known, and should ever be fine, imprisonment, whipping or transportation for any term
borne in mind with the view of avoiding any cause likely to lead not exceeding fourteen years. Should the woman have proved
to a repetition of the accident. Abortion resembles ordinary to have quickened, the attempt was punishable with death.
labour in its general phenomena, excepting that in the former The provisions of this statute were re-enacted in 1828. The
hemorrhage often to a large extent forms one of the leading English law on the subject is now governed by the Offences
symptoms. The treatment embraces the means to be used by against the Person Act 1861, which makes the attempting to
rest, astringents and sedatives, to prevent the occurrence when cause miscarriage by administering poison or other noxious
it merely threatens; or when, on the contrary, it is inevitable, thing, or unlawfully using any instrument equally a felony,
to accomplish as speedily as possible the complete removal of whether the woman be, or be not, with child. No distinction is
the entire contents of the uterus. now made as to whether the foetus is or is not alive, legislation
Among primitive savage races abortion is practised to a far appearing to make the offence statutory with the object of
less extent than infanticide (q.v.), which offers a simpler way of prohibiting any risk to the life of the mother. If a woman ad-

getting rid of inconvenient progeny. But it is common among ministers to herself any poison or other noxious thing, or unlaw-
the American Indians, as well as in China, Cambodia and India, fully uses any instrument or other means to procure her own
although throughout Asia it is generally contrary both to law miscarriage, she is guilty of felony. The punishment for the
and religion. How far it was considered a crime among the offence is penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or
civilized nations of antiquity has long been debated. Those imprisonment for not more than two years. If a child is born
who maintain the impunity of the practice rely for their authority alive,but in consequence of its premature birth, or of the means
upon certain passages in the classical authors, which, while employed, afterwards dies, the offence is murder; the general
bitterly lamenting the frequency of this enormity, yet never law as to accessories applies to the offence.
allude to any laws by which it might be suppressed. For ex- In all the countries of Europe the causing of abortion is now
ample, in one of Plato's dialogues (Theaet.), Socrates is made to punishable with more or less lengthy terms of imprisonment.
speak of artificial abortion as a practice, not only common but Indeed, the tendency in continental Europe is to regard the
allowable; and Plato himself authorizes it in his Republic abortion as a crime against the unborn child, and several codes
(lib. v.). Aristotle (Polit. lib. vii. c. 17) gives it as his opinion (notably that of the German Empire) expressly recognize the
that no child ought to be suffered to come into the world, the life of the foetus, while others make the penalty more severe if

mother being above forty or the father above fifty-five years of abortion has been caused in the later stages of pregnancy, or if
age. Lysias maintained, in one of his pleadings quoted by the woman is married. According to the weight of authority in
Harpocration, that forced abortion could not be considered the United States abortion was not regarded as a punishable
homicide, because a child in utero was not an animal, and had no offence at common law, if the abortion was produced with the
separate existence. Among the Romans, Ovid (Amor. lib. ii.), consent of the mother prior to the time when she became quick
Juvenal (Sat. vi. 594) and Seneca (Consol. ad Hel. 16) mention with child; but the Supreme Courts of Pennsylvania and North
the frequency of the offence, but maintain silence as to any Carolina held it a crime at common law, which might be com-
laws for punishing it. On the other hand, it is argued that the mitted as soon as gestation had begun (Mills v. Com. 13 Pa. St.
authority of Galen and Cicero (pro Cluentio) place it beyond a 630; State v. Slagle, 83 N.C. 630). The attempt is a punishable
doubt that, so far from being allowed to pass with impunity, offence in several states, but not in Ohio. Nor was it ever murder
the offence in question was sometimes punished by death; at common law to take the life of the child at any period of
that the authority of Lysias is of doubtful authenticity; and gestation, even in the very act of delivery (Mitchell v. Com. 78
that the speculative reasonings of Plato and Aristotle, in matters Ky. 204). If the death of the woman results it is murder at
of legislation, ought not to be confounded with the actual state common law (Com. v. Parker, 9 Met. [Mass.] 263). It is now
of the laws. Moreover, Stobaeus (Serm. 73) has preserved a a statutory offence in all states of the Union, but the woman
passage from Musonius, in which that philosopher expressly must be actually pregnant. In most states not only is the person
states that the ancient law-givers inflicted punishments on who causes the abortion punishable, but also any one who sup-
females who caused themselves to abort. After the spread of plies any drug or instrument for the purpose. The woman,
Christianity among the Romans, however, foeticide became however, is not an accomplice (except by statute as in Ohio,
equally criminal with the murder of an adult, and the barbarian State v. M'Coy, 39 N.E. 316), nor is she guilty of any crime
hordes which afterwards overran the empire also treated the unless by statute as in New York (Penal Code, 295) and Cali-
offence as a crime punishable with death. This severe penalty fornia (Penal Code, 275) and Connecticut (Gen. Stats. 1902,
remained in force in all the countries of Europe until the Middle 1156). She may be a witness, and her testimony does not
Ages. With the gradual disuse of the old barbarous punishments need corroboration. The attempt is also a crime in New York
so universal in medieval times came also a reversal of opinion (1905, People v. Conrad, 102 App. D. 566).
as to the magnitude of the crime involved in killing a child not AUTHORITIES. Plpucguet, Commentarius Medicus in processus
yet born. But the exact period of transition is not dearly criminates super homicidio el infanticidio, &c. (1736); Burke Ryan,
marked. Infanticide, its Law, Prevalence, Prevention and History (1862);
In England the Anglo-Saxons seem to have regarded abortion G. Greaves, Observations on the Laws referring to Child-Murder and
Criminal Abortion (1864); Storer and Heard, Criminal Abortion,
only as an ecclesiastical offence. Sir Matthew Hale (1609-1676) its Nature, Evidence and Law (Boston, 1868); J. Cave Browne,
tells us that if anything is done to "a woman quick or great Infanticide, its Origin, Progress and Suppression (1857) T. R. Beck,
;

with child, to make an abortion, or whereby the child within Medical Jurisprudence (1842); A. S. Taylor, Principles and Practice
her is killed, it is not murder or manslaughter by the law of of Medical Jurisprudence (1894); Sir J. Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law of England (1883); Sir W. O. Russell, Crimes and
England, because it is not yet in rerum natura." But the Misdemeanours (3 vols., 1896); Archbold's Pleading and Evidence
common law appears, nevertheless, to have treated as a mis- in Criminal Cases (1900) Roscoe's Evidence in Criminal Casts (1898);
;
 ABOUKIR ABRAHAM 69
Treub, van Oppenraag and Vlaming, The Right to Life of the Unborn was that of an orthodox popularizer, and in no sense epoch-
Child (New York, 1903) L. Hochheimer, Crimes and Criminal
;
making. His dramas are negligible. His more serious novels,
Procedure (New York, 1897); A. A. Tardieu, &ude medico-legal sur
I'avortement (Paris, 1904) F. Berolzheimer, System der Rechls- und
;
Madelon (1863), L'infdme (1867), the three that form the
Wisscnschaftsphilosophie (Munich, 1904). trilogy of the Vieille Roche (1866), and Le roman d'un brave
ABOUKIR, a village on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, homme (1880) a kind of counterblast to the view of the French
145 m. N.E. of Alexandria by rail, containing a castle used as workman presented in Zola's Assommoir contain striking and
a state prison by Mehemet Ali. Near the village are many amusing scenes, no doubt, but scenes which are often suggestive
remains of ancient buildings, Egyptian, Greek and Roman. of the stage, while description, dissertation, explanation too
About 2 m. S.E. of the village are ruins supposed to mark the frequently take the place of life. His best work after all is to
site of Canopus. A little farther east the Canopic branch of be found in the books that are almost wholly farcical, Le nez
the Nile (now dry) entered the Mediterranean. d'un notaire (1862); Le roi des montagnes (1856); L'homme d
Stretching eastward as far as the Rosetta mouth of the Nile I'oreille cassee (1862); Trente el quarante (1858); Le cas de
isthe spacious bay of Aboukir, where on the ist of August 1798 M. Guerin (1862). Here most genuine wit, his spright-
his
Nelson fought the battle of the Nile, often referred to as the liness, his vivacity, the fancy thatwas in him, have free play.
"
battle of Aboukir. The latter title is applied more properly You will never be more than a little Voltaire," said one
to an engagement between the French expeditionary army and of his masters when he was a lad at school. It was a true
the Turks fought on the 2$th of July 1799. Near Aboukir, on prophecy. (F. T. M.)
the 8th of March 1801, the British army commanded by Sir R. ABRABANEL, ISAAC, called also ABRAVANEL, ABARBANEL
Abercromby landed from transports in the face of a strenuous
its (1437-1508), Jewish statesman, philosopher, theologian and
opposition from a French force entrenched on the beach. (See commentator, was born at Lisbon of an ancient family which
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) claimed descent from the royal house of David. Like many of
ABOUT, EDMOND FRANQOIS VALENTIN (1828-1885), the Spanish Jews he united scholarly tastes with political ability.
French novelist, publicist and journalist, was born on the I4th He held a high place in the favour of King Alphonso V., who
of February 1828, at Dieuze, in Lorraine. The boy's school entrusted him with the management of important state affairs.
career was brilliant. In 1848 he entered the Ecole Normale, On the death of Alphonso in 1481, his counsellors and favourites
taking the second place in the annual competition for admis- were harshly treated by his successor John, and Abrabanel was
sion, Taine being first. Among his college contemporaries were compelled to flee to Spain, where he held for eight years (1484-
Taine, Francisque, Sarcey, Challemel-Lacour and the ill-starred 1492) the post of a minister of state under Ferdinand and
Prevost-Paradol. Of them all About was, according to Sarcey, Isabella. When the 'Jews were banished from Spain in 1492,
"
the most highly vitalized, exuberant, brilliant and undisci- no exception was made in Abrabanel's favour. He afterwards
plined." At the end of his college career he joined the French resided at Naples, Corfu and Monopoli, and in 1 503 removed to
school in Athens, but if we may believe his own account, it had Venice, where he held office as a minister of state till his death
never been his intention to follow the professorial career, for in 1508. His repute as a commentator on the Scriptures is still
which the Ecole Normale was a preparation, and in 1853 he high; in the I7th and i8th centuries he was much read by
returned to France and frankly gave himself to literature and Christians such as Buxtorf. Abrabanel often quotes Christian
journalism. A book on Greece, La Grece contemporaine (1855), authorities, though he opposed Christian exegesis of Messianic
which did not spare Greek susceptibilities, had an immediate passages. He was one of the first to see that for Biblical exegesis
success. In Tolla (1855) About was charged with drawing too it was necessary to reconstruct the social environment of olden

freely on an earlier Italian novel, Vittoria Savelli (Paris, 1841). times, and he skilfully applied his practical knowledge of state-
This caused a strong prejudice against him, and he was the craft to the elucidation of the books of Samuel and Kings.
object of numerous attacks, to which he was ready enough to ABRACADABRA, a word analogous to Abraxas (<?..), used
retaliate. The Lettres d'un ban jeune homme, written to the as a magical formula by the Gnostics of the sect of Basilides
Figaro under the signature of Valentin de Quevilly, provoked in invoking the aid of beneficent spirits against disease and
more animosities. During the next few years, with indefatigable misfortune. It is found on Abraxas stones which were worn as
energy, and generally with full public recognition, he wrote amulets. Subsequently its use spread beyond the Gnostics,
novels, stories, a play which failed, a book-pamphlet on the and in modern times it is applied contemptuously (e.g. by the
Roman question, many pamphlets on other subjects of the day, early opponents of the evolution theory) to a conception or
newspaper articles innumerable, some art criticisms, rejoinders hypothesis which purports to be a simple solution of apparently
to the attacks of his enemies, and popular manuals of political insoluble phenomena. The Gnostic physician Serenus Sam-
economy, L'A B
C du travailleur (1868), Le pr ogres (1864). monicus gave precise instructions as to its mystical use in avert-
About's attitude towards the empire was that of a candid friend. ing or curing agues and fevers generally. The paper on which
He believed in its improvability, greeted the liberal ministry of the word was written had to be folded in the form of a cross,
Emile Ollivier at the beginning of 1870 with delight and wel- suspended from the neck by a strip of linen so as to rest on the
comed the Franco-German War. That day of enthusiasm had a pit of the stomach, worn in this way for nine days, and then,
terrible morrow. For his own personal part he lost the loved before sunrise, cast behind the wearer into a stream running to
home near Saverne in Alsace, which he had purchased in 1858 the east. The letters were usually arranged as a triangle in one
out of the fruits of his earlier literary successes. With the fall of the following ways:
of the empire he became a republican, and, always an inveterate ABRACADABRA ABRACADABRA
anti-clerical, he threw himself with ardour into the battle against ABRACADABR BRACADABR
the conservative reaction which made head during the first ABRACADAB RACADAB
years of the republic. From 1872 onwards for some five or six ABRACADA ACADA
years his paper, the
'
XIX
Siecle, of which he was the heart and ABRACAD CAD
soul, became a power in the land. But the republicans never ABRACA A
quite forgave the tardiness of his conversion, and no place ABRAC
rewarded his later zeal. On the 23rd January 1884 he was ABRA
elected a member of the French Academy, but died on the i6th ABR
of January 1885, before taking his seat. His journalism of AB
;
which specimens in his earlier and later manners will be found A
in the two series of Lettres d'un ban jeune homme d, sa cousine ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high "), the
Madeleine (1861 and 1863), and the posthumous collection, Le ancestor of the Israelites, the first of the great Biblical patri-
dix-neuvieme sitcle (1892) was of its nature ephemeral. So archs. His life as narrated in the book of Genesis reflects the
. were the pamphlets, great and small. His political economy traditions of different ages. It is the latest writer (P) who men-
 7o ABRAHAM
tions Abram (the original form of the name), Nahor and Haran, the text is corrupt). He is now promised as heir one of his own
sons of Terah, at the close of a genealogy of the sons of Shem, flesh, and a remarkable and solemn passage records how the
which includes among its members Eber the eponym of the promise was ratified by a covenant. The description is particu-
Hebrews. Terah is said to have come from Ur of the Chaldees, larly noteworthy for the sudden appearance of birds of prey,
usually identified with Mukayyar in south Babylonia. He which attempted to carry off the victims of the sacrificial cove-
migrated to Haran in Mesopotamia, apparently the classical
1
nant. The interpretation of the evil omen is explained by an
Carrhae, on a branch of the Habor. Thence, after a short stay, allusion to the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt and their
Abram with his wife Sarai, and Lot the son of IJaran, and all return in the fourth generation (xv. 16; contrast v. 13, after four
their followers, departed for Canaan. The oldest tradition does hundred years; the chapter is extremely intricate and 'has the

not know of this twofold move, and seems to locate Abram's appearance of being of secondary origin). The main narrative
birthplace and the homes of his kindred at Haran (Gen. xxiv. now relates how Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to
4, 7, xxvii. 43). At the divine command, and encouraged by the Abram her Egyptian handmaid Hagar, who, when she found she
promise that Yahweh would make of him, although hitherto was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that
a great nation, he journeyed down to Shechem, and at
childless, Sara;, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story
the sacred tree (cf. xxxv. 4, Josh. xxiv. 26, Judg. ix. 6) received of Hannah, i Sam. i. 6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to
a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed. flee (xvi. 1-14, J;on the details see ISHMAEL). Another tradi-
Having built an altar to commemorate the theophany, he tion places the expulsion of Hagar after the birth of Isaac. It
removed to a spot between Bethel and Ai, where he built another was thirteen years after the birth of Ishmael, according to the
altar and upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen.
called latest narratives, that God appeared unto Abram with a renewed
xii. 1-9). Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between promise that his posterity should inhabit the land. To mark the
his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to solemnity of the occasion, the patriarch's name was changed to
Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the Abraham, and that of his wife to Sarah.
4
A covenant was
first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the concluded with him for all time, and as a sign thereof the rite of
Jordan, whilst Abram, after receiving another promise from circumcision was instituted (xvii. P). The promise of a son to
Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of Mamre in Hebron and built Sarah made Abraham "laugh", a punning allusion to the name
an altar. In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction Isaac (q.v.) which appears again in other forms. Thus, it is
of Sodom and Gomorrah, Abram appears prominently in a fine Sarah herself who "laughs" at the idea, when Yahweh appears
passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, to Abraham at Mamre (xviii. 1-15, J), or who^ when the child is
and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein born cries "God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth
the city shall be preserved (xviii. 16-33). will laugh at me" (xxi. 6, E). Finally, there is yet another
A peculiar passage, more valuable for the light it throws story which attributes the flight of Hagar and Ishmael to Sarah's
upon primitive ideas than for its contribution to the history jealousy at the sight of Ishmael's "mocking" (rather dancing
of Abram, narrates the patriarch's visit to Egypt. Driven by or playing, the intensive form of the verb "to laugh") on the
a famine to take refuge in Egypt (cf. xxvi. i, xli. 57, xlii. i), feast day when Isaac was weaned (xxi. 8 sqq.). But this last
he feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs story is clearly out of place, since a child who was then fourteen
of the Egyptians and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged years old (cf xvii. 24, xxi. 5) could scarcely be described as a weak
.

that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the Pharaoh, babe who had to be carried (xxi. 14; see the commentaries).
who took her into the royal harem and enriched Abram with Abraham was now commanded by God to offer up Isaac in
herds and servants. But when Yahweh "plagued Pharaoh and the land of Moriah. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by
his house with great plagues" suspicion was aroused, and the an angel as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a ram
Pharaoh rebuked the patriarch for his deceit and sent him away which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he
under an escort (xii. lo-xiii. i). This story of Abram and his received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant
increased wealth (xiii. 2) receives no comment at the hands of prosperity (xxii. E). Thence he returned to Beersheba. The
the narrator, and in its present position would make Sarai over story one of the few told by E, and significantly teaches that
is

sixty years of age (xii. 4, xvii. i, 17). A

similar experience is human sacrifice was not required by the Almighty (cf. Mic.
said to have happened to Abraham and Sarah at Gerar with the vi. 7 seq.). The interest of the narrative now extends to Isaac
Philistine king Abimelech (xx. E), but the tone of the narrative alone. To his "only son" (cp. xxii. 2, 12) Abraham gave all
isnoticeably more advanced, and the presents which the patri- he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands
arch receives are compensation for the king's offence. Here, outside Palestine; they were thus regarded as less intimately
however, Sarah has reached her ninetieth year (xvii. 17). (The related to Isaac and his descendants (xxv. 1-4, 6). The measures
dates are due to the post-exilic framework in which the stories taken by the patriarch for the marriage of Isaac are circum-
are inserted.) Still another episode of the same nature is re- stantially described. His head-servant was sent to his master's i

corded of Isaac and Rebekah at Gerar, also with Abimelech. country and kindred to find a suitable bride, and the necessary
Ethically it is the loftiest, and Isaac obtains his wealth simply preparation for the story is contained in the description of ,

through his successful farming. Arising out of the incident is Nahor's family (xxii. 20-24). The picturesque account of the
an account of a covenant between Abimelech and Isaac (xxvi. meeting with Rebekah throws interesting light on oriental
16-33, J)> a duplicate of which is placed in the time of Abraham custom. Marriage with one's own folk (cf. Gen. xxvii. 46, J

(xxi. 22-34, J and E).

Beersheba, which figures in both, is cele- xxix. 19; Judg. xiv. 3), and especially with a cousin, is recom-
brated by the planting of a sacred tree and (like Bethel) by the mended now even as in the past. For its charm the story is '

invocation of the name of Yahweh. This district is the scene comparable with the account of Jacob's experiences in the same
of the birth of Ishmael and Isaac. As Sarai was barren (cf. land (xxix.). For the completion of the history of Abraham
2
xi. 3o) the promise that his seed should possess the land seemed the compiler of Genesis has used P's narrative. Sarah is said
incapable of fulfilment. According to one rather obscure narra- to have died at a good old age, and was buried in the cave of
tive, Abram's sole heir was the servant, who was over his Machpelah near Hebron, which the patriarch had purchased,
household, apparently a certain Eliezer of Damascus (xv. 2,
3 with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite (xxiii.) and here ;

1
The name is not spelt with the same guttural as Haran the son he himself was buried. Centuries later the tomb became a place
1
of Terah. of pilgrimage and the traditional site is marked by a fine mosque.
2
Barrenness is a motif which recurs in the stories of Rebekah, 4
Abram (or Abiram) is a familiar and old-attested name meaning
Rachel, the mother of Samson, and Hannah (Gen. xxv. 21, xxix. 31 ; "(my) father is exalted"; the meaning of Abraham is obscure
Judg. xiii. 2; i Sam. i. 5). and the explanation Gen. xvii. 5 is mere word-play. It is possible
*
Abram's connexion with Damascus is supplemented in the that raham was originally only a dialectical form of ram.
traditions of Nicolaus of Damascus as cited by Josephus (Antiq. 6
See Sir Charles Warren's description, Hasting's Diet. Bible,
i. 7. 2). vol. iii. pp. 200 seq. The so-called Babylonian colouring of Gen.
 ABRAHAM 7 1

The story of Abraham is of greater value for the study of Old destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities (see SODOM AND
Testament theology than for the history of Israel. He became GOMORRAH).
to the Hebrews the embodiment of their ideals, and stood at Different writers have regarded the life of Abraham differently.
their head as the founder of the nation, the one to whom Yahweh He has been viewed as a chieftain of the Amorites (q.v.), as the
had manifested his love by frequent promises and covenants. head of a great Semitic migration from Mesopotamia; or, since
From the time when he was bidden to leave his country to enter Ur and IJaran were seats of Moon-worship, he has been identi-
the unknown land, Yahweh was ever present to encourage him fied with a moon-god. From the character of the literary evi-
to trust in the future when his posterity should possess the land, dence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham
and so, in its bitterest hours, Israel could turn for consolation was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram-
to the promises of the past which enshrined in Abraham its Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been
hopes for the future. Not only is Abraham the founder of combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not
explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. But it is important
3
religion, but he, of all the patriarchal figures, stands out most
prominently as the recipient of the promises (xii. 2 seq. 7, xiii. to remember that the narratives are not contemporary, and
14-17, xv., xvii., xviii. 17-19, xxii. 17 seq.; cf. xxiv. 7), and these that the interesting discovery of the name Abi-ramu (Abram) on
the apostle Paul associates with the coming of Christ, and, Babylonian contracts of about 2000 B.C. does not prove the
adopting a characteristic and artificial style of interpretation Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as
" "
prevalent in his time, endeavours to force a Messianic interpre- the fact that there were Amorites in Babylonia at the same
period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of
1
tation out of them.
For the history of the Hebrews the life of Abraham is of the their number. One remarkable chapter associates Abraham
same value as other stories of traditional ancestors. The narra- with kings of Elam and the east (Gen. xiv.). No longer a
tives, viewed dispassionately, represent him as an idealized peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers,
4

sheikh (with one important exception, Gen. xiv., see below), he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have
about whose person a number of stories have gathered. As the ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been
father of Isaac and Ishmael, he is ultimately the common an- strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.
cestor of the Israelites and their nomadic fierce neighbours, men "It is generally recognized that this chapter holds quite an
isolated place in the Pentateuchal history; it is the
roving unrestrainedly like the wild ass, troubled by and troubling only passage
which presents Abraham in the character of a warrior, and connects
every one (xvi. 12). As the father of Midian, Sheba and other him with historical names and political movements, and there are
Arabian tribes (xxv. 1-4), it is evident that some degree of no clear marks by which it can be assigned to
any one of the docu-
kinship was felt by the Hebrews with the dwellers of the more ments of which Genesis is made up. Thus, while one school of
distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the interpreters finds in the chapter the earliest fragment of the political
mothers (Sarah, Hagar and Keturah) are in the descending history of western Asia, some even holding with Ewald that the
narrative is probably based on old Canaanite records, other critics,
scale as regards purity of blood. This great ancestral figure as Noldeke, regard the whole as unhistorical and comparatively
came, it was said, from Ur in Babylonia and Haran and thence late in origin. On the latter view, which finds its main support
to Canaan. Late tradition supposed that the migration was in the intrinsic difficulties of the narrative, it is scarcely possible
to avoid the conclusion that the chapter is one of the latest additions
to escape Babylonian idolatry (Judith v., Jubilees xii.; cf.
to the Pentateuch (Wellhausen and many others)." 6
Josh. xxiv. 2), and knewAbraham's miraculous escape from
of
death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in Is.
On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in
The route along the banks of the Euphrates from remote days may have been current, considerable interest is
xxix. 22).
attached to the names. Of these, Amraphel, king of Shinar
south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that
(i.e. Babylonia, Gen. x. 10), has been identified with Kham-
the tradition has nothing improbable in itself, but the prominence
murabi, one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (c. 2000
given in the older narratives to the view that Haran was the
home gives this the preference. It was thence that Jacob, the B.C.), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the

father of the tribes of Israel, came and the route to Shechem

Mediterranean Sea, the equation has found considerable favour.
and Bethel is precisely the same in both. A twofold migration Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the
is doubtful, and, from what is known of the situation in Palestine king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can
in the only be regarded as possible. Arioch, king of Ellasar, has been
isth century B.C., is extremely improbable. Further,
connected with Eriaku of Larsa the reading has been ques-
there isyet another parallel in the story of the conquest by
tioned a contemporary with Khammurabi. Chedorlaomer,
Joshua (q.v.) partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf .
,

also Josh. viii. 9 with Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3), whence it would appear king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine Elamite name.
that too much importance must not be laid upon any ethnological Finally, the name of Tid'al, king of Goiim, may be identical
with a certain Tudhulu the son of Gazza, a warrior, but appar-
interpretation which fails to account for the three versions.
That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not ently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription,
and Goiim may stand for Gutim, the Guti being a people who
unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is
lived to the east of Kurdistan. Nevertheless, there is as yet no
difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from
the east of the Jordan; the presence of Aramaean blood among
monumental evidence in favour of the genuineness of the story,
the Israelites (see JACOB) the origin of the sanctity of venerable
and at the most it can only be said that the author (of what-
;

these and other consideratons may readily be found to

ever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy, source,
sites,
account for the traditions. Noteworthy coincidences in the
and in representing an invasion of Palestine by Babylonian
overlords has given expression to a possible situation. 6 The
lives of Abraham and Isaac, noticed above, point to the fluctu-

ating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abra- improbabilities and internal difficulties of the narrative remain
ham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common 'According to Breasted
" (Amer. Journ. of Sent. Lit., 1904, p. 36),
the "field of Abram occurs among the places mentioned in the
stock of popular lore. 2 More original is the parting of Lot and list of the Egyptian king Shishak (No. 71-2) in the loth
century.
Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests See also his History of Egypt, p. 530.
between Moab and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps Judg. iii.), 4
The number is precisely that of the
"
total numerical value of the
and if this explains part of the story, the physical configura- consonants of the name "Eliezer (Gen. xv. 2); an astral signi-
fication has also been found.
tion of the Dead Sea may have led to the legend of the 6
W. R. Smith, Ency. Brit, (gth ed., 1883), art. " Melchizedek."
xxiii. has been much exaggerated see S. R. Driver, Genesis, ad loc.
; ;
"
That the names may be those of historical personages is no proof
S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses, p. 208. of historical accuracy: "We cannot therefore conclude that the
1
See H. St. J. Thackeray, Relation of St Paul to Contemporary whole account is accurate history, any more than we can argue
Jewish Thought, p. 69 seq. (1900). that Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geier stein is throughout a correct
s
On the other hand, the coincidences in xx. xxi. are due to E, account of actual events because we know that Charles the Bold and
who is also the author of xxii. Apart from these the narratives of "
Margaret of Anjou were real people (W. H. Bennett, Century
Abraham are from J and P. Bible: Genesis, p. 186).
 ABRAHAM ABRUZZI
untouched, only the bare outlines may very well be historical. soliciting alms, provided he wore a badge. This humane privi-
If, as most critics agree, a historical romance (cf., e.g., the
it is lege was grossly abused, and thus gave rise to the slang phrase
"
book of Judith), it is possible that a writer, preferably one who to sham Abraham."
lived in the post-exilic age and was acquainted with Babylonian ABRANTES, a town of central Portugal, in the district of
history, desired to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibit- Santarem, formerly included in the province of Estremadura;
ing his military success against the monarchs of the Tigris and on the right bank of the river Tagus, at the junction of the
Euphrates, the high esteem he enjoyed in Palestine and his Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon railway with the Guarda-Abrantes
lofty character as displayed in his interview with Melchizedek.
line. Pop. (1900) 7255. Abrantes, which occupies the crest of
See further, Pinches, Old Test, in Light of Hist. Records, pp. 208- a hill covered with olive woods, gardens and vines, is a fortified
236; Driver, Genesis, p. xlix., and notes on ch. xiv. Addis, Docu-
;
town, with a thriving trade in fruit, olive oil and grain. As it
ments of the Hexateuch, ii. pp. 208-213; Carpenter and Harford- commands the highway down the Tagus valley to Lisbon, it
Battersby, The Hexateuch, i. pp. 157-159, 168; Bezold, Bab.-Assyr. has usually been regarded as an important military position.
Keilinschriften, pp. 24 sqq., 54 sqq.; A. Jeremias, Altes Test, im
Lichte d. Allen Orients**', pp. 343 seq.; also the literature to the Originally an Iberian settlement, founded about 300 B.C., it
art. GENESIS. Many fanciful legends about Abraham founded on received the name Aurantes from the Romans; perhaps owing
Biblical accounts
prspun out of the fancy are to be found in Joseph us, to the alluvial gold (aurum) found along the Tagus. Roman
and in post-Biblical and Mahommedan literature; for these, re-
mosaics, coins, the remains of an aqueduct, and other antiquities
ference may be made to Beer, .Leben Abrahams (1859); Griin-
baum, Neue Beitrage z. semit. Sagenkunde, pp. 89 seq. (1893) the ;
have been discovered in the neighbourhood. Abrantes was cap-
"
apocryphal "Testament of Abraham (M. R. James in Texts tured on the 24th of November 1807 by the French under
and Studies, 1892); W. Tisdall, Original Sources of the Quran, General Junot, who for this achievement was created duke of
passim (1905). (S. A. C.)
Abrantes. By the Convention of Cintra (22nd of August 1808)
ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (1644-1709), Austrian divine, the town was restored to the British and Portuguese.
was born at Kreenheinstetten, near Messkirch, in July 1644.
ABRASION (from Lat. ah, off, and radere, to scrape), the
His real name was Ulrich Megerle. In 1662 he joined the order
process of rubbing off or wearing down, as of rock by moving
of Barefooted Augustinians, and assumed the name by which he
ice, or of coins by wear and tear; also used of the results of
is known. In this order he rose step by step until he became
such a process as an abrasion or excoriation of the skin. In
prior provincialis and definitor of his province. Having early
machinery, abrasion between moving surfaces has to be prevented
gained a great reputation for pulpit eloquence, he was appointed as much as possible by the use of suitable materials, good fitting
court preacher at Vienna in 1669. The people flocked to hear
and lubrication. Engineers and other craftsmen make extensive
him, attracted by the force and homeliness of his language, use of abrasion, effected by the aid of such abrasives as emery
the grotesqueness of his humour, and the impartial severity
and carborundum, in shaping, finishing and polishing their
with which he lashed the follies of all classes of society and of
work.
the court in particular. In general he spoke as a man of the
ABRAUM SALTS (from the German Abraum-salze, salts to be
people, the predominating quality of his style being an over-
removed), the name given to a mixed deposit of salts, including
flowing and often coarse wit. There are, however, many pass-
halite, carnallite, kieserite, &c., found in association with rock-
ages in his sermons in which he rises to loftier thought and salt at Stassfurt in Prussia.
uses more dignified language. He died at Vienna on the ist of
ABRAXAS, or ABRASAX, a word engraved on certain antique
December 1709. In his published writings he displayed much
stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used
the same qualities as in the pulpit. Perhaps the most favourable as amulets or charms. The Basilidians, a Gnostic sect, attached
specimen of his style is his didactic novel entitled Judas der
importance to the word, if, indeed, they did not bring it into use.
Erzschelm (4 vols., Salzburg, 1686-1695).
His works have been several times reproduced in whole or in part,
The letters of <i/3paas,in the Greek notation,make up the number
though with many spurious interpolations. The best edition is 365, and the Basilidians gave the name to the 365 orders of
that published in 21 vols. at Passau and Lindau (1835-1854). See spiritswhich, as they conceived, emanated in succession from
Th. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta 'Clara (Vienna, 1867); the Supreme Being. These orders were supposed to occupy
Blanckenburg, Studien iiber die Sprache Abrahams a S. C. (Halle,
365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it;
1897); Sexto, Abraham a S. C. (Sigmaringen, 1896); Schnell,
Pater A. a S. C. (Munich, 1895) H. Mareta, Ober Judas d. Erzschelm
;
and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of
(Vienna, 1875). the spirits who formed the earth and its inhabitants, and to
ABRAHAM IBN DAUD (c. 1110-1180), Jewish historiographer whom was committed the administration of its affairs. Abraxas
and philosopher of Toledo. His historical work was the Book of stones are of very little value. In addition to the word Abraxas
Tradition (Sepher Haqabala), a chronicle down to the year 1161. and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures
This was a defence of the traditional record, and also contains engraved on them. The commonest of these have the head of a
valuable information for the medieval period. It was translated fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the
into Latin by Genebrad (1519). His philosophy was expounded body and tail of a serpent.
in an Arabic work better known under its Hebrew title 'Emunah ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law;
Ramah (Sublime Faith). This was translated into German by "
rogare, literally to ask," to propose a law), the annulling
Weil (1882) Ibn Baud was one of the first Jewish scholastics to
. or repealing of a law by legislative action. Abrogation,
adopt the Aristotelian system; his predecessors were mostly which is the total annulling of a law, is to be distinguished
neo-Platonists. Maimonides owed a good deal to him. from the term derogation, which is used where a law is only
ABRAHAMITES, a sect of deists in Bohemia in the i8th partially abrogated. Abrogation may be either express or
century, who professed to be followers of the pre-circumcised implied. It is express either when the new law pronounces the
Abraham. Believing in one God, they contented themselves annulment in general terms, as when in a concluding section it
with the Decalogue and the Paternoster. Declining to be classed announces that all laws contrary to the provisions of the new
either as Christians or Jews, they were excluded from the edict one are repealed, or when in particular terms it announces
of toleration promulgated by the emperor Joseph II. in 1781, specifically the preceding laws which it repeals. It is implied
and deported to various parts of the country, the men being when the new law contains provisions which are positively
drafted into frontier regiments. Some became Roman Catholics, contrary to the former laws without expressly abrogating
and those who retained their " Abrahamite " views were not those laws, or when the condition of things for which the law
able to hand them on to the next generation. had provided has changed and consequently the need for the
ABRAHAM-MEN, the nickname for vagrants who infested law no longer exists. The abrogation of any statute revives
England in Tudor times. The phrase is certainly as old as 1 561, the provisions of the common law which had been abrogated
and was due to these beggars pretending that they were patients by .that statute. See STATUTE; REPEAL.
discharged from the Abraham ward at Bedlam. The genuine ABRUZZI E MOLISE, a group of provinces (compartimento) of
Bedlamite was allowed to roam the country on his discharge, Southern Italy, bounded N. by the province of Ascoli, N.W. an<"
 ABSALOM ABSALON 73
W. by Perugia, S.W. by Rome and Caserta, S. by Benevento, into an independent province in 1811. The people are remark-
E. by Foggia and N.E. by the Adriatic Sea. It comprises the ably conservative in beliefs, superstitions and traditions.
provinces of Teramo (population in 1901, 307,444), Aquila See V. Bindi, Monumenti storici ed artistici degU Abruzzi (Naples,
1889); A. de Nino, Usi e costumi Abruzzesi (Florence, 1879-1883).
(396,629), Chieti (370,907) and Campobasso (366,571), which,
under the kingdom of Naples, respectively bore the names ABSALOM (Hebrew for " father of [or is] peace "), in the
Abruzzo Ulteriore I., Abruzzo Ulteriore II., Abruzzo Citeriore Bible, the third son of David, king of Israel. He was deemed
(the reference being to their distance from the capital) and the handsomest man in the kingdom. His sister Tamar having
Molise. The total area is 6567 sq. m. and the population (1901) been violated by David's eldest son Amnon, Absalom, after
1,441,551. The district is mainly mountainous in the interior, waiting two years, caused his servants to murder Amnon at a
including as it does the central portion of the whole system of feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 Sam- xiii.).
" "
the Apennines and their culminating point, the Gran Sasso After this deed he fled to Talmai, king of Geshur (see Josh,
d'ltalia. Towards the sea the elevation is less considerable, xii. 5 or xiii. 2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until

the hills consisting mainly of somewhat unstable clay and sand, five years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour
but the zone of level ground along the coast is quite inconsider- (see JOAB). Four years after this he raised a revolt at Hebron,
able. The coast line itself, though over 100 miles in length, the former capital. Absalom was now the eldest surviving son
has not a single harbour of importance. The climate varies of David, and the present position of the narratives (xv.-xx.)
considerably with the altitude, the highest peaks being covered after the birth of Solomon and before the struggle between
with snow for the greater part of the year, while the valleys Solomon and Adonijah may represent the view that the
running N.E. towards the sea are fertile and well watered by suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne
several small rivers, the chief of which are the Tronto, Vomano, excited the impulsive youth to rebellion. All Israel and Judah
Pescara, Sangro, Trigno and Biferno. These are fed by less flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the Cherethites
important streams, such as the Aterno and Gizio, which water and Pelethites and some recent recruits from Gath, found it
the valleys between the main chains of the Apennines. They expedient to flee. The priests remained behind in Jerusalem,
are liable to be suddenly swollen by rains, and floods and land- and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies.
slips often cause considerable damage. This danger has been Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned
increased, as elsewhere in Italy, by indiscriminate timber-felling Ahithophel. The pursuit was continued and David took refuge
"
on the higher mountains without provision for re-afforestation, beyond the Jordan. A battle was fought in the wood of
"
though considerable oak, beech, elm and pine forests still exist Ephraim (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan)
and are the home of wolves, wild boars and even bears. They and Absalom's army was completely routed. He himself was
also afford feeding-ground for large herds of swine, and the hams caught in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly
and sausages of the Abruzzi enjoy a high reputation. The charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was
rearing of cattle and sheep was at one time the chief occupation informed. What a common soldier refused to do even for a
of the inhabitants, and many of them still drive their flocks thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.
down to the Campagna di Roma for the winter months and Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he
back again in the summer, but more attention is now devoted struggled in the branches, and as though this were not enough,
to cultivation. This flourishes especially in the valleys and in his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him. The king's
the now drained bed of the Lago Fucino. The industries are overwhelming grief is well known. A great heap of stones was
various, but none of them is of great importance. Arms and erected where he fell, whilst another monument near Jerusalem
"
cutlery are produced at Campobasso and Agnone. At the (not the modern Absalom's Tomb," which is of later origin)
exhibition of Abruzzese art, held at Chieti in 1905, fine specimens he himself had erected in his lifetime to perpetuate his name
of goldsmiths' work of the i5th and i6th centuries, of majolica (2 Sam. xviii. 17 seq.). But the latter notice does not seem to
of the 1 7th and i8th centuries, and of tapestries and laces agree with xiv. 27 Kings xv. 2). On the narratives in
(cf. i

were brought together; and the reproduction of some of these 2 Sam. xiii.-xix., SAMUEL, BOOKS OF.
see further DAVID;
is still carried on, the small town of Castelli being the centre of ABSALON (c. 1128-1201), Danish archbishop and statesman,
the manufacture. The river Pescara and its tributary the was born about 1128, the son of Asscr Rig of Fjenneslev, at
Tirino form an important source of power for generating elec- whose castle he and his brother Esbjorn were brought up along
tricity. The chief towns are (i) Teramo, Atri, Campli, Penne, with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards Valdemar I. The
Castellammare Adriatico; (2) Aquila, Avezzano, Celano, Taglia- Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich. They
cozzo, Sulmona; (3) Chieti, Lanciano, Ortona, Vasto; (4) founded the monastery of Soro as a civilizing centre, and after
Campobasso, Agnone, Isernia. Owing to the nature of the giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home,
country, communications are not easy. Railways are (i) the which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial
coast railway (a part of the Bologna-Gallipoli line), with branches exercise, they sent him to the university of Paris. Absalon first
from Giulianova to Teramo and from Termoli to Campobasso; appears in Saxo's Chronicle as a fellow-guest at Roskilde, at the
(2) a line diverging S.E. from this at Pescara and running via banquet given, in 1157, by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and
Sulmona (whence there are branches via Aquila and Rieti to Valdemar. Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped as-
Terni, and via Carpinone to (a) Isernia and Caianello, on the line sassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occa-
from Rome to Naples, and (b) Campobasso and Benevento), sion, but at length escaped to Jutland, whither Sweyn followed
and Avezzano (whence there is a branch to Roccasecca) to them, but was defeated and slain at the battle of Grathe Heath.
Rome. The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish
The name Abruzzi is conjectured to be a medieval corruption throne saw Absalon elected bishop of Roskilde. Henceforth
of Praetuttii. The district was, in Lombard times, part of the Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter
duchy of Spoleto, and, under the Normans, a part of that of of that imperial policy which, for three' generations, was to give
Apulia; it was first formed into a single province in 1240 by Denmark the dominion of the Baltic. Briefly, it was Absalon's
Frederick II., who placed the Justiciarius Aprutii at Solmona intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who
and founded the city of Aquila. After the Hohenstauffen lost inhabited that portion of the Baltic littoral which we now call
their Italian dominions, the Abruzzi became a province of the Pomerania, and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that
Angevin kingdom of Naples, to which it was of great strategic at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark
importance. The division into three parts was not made until lay wasted and depopulated. The very existence of Denmark
the 1 7th century. The Molise, on the other hand, formed part demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked
of the Lombard duchy of Benevento, and was placed under the pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the
Justiciarius of Terra di Lavoro by Frederick II.: after various best part of his life. The first expedition against the Wends,
,
changes it became part of the Capitanata, and was only formed conducted by Absalon in person, set out in 1160, but it was not
74 ABSCESS ABSENCE
till 1168 that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in Rtigen, some gross injury, perchance, or it may be that the power of
containing the sanctuary of their god Svantevit, was surrendered, resistance against bacillary invasion was lowered by reason of
the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian constitutional weakness. As the result, then, of lowered vitality,
religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by a certain area becomes congested and effusion takes place into
sea to Garz, in south Rtigen, the political capital of the Wends, the tissues. This effusion coagulates and a hard, brawny mass
and an all but impregnable stronghold. But the unexpected is formed which softens towards the centre. If nothing is done
fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered the softened area increases in size, the skin over it becomes
" "
unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships. thinned, loses its vitality (mortifies) and a small slough is
"
Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of Aarhus, and twelve house- formed. When the slough gives way the pus escapes and,
carls," thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of tension being relieved, pain ceases. A local necrosis or death of
Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding tissue takes place at that part of the inflammatory swelling
among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding farthest from the healthy circulation. When the attack of
to the temple of the seven-headed god Rugievit, caused the idol septic inflammation is very acute, death of the tissue occurs en
to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt. The whole popula- masse, as in the core of a boil or carbuncle. Sometimes, however,
tion of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations no such mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes
of twelve churches in the isle of Rtigen. The destruction of when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus. In the
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular form. After

considerably to reduce the Danish fleet. But he continued to the escape of the core or slough along with a certain amount of
keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in 1170 destroyed pus, a space, the abscess-cavity, is left, the walls of which are
another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on lined withnew vascular tissue which has itself escaped destruc-
the isle of Wollin. Absalon's last military exploit was the tion. This lowly organized material is called granulation tissue,
annihilation, off Strela (Stralsund), on Whit-Sunday 1184, of a and exactly resembles the growth which covers the floor of an
Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, Jaromir ulcer. These granulations eventually fill the contracting cavity
of Riigen. He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life and obliterate it by forming interstitial scar-tissue. This is

had aged him, and he was content to resign the command of called healing by second intention. Pus may accumulate in a
fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, after- normal cavity, such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic
wards Valdemar II., and to confine himself to the administration or abdominal cavity. In all these situations, if the diagnosis
of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere is clear,the principle of treatment is evacuation and drainage.
Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable to scrape away
was to free Denmark from
the German yoke. It was contrary the lining of unhealthy granulations and to wash out the cavity
to his adviceand warnings that Valdemar I. rendered fealty to with an antiseptic lotion. If the after-drainage of the cavity is
the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at D61e in 1162; and when, thorough the formation of pus ceases and the watery discharge
on the accession of Canute V. in 1182, an imperial ambassador from the abscess wall subsides. As the cavity contracts the
arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king, discharge becomes less, until at last the drainage tube can be
" removed and the external wound allowed to heal. The large
Absalon resolutely withstood him. Return to the emperor,"
" collections of pus which form in connexion with disease of the
cried he, and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise
show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of spinal column in the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are
Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, now treated by free evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with
building churches and monasteries, introducing the religious careful antiseptic measures. The opening should be in as de-
orders, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote pendent a position as possible in order that the drainage may be
civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first thorough. If tension recurs after opening has been made, as
Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. In 1178 he became archbishop by the blocking of the tube, or by its imperfect position, or by
of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunica- its being too short, there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus,

tion from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. and without delay the whole procedure must be gone through
Absalon died on the 2ist of March 1201, at the family monastery again. (E. O.*)
of Sor6, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. ABSCISSA (from the Lat. abscissus, cut off), in the Cartesian
Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point from the axis
of y measured parallel to the horizontal axis
figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman, y
statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be (axis of x). Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa
s/--.-,,P
no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well of P. The word appears for the first time in
f
/
fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the a Latin work written by Stefano degli Angeli / /
(1623-1697), a professor of mathematics in / R "
army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like
the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole Rome. (See GEOMETRY, Analytical.) '
" ABSCISSION (from Lat. abscindere), a tearing away, or cut-
concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the shedding of
" ting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of
blood by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon
never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were a vowel before another, and in surgery especially for abscission
of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball
of the nature of crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy
situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in
notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly
winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion.
enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by ABSCOND (Lat. abscondere, to hide, put away), to depart in
him into friends. a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the
See Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books x.- courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction. A
" "
xvi. Steinstrup, Danmark's Riges Historie.
;
Oldtiden og den cddre person may abscond either for the purpose of avoiding arrest
Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.) for a crime (see ARREST), or for a fraudulent purpose, such as
ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate), in pathology, a the defrauding of his creditors (see BANKRUPTCY).
pus among the tissues
collection of of the body, the result of ABSENCE (Lat. absentia), the fact of being "away," either
Without the presence of septic organ- " "
bacterial inflammation. in body or mind; absence of mind being a condition in
isms abscess does not occur. At any rate, every acute abscess which the mind is withdrawn from what is passing. The special
"
contains septic germs, and these may have reached the inflamed occasion roll-call at Eton College is called Absence," which the
area by direct infection, or may have been carried thither by boys attend in their tall hats. A soldier must get permission or
" "
the blood-stream. Previous to the formation of abscess some- leave of absence before he can be away from his regimen t .

thing has occurred to lower the vitality of the affected tissue Seven years' absence with no sign of life either by letter o
 ABSENTEEISM ABSOLUTE 75
message is held presumptive evidence of death in the law susceptible of definition is ipso facto relative, for definition is
courts. precisely the segregation of the thing defined from all other
ABSENTEEISM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors things which it is not, i.e. implies a relation. Every term which
who absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend has a meaning is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory.
" "
their incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it in- (2) The term is used in the phrase absolute knowledge to
cludes those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a
all imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, since
all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known object,
country or locality but derive their income from some source
within it. Absenteeism is a question which has been much de- absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see RELATIVITY).
bated, and from both the economic and moral point of view So also Herbert Spencer spoke of "absolute ethics," as opposed
there is little doubt that it has a prejudicial effect. To it has to systems of conduct based on particular local or temporary
been attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition laws and conventions (see ETHICS).
of the rural districts of France before the Revolution, when (3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase
" "
it was unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless the Absolute (see METAPHYSICS). It is sufficient here to
" "
compelled to do so by a sentence involving their exile from indicate the problems involved in their most elementary form.
Paris. It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and many The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect as in that of
attempts were made to combat it. As early as 1 7 2 7 a tax of four natural science is one of generalization, i.e. the co-ordination of
shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons holding offices particular facts under general statements, or in other words, the
and employments in Ireland and residing in England. This tax explanation of one fact by another, and that other by a third,
was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 1769. In 1774 and so on. In this way the particular facts or existences are
the tax was reduced to two shillings in the pound, but was left behind in the search for higher, more inclusive conceptions;

dropped after some years. It was revived by the Independent as twigs are traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk,
Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in a sub- so, it is held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed
stantial amount to the revenue, yielding in 1790 as much as in a unity which is all-inclusive and self-existent, and has no
"
63,089. beyond." By a metaphor this process has been described as
AUTHORITIES. of absenteeism from the economic
For a discussion the &5bs avu (as of tracing a river to its source). Other phrases
point of view see N. W.
Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, Political from different points of view have been used to describe the
Economy; J. S. Mill, Political Economy; ]. R. McCulloch, Treatises idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion with the
and Essays on Money, &c., article "Absenteeism "; A. T. Hadley,
Economics; on absenteeism in Ireland see A. Young, Tour in origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all being), Unity,
Ireland (1780); T. Prior, List of Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield, Truth (i.e. the sum and culmination of all knowledge), Causa
Account of Ireland (1812); W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the iSth Causans, &c. The idea in different senses appears both in ideal-
Century (1892) A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and
;
istic and realistic systems of thought.
Financial Relations between England and Ireland (1903); Parlia-
mentary Papers, Ireland, 1830, vii., ditto, 1845, xix.-xxii. in France,
;
The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly as
A. de Monchretien, Traicte de I'akonomie politique (1615); A. de follows, (i) The Absolute does not exist, and is not even in any
Tocqueville, L'Ancien Regime (1857); H. Taine, Les Origines de la real sense thinkable. This view is held by the empiricists, who
France contemporaine, I'ancien Regime (1876). hold that nothing is knowable save phenomena. The Absolute
ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic could not be conceived, for all knowledge is susceptible of defini-
flavouring matter of which is derived from various .species of tion and, therefore, relative. The Absolute includes the idea of
wormwood ( A rtemisia absinthium) Among the other substances
.
necessity, which the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute
generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, sweet exists for thought only. In this theory the absolute is the un-
flag, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and hyssop. A known x which the human mind is logically compelled to postu-
"
colourless" alcoholate (see LIQUEURS) is first prepared, and to late a priori as the only coherent explanation and justification
this the well-known green colour of the beverage is imparted by of its thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable,
maceration with green leaves of wormwood, hyssop and mint. because it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as
Inferior varieties aremade by means of essences, the distillation it were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot go.

process being omitted. There are two varieties of absinthe, the Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all demonstra-
French and the Swiss, the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic tion would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal exercise,
strength than the former. The best absinthe contains 70 to 80% because the existence of separate things implies some one thing
of alcohol. It is said to improve very materially by storage. which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute both exists
There is a popular belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently and is conceivable. It is argued that we do in fact conceive it
adulterated with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, Truth. The concep-
the green colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case. tion is so clear that its inexplicability (admitted) is of no account.
There is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking Further, since the unity of our thought implies the absolute,
leads to effects which are specifically worse than those assoc- and since the existence of things is known only to thought, it
iated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol. appears absurd that the absolute itself should be regarded as
ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free), a term having non-existent. The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate
the general signification of independent, self-existent, uncondi- basis and matter of existence. All things are merely manifesta-
tioned. Thus we speak of " absolute " as opposed to " limited " tions of it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it.
" "
or constitutional monarchy, or, in common parlance, of an (5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a dif-
"
absolute failure," i.e. unrelieved by any satisfactory circum- ferent way. For them nothing exists save thought; the only
stances. In philosophy the word has several technical uses, existence that can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, of
(i) In Logic, it has been applied to non-connotative terms which the Absolute, is that it is thought. Thought creates God, things,
do not imply attributes (see CONNOTATION), but more commonly, the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that we can conceive
in opposition to Relative, to terms which do not imply the exist- the Absolute, though our conception is only partial, just as our
" "
ence of some other (correlative) term; e.g. father implies conception of all things is limited by the imperfect powers of
" " " "
son," tutor pupil," and therefore each of these terms is human intellect. Thus the Absolute exists for us only in our
relative. In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, though thought of it (4 above). But thought itself comes from the
convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, cannot be Absolute which, being itself the pure thought of thoughts,
strictly maintained. The tefm " man," for example, which, as separates from itself individual minds. It is, therefore, perfectly
" " "
compared with father," son," tutor," seems to be absolute, natural that human thought, being essentially homogeneous
is obviously relative in other connexions; in various contexts with the Absolute, should be able by the consideration of the
" "
it implies its various possible opposites, e.g. woman," boy," universe to arrive at some imperfect conception of the source
" "
master," brute." In other words, every term which is from which all is derived.
 ABSOLUTION ABSORPTION OF LIGHT
The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties governments are rare,but it is customary to apply the term to a
in terminology. The fundamental problem is whether a thing state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional develop-
which is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and ment.
if not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or
it is ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term "absorption" (from
" " "
thought. It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything Lat. absorbere) means literally sucking up or swallowing,"
which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including and thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figura-
subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the tively ;
it is technically used in animal physiology for the
limits of the knower. Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute. function of certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light
ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from acquit),
absolve, loosen, and optics absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms
a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the act of used in the discussion of the transformation of rays in various
setting free or acquitting. In a criminal process it signifies the media.
acquittal of an accused person on the ground that the evidence If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light
has either disproved or failed to prove the charge brought against which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels outwards.
him. In this sense it is now little used, except in Scottish law The intensity of the light diminishes merely because the total
in the forms assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the energy, though unaltered, is distributed over a wider and wider
word is essentially different from the civil. It refers not to an surface as the rays diverge from the source. To prove this, it
accusation, but to sin actually committed (after baptism) and ;
will be sufficient to mention that an exceedingly small deficiency
it denotes the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin, in the transparency of the free aether would be sufficient to pre-
or from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from vent the light of the fixed stars from reaching the earth, since
both. The authority of the church or minister to pronounce their distances are so immense. But when light is transmitted
absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt, xviii. 18; James v. 16, through a material medium, it always suffers some loss, the
&c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made before light energy being absorbed by the medium, that is, converted
the congregation, the absolution was deferred till the penance partially or wholly into other forms of energy such as heat,
was completed; and there is no record of the use of any special a portion of which transformed energy may be re-emitted as
formula. Men were also encouraged, e.g. by Chrysostom, to radiant energy of a lower frequency. Even the most transparent
confess their secret sins secretly to God. In course of time bodies known absorb an appreciable portion of the light trans-
changes grew up. (i) From the 3rd century onwards, secret mitted through them. Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of
(auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was practised. the sun's rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have
For various reasons it became more and more common, until to traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, so
the fourth Lateran council (1215) ordered all Christians of the that on this account the sun appears less bright towards sunset.
Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at least. In On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance into all
the Greek church also private confession has become obligatory. substances, even the most opaque, the absorption being, however,
(2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled by imposition extremely rapid in the latter case.
of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: gradually The nature of the surface of a body has considerable influence
the office was left to be discharged by priests, and the outward on its power of absorbing light. Platinum black, for instance,
action more and more disused. (3) It became the custom to give in which the metal is in a state of fine division, absorbs nearly
the absolution to penitents immediately after their confession all the light incident on it, while polished platinum reflects the
and before the penance was performed. (4) Until the 'Middle greater part. In the former case the light penetrating between
Ages the form of absolution after private confession was of the the particles is unable to escape by reflexion, and is finally
"
nature of a prayer, such as May the Lord absolve thee "; absorbed.
and this is still the practice of the Greek church. But about the The question be considered from either of
of absorption may
i3th century the Roman formula was altered, and the council two points of view. We may
it as a superficial effect,
treat
of Trent (1551) declared that the "form" and power of the especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or thick
sacrament of penance lay in the words Ego le absolve, &c., and enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we may investi-
that the accompanying prayers are not essential to it. Of the gate how much is reflected at the surface and how much is ab-
three forms of absolution in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in sorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our attention
the Visitation of the Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by to the light which enters the body and inquire into the relation
decision of the Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs "I absolve thee," between the decay of intensity and the depth of penetration.
tracing the authority so to act through the church up to Christ: We shall take these two cases separately.
the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that in Absorptive Power. When none of the radiations which fall on
Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so general a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio of the
as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of absolution. amount of radiation of a given wave-length which is absorbed
" "
In the Lutheran church also the practice of private confession to the total amount received is called the absorptive power
survived the Reformation, together with both the exhibitive of the body for that wave-length. Thus if the body absorbed
(I forgive, &c.) and declaratory(I declare and pronounce) forms half the incident radiation its absorptive power would be f,
of absolution. In granting absolution, even after general con- and if it absorbed all the incident radiation its absorptive power
fession, it is in some placesthe custom for the minister,
still would be i. A body which absorbs all radiations of all wave-
"
where the numbers permit of it, hands on the head of
to lay his lengths would be called a perfectly black body." No such
each penitent. (W. O. B.) body actually exists, but such substances as lamp-black and
ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory that platinum-black approximately fulfil the condition. The frac-
beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely a subjec- tion of the incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body
tive feeling of pleasure in him who perceives. It follows that gives a measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here
there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by which all ob- concerned. Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, that
jects can be judged. The fact that, in practice, the judgments is to say, they readily absorb light of particular wave-lengths,

even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, and that the light of other wave-lengths not being largely absorbed. All
so-called criteria of one place or period are more or less opposed bodies when heated emit the same kind of radiations which they
to those of all others, is explained away by the hypothesis that absorb an important principle known as the principle of the
individuals are differently gifted in respect of the capacity to equality of radiating and absorbing powers. Thus black sub-
appreciate. (See AESTHETICS.) stances such as charcoal are very luminous when heated. A
In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitu- tile of white porcelain with a black pattern on it will, if heated

tional government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained red-hot, show the pattern bright on a darker ground. On the
by laws and based directly upon force. In the strict sense such other hand, those substances which either are good reflectors or
 ABSTEMII ABSTRACTION 77
in the neighbourhood of the green part of the spectrum; it is,
good transmitters, are not so luminous at the same temperature;
for instance, melted silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily
as carbon at the same temperature, and common salt, which is penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region of
the spectrum. The small amount of red transmitted is at first
very transparent for most kinds of radiation, when poured
in a
fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller coefficient
like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or two. of absorption, it becomes finally predominant. The effect is
But all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive properties complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and many other bodies,
when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, for in that by selective reflexion and fluorescence.

case those radiations which they do not emit are either trans- For the molecular theory of absorption, see SPECTROSCOPY.
mitted through them from the walls of the vessel behind, or else REFERENCES. A. Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904); P. K. L.
This fact may be expressed by Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902); F. H. Wullner's
reflected from their surface.
Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv. (1899). (J- R- C.)
saying that the radiation within a heated enclosure is the
same
as that of a perfectly black body. ABSTEMII (a Latin word, from
abs, away from, temetum, in-
"
Coefficient of Absorption, and Law of Absorption. The law toxicating liquor, from which derived the English
is abste-
"
which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing mious or temperate), a name formerly given to such persons
as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist on account of
through any medium may be readily obtained. If Io represents
the intensity of the light which enters the surface, Ii the intensity their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these to com-
after passingthrough i centimetre, I 2 the intensity after passing municate in the species of bread only, touching the cup with
their lip; a course which was deemed a profanation by the
through 2 centimetres, and so on; then we should expect that
whatever fraction of Io is absorbed in the first centimetre, the Lutherans. Among several Protestant sects, both in Great
same fraction of Ii will be absorbed in the second. That is, if an Britain and America, abstemii on a somewhat different principle
amount yio is absorbed in the first centimetre, jl\ is absorbed in have appeared in modern times. These are total abstainers,

the second, and so on. We have then who maintain that the use of stimulants is essentially sinful,
and allege that the wine used by Christ and his disciples at the
supper was unfermented. They accordingly communicate in
"
the unfermented juice of the grape."
and so on, so that if I is the intensity after passing through a ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain), the fact or
thickness / in centimetres
habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the indul-
I =I (i-j)< (i). "
gence of the appetite and especially from strong drink. Total
We might call /, the proportion absorbed in one
which is " and " total abstainer " are associated with
abstinence taking
centimetre, the "coefficient of absorption" of the medium. It the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see TEMPERANCE).
would, however, not then apply to the case of a body for which In the discipline of the Christian Church abstinence is the term
the whole light is absorbed in less than one centimetre. It is for a less severe form of Fasting (<?..).
better then to define the coefficient of absorption as a quantity ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere), the process or result of
k such that kin of the light is absorbed in i/th part of a centi- drawing away; that which is drawn away, separated or derived.
metre, where n may be taken to be a very large number. The Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium or epitome
formula (i) then becomes of a larger work, the gist of which is given in a concentrated form.
= V-*< "
Similarly an absent-minded man is said to be
I '(2) abstracted,"
where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and k is a constant as paying no attention to the matter in hand. In philosophy
which is practically the same as; for bodies which do not absorb the word has several closely related technical senses, (i) In
very rapidly. formal logic it is applied to those terms which denote qualities,
There is another coefficient of absorption (K) which occurs in attributes, circumstances, as opposed to concrete terms, the
" is " "
Helmholtz's theory of dispersion (see DISPERSION). It is closely names of things; thus " friend concrete, friendship
related to the coefficient k which we have just defined, the abstract. The term which expresses the connotation of a word
equation connecting the two being &=4/7nc/X,A being the wave- is therefore an abstract term, though it is probably not itself
" "
length of the incident light. connotative; adjectives are concrete, not abstract, e.g. equal
" "
The law of absorption expressed by the formula (2) has been is concrete, equality abstract (cf. Aristotle's aphaeresis and
verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and gases. prosthesis). (2) The process of abstraction takes an important
The method consists in comparing the intensity after trans- place both in psychological and metaphysical speculation. The
mission through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent psychologist finds among the earliest of his problems the question
with the intensity of light from the same source which has not as to the process from the perception of things seen and heard to
passed through the medium, k being thus obtained for various mental conceptions, which are ultimately distinct from immediate
thicknesses and found to be constant. In the case of solutions, perception (see PSYCHOLOGY). When the mind, beginning with
if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the effect of in- isolated individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived
creasing the concentration of the absorbing solute is the same resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process by
as that of increasing the thickness in the same ratio. In a which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated
similar way the absorption of light in the coloured gas chlorine on a single inclusive concept (i.e. classification) is one of ab-
is found to be unaltered if the thickness is reduced by compres- straction. All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge
sion, because the density is increased in the same ratio that the depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion
thickness is reduced. This is not strictly the case, however, between particular things and general ideas, rules and principles.
for such gases and vapours as exhibit well-defined bands of The nature of the resultant concepts belongs to the great contro-
absorption in the spectrum, as these bands are altered in char- versy between Nominalism, Realism and Conceptualism. Meta-
acter by compression. physics, again, is concerned with the ultimate problems of matter
If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured solutions, and spirit; it endeavours to go behind the phenomena of sense
lie transmitted light is of one colour when the thickness of the and focus its attention on the fundamental truths which are the
olution is small, and of quite another colour if the thickness only logical bases of natural science. This, again, is a process of
great. This curious phenomenon is known as dichromatism abstraction, the attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from
(from Si-, two, and \pSifjia, colour). Thus, when a strong light is the concrete individuals, are conceived as having a substantive
newed through a solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a existence. The final step in the process is the conception of the
rilliant green if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red Absolute (q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense.
3r thicker layers. This effect can be explained as follows. The Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object is
olution is moderately transparent for a large number of rays to select a particular quality for consideration in itself as it is
 ABSTRACT OF TITLE ABU HANIFA
found in the objects to which it belongs, whereas analysis
all in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams and a
considers the qualities which belong to a single object.
all depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession to
ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his conversion he
various instruments and events under and in consequence of assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God) . His own belief
which the vendor of an estate derives his title thereto. Such an in Mahomet and his doctrines was so thorough as to procure
abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage of an estate, prepared for him the title El Siddik (the faithful), and his success in
by some competent person for the purchaser or mortgagee, and gaining converts was correspondingly great. In his personal
verified by his solicitor by a comparison with the original deeds. relationship to the prophet he showed the deepest veneration
(See CONVEYANCING.) and most unswerving devotion. When Mahomet fled from
ABT, FRANZ (1810-1885), German composer, was born on Mecca, Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his
the 22nd of December 1819 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with him
Wiesbaden on the 3ist of March 1885. The best of his popular until the day of his death. During his last illness the prophet
songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of Ger- indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor by desiring him to offer up
many; his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c., enjoyed an extra- prayer for the people. The choice was ratified by the chiefs of
ordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the igth century, the army, and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mahomet's son-
but in spite of their facile tunefulness have few qualities of last- in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity. After
ing beauty. Abt was kapellmeister at Bernburg in 1841, at a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his
Zurich in the same year and at Brunswick from 1852 to 1882, claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the
when he retired to Wiesbaden. followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and
ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24 36' N. lat. Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position (63 2),

and 72 43' E. long., within the Rajputana state of Sirohi. It is under the Califet-Resul-Allah (successor of the prophet of
title
an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being completely detached God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes
from that chain by a narrow valley 7 miles across, in which Hejaz and Nejd, of which the former rejected Islamism and
flows the western Banas. It rises from the surrounding plains the latter refused to pay tribute. He encountered formidable
of Marwar like a precipitous granite island, its various peaks opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was
ranging from 4000 to 5653 feet. The elevations and platforms of successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor
the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines,
'
Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid at the battle of
temples and tombs. On the top of the hill is a small round plat- Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was
form containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the as conspicuous as that of its founder had been. When the
impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia completely
This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks and subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The
Banians. The two principal temples are situated at Deulwara, Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single campaign,
about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After
Guru Sikra, the highest summit. They are built of white marble, the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the
and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical speci- sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those
mens of Jain architecture in India. The more modern of the who had listened to them had all been removed by death,
two was built by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written
1197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of form. The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa,
detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet. It was
lavish labour. The other was built by another merchant prince, held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess
Vimala Shah, apparently about A.D. 1032, and, although simpler canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of
and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the
a purely architectural object. It is one of the oldest as well as authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's record
one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known. were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divi-
The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from sions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly
the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another
Parswanath. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the
whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard about 140 feet by 90 feet, manner Mahomet had observed in his own case.
surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on the
porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides, right bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N. of Khartum. It stands
exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihdra). In this at the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and from it
temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a the railway to Wadi Haifa strikes straight across the Nubian
monk, is occupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door, desert,a little west of the old caravan route to Korosko. A
or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of branch railway, 138 m. long, from Abu Hamed goes down the
the deity. The whole interior is magnificently ornamented. rightbank of the Nile to Kareima in the Dongola mudiria. The
Abu is now the summer
residence of the governor-general's town is named after a celebrated sheikh buried here, by
agent for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the whose tomb travellers crossing the desert used formerly to
hot weather. It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the deposit all superfluous goods, the sanctity of the saint's tomb
Rajputana railway. The annual mean temperature is about ensuring their safety.
70, rising to 90 in April; but the heat is never oppressive. ABU HANlFA AN-NU'MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan
The annual rainfall is about 68 inches. The hills are laid out canon lawyer, was born at Kufa in A.H. 80 (A.D. 699) of non-
with driving-roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little Arab and probably Persian parentage. Few events of his life
lake. The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a are known to us with any certainty. He was a silk-dealer and
Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers. a man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his
ABU-BEKR (573-634), the name (" Father of the virgin ") time to legal studies. He lectured at Kufa upon canon law
of the first of the Mahommedan
caliphs (see CALIPH). He was (fiqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused steadily
originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba (" servant of the temple "), to take any public post. When al-Mansur, however, was build-
and received the name by which he is known historically in con- ing Bagdad (145-149) Abu JJanifa was one of the four over-
sequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to seers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G. Le Strange,
Mahomet. He was born at Mecca in the year A.D. 573, a Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 17). In A.H. 150
Koreishite of the tribe of Beni-Taim. Possessed of immense (A.D. 767) he died there under circumstances which are very
wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held differently reported. A persistent but apparently later tradition
 ABU KLEA ABUL FAZL 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY. C. Rieu, De Abu-l-'Alae Poetae Arabici vita et
asserts that he died in prison after severe beating, because he
carminibus (Bonn, 1843) A. von Kremer, Vber die philosophischen
refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act as a judge (cadi,
;

Gedichte des Abu-l-'Ala (Vienna, 1888); cf. also the same writer's
qddi) . This was to avoid a responsibility for which he felt unfit articles in the
Zeilschrift
der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft
a frequent attitude of more pious Moslems. Others say that (vols. xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.). For his life see the intro-
duction to D. S. Margoliouth's edition of the letters, supplemented
al-Mahdi, son of al-Mansur, actually constrained him to be a
that by the same writer's articles "Abu-l-'Ala al-Ma'arri's Correspond-
judge and that he died a few days after. It seems certain ence on Vegetarianism
"
in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
he did suffer imprisonment and beating for this reason, at the (1902, pp. 289 ff.). (G. W. T.)
hands of an earlier governor of Kufa under the Omayyads (Ibn ABU-L-'ATAHIYA [Abu Ishaq Isma'il ibn Qasim al-'Anazi]
Qutaiba, Ma'drif, p. 248). Also that al-Mansur desired to make (748-828), Arabian poet, was born at 'Ain ut-Tamar in the
him judge, but compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings Hijaz near Medina. His ancestors were of the tribe of 'Anaza.
(so in Tabarl). A late story is that the judgeship was only His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged for some
a pretext with al-Mansur, who considered him a partisan of the time in selling pottery. Removing to Bagdad, he continued his
'Alids and a helper with his wealth of Ibrahim ibn 'Abd Allah business there, but became famous for his verses, especially for
in his insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Geschichte, ii. 53 ff.).
those addressed to 'Utba, a slave of the caliph al-Mahdi. His
For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of Ibn
affection was unrequited, although al-Mahdi, and after him
Khallikan iii. 555 -For his place as a speculative
iv. 272 ff.
ff., Harun al-Rashld, interceded for him. Having offended the
jurist in the history of canon law,
see MAHOMMEDAN LAW. He The latter part of his
caliph, he was in prison for a short time.
was buried in eastern Bagdad, where his tomb still exists, one life was more ascetic. He died in 828 in the reign of al-Ma'mun.
of the few surviving sites from the time of al-Mansur, the founder. The poetry of Abu-1-' Atahiya is notable for its avoidance of the
(Le Strange 191 ff.) artificialityalmost universal in his days. The older poetry of
See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 169 ff. Nawawi's B-iogr. Diet.
;
the desert had been constantly imitated up to this time, al-
pp. 698-770; Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ. Cairo, A.H.
though it was not natural to town life. Abu-1-' Atahiya was one
1304; legal bibliography under MAHOMMEDAN LAW. (D. B. MA.)
of the first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form. He was very
ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda fluent and used many metres. He is also regarded as one of
Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It is on the road from Merawi the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs. Much of his poetry
to Metemma and 20 m. N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned place. is concerned with the observation of common life and morality,
Near this spot, on the i?th of January 1885, a British force and at times is pessimistic. Naturally, under the circumstances,
marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum was he was strongly suspected of heresy.
attacked by the Mahdists, who were repulsed. On the igth, His poems (Diwan) with life from Arabian sources have been
when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists re- published at the Jesuit Press in Beirut (1887, 2nd ed. 1888). On his
newed the attack, again unsuccessfully. Sir Herbert Stewart, position in Arabic literature see W. Ahlwardt, Diwan des Abu Nowas
(Greifswald, 1861), pp. 21 ff. A. von Kremer, Culturgeschichte des
the commander of the British force, was mortally wounded on
;

Orients (Wien, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W. T.)
the igth, and among the killed on the I7th was Col. F. G. ABULFARAJ [Abu-1-Faraj 'AH ibn ul-Husain ul-Isbahani]
Burnaby (see EGYPT, Military Operations). (897-967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the
ABU-L-'ALA UL-MA'ARRl [Abu-1-' Ala Ahmad ibn 'Abdallah
Quraish (Koreish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last
ibn Sulaiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter- writer, be- of the Omayyad caliphs. He was thus connected with the
longed to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh, a part of which had Omayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a corre-
migrated to Syria before the time of Islam. He was born in spondence with them and to have sent them some of his works.
973 at Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, a Syrian town nineteen hours' He was born in Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his
journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was subject early studies in Bagdad. He became famous for his knowledge
at that time. He lost his father while he was still an infant, of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various
and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to smallpox. This,
parts of the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-Daula (to
however, did not prevent him from attending the lectures of whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid
the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and Tripoli. These teachers vizier Ibn 'Abbad and elsewhere. In his last years he lost his
were men of the first rank, who had been attracted to the court reason. In religion he was a Shiite. Although he wrote poetry,
of Saif-ud-Daula, and their teaching was well stored in the re- also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia
markable memory of the pupil. At the age of twenty-one and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his
Abu-l-'Ala. returned to Ma'arra, where he received a pension of Book of Songs (Kitdb ul-Aghdni), which gives an account of the
thirty dinars yearly. In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the
admitted to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies
composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to
and mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable
addressed some of his letters later. In 1009 he returned to
authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Moslem days.
Ma'arra, where he spent the rest ef his life in teaching and A part of it was published by J. G. L. Kosegarten with Latin
writing. During this period of scholarly quiet he developed translation (Greifswald, 1840). The text was published in 20
his characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation vols. atBulaq in 1868. Vol. xxi. was edited by R. E. Brunnow
of the dead and the desire for extinction after death. A
volume of elaborate indices was edited by
(Leyden, 1888).
Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and I. Guidi (Leyden, 1900), and a missing fragment of the text was
two of his letters. The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the kind
published by J. Wellhausen in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgen-
usual at the time. Under the title of Saqt uz-Zand they have landischen Gesellschaft, vol. 50, pp. 146 ff.
beenpublishedinBulaq(i869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo (1886). For his life see M'G. de Slane s translation of Ibn Khallikan's
The poems of the second collection, known as the Luzum ma lam Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W. T.)
yalzam, or the Luzumiyydt, are written with the difficult rhyme ABUL FAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul
in two consonants instead of one, and contain the more original, emperor, Akbar, was born in the year A.D. 1551. His career
mature and somewhat pessimistic thoughts of the author on as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would probably
mutability, virtue, death, &c. They have been published in have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself
Bombay (1886) and Cairo (1889). The letters on various literary has left of it in his celebrated history. The Akbar Nameh, or
and social subjects were published with commentary by Shain Book of Akbar, as Abul Fazl's chief literary work, written in
Effendi in Beirut (1894), and with English translation, &c., by Persian, is called, consists of two parts the first being a com-
Prof. D. S. Margoliouth in Oxford (1898). A
second collection plete history of Akbar's reign and the second, entitled Ain-i-
of letters, known as the Risdlat ul-Ghufrdn, was summarized and Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious
partially translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal and political constitution and administration of the empire.
Asiatic Society (1900, pp. 637 ff.; 1902, pp. 75 ff., 337 ff., 813 ff.). The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second
8o ABULFEDA ABU SIMBEL
part possess a unique and lasting interest. An excellent trans- dicating the liberality of the emperor or empress. She may be
lation of the Ain by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta, compared with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde,
1783-1786. It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, and Notre Dame d' Abondance) whose name often occurs in poems
,

copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and of the Middle Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to
correspondingly valuable. It was also translated by Professor those whom she visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. 1880,
Blockmann in 1848. Abul Fazl died by the hand of an assassin, i. 286-287).
while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602. The ABU NUWiS [Abu 'AH Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-Eakaml] (c.
murderer was instigated by Prince Selim, afterwards Jahangir, 756-810), known
as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al-
who had become jealous of the minister's influence. Ahwaz, probably about 756. His mother was a Persian, his
ABULFEDA [Abu-1-Fida' Isma'Il ibn 'All 'Imad-ud-Dnl] father a soldier, a native of Damascus. His studies were made
(1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer, was born at in Basra under Abu Zaid and Abu 'Ubaida (?..), and in
Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the Kufa under Khalaf al-Ahmar. He is also said to have spent a
prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols. He was a de- year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language.
scendant of Ayyub, the father of Saladin. In his boyhood he Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of Harun al-Rashld
devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences, and al-Amln, and died there probably about 810. The greater
but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness and
military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285 disregard of religion, but in his later days he became ascetic.
he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights of Abu Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his time. His
St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre and mastery of language has led to extensive quotation of his verses
Qal'at ar-Rum. In 1 298 he entered the service of the Mameluke by Arabian scholars. Genial, cynical, immoral, he drew on all
Sultan Malik al-Nasir and after twelve years was invested by the varied life of his time for the material of his poems. In his
him with the governorship of Hamah. In 1312 he became wine-songs especially the manners of the upper classes of Bagdad
prince with the title Malik us-Salih, and in 1320 received the are revealed. He was one of the first to ridicule the set form of
hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad. the qaslda (elegy) as unnatural, and has satirized this form in
For more than twenty years altogether he reigned in tran- several poems. See I. Goldziher, Abhandlungen zur Arabischen
quillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern- Philologie (Leyden, 1896), i. pp. 145 ff. His poems were collected
ment and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly by several Arabian editors. One such collection (the MS. of
indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of which is now in Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped
letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in under the ten headings: wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of
1331. His chief historical work in An Abridgment of the History youths, love of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation
of the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the of the world. His collected poems (Diwan) have been published
creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols. in Cairo (1860) and in Beirut (1884). The wine-songs were
1869). Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest edited by W. Ahlwardt under the title Diwan des Abu Nowas.
being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian i. Die Weinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). (G. W. T.)
conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo, ABU SIMBEL, or IPSAMBUL, the name of a group of temples of
in 1610 (preserved in Muratori's Rerum Ilalicarum Scriptores, Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.C.) in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile,
vol. i.). The section dealing with the pre-Islamitic period was 56 m. by river S. of Korosko. They are hewn in the cliffs at the
edited with Latin translation by H. O. Fleischer under the title riverside, at a point where the sandstone hills on the west reach
Abulfedae Historia Ante-I slamica (Leipzig, 1831). The part the Nile and form the southern boundary of a wider portion of
dealing with the Mahommedan period was edited, also with the generally barren valley. The temples are three in number.
Latin translation, by J. J. Reiske as Annales Muslemici (5 vols., The principal temple, probably the greatest and most imposing
Copenhagen, 1789-1794). His Geography is, like much of the his- of all rock-hewn monuments, was discovered by Burckhardt in
tory, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately i8i2andopenedbyBelzoniin 1817. (The front has been cleared
on the work of Ptolemy. A long introduction on various geo- several times, most recently in 1892, but the sand is always
graphical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing pressing forward from the north end.) The hillside was recessed
in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each to form the facade, backed against which four immense seated
"
name are given the longitude, latitude, climate," spelling, and colossi of the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance, rise
then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts from a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight
of the work were published and translated as early as 1650 of steps. The colossi are no less than 65 ft. in height, of nobly
(cf. Carl Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen Litleratur, placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures of Rameses'
Berlin, 1902, vol. ii. pp. 44-46). The text of the whole was pub- queen and their sons and daughters; behind and over them is
lished by M'G. de Slane and M. Reinaud (Paris, 1840), and a the cornice, with the dedication below in a line of huge hiero-
French translation with introduction by M. Reinaud and glyphs, and a long row of apes, standing in adoration of the
StanislasGuyard (Paris, 1848-1883). (G. W. T.) rising sun above. The temple is dedicated primarily to the solar
ABO-L-QASIM [Khalaf ibn 'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian gods Amenre of Thebes and Raharakht of Heliopolis, the true
physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as ABUL- sun god; it is oriented to the east so that the rays of the sun in
CASIS, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as physi- the early morning penetrate the whole length of two great halls
cian to the caliph 'Abdur-Rahman III. (912-961). No details to the innermost sanctuary and fall upon the central figures of
of his life are known. A part of his compendium of medicine Amenre and Rameses, which are there enthroned with Ptah of
was published in Latin in the i6th century as Liber theoricae Memphis and Raharakht on either side. The interior of the
nee non praclicae Alsaharavii (Augsburg, 1519). His manual temple decorated with coloured sculpture of fine workmanship
is
of surgery was published at Venice in 1497, at Basel in 1541, and good preservation; the scenes are more than usually
in
and at Oxford Abulcasis de Chirurgia arabice et latine euro, interesting; some are of religious import (amongst them Ra-
Johannis Channing (2 vols. 1778). meses as king making offerings to himself as god), others illus-
For his other works see Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabi- trate war in Syria, Libya and Ethiopia: another series depicts
schen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 239-240. (G. W. T.) the events of the famous battle with the Hittites and their allies
ABUNDANTIA ("Abundance"), a Roman goddess, the at Kadesh, in which Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and
personification of prosperity and good fortune. Modelled after army by his personal valour. Historical stelae of the same reign
the Greek Demeter, she is practically identical with Copia, are engraved inside and outside the temple; the most interest-
Annona and similar goddesses. On the coins of the later Roman ing is that recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the
emperors she is frequently represented holding a cornucopia, 34th year. Not the least important feature of the temple be-
from which she shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in- longs to a later age, when some Greek, Carian and Phoenician
 ABU TAMMAM ABYDOS 81
soldiers of one of the kings named Psammetichus (apparently branches of human knowledge, and Ibn Hisham accepted his
Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.) inscribed their names upon the interpretation even of passages in the Koran. The titles of 105
two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then clear of sand. of his works are mentioned in the Fihrist, and his Book of Days is
These graffiti are of the highest value for the early history of the basis of parts of the history of Ibn al-Athir and of the Book
the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek mercenaries of Songs (see ABULFARAJ), but nothing of his (except a song) seems
in the Egyptian armies of the period. The upper part of the to exist now in an independent form. He is often described as
second colossus (from the south) has fallen; the third was re- a Kharijite. This, however, is true only in so far as he denied
paired by Sethos II. not many years after the completion of the the privileged position of the Arab people before God. He was,
temple. This great temple was wholly rock-cut, and is now however, a strong supporter of the Shu'ubite movement, i.e.
threatened by gradual ruin by sliding on the planes of stratifica- the movement which protested against the idea of the superi-
tion. A small temple, immediately to the south of the first, ority of the Arab race over all others. This is especially seen in
is believed to have had a built antechamber: it is the earliest his satires on Arabs (which made him so hated that no man
known example of a " birth chapel," such as was usually attached followed his bier when he died). He delighted in showing that
to Ptolemaic temples for the accommodation of the divine words, fables, customs, &c., which the Arabs believed to be
mother-consort and her son. The third and northernmost temple, peculiarly their own, were derived from the Persians. In these
separated from the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the matters he was the great rival of Asma'I (q.v.).
colossi of the facade are six in number and 33 ft. high, repre- See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also
senting Rameses and his queen Nefrere, who dedicated the temple I. Goldziher's Muhammedanische Sludien (Halle, 1888), vol. i. pp.
to the goddess Hathor. The whole group forms a singular monu- 194-206. (G. W. T.)
ment of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification. ABYDOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated
See EGYPT; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, Egypt, vol. iii. at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile
pp. 124 et seq., esp. 212; "The Temples of Lower Nubia," in the broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, October
afterwards colonized by Milesians. Here Xerxes crossed the
1906. (F. LL. G.)
strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos
ABtJ TAMMAM [Hablb ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, was,
is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V.
like Buhturl, of the tribe of Tai (though some say he was the son
of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves of Hero
of a Christian apothecary named Thaddeus, and that his genea-
and Leander. The town remained till late Byzantine times the
logy was forged). He was born in Jasim (Josem), a place to the
toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred
north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Manbij (Hierapolis). "
He seems to have spent his youth in Horns, though, according to the Dardanelles (q.v.), after the building of the Old Castles "
to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456).
See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage dans I 'empire ottoman (Paris, 1842).
water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet
was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went to ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, about
7 m. W. of the Nile in lat. 26 10' N. The Egyptian name was
Damascus and thence to Mosul. From this place he made a visit "
to the governor of Armenia, who awarded him richly. After Abdu, the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred
head of Osiris was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos,
833 he lived mostly in Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim.
like the city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is
From Bagdad he visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour
of 'Abdallah ibn Tahir. About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un- Arabet Madfuneh. The history of the city begins in the late
el

prehistoric age,it having been founded by the pre-Menite kings

Nu'man, where he met Buhturl. He died in Mosul. Abu
Tammam is best known in literature as the compiler of the collec- (Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been
found there. The kings of the 1st dynasty, and some of the Hnd
tion of early poems known as the Hamdsa (q.v.). Two other
collections of a similar nature are ascribed to him. His own poems dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and
have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his com- enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind
the town by three kings of the Hnd dynasty. The temple and
pilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, and were
town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of
distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse
and the excellent manner of treating subjects. His poems the XXXth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously.
In the XHth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by
(Diwdn) were published in Cairo (A.D. 1875).
Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in the XlXth dynasty founded
See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by
M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. i. pp. 348 ff. and in
a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the
;

the Kit&b ul-Aghdni (Book of Songs) of Abulfaraj (Bulaq, 1869), ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by
vol. xv. pp. 100-108. (G. W. T.) Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who also built a lesser temple of his
ABUTILON (from the Arabic aubutilun, a name given by own. Mineptah (Merenptah) added a great Hypogeum of Osiris
Avicenna to an allied genus), in botany, a genus of plants,
this or to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of
natural order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about eighty Nekhtnebf in the XXXth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times
species, and widely distributed in the tropics. They are free- the place continued to decay and no later works are known
growing shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and are favourite (Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.).
greenhouse plants. They may be grown outside in England The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophois,
" "
during the summer months, but a few degrees of frost is fatal to Wepwoi), who opened the way to the realm of the dead, in-
them. They are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the creasing from the 1st dynasty to the time of the XHth dynasty
spring or at the end of the summer. A large number of horti- and then disappearing after the XVIIIth. Anher appears in the
cultural varieties have been developed by hybridization, some Xlth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the western Hades,
of which have a variegated foliage. rises to importance in the middle kingdom and then vanishes
ABUTMENT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed in the XVIIIth. The worship here of Osiris in his various forms
to receive and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or strut. begins in the XHth dynasty and becomes more important in
When built outside a wall it is termed a buttress. later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as
ABU UBAIDA [Ma'mar ibn ul-Muthanna] (728-825), Arabian sacred to him (Abydos, ii. 47).
scholar, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Bara, The temples successively built here on one site were nine or
and in his youth was a pupil of Abu'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. In 803 ten in number, from the 1st dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the XXVIth
he was called to Bagdad by Harun al-Rashld. He died in Basra. dynasty, 500 B.C. The first was an enclosure, about 30 X
50 ft.,
He was one of the most learned and authoritative scholars of surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall
his time in all matters pertaining to the Arabic of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall
language, anti-
quities and and is constantly cited by later authors and
stories, about 10 ft. thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded
compilers. Jahiz held him to be the most learned scholar in all the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the Hnd or
 ABYSS ABYSSINIA
Illrd dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the IVth brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of
dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such
a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are burials being usual. By the end of the Hnd dynasty the type
found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either
decreed by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms. A
sacrifices hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The
great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space
and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings of over 3000 square yards. The contents of the tombs have
and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough re-
of the 1st dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hiero- mained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies,
glyphs in green glaze and the tiles with the most
relief figures are a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal
important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled
in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies,
this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record
scale by Pepi I. in the Vlth dynasty. He placed a great stone of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various
gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an
with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i.
40X50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing and ii.).

that it was of the processional type. In the Xlth dynasty The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with
Menthotp (Mentuhotep) III. added a colonnade and altars. some pit tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Xllth and
Soon after, Sankhkere entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone XIHth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. In the
pavement over the area, about 45 ft. square, besides subsidiary XVIIIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were
chambers. Soon after Senwosri (Senusert) I. in the Xllth made, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times.
dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's work-
of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing men, without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and
a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos,
the earlier size. iii. ; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Gars tang, El Arabah.

The XVIIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis The forts lay behind the town. That known as Shunet ez
(Ahmosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes) Zebib is about 450X250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high.
III. built a far larger temple, about 130X20x5 ft. He made also It was built by Khasekhemui, the last king of the Hnd dynasty.
a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather
beyond, with a great gateway of granite. Rameses III. added older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the
a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty rebuilt Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos,
the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red iii.). (W.M.F.P.)
granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive ABYSS (Gr. &-, privative,bottom), a bottomless
/3w<76s,
temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; depth hence any deep place. From the late popular abyssimus
;

these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various (superlative of Low Latin abyssus) through the French abisme
buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and (i.e. abime) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced as late
looo levellings (Petrie, Abydos, ii.). as 1616 to rhyme with time. The adjective " abyssal " or
" "
The temple of Seti I. was built on entirely new ground half abysmal has been used by zoologists to describe deep regions
a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and fauna, abys-
This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, mal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal bed of the ocean.
being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an escutcheon. In the
object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, Greek version of the Old Testament the word represents (i) the
to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) the Hebrew tehom (" a surging
long of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall
list water-deep which is used also in apocalyptic and kabba-
"),
"
is known as the Table of Abydos." There were also seven listic literature and in the New Testament for hell, the place of
"
chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. for the yawning chasm of
back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship Tartarus ") in the Revised (not the Authorized) version abyss
;

(Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from these led is generally used for this idea. Primarily in the Septuagint
out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mys- cosmography the word is applied (a) to the waters under the
teries, built by Mineptah (Murray, Osireion). The temple was earth which originally covered it, and from which the springs
originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and rivers are supplied, (b) to the waters of the firmament which
and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, were regarded as closely connected with those below. Deriva-
including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and tively, from the general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of
a panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but the place of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as
mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and re- Sheol. In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence they
finement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. may occasionally be let loose, and where Satan is doomed to
The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not spend 1000 years. Beneath the altar in the temple of Jeru-
facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i. The adjacent temple of salem there was believed to be a passage which led down to the
Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had abyss of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was
a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which laid. In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of
the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti,
'

Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or
formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the seven parts imposed one above the other. In the Kabbalah the
French consul and sold to the British Museum. abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil
The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the world
a mile back on the great desert plain. The earliest is about above. In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a place of
X
10 20 ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow.
with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15X25 See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Eng. trans.,
ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this Oxford, 1905).
the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA), an inland country and
surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5 and 15 N.
sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the and 35 and 42 E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian). W.
 ABYSSINIA

ABYSSINIA
Scale, 1:9,000,000
English MUe
D 50 tOO 150 200 ZCO

Kilometres
o 50 100 300 300 400

ay
Gulf of Aden

Longitude East 40 of Greenwich

by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, S.E. (i) Physical Features. Between the valley of the Upper Nile
and E. by the British, Italian and French possessions in Somali- and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the
land and on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by European Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus
powers, which cut off Abyssinia from access to the sea, vary in from which rise various mountain ranges. These tablelands
width from 40 to 250 miles. The country approaches nearest to and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla
the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is drawn about land. On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise with
40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is narrowest considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting outer
in the north, being here 230 m. across from east to west. It mountain chains. The Abyssinian highlands are thus a clearly
broadens out southward to a width of goo m. along the line of marked orographic division. From Ras Kasar (18 N.) to
9 N., and resembles in shape a triangle with its apex to the north. Annesley Bay (15 N.) the eastern wall of the plateau runs
It is divided into Abyssinia proper (i.e. Tigre, Amhara, Gojam, parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows closely
&c.), Shoa, Kaffa and Galla land all these form a geographical the line of 40 E. for some 400 m. About 9 N. there is a break
unit and central Somaliland with Harrar. To the S.W. Abys- in the wall, through which the river Hawash flows eastward.
sinia also includes part of the low country of the Sobat tributary The main range at this point trends S.W., while south of the
of the Nile. The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. m., Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the level of the
of which Abyssinian Semaliland covers fully a third. mountains, another massif rises in a direct line south. This
84 ABYSSINIA
second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) eastward to the Gulf the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; and by the Omo,
of Aden. The two chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf.
S. by W., with a broad upland valley between in which valley The Takazze, which is the true upper course of the Atbara,
are a series of lakes to about 3 N., the outer (eastern) spurs has its head- waters in the central tableland; and falls from
of the plateau still keeping along the line of 40 E. The southern about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through
escarpment of the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the
direction N.W. and S.E. from 6 N. to 3 N. It overlooks the western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan
"
depression in which is Lake Rudolf and east of that lake territory. During the rains the Takazze (i.e. the Terrible ")
southern Somaliland. The western wall of the plateau from 6 rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and at this time forms
N. to 11 N. is well marked and precipitous. North of 11 N. an impassable barrier between the northern and central provinces.
the turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the
hills In its lower course the river is known by the Arab name Setit.
plains at their base. On its northern face also the plateau falls The Setit is joined (14 10' N., 36 E.) by the Atbara, a river
in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan. The eastern escarp- formed by several streams which rise in the mountains W. and
ment is the best defined of these outer ranges. It has a mean N.W. of Lake Tsana. The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly
height of from 7000 to 8000 ft., and in many places rises almost of the Abyssinian rivers which flow towards the Nile valley.
perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts, Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarp-
through which descend mountain torrents to lose themselves in ment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It
the sandy soil of the coast land, afford means of reaching the reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its
plateau, or the easier route through the Hawash valley may be waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a
chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier the traveller finds great part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden
that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level freshets during the rains. Only the left bank of the upper course
of the plateau. of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming
(2) The aspect most impressive. The
of the highlands is the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia.
northern portion, lying mainly between 10 and 15 N., consists (3) The Abai that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile
of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of from has its source near Mount Denguiza in the Gojam highlands
7000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, and is flooded in a deep central (about 11 N. and 37 E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due
depression by the waters of Lake Tsana. Above the plateau north to the south side of Lake Tsana. Tsana (q.v.}, which
rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the plateau,
which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 15,000 ft. Many has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater. It has an area of
of the mountains are of weird and fantastic shape. Character- about noo sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 ft. At the
istic of the country are the enormous fissures which divide it, south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as it were, breached
formed in the course of ages by the erosive action of water. They by a deep crevasse through which the Abai escapes, and here
are in fact the valleys of the rivers which, rising on the uplands develops a great semicircular bend like that of the Takazze, but
or mountain sides, have cut their way to the surrounding low- in the reverse direction east, south and north-west down to
lands. Some of the valleys are of considerable width; in other the plains of Sennar, where it takes the name of Bahr-el-Azrak
cases the opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three or Blue Nile. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the
hundred yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara; the
feet,representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of Jamma rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa; the Muger
cubic feet. One result of the action of the water has been rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the
the formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa
plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides. The hills and has a generally S. to N. course; the Yabus runs near

highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam the western edge of the plateau escarpment. All these are
ranges. The Simen Mountains lie N.E. of Lake Tsana and cul- perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the
minate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally
has an altitude of 15,160 ft. A few miles east and north re- torrential in character. The Bolassa, however, is perennial,
spectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose and the Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time.
summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan. In the Chok In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the
Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft. south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and other
Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of Baila of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The
(12,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (13,780 ft.), and Kollo (14,100 ft.), the Akobo, in about 7 50' N. and 33 E., joins the Pibor, which in
last-named being S.W. of Magdala. The valley between these about 8j N. and 33 20' E. unites with the Baro, the river below
hills and the eastern escarpment is one of the longest and most the confluence taking the name of Sobat. These rivers descend
profound chasms in Abyssinia. Between Lake Tsana and the from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian
eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13,800 ft.) and Uara Sahia streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on
(13,000 ft.). The figures given are, however, approximate only. reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream afford-
The southern portion of the highlands the 10 N. roughly marks ing an open waterway to the Nile. The Baro, Pibor and Akobo
the division between north and south has more open tableland form for 250 m. the W. and S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see
than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there NILE, SOBAT and SUDAN).
are a few heights between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash
not exceed 8000 ft. But the general character of the southern (Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes a
regions is the same as in the north a much-broken hilly semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the Afar

plateau. (Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern

Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope to the escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left
north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way in bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and then
trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the Hawash
1

that direction to the Nile. Such are the Takazze in the north,
the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and through is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, even in

these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths of the entire the dry season, and during the floods rising 50 or 60 ft. above
drainage. The rest is carried off, almost due north by the Khor low-water mark, thus inundating the plains for many miles
Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red Sea south of Suakin; along both its banks. Yet it fails to reach the coast, and after
by the Hawash, which runs out in the saline lacustrine district a winding course of about 500 m. passes (in its lower reaches)
near the head of Tajura Bay; by the Webi Shebeli (Wabi- through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or
Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E. through Somaliland, though 70 m. from the head of Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is
 ABYSSINIA
lost. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not
of Aussa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several later in age than the Oolite. The upper (Magdala group) con-
hundred feet below sea-level. While most of the other lagoons tains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying
are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced
margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia. They are inter-
the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash. bedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more
Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in
south-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression. In this alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia.
chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of
completely closed, others connected by short channels, the Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden
chief links in their order from north to south are: Zwai, com- Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the
municating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a
Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow
the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft.
sides slopes and wooded ranges from 6000 to nearly
by grassy ($) Climate. The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent
9000 high; lastly, in the Asille country, Lake Stefanie, the
ft. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands
territories varies greatly.
Chuwaha of the natives, completely closed and falling to a level have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the
of about 1800 ft. above the sea. To the same system obviously country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and
belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf (q.v.), which is larger malarious. But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as
than the rest put together.
all This lake receives at its northern the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate.
end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to
and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land. In
some 370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 at its the deep valleys of the Takazze and Abai, and generally in
source to 1600 at lake-level), and is consequently a very rapid places below 4000 ft., the conditions are tropical and fevers are
stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navi- prevalent. On the uplands, however, the aif is cool and bracing
gable only for a short distance above its mouth. The chief rivers in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of
of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi Shebeli and the Juba (q.v.), have temperature is and 80 F. On the higher moun-
between 60
their rise on the south-eastern slopes of the Abyssinian escarp- tains the climate Alpine in character. The atmosphere on
is

ment, and the greater part of their course is through territory the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily
belonging to Abyssinia. There are numerous hot springs in recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation
Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided
uncommon. into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from
Geology.
(4) The East African tableland is continued into October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which
Abyssinia. Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 1870 the geology about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The
has received little attention from travellers. The following rain is heaviest in the Takazze basin in July and August. In
formations are represented: the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains
continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October
Sedimentary and Metamorphic. is a wet month. There are also spring and winter rains; indeed
Recent. Coral, alluvium, sand. rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy
Tertiary. (?)Limestones of Harrar. season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from
Jurassic. Antalo Limestones. June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves
Triassic (?). Adigrat Sandstones. southward. In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin
Archaean. Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks. earlier and The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a
last longer.

Igneous. year in Tigre and Amhara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla land.
Recent. . Aden Volcanic Series. The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia
Tertiary, Cretaceous (?). Magdala group. but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the
Jurassic. Ashangi group. eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rain-
fall. A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs
Archaean. The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way
of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as
and along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica schists form the practically all the flood water of that river is derived from
prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact the Abyssinian tributaries (see NILE).
felspathic rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists (6) Flora and Fauna. As in a day's journey the traveller may
strike north and south. pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so
Triassic (?). In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic rocks great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys
are invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, un- and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance
fossiliferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 feet. of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees
They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines
group. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds occur, on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful
which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal- contrast to the open downs. These conditions are particularly
bearing strata of India. The Adigrat Sandstone possibly characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegeta-
represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South tion on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varie-
Africa. ties of trees and plants found are the date palm, mimosa, wild
Jurassic. The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are generally olive, giant sycamores, junipers and laurels, the myrrh and
horizontal, but are in places much disturbed when interstratified other gum trees (gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on
with trap rocks. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms the eastern foothills), a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine,
and include species of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya, which resists the attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime,
Trigonia and Alaria. pomegranate, peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees;
Igneous Rocks. Above a height of 8000 ft. the country con- the grape vine (rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton
sists of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconform- and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are
able groups. The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts in the south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the
and dolerites often amygdaloidal. Their relation to the Antalo coffee plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes
86 ABYSSINIA
its name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound. Large century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the
areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose kingdom of Shoa.
family, which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be
pendent red blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant grouped according to their geographical position. None of
are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the them has a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several
kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black large markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa
grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great or Adua (17 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalle and Antalo.
variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated. A fibrous The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its
plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa
semi-desert regions of the north and south-east. to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo,
In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia.
( 8) the fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are In Amhara there are: Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence
numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British
valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor (" Mount Tabor "), the chief
has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong
larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake
which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea ; it has
in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of
the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the time
valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station midway
often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east side of
and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also common. Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the famous
Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the name of
"
in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the the place, Fort St Mary." Mahdera-Mariam (" Mary's Rest "),
lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large for some time a royal residence, and an important market and
herds of buffalo and antelope, and gazelles of many varieties great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west of Debra-
" "
and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country. Tabor; its two churches of the Mother and the " Son " are
Among the varieties are the greater and lesser kudu (both rather held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it has a permanent
rare); the duiker, gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and Amharas, the
common it has long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klip- former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the great central
springer, found on the high plateaus as well as in the lower dis- markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Amhara, at
tricts; and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight the converging point of several main trade routes; the market
rarely exceeding 10 ft, common in the low countries and the is numerously attended, especially by dealers in the salt blocks
foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns are in
chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous, Shoa: Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; Aliu-
as are several kinds of monkeys, notably the guereza, gelada, Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of Aden;
guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (" Mountain of Light "), once
lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft. a royal residence; Lich6 (Litche), one of the largest market
Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for towns in southern Abyssinia. Lieka, the largest market in
the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and
hawks, bustards and other birds of prey are met with and ;
other parts of the empire. Bonga, the commercial centre of
partridges, duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, wood- Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma,
cock, snipe, pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful. are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces,
A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf
prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black- of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settle-
bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance. ments of any size in southern Abyssinia.
Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey Communications. The 'Jibuti-Dire Dawa railway has been
everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the mentioned above. The continuation of this railway to the capital
inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents are was begun in 1906 from the Adis Ababa end. There are few
not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There are roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is
thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the
(7) Provinces and Towns. Politically, Abyssinia is divided into lower regions) camels. From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a
provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The chief well-made carriage road, and from Harrar to Adis Ababa the
provinces are Tigr6, which occupies the N.E. of the country; caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being
Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district enclosed spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route
by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa (q.v.), from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect Adis
which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara. Besides these Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia with
ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic service,
includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of Gojam; the Harrar the longest line being from Harrar to the capital.
province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla land, S.W. and S. (8) Agriculture. The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is evident
of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland. from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its fertility to the
With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab foundation, sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian tributaries.
there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar is some 30 m. Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the
S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway (188 m. long) to indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good
Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence of large towns in farmers. In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown
Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, ieff, pease,
isdivided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual cotton and sugar-cane and many kinds of fruit trees are culti-
warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on vated. TeJ? is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an
the exhaustion of fuel supplies. The earliest capital appears to ordinary pin-head, of which is made the bread commonly eaten.
have been Axum (q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive The low grounds also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black
ruins. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital bread is made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the
of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the ipth suf, nuc and settle (there are no European equivalents for the
 ABYSSINIA 87
native names), and the ground-nut are largely grown. The (9) Minerals. In the south and south-west provinces placer
castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp gold mines by the banks of watercourses are worked by Gallas
regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and fields. In
medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a
Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals certain extent. There are also gold mines in southern Shoa.
only are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley, The annual output of gold is worth not less than 500,000. Only
teff, peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee. Above 10,000 a small proportion exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal
is
ft. the crops are confined practically to barley, oats, beans and and other minerals are found. Rock-salt is obtained from the
occasionally wheat. province of Tigre.
Coffee is one of the most important products of the country, Trade and Currency. Abyssinia being without seaports, the
and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands. It external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the north, Jibuti
is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to a less (French), Zaila and Berbera (British) in the south, and for all
extent in the central districts. Two qualities of coffee are these ports Aden is a distributing centre. For Tigre and
cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar- Amhara products Massawa is the best port, for the rest of the
Mocha. The " Abyssinian " coffee is grown very extensively empire, Jibuti. For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands,
throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to
to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a con-
ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low siderable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the
"
grade. Harrar-Mocha " is of first-class quality. It is grown frontier towns of Rosaires and Gallabat. At the French and
in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care. British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abys-
The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the sinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they
early years of the aoth century. The soil of the Hawash valley are not imported from Italy.
proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet,
plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower pla- ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for
teaus and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and live
summer is long and rain abundant sowing and reaping are going stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the United States
on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops through Aden America also takes a large propoition of the
;

a year. The methods of culture are primitive, the plough coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with
commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth Madagascar. The chief imports are cotton goods, the yearly value
and a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached. of this trade being fully 250,000; the sheetings are largely
This implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is American; the) remainder English and Indian. No other
done by the men, but women and girls do the reaping. The article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a con-
grain is usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in siderable trade is done in arms and ammunition, rice, sugar,
clay-
lined pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to ten- flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and
fold the quantity sown; the major part of the land yields matches (from Sweden), oil, carpets (oriental and European),
twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very hats and umbrellas. Commerce long remained in a backward
little land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. efforts were
terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels made to develop the resources of the country, and in 1905 the
being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley total volume of trade exceeded 1,000,000.
is the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agri- Until the end of the igth century the usual currency was the
cultural labourer is about threepence a day in addition to food, Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In 1894
which may cost another penny a day. a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar or
The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals. talari,worth about two shillings, as the standard. This new
Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common. The coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In 1905 the
bulls are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country,
meat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety, was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa. The
but there are also two breeds one large, the other resembling bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in
the Jersey cattle which are straight-backed. The horns of the empire for fifty years, has a capital of 500,000, has the
the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. Sheep, of which power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, and
there are very large flocks, belong to the short and fat-tailed to engage in commercial operations. was founded under
It
variety. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district Egyptian law by the National Bank Egypt, which insti-
of
a very small black sheep is raised for wool. The small mountain tution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor
breed of sheep weigh no more than 20 to 30 Ib apiece. Goats Menelek.
are of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the (10) Government. The political institutions are of a feudal
large goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight character. Within their provinces the rases (princes) exercise
from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have large powers. The emperor, styled negus negusti (king of kings)
,

fine silky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches The meat

long. isoccasionally assisted by a council of rases. In October 1907
of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on
pre-
ferred by the natives. In 1904 the estimated number of sheep European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of
and goats in the country was 20,000,000. Large quantities of foreign affairs, war, commerce, justice and finance. The legal
butter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the
and sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor.
considerable numbers. The horses (very numerous) are small The chief judicial official is known as the affa-negus (breath of
but strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height. The the king) .The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over by an
best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small abuna, or archbishop. The land is not held in fee simple, but is
and strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent subject to the control of the emperor or the church. Revenue
quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the
purchase
preferred to the horse. The mule thrives in every condition of and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and
climate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult mountain in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice.
passes with absolute security, and can carry with ease a load of Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy.
200 Ib. The average height of a mule is 12^ hands. The In 1907 a system of compulsory education " of all male children
"
country is admirably adapted for stock-raising. over the age of 12 was decreed. The education was to be state
 ABYSSINIA
provided, Coptic teachers were brought from Egypt and school runs from left to right, and is derived
like all other Semitic forms,
buildings were erected. from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the
The Abyssinian calendar is as follows: The Abyssinian year very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia.
of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the ist of Maskarram, The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political
which corresponds to about the loth of September. The and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs
months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram, and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom,
Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah, already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas, was
Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas'hi. The remaining five days in the suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state
year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the extra religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged
day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more ad-
treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years vanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform
eight months behind the Gregorian. Festivals, such as Easter, Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange
fall a week later than in western Europe. mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community
Army. A small standing army is maintained in each province which, for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful
of Abyssinia proper. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected murder. Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting
to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with crime. A priest is summoned, and,if his prayers and curses fail,

modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field. "

a small boy is drugged, and whatever person he dreams of is
The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.) fixed on as the criminal. ... If the boy does not dream of the
person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he
ETHNOLOGY is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him
"
(Count
(u) The population of the empire is estimated at from Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap, xvi., 1898).
3,500,000 to 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist mainly of the The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history.
Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two last-named Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked
peoples are separately noticed). Of non- African races the most feature of their character; and in war they seldom kill their
numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and Greeks. There is prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed
a small colony of British, French, Italians and Russians. The over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to
following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its in- death or accept a ransom. When the murdered person has no
It should be remembered that the term
"
habitants. Abys- relatives, the priests takeupon themselves the office of avengers.
" The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the
sinian is purely geographical, and has little or no ethnical

significance; it is derived from the Arabic Habesh. "mixed," constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations.
and was a derisive name applied by the Arabs to the hetero- The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The haughtiest
geneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau. Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself with the
"
Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the remark, God has given us speech for the purpose of begging."
eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but easily ap-
region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great peased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of gaiety.
bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c.,
Semitized. The prevailing colour in the central provinces it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh-

(Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigre, Lasta) it bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal parts
is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are seen. South- of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the re-
wards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate and almost mainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favour-
sooty black is the rule. Many of the people are distinctly ite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. The raw meat eaten in
negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much
or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is more tender than when cold. The statement by James Bruce
due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been im- respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently
ported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority, been called in question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce
however, may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people, actually saw what he narrates. Mutton and goat's flesh are the
who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and meats most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and
regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat the hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from
curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black. The superstition. Many forms of game are forbidden; for example,
Galla, who came from the south, are not found in
originally all water-fowl. The principal drinks are tnese, a kind of
many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo dis- mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from fermented cakes.
trict, between Shoa and Amhara. It is from the Galla that the The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion
Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few is an excuse for a carouse. Old and young, of both
seized as
of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia, at which special
veins. customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian
As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as preferring a thin cake of durra meal or teff, kneaded with water
the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (" Agao and exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is
land ") and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called " Jews " of Abys- baked. Salt is a luxury;
"
he eats salt " being said of a spend-
sinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue. But thrift. Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when
the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals:
origin, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time
archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. Geez, as it is by either husband or wife. Polygamy is by no means uncommon.
was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen,
called, Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only
and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical between children of the same father and mother. Children of
"
language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be always
of numerous translations
of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works, enemies to each other." (Samuel Gobat's Journal of a Three
besides a valuable version of the Bible. (See ETHIOPIA.) The Years' Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.)
best modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigr6 and The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs.
Lasta, which is much
purer but less cultivated than the Amharic It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees,
dialect, which
used in state documents, is current in the central
is with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe. The Abys-
and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic ele- sinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the
ments. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, un- upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common.
 ABYSSINIA 89
The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, in to about Syene. The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia
contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two coun-
sandals. The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to tries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization
the wrist, where they fit tightly. The priests wear a white jacket of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early
with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the
of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel. Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen
In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths, of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country,
while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red. Clothes and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent.
are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought
silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the
possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered
wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies. A
Abyssinian method of showing respect. A high-born man covers Greek inscription at Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by
himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors. The men Cosmas and preserved in his Topographia Chris-
of Alexandria,
either cut their hair short or plait it; married women plait tiana, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek
their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries on both sides of the
handkerchief; girls wear their hair short. In the hot season no Red Sea, and having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to
Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes. subjection, returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered
The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and Neptune. Another inscription,
cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For not so ancient, found at Axum, states that Aizanas, king of
ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver neck- the Axumites, the Homerites, &c., conquered the nation of the
laces and silver or gold rosettes in the ears. Silver rings on Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his
fingers and also on toes are common. The women are very fond victory. Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen
of strong scents, which are generally oils imported from India the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the ist to the
and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long 7th century A.D. and was at one time nearly coextensive with
curved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well. Abyssinia proper. The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis
Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior
common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are of Africa in gold dust, ivory, leather, aromatics, &c. At Axum,
still in use. The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword, the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former great-
spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are ness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a sea-
also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes port on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. from the shore
with leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and grey- (see ETHIOPIA, The Axumite Kingdom).
hound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of (13) was introduced into the country by Fru-
Christianity
a pound are used; thro wing-clubs are employed for small game, mentius (<?..), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by
and lions are hunted with the spear. Lion skins belong to the, St Athanasius of Alexandria about A.D. 330. From ia troduc-
emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield. the scanty evidence available it would appear that aoa of
Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian the new religion at first made little progress, and the Christi-

houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest **!&
made and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made converts. Towards the close of the sth century a great company
simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but, of monks are believed to have established themselves in the
in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof country. Since that time monachism has been a power among
sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with the people and not without its influence on the course of events.
pitched thatched roofs, are common. The inside walls are In the early part of the 6th century the king of the Homerites,
plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped straw. None on the opposite coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the
of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the in- Christians, the emperor Justinian I. requested the king of
terior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and Auxume, Caleb or El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause. He ac-
ill ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary cordingly collected an army, crossed over into Arabia, and con-
arrangements do not exist. The caves of the highlands are often quered Yemen (c. 525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for
used as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia about fifty years. This was the most flourishing period in the
are certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief annals of the country. The Ethiopians possessed the richest
native industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far
metal- work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with
extensively practised. The baskets are particularly well made, the Greek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by
and are frequently used to contain milk. the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle of
Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued
frescoes in the churches. These frescoes, however, often exhibit advances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them
considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination off from almost every means of communication with the civilized
"
of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colour- world; so that, as Gibbon says, encompassed by the enemies
ing is gaudy. Saints and good people are always depicted full of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a thousand years,
face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten." About
finest frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at A.D. 1000, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the design of
Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establish-
Lake Tsana. The churches are usually circular in form, the ing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project,
walls of stone, the roof thatched. the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and
The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets conveyed to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while
and flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular Judith reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and
harps. transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1 268 the kingdom
was restored to the royal house in the person of Yekuno Amlak.
HISTORY
(14) Towards the close of the isth century the Portuguese
(12) Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was missions into Abyssinia began. A belief had long prevailed
included in the tract of country known to the ancients as in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far

Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various
9o ABYSSINIA
expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who 1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, Sennar, the Nile and the
had engaged in this search was Pedro de Covilham, who Korosko desert (see BRUCE, JAMES).
arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he (15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian
had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented history, as distinct from the visits and influence of Europeans,
influence, to the negus, or emperor of the country, a letter from his it must be borne in mind that during the last three
master the king of Portugal, addressed to Prester John. hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for
^e'ae^s'
Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an Armenian the old chroniclers may be trusted to have given a negusti.
named Matthew was sent by the negus to the king of Portugal somewhat distorted view of the importance of the
to request his aid against the Mahommedans. In 1520 a particular chieftains with whom they came in contact, the coun-
Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea try has been merely a conglomeration of provinces and districts,
in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet ill defined, loosely connected and
generally at war with each
visited the negus, Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II., and remained other. Of these the chief provinces have been Tigre (northern),
in Abyssinia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father Amhara (central) and Shoa (southern). The seat of government,
Francisco Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara, the ruler
least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1 540 of which, calling himself negus negusti (king of kings, or em-
armies of Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommed peror), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other
Gran (or Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla) entered Abyssinia
, provinces. The title of negus negusti has been to a considerable
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom, extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant. All the
obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from
In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese. Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that
John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more
who had remained in the country after the departure of the to the force of their arms than to the purity of their lineage.
embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrust- Some of the rulers of the larger provinces have at times been
worthy), ordained successor to the abuna (archbishop), and sent given, or have given themselves, the title of negus or king, so
to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what that on occasion as many as three, or even more, neguses have
credentials is not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese been reigning at the same time; and this must be borne in mind
fleet, under the command of Stephen da Gama, was sent from by the student of Abyssinian history in order to avoid confusion
India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he of rulers. The whole history of the country is in fact one gloomy
received an ambassador from the negus beseeching him to send record of internecine wars, barbaric deeds and unstable govern-
help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of ments, of adventurers usurping thrones, only to be themselves
450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher da Gama, unseated, and of raids, rapine and pillage. Into this chaos
younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and enter from time to time broad rays of sunshine, the efforts of a
being joined by native troops were at first successful against the few enlightened monarchs to evolve order from disorder, and to
enemy; but they were subsequently defeated, and their com- supply to their people the blessings of peace and civilization.
mander taken prisoner and put to death (August 1542). On Bearing these matters in mind, we find that during the i8th
the 2ist of February 1543, however, Mahommed Granye was century the most prominent and beneficent rulers were the
shot in an engagement and his forces totally routed. After emperor Yesu of Gondar, who died about 1720, Sebastie, negus
this, quarrels arose between the negus and Bermudez, who had of Shoa (1703-1718), Amada Yesus of Shoa, who extended his
returned to Abyssinia with Christopher da Gama and who now kingdom and founded Ankober (1743-1774), Tekla Giorgis of
wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to Amhara (1770-1798?) and Asfa Nassen of Shoa (1774-1807), the
Rome. This the negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez latter being especially renowned as a wise and benevolent
was obliged to make his way out of the country. The Jesuits monarch. The first years of the igth century were disturbed by
who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into fierce campaigns between Guxa, ras of Gondar, and Wolda
Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters at Fremona (near Adowa) , Selassie, ras of Tigre, who were both striving for the crown of
were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In Guxa's master, the emperor Eguala Izeion. Wolda Selassie
the beginning of the i7th century Father Pedro Paez arrived at was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole
Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty.
high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. (16) Mention must here be made of the first British mission,
He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in under Lord Valentia and Mr Henry Salt, which was sent in
different parts of the country, and carried out many useful 1805 to conclude an alliance with Abyssinia, and BHtlsh
works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less concili- obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France secured mission
atory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly Egypt by dividing up the Turkish empire with Russia, aadmis-
excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the This mission was succeeded by many travellers, slo ary
. . . , r ti enterprise.
negus Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the
son Fasilidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign.
after having had a footing there for nearly a century For convenience' sake we insert at this point a partial list, of mis-
Poncet an<^ a half. The French physician C. J. Poncet, who sionaries and others who visited the country during the second
ana Bruce, went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile, was third of the igth century merely calling attention to the fact
the only European that afterwards visited the country that their visits were distributed over widely different parts of
before Bruce in 1769. James Bruce's main object was to dis- the country, ruled by distinct lines of monarchs or governors.
cover the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in In 1830 Protestant missionary enterprise was begun by Samuel
Abyssinia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, Gobat and Christian Kugler, who were sent out by the Church
he travelled via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received Missionary Society, and were well received by the ras of Tigre.
by King Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a Mr Kugler died soon after his arrival, and his place was subse-
warlike expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the quently supplied by Mr C. W. Isenberg, who was followed by
eastern shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its Dr Ludwig Krapf, the discoverer of Mount Kenya, and others.
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore. Mr (afterwards Bishop) Gobat proceeded to Gondar, where he
On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satis- also met with a favourable reception. In 1833 he returned to
faction that the river originated some 40 miles S.W. of the lake Europe, and published a journal of his residence in Abyssinia.
at a place called Geesh (4th of November 1770). He showed In 1834 Gobat went back to Tigre, but in 1836 ill health
that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well- compelled him to leave. In 1838 other missionaries were
known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt (end of obliged to leave the country, owing to the opposition of the native
 ABYSSINIA
priests. Messrs Isenberg and\Krapf went south, and established Ali and Ubie, these two princes combined against him, but were
themselves at Shoa. The former soon after returned to England, heavily defeated by him at Gorgora (on the southern shore of
but Mr Krapf remained in Shoa till March 1842, when he re- Lake Tsana) in 1853. Ubie retreated to Tigre, and Ras Ali fled
moved to Mombasa. Dr E. Riippell, the German naturalist, to Begemeder, where he eventually died. Kassa now ruled in
visited the country in 1831, and remained nearly twoyears. Amhara, but his ambition was to attain to supreme power, and
M. E. Combes and M. Tamisier arrived at Massawa in 1835, he turned his attention to conquering the remaining
and visited districts which had not been traversed by Europeans chief divisions of the country, Gojam, Tigr6 and Shoa, a l"g

"^r l
since the time of the Portuguese. One who did much at the time which still remained unsubdued. Berro, ras of Gojam, shoa.
to extend our geographical knowledge of the country was Dr in order to save himself, attempted to combine with
C. T. Beke (q.v.), who was there from 1840 to 1843.
Mr Mansfield Tigre, but his army was intercepted by Kassa and totally de-
Parkyns was there from 1843 to 1846, and wrote the most inter- stroyed, himself being taken prisoner and executed (May 1854).
esting book on the country since the time of Bruce. Bishop Shortly afterwards Kassa moved against Tigre, defeated Ubie's
Gobat having conceived the idea of sending lay missionaries forces at Deragi6, in Simen (February 1855), took their chief
into the country, who would engage in secular occupations as prisoner and proclaimed himself negus negusti of Ethiopia under
well as carry on missionary work, Dr Krapf returned to Abys- the name of Theodore III. He now turned his attention to Shoa.
sinia in 1855 withMr Flad as pioneers of that mission; Krapf, (19) Retracing our steps for a moment in that direction, we
however, was not permitted to remain in the country. Six lay find that in 1813 Sahela (or Sella) Selassie, younger son of the
workers came out at first, and they were subsequently joined by preceding ras, Wassen Seged, had proclaimed himself negus or
others. Their secular work, however, appears to have been king. His reign was long and beneficent. He restored the
more valuable to Theodore than their preaching, so that he towns of Debra-Berhan and Angolala, and founded Entotto,
employed them as workmen to himself, and established them the strong stone-built town whose ruins overlook the modern
"
at Gaffat, near his capital. Mr Stern arrived in Abyssinia in capital, Adis Ababa. In the terrible famine of St Luke " in
1860, and after a visit to Europe returned in 1863, accompanied 1835, Selassie still further won the hearts of his subjects by his

by Mr and Mrs Rosenthal. 1 wise measures and personal generosity; and by extending his
(17) Wolda Selassie of Tigre was succeeded in 1817, through hospitality to Europeans, he brought his country within the
force of arms, by Sabagadis of Agame, and the latter, as ras of closer ken of civilizedEuropean powers. During his reign he
Rivalry of Tigre,
introduced various Englishmen, whom he much received the missions of Major W. Cornwallis Harris, sent by the
British admired, into the country. He increased the pros- governor-general of India (1841), and M. Rochet d'Hericourt,
and French sent by Louis Philippe (1843), with both of whom he concluded
factions.
p er jty o f his land considerably, but by so doing
rouse(j th e jealousy of Ras Marie of Amhara to friendly treaties on behalf of their respective governments. He
whom he had refused tribute and Ubie, son of Hailo Mariam, also wrote to Pope Pius IX., asking that a Roman Catholic
a governor of Simen. In an ensuing battle (in January bishop should be sent to him. This request was acceded to,
1831), both Sabagadis and Marie were killed, and Ubie retired and the pope despatched Monsignor Massaja to Shoa. But
to watch events from his own province. Marie was shortly before the prelate could reach the country, Selassie was dead
succeeded in the ras-ship of Amhara by Ali, a nephew of Guxa (1847), leaving his eldest son, Haeli Melicoth, to succeed him.
and a Mahommedan. But Ubie, who was aiming at the crown, Melicoth at once proclaimed himself negus, and by sending
soon attacked Ras Ali, and after several indecisive campaigns for Massaja, who had arrived at Gondar, gave rise to the sus-

proclaimed himself negus of Tigre. To him came many French picion that he wished to have himself crowned as emperor. By
missionaries and travellers, chief of whom were Lieut. Lefebvre, increasing his dominions at the expense of the Gallas, he still
charged (1839) with political and geographical missions, and further roused the jealousy of the northerners, and a treaty
Captains Galinier and Ferret, who completed for him a useful which he concluded with Ras Ali against Kassa in 1850 deter-
triangulation and survey of Tigre and Simen (1840-1842). The mined the latter to crush him at the earliest opportunity.
brothers Antoine and Arnaud d'Abbadie (q.v.) spent ten years Thus it was that in 1855 Kassa, under the name of the em-
(1838-1848) in the country, making scientific investigations of peror Theodore, advanced against Shoa with a large army.
great value, and also involving themselves in the stormy politics Dissensions broke out among the Shoans, and after a desperate
of the country. Northern Abyssinia was now divided into two and futile attack on Theodore at Debra-Berhan, Haeli Melicoth
camps, the one, Amhara and Ras Ali, under Protestant British, died of exhaustion and fever, nominating with his last breath
and the other, Tigre and Ubie, under Roman Catholic French, his eleven-year-old son Menelek2 as successor (November 1855).
influence. The latent hostility between the two factions threat- Darge, Haeli's brother, took charge of the young prince, but
ened at one time to develop into a religious war, but no serious after a 'hard fight with Angeda, one of Theodore's rases, was
campaigns took place until Kassa (later Theodore) appeared on obliged to capitulate. Menelek was handed over to the negus,
the scene. taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service.
(18) Lij (
= Mr) Kassa was born in Kwara, a small district of (20) Theodore was now in the zenith of his career. He is
Western Amhara, in 1818. His father was a small local chief, described as being generous to excess, free from cupidity, merciful
and his uncle was governor of the districts of Dembea, to his vanquished enemies, and strictly continent, but subject
Rise of the K wara and
Chelga between Lake Tsana and the un- to violent bursts of anger and possessed of unyielding pride
r'he'odore. defined N.W.
frontier. He was educated in a monas- and fanatical religious zeal. He was also a man of education
tery, but preferred a more active life, and by his talents and intelligence, superior to those among whom
he lived, with
and energy came rapidly to the front. On the death of his natural talents for governing and gaining the esteem of others.
uncle he was made chief of Kwara, but in consequence of the He had, further, a noble bearing and majestic walk, a frame
arrest of his brother Bilawa by Ras Ali, he raised the standard capable of enduring any amount of fatigue, and is said to have
"
of revolt against the latter, and, collecting a large force, re- been the best shot, the best spearman, the best runner, and the
peatedly beat the troops that were sent against him by the ras best horseman in Abyssinia." Had he contented himself with
(1841-1847). On one occasion peace was restored by his receiving the sovereignty of Arnhara and Tigre, he might have maintained
Tavavich, daughter of Ras Ali, in marriage; and this lady is his position; but he was led to exhaust his strength against the
said to have been a good and wise counsellor during her lifetime. Wollo Gallas, which was probably one of the chief causes of
He next turned his arms against the Turks, in the direction of his ruin. He obtained several victories over that people, ravaged
Massawa, but was defeated; and the mother of Ras Ali having their country, took possession of Magdala, which he afterwards
insulted him in his fallen condition, he proclaimed his independ- made his principal stronghold, and enlisted many of the chiefs
ence. As his power was increasing, to the detriment of both Ras and their followers in his own ranks. As has been shown, he also
1
Since Theodore's time Protestant missionary work, except reduced the kingdom of Shoa, and took Ankober, the capital;
by
natives, has been stopped.
1
Menelek means "a second self."
 ABYSSINIA
but in the meantime his own people were groaning under his release of the prisoners and their return to Massawa. This,
heavy exactions, rebellions were breaking out in various parts however, failed to influence the emperor, and the English
of his provinces, and his good queen Tavavich was now dead. government at length saw that they must have recourse to arms.
The British consul, Walter C. Plowden, who was strongly In July 1867, therefore, it was resolved to send an army into
attached to Theodore, having been ordered by his government Abyssinia to enforce the release of the captives, under Sir
Theodore's in 1 860 to return to Massawa, was attacked on his Robert Napier (ist Baron Napier of Magdala). The landing-
quarrel way by a rebel named Garred, mortally wounded, place selected was Mulkutto (Zula), on Annesley Bay, the point
Oreat an(i taken Theodore attacked the rebels, of the coast nearest to the site of the ancient Adulis, and we
nri* prisoner.
and in the action the murderer of Mr Plowden are told that "the pioneers of the English expedition followed
was slain by his friend and companion Mr J. T. Bell, an to some extent in the footsteps of the adventurous
engineer,but the latter lost his life in preserving that of soldiers of Ptolemy, and met with a few faint traces
"
Theodore. The deaths of the two Englishmen were terribly of this old-world enterprise (C. R. Markham). The expedition.
avenged by the slaughter or mutilation of nearly 2000 rebels. force amounted to upwards of 16,000 men, besides
Theodore soon after married his second wife Terunish, the proud 12,640 belonging to the transport service, and followers, making
daughter of the late governor of Tigre, who felt neither affection in all upwards of 32,000 men. The task to be accomplished
nor respect for the upstart who had dethroned her father, and was to march over 400 miles of a mountainous and little-known
the union was by no means a happy one. In 1862 he made a country, inhabited by savage tribes, to the camp or fortress of
second expedition against the Gallas, which was stained with Theodore, and compel him to deliver up his captives. The com-
atrocious cruelties. Theodore had now given himself up to mander-in-chief landed on the 7th of January 1868, and soon
intoxication and lust. When the news of Mr Plowden's death after the troops began to move forward through the pass of
reached England, Captain C. D. Cameron was appointed to Senafe, and southward through the districts of Agame, Tera,
succeed him as consul, and arrived at Massawa in February Endarta, Wojerat, Lasta and Wadela. In the meantime
1862. He proceeded to the camp of the king, to whom he pre- Theodore had been reduced to great straits. His army, which at
sented a rifle, a pair of pistols and a letter in the queen's name. one time numbered over 100,000 men, was rapidly deserting him,
In October Captain Cameron was sent home by Theodore, with a and he could hardly obtain food for his followers. He resolved
letter to the queen of England, which reached the Foreign Office to quit his captial Debra-Tabor, which he burned, and set out
on the 1 2th of February 1863. This letter was put aside and no with the remains of his army for Magdala. During this march
answer returned, and to this in no small degree are to be attri- he displayed an amount of engineering skill in the construction
buted the difficulties that subsequently arose with that country. of roads, of military talent and that excited
fertility of resource,
In November despatches were received from England, but no the admiration and astonishment of his enemies. On the after-
answer to the emperor's letter, and this, together with a visit noon of the loth of April a force of about 3000 men suddenly
paid by Captain Cameron to the Egyptian frontier town of poured down upon the English in the plain of Arogie, a few
Kassala, greatly offended him; accordingly in January 1864 miles from Magdala. They advanced again and again to the
Captain Cameron and his suite, with Messrs Stern and Rosenthal, charge, but were each time driven back, and finally retired in
were cast into prison. When the news of this reached England, good order. Early next morning Theodore sent Lieut. Prideaux,
the government resolved, when too late, to send an answer to one of the captives, and Mr Flad, accompanied by a native chief,
the emperor's letter, and selected Mr Hormuzd Rassam to be to the English camp to sue for peace. Answer was returned,
its bearer. He arrived at Massawa in July 1864, and immedi- that if he would deliver up all the Europeans in his hands, and
ately despatched a messenger requesting permission to present submit to the queen of England, he would receive honourable
himself before the emperor. Neither to this nor a subsequent treatment. The captives were liberated and sent away, and
application was any answer returned till August 1865, when a accompanying a letter to the English general was a present
curt note was received, stating that Consul Cameron had been of looo cows and 500 sheep, the acceptance of which would,
released, and if Mr Rassam still desired to visit the king, he was according to Eastern custom, imply that peace was granted.
to proceed by the route of Gallabat. Later in the year Theodore Through some misunderstanding, word was sent to Theodore
became more civil, and the British party on arrival at the king's that the present would be accepted, and he felt that he was now
camp in Damot, on the 2$th of January 1866, were received safe; but in the evening he learned that it had not been received,
with all honour, and were afterwards sent to Kwarata, on Lake and despair again seized him. Early next morning he attempted
Tsana, there to await the arrival of the captives. The latter to escape with a few of his followers, but subsequently returned.
reached Kwarata on the I2th of March, and everything appeared The same day (i3th April) Magdala was stormed and taken,
to proceed favourably. A month later they started for the coast, practically without loss, and within they found the dead body
but had not proceeded far when they were all brought back and of the emperor, who had fallen by his own hand. The inhabit-
put into confinement. Theodore then wrote a letter to the queen, ants and troops were subsequently sent away, the fortifications
requesting European workmen and machinery to be sent to destroyed and the town burned. The queen Terunish having
him, and despatched it by Mr Flad. The Europeans, although expressed her wish to go back to her own country, accompanied
detained as prisoners, were not at first unkindly treated; but the British army, but died during the march, and her son Alam-
in the end of June they were sent to Magdala, where they were ayahu, the only legitimate son of the emperor, was brought to
soon afterwards put in chains. They suffered hunger, cold and England, as this was the desire of his father.
1
The success of
misery, and were in constant fear of death, till the spring of the expedition was in no small degree owing to the aid afforded
1868 when they were relieved by the British troops. by the several native chiefs through whose country it passed,
(21) In the meantime the power of Theodore in the country and no one did more in this way than Dejaj Kassa or Kassai of
was rapidly waning. Shoa had already shaken off his yoke; Tigre. In acknowledgment of this, several pieces of ordnance,
Gojam was virtually independent; Walkeit and Simen were small arms and ammunition, with much of the surplus stores,
under a rebel chief; and Lasta, Waag and the country about were handed over to him, and the English troops left the country
Lake Ashangi had submitted to Wagshum Gobassie, who had in May 1868.
also overrun Tigre and appointed Dejaj Kassai his governor. (22) now time to return to the story of the young prince
It is
The latter, however, in 1867 rebelled against his master and Menelek, who, as we have seen, had been nomin- Meoelek
assumed the supreme power of that province. This was the ated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, but was
state of matters when the English troops made their appearance in Theodore's power in Tigre. The following table
in the country. With a view if possible to effect the release of shows his descent since the beginning of the igth century:
the prisoners by conciliatory measures, Mr Flad was sent back, 1
He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but died in his
with some artisans and machinery, and a letter from the queen, nineteenth year, on the I4th of November 1879. He was buried
stating that these would be handed over to his majesty on the at St George's Chapel, Windsor.
 ABYSSINIA 93
Asfa Nassen, d. 1807 (23) Menelek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by
serious dissensions, which had been instigated by his concubine
Wassan Seged = Woizero Zenebe Work
d. 1811 Bafana. This lady, to whom he was much attached, had been
endeavouring to secure the succession of one of her own sons to
the throne of Shoa, and had almost succeeded in getting rid of
Becurraye Sella Selassie = Woizero Betsabesh Mashasha, son of Siefu and cousin of Menelek, who was the ap-
(1795-1847) parent heir. On the approach of John, the Shoans united for a
time against their common enemy. But after a few skirmishes
they melted away, and Menelek was obliged to submit and do
Haeli Melicoth = Ejigayu Siefu Darge obeisance to John. The latter behaved with much generosity,
(1825-1855) (1826-1860) b. 1827 but at the same time imposed terms which effectually deprived
Masnasha Shoa of her independence (March 1878). In 1879 Gordon was
Menelek II. =Tai'tu sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of Egypt; but he was
b. 1844 treated with scant courtesy, and was obliged to leave the country
without achieving anything permanent.
The Italians now come on the scene. Assab, a port near the
I son Zauditu Tanina Work
southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the
(dead) (Judith)
(daughter)
On
the retirement of Theodore's forces from Shoa in 1855,
local sultan in March 1870 by an Italian company,
which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, f^"^af
Siefu, brother of Haeli Melicoth, proclaimed himself negus of
was bought out by the Italian government in 1882. influence.
Shoa at Ankober, and beat the local representatives of the
In this year Count Pietro Antonelli was despatched to
northern government. The emperor returned, however, in
Shoa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties
1858, and after several repulses succeeded in entering Ankober,
with Menelek and the sultan of Aussa. Several missions followed
where he behaved with great cruelty, murdering or mutilating
all the inhabitants. Siefu kept up a gallant defence for two upon this one, with more or less successful results; but both
more years, but was then killed by Kebret, one of his own chiefs. John and Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north
of Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in January 1885, and
Thus chaos again reigned supreme in Shoa. In 1865, Menelek,
now a dejazmach 1 of Tigre, took advantage of Theodore's diffi- Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month.
This latter act was greatly resented by the Abyssinians, for by a
culties with the British government and escaped to Workitu,
treaty concluded with a British and Egyptian mission under
queen of the Wollo Galla country. The emperor, who held as
Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha 2 in the previous year, free
hostage a son of Workitu, threatened to kill the boy unless
transit of goods was to be allowed through this port. Matters
Menelek were given up; but the gallant queen refused, and lost
both her son and her throne.
came to a head in January 1887, when the Abyssinians, in con-
The fugitive meanwhile arrived
sequence of a refusal from General Gene to withdraw his troops,
safely in Shoa, and was there acclaimed as negus. For the next
three years Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and
surrounded and attacked a detachment of 500 Italian troops
at Dogali, killing more than 400 of them. Reinforcements were
disciplining his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as
sent from Italy, whilst in the autumn the British government
Liche (near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country),
&c., and to repelling the incursions of the Gallas. On the death stepped in and tried to mediate by means of a mission under Mr
of Theodore (i3th April 1868) many Shoans, including Ras (afterwards Sir Gerald) Portal. His mission, however proved
abortive, and after many difficulties and dangers he returned to
Darge, were released, and Menelek began to feel himself strong
Egypt at the end of the year. In April 1888 the Italian forces,
KlagJoha enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to
attains undertake offensive operations against the northern numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Abys-
supreme sinian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with
pr i nces g ut th ese projects were of little avail, for
the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving
Kassai of Tigre, as above mentioned, had by this time
some 5000 troops in Eritrea, as their colony was now called.
(1872) risen to supreme power in the north. With the help of the
rifles and guns presented to him by the British, he had beaten
Meanwhile John had not been idle with regard to the dervishes,
Ras Bareya of Tigre, Wagshum Gobassie of Amhara and Tekla who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian
Sudan. Although he had set his troops in motion too late to
Giorgis of Condar, and after proclaiming himself negus negusti
relieve Kassala, Ras Alula, his chief general, had succeeded in
under the name of Johannes or John, was now preparing to
march on Shoa. Here, however, Menelek was saved from prob- inflicting a handsome defeat on Osman Digna at Kufit in Sep-
able destruction through the action of Egypt.
tember 1885. Fighting between the dervishes and the Abys-
This power had,
sinians continued, and in August 1887 the dervishes entered
by the advice of Werner Munzinger (q.v.), their Swiss governor
of Massawa, seized and occupied in 1872 the northern province
and sacked Gondar. After some delay, King John took the field
in force against the enemy, who were still harassing the north-
of Bogos; and, later on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also,
for fear Bogos should be attacked. John, after futile protests,
west of his territory. A great battle ensued at Gallabat, in which
the dervishes, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten. But a stray
collected an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael,
bullet struck the king, and the Abyssinians decided to retire.
hereditary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyptian forces,
who were under the command of one Arendrup, a Dane. Meeting The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands
near the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in detail, and almost of the enemy (gth March 1889).
annihilated at Gundet (i3th November 1875). An avenging (24) Immediately the news of John's death reached Menelek,
he proclaimed himself emperor, and received the submission of
expedition was prepared in the spring of the following year, and,
numbering 14,000 men under Ratib Pasha, Loring (American), Gondar, Gojam and several other provinces. In
and Prince Hassan, advanced to Gura and fortified a position common with other northern princes, Mangasha,
in the neighbourhood. Although reinforced by Walad Michael, reputed son and heir of King John, with the yellow-
3
who had now quarrelled with John, the Egyptians were a second eyed Ras Alula, refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of
time (25th March 1876) heavily beaten by the Abyssinians, and Menelek; but, on the latter marching against them in the
retired, losing an enormous quantity of both men and rifles.
following January with a large army, they submitted. As it
Colonel C. G. Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now happened, Count Antonelli was with Menelek when he claimed
ordered to go and make peace with John, but the king had moved
2
The main object of this mission was to seek John's assistance
in evacuating the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan, which were
south with his army, intending to punish Menelek for having threatened by the dervishes.
raided Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyptians. 3
Ras Alula died February 1897, A S^ about 52. He had raised
1
A title variously translated. A dejazmach (dejaj) is a high himself by his military talents from being a groom and private
official, ranking immediately below a ras. soldier to the position of generalissimo of the army.
94 ABYSSINIA
the throne, and promptly concluded (2nd of May 1889) with same year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs
him on behalf of Italy a friendly treaty, to be known hereafter Clochette and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile,
as the famous Uccialli treaty. In consequence of this the but, after surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes
Italians occupied Asmara, made friends with Mangasha and of the Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expe-
received Ras Makonnen, Menelek's nephew, as his plenipo-
1
dition of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompan-
tentiary in Italy. Thus it seemed as though hostilities between ied by three Europeans Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and
the two countries had come to a definite end, and that peace Artomonov (Russian) started early in 1898, and reached the
was assured in the land. For the next three years the land was Nile at the Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major
fairly quiet, the chief political events being the convention (6th Marchand and his gallant companions arrived on the scene.
February 1891) between Italy and Abyssinia, protocols between But no contact was made, and the expedition returned to
Italy and Great Britain (24th March and isth April 1891) and Abyssinia.
a proclamation by Menelek (loth April 1891), all on the subject In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large
of boundaries. As, however, the Italians became more and more army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again
friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek After some trifling fighting
rebelling against his authority.
increased, till at last, in February 1893, he wrote denouncing Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force
the Uccialli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, Wad
versions. According to the former, the negus was bound to Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This effected,
make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with other the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the Egyptian
powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. Mean- troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the occupation of Khartum)
while the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine action by to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both sides were
Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (zist December anxious to avoid a collision over this latter town, no hostile
1893), and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri resulted in results ensued. An excellent understanding was, in fact, estab-
the acquisition of Kassala (i7th July 1894). lished between these two contiguous countries, in spite of occa-
On his return Baratieri found that Mangasha was intriguing sional disturbances by bandits on the frontier. On this frontier
with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier with a question, a treaty was concluded on the isth of May 1902
large army. At Koatit and Senate (i3th to i5th January 1895) between England and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the
Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by Baratieri, who Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not
occupied Adrigat in March. But as the year wore on the Italian to obstruct the waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat,
commander pushed his forces unsupported too far to the south. so as not to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and he
Menelek was advancing with a large army in national support also agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, for
of Mangasha, and the subsequent reverses at Amba Alagi (7th the construction of a British railway through his dominions, to
December 1895) and Macalle (23rd January 1896) forced the connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined British- Abys-
Italians to fall back. sinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched in 1901 to
Reinforcements of many thousands were meanwhile arriving propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the one
at Massawa, and in February Baratieri took the field at the side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the
head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army, amounting report of the expedition was made public by the British govern-
to a but 90,000, had during this time advanced, and ment in November 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agree-
was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima, ment defining the frontiers concerned.
near Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the ist (26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called "mad "mullah
of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one (Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders of
of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This British Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was,
brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on the at Great Britain's request, sent against the mullah, ti 'a^h'
remaining brigades advancing in support, they were successively but without much effect. In the spring and Britain
cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians summer of 1901 a fresh expedition from Harrar was "gainst the
lost over 4500 white and 2000 native troops killed and wounded, undertaken against the mullah, who was laying waste fj^"
and over 2500 prisoners, of which 1600 were white, whilst the the Ogaden country. Two British officers accompanied
Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 3000. General Baldissera this force, which was to co-operate with British troops advancing
advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this from Somaliland; but little was achieved by the Abyssinians,
defeat, but the Abyssinians, desperately short of supplies, had and after undergoing considerable privations and losses, and
already retired, and beyond the peaceful relief of Adrigat no harassing the country .generally, including that of some friendly
further operations took place. It may here be remarked that tribes, it returned to Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign of
the white prisoners taken by Menelek were exceedingly well General (Sir) W. H. Manning, Menelek provided a force of 5000
treated by him, and that he behaved throughout the struggle to co-operate with the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli
with Italy with the greatest humanity and dignity. On the and south-western parts of the Haud. This time the Abyssinians
26th of October following a provisional treaty of peace was were more successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but
concluded at Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and the difficulties of the country again precluded effective co-opera-
recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This tion. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) yet another
treaty was ratified, and followed by other treaties and agree- force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards Somaliland.
ments defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian- Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked its way south-
Italian Somaliland frontiers (see ITALY, History, and SOMALI- ward, but did not contribute much towards the final solution.
LAND, Italian). In any case, however, it is significant that the Abyssinians have
(25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention repeatedly been willing to co-operate with the British away
of all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous from their own country.
Menelek missions, two Russian, three French and one British, Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a
as lade- were despatched to the country, and hospitably re- railway from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the
ceived bv Menelek. The British one, under Mr (after- interior was granted by Menelek to a French company
wards Sir) Rennell Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty in 1894. The company having met with numberless E
with Abyssinia (isth of May 1897), but did not, except in the difficulties and financial troubles, the French govern- influence.
direction of Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for ment, on the extinction of the company's funds, came
several years continued a subject of discussion. During the to the rescue and provided money for the construction. (In the
1
Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered and occupied alternative British capitalists interested in the company would
by Menelek in January 1887. have obtained control of the line.) The French government's
 ABYSSINIAN CHURCH 95
help enabled the railway to be completed to Dire Dawa, 28 m. C. Futterer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Ost-Afrika," Zeit.
Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. xlix. p. 568 (1897) C. A. Raisin, "Rocks from
from Harrar, by the last day of 1902. Difficulties arose over ;

Southern Abyssinia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lix. pp. 292-306
the continuation of the railway to Adis Ababa and beyond,
(1903)-
and the proposed internationalization of the line. These diffi- Among works by travellers describing the country are James
culties, which hindered the work of construction for years, were Bruce's Travels to discover the Source
of the Nile [1768-1773] (Edin-
burgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vols.); The Highlands oj Aethiopw (3 vols.,
composed (so far as the European Powers interested were con- London, 1844), by Sir W. Cornwallis Harris, dealing with the Danakil
cerned) in 1906. By the terms of an Anglo-French-Italian country, Harrar and Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia;
agreement, signed in London on the i3th of December of that being notes collected during three years' residence and travels (2nd ed.,
year, it was decided that the French company should build the London, 1868); Antoine d'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute-
Ethiopie (Paris, 1868); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A Sporting Trip
railway as far as Adis Ababa, while railway construction west
through Abyssinia (London, 1902); A. Donaldson Smith, Through
of that place should be under British auspices, with the stipula- Unknown African Countries (London, 1897); M. S. Wellby, 'Twixt
tion that any railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901). For history see A. M. H.
J.
Sea with its Somaliland protectorate should be built under Stokvis' Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. pp.
439-46, and vol. ii. pp. Ixxiv-v
Italian auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian (Leiden, 1888-89), which contains lists of the sovereigns of Abyssinia,
Shoa and Harrar, from the earliest times, with brief notes. Texts
representative were to be appointed to the board of the French of treaties between Abyssinia and the
European Powers up to 1896
company, and a French director to the board of any British or will be found in vol. i. of Sir E. Hertslet's The
Map of Africa by
Italian company formed. Absolute equality of treatment on Treaty (London, 1896).
"
L. J. Morie's Histoire de I'Ethiopie: Tome
the railway and at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all n, "L'Abyssinie (Paris, 1904), is a comprehensive survey (the views
on modern affairs being coloured by a strong anti-British bias).
the Powers. For more detailed historical study consult C. Beccari's Notizia e
Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened Saggi di opere e documenti inediti riguardanti la Storia di Etiopia
out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers durante i Secoli XVI., XVII. e XVIII. (Rome, 1903), a valuable
guide to the period indicated; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien
appointed representatives at Menelek's capital the British und Afrika (Munich, 1895); The Portuguese Expedition to Abys-
minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel Sir sinia in 1541-1543 as narrated by Castanhoso (with the account of
J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British Bermudez), translated and edited by R. S. Whiteway (London,
mission in 1897. In December 1903 an American mission visited Hakluyt Society, 1902), which contains a bibliography; Futuh el-
Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between the United States Habacha, a contemporary Arab chronicle of the wars of Mahommed
Gran, translated into French by Antoine d'Abbadie and P. Pau-
and Abyssinia was signed. A German mission visited the litschke (Paris, 1898) A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jerome Lobo,
;

country early in 1905 and also concluded a treaty of commerce from the French [by Samuel Johnson] (London, 1735); Record of
with the negus. Later in the year a German minister was ap- the Expedition to Abyssinia, 3 vols., an official
history of the war of
1868, by Major T. J. Holland and Capt. H. Hozier (London, 1870);
pointed to the court of the emperor.
Hormuzd Rassam, Narrative of the British Mission to Theodore
After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no
[1865-1868] (2 vols., London, 1869); Henry Blanc, A Narrative of
doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the Captivity in Abyssinia (London, 1868), by one of Theodore's prisoners;
dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was Sir Gerald H. Portal, My Mission to Abyssinia (London, 1892),
an account of the author's embassy to King John in 1887; Count
sensibly on the increase. Of the remaining powers France
A. E. W. Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik,
1897 (London,
occupied the most important position in the country. Ras 1898), containing the story of the Rennell Rodd mission; R. P.
Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable Skinner, Abyssinia of To-Day (London, 1906), a record of the first
successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in the American mission to the country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Cam-
same year; the question of the succession therefore opened up paign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (London, 1902). Books deal-
ing with missionary enterprise are Journal of a Three Years'
the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences,
Residence in Abyssinia, by Bishop Samuel Gobat (London, 1834);
Abyssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours during
of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of December an 18 years' residence in Eastern Africa (London, 1860); Cardinal
G. Massaja, I miei Trentacinque anni di Missione nell' Alia Etiopia
1906 contained provisions in view of this contingency. The
(10 vols., Milan, 1886-1893). Political questions are referred to by
preamble of the document declared that it was the common T. Lennox Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethiopian Railway and the
interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity Powers (London, 1906); H. le Roux, Menelik et nous (Paris, 1901);
of Ethiopia," and Article I. provided for their co-operation in Charles Michel, La question d'Ethiopie (Paris, 1905). (F. R. C.)
maintaining "the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia." ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates,
Should, however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century.
concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms of the About A.D. 330 Frumentius was made first bishop of Ethiopia
agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith by Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Cedrenus and Nice-
communicated to the negus. After considerable hesitation phorus err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian,
Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the powers, in which, c. 542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break,
after thanking them for their intentions, he stipulated that the the Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from
agreement should not in any way limit his own sovereign rights. Egypt, and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner. Little is
In June '1908, by the nomination of his grandson, Lij Yasu (b. known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule,
1896), as his heir, the emperor endeavoured to end the rivalry which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to
between various princes claiming the succession to the throne. 1633. But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon,
(See MENELEK.) A convention with Italy, concluded in the and stillremain monophysites. Union with the Coptic Church
same year, settled the frontier questions outstanding with that (q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt. Abu Salih
country. (G.*) records (i2th century) that the patriarch used always to send
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general information see A. B. Wylde's Mod- letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, till Al
ern Abyssinia (London, 1901), a volume giving the result of many
Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus
years' acquaintance with the country and people Voyage enAbyssinie
as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce
;

. .
1839-43, par une commission scientifique, by Th. Lefebvre
.

and others (6 vols. and atlas, 3 vols., Paris, 1845-54) Elisee Reclus,
:
observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These
Nouvelle geographic universelle, vol. x. chap. v. (Paris, 1885). For examples show the close relations of the two churches in the
latest geographical and kindred information consult the Geographical
Middle Ages. But early in the i6th century the church was
Journal (London), especially "A Journey through Abyssinia,"
vol. xv. (1900), and "Exploration in the Abai Basin," vol. xxvii. brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission. In 1439,
(1906), both by H. Weld Blundell, and "From the Somali Coast in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious discussion between an
through S. Ethiopia to the Sudan," vol. xx. (1902), by C. Neumann; Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank had led to the despatch
Antoine d'Abbadie, Geographie de I'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890). The of an embassy from Abyssinia to the Vatican; but the initiative
British parliamentary paper Africa, No. 13 (1904), is a report on the
survey of the S.E. frontier by Capt. P. Maud, R.E., and contains
Roman Catholic missions to Abyssinia was taken, not by
in the
a valuable
map. For geology, &c., see W. T. Blanford, Observa- Rome, but by Portugal, as an incident in the struggle with the
tions on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (London,
1870); Mussulmans for the command of the trade route to India by the
96 ACACIA
Red Sea. In 1 507 Matthew, or Matheus, an Armenian, had been and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects
sent as Abyssinian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their edges
Mussulmans, and in 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as
Lima landed in Abyssinia. An
interesting account of this ordinary horizontally placed leaves. There are about 450 species
mission, which remained for several years, was written by of acacia widely scattered over the warmer regions of the globe.
Francisco Alvarez, the chaplain. Later, Ignatius Loyola wished They abound in Australia and Africa. Various species yield
to essay the task of conversion, but was forbidden. Instead, gum. True gum-arabic is the product of Acacia Senegal, abun-
the pope sent out Joao Nunez Barreto as patriarch of the East dant in both east and west tropical Africa. Acacia arabica is
Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the
went to Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the true gum-arabic. An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.)
king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially
of success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating
formal submission to the pope. Then the people rebelled and the solution so as to get an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica,
the king was slain. Fresh Jesuit victories were followed sooner under the name of babul or babool, is used in Scinde for tanning.
or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly triumphed The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is
when once for all it was overthrown. In 1633 the Jesuits were and forms an important article of export.
also very rich in tannin
expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed. Such are Acacia pycnantha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan
There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely wattle, and A. dealbata, silver wattle. The pods of Acacia
resembling the Coptic. After these, two main types of archi- nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species
tecture are found one basilican, the other native. The cathe-
dral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas are nearly
all in ruins e.g. that at Adulis and that of Martula Mariam in

Gojam, rebuilt in the i6th century on the ancient foundations.

These examples show the influence of those architects who, in
the 6th century, built the splendid basilicas at Sanaa and else-
where in Arabia. Of native churches there are two forms one
square or oblong, found in Tigre; the other circular, found in
Amhara and Shoa. In both, the sanctuary is square and stands
clear in the centre. An outer court, circular or rectangular,
surrounds the body of the church. The square type may be
due to basilican influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of
the native hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based
on Jewish tradition. Church and outer court are usually
thatched, with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude
frescoes. The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having
upon it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim
wood, which forms its essential part. At Martula Mariam, the
wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid gold, one
500, the other 800 ounces in weight. The ark kept at Axum is
described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and gems. The
liturgy was celebrated on it in the king's palace at Christmas,
Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross.
Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and
practice. The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the
literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly
understood. Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored, ^
but graven images are forbidden. Fasts are long and rigid. Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer
Confession and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power to and Schumann).
the priesthood. The clergy must marry, but once only. Pil- From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Boianik.

grimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins. are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. The seeds of
AUTHORITIES. Tellez, Hisloria de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 1660); Acacia niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America.
Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc. by Lord Stanley Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia melan-
of Alderley, under the title Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to
oxylon, black wood of Australia, which attains a great. size; its
Abyssinia (London, 1881); Ludolphus, History of Ethiopia (London,
wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish and Acacia
1684, and other works); T. Wright, Christianity of Arabia (London, ;

1855); C. T. Beke. "Christianity among the Gallas," Brit. Mag. homalophylla (also Australian), myall wood, which yields a
(London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Described (London, 1868); fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formosa
"Abyssinian Church Architecture," Royal Inst. Brit. Arch. Trans- supplies the valuable Cuba timber called sabicu. Acacia seyal
actions, 1869; Ibid. Journal, March 1897; Archaeologia, vol. xxxii. ;
is supposed to be the shittah tree of the Bible, which supplied
J. A. de Graca Barreto, Documenta historiam ecclesiae Habessinarum
illustrantia (Olivipone, 1879); E. F. Kromrei, Glaubenlehre und shittim- wood. Acacia heterophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon,
Gebrauche der alteren Abessinischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895) F. M. E.; and Acacia koa from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber
Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon, 1894); Idem, Vida do Abba trees. The plants often bear spines, especially those growing in
Daniel (Lisbon, 1897) ldem,Historiados Martyresde Nagran (Lisbon,
;

arid districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa. These

1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, text 1892, tr. and notes
1900) Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac (Coimbra, 1903) Idem, Vida de
; ;
sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard
S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 1904); Archdeacon Bowling, The and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the
Abyssinian Church, (London, 1909) and periodicals as under COPTIC
kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. girajfae, the African camel-
;

CHURCH. (A. J. B.)

thorn. In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala (bull-
ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the family thorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like stipules
Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae. The small flowers are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion
are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters. The leaves are of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of
compound pinnate in general (see fig.). In some instances, the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-cutting
however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets insects. In common language the term Acacia is often applied
are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically to species of the genus Robinia (q.v.) which belongs also to the
flattened,
 ACADEMIES 97
Leguminous family, but placed in a different section.
is Robinia Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Flor-
Pseud-acacia, or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of ence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of Palermo and fostered by
Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pea-like blossoms. Lauren tius Valla. Far more famous was the Accademia Pla-
The tree is sometimes called the locust tree. tonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo de' Medici, which numbered
ACADEMIES. The word "academy" is derived from "the among its members Marsih'o Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Machia-
"
olive grove ofAcademe, Plato's retirement, the birthplace velli and Angelo Poliziano. It was, as the name implies, chiefly
of the Academic school of philosophy (see under ACADEMY, occupied with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of
GREEK). The schools of Athens after the model of the Academy Dante and the purification of the Italian language, and though it
continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a model for
till they were abolished by a decree of Justinian. It was not similar learned societies was great and lasting.
without significance in tracing the history of the word that Modern Academics. Academies have played an important
Cicero gave the name to his villa near Puteoli. It was there part in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific
that he entertained his cultured friends and held the symposia inquiry. They mark an age of aristocracies when letters were
which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other the distinction of the few and when science had not been differ-
philosophic and moral dialogues. entiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists.
"Academy," in its modern acceptation, may be defined as a Their interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained
society or corporate body having for its object the cultivation that at the present day they have much direct influence on the
and promotion of literature, of science and of art, either sever- advancement of learning either by way of research or of publi-
ally or in combination, undertaken for the pure love of these cation. For example, the standard dictionaries of France,
pursuits, with no interested motive. Modern academies, more- Germany and England are the work, not of academies, but of
over, have, almost without exception, some form of public individual scholars, of Littre, Grimm and Murray. Matthew
recognition; they are either founded or endowed, or subsidized, Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to save his
or at least patronized, by the sovereign of the state. The term countrymen from the note of vulgarity and provinciality has
" "
is very loosely used in modern times; and, in
academy met with no response. Academies have been supplanted,
" " "
essentials, other bodies with the title of society or college," socially by the modern club, and intellectually by societies
" "
or even school, often embody the same idea; we are only devoted to special branches of science. Those that survive from
concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp
academy, are of historical importance in their various spheres. on literary and scientific merit. The principal academies of
Early History. The first academy, as thus defined, though it Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes,
might with equal justice claim to be the first of universities, according to the subjects to which they are devoted.
was the museum of Alexandria founded at the beginning of the
I. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES
3rd century B.C. by the first of the Ptolemies. There all the
sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men Austria. The Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften at
of Greece and of the East gathered beneath its spacious por- Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, was founded by the
ticos. Here, too, was the nucleus of the famous library of emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes mathe-
Alexandria. matics and natural science, and history and philology.
Passing over the state institute for the promotion of science Belgium and the Netherlands. A literary society was founded
founded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the pth century, at Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of
and the various academies established by the Moors at Granada, Maria Theresa, which after various changes of name and con-
at Corduba and as far east as Samarkand, we come to the stitution became in 1816 the Acad&mie imp&riale et royale des
academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch of the School sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of William I. of the
of the Palace established by Charlemagne in 782. This academy Netherlands. It has devoted itself principally to natural his-
was the prototype of the learned coteries of Paris which Moliere tory and antiquities. The Royal Institute of the Low Countries
afterwards satirized. It took all knowledge for its province; was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte. It was replaced
it included the learned priest and the prince who could not in 1851 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, to
write his own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty which in 1856 a literary section was added.
definitions. Denmark. The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab (Royal
The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin to
emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to
tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been arrange his cabinet of medals. Historians and antiquaries were
proved to rest on a forgery. The academy of arts founded at called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission developed
Florence in 1270 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and has left into a sort of learned club. The king took it under his protec-
no memories, and modern literary academies may be said to tion, enlarged its scope by the addition of natural history,
trace their lineage in direct descent from the troubadours of the physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal
early I4th century. The first Floral Games were held at Tou- academy with an endowment fund.
louse in May 1324, at the summons of a gild of troubadours, France. The old Academic des sciences had the same origin
who invited " honourable lords, friends and companions' who as the more celebrated Academic franQaise. A number of men
possess the science whence spring joy, pleasure, good sense, of science had for some thirty years met together, first at the
" "
merit and politeness to assemble in their garden of the gay house of P. Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of
"
science and recite their works. The prize, a golden violet, the Council of State, afterwards at that of Melchisedec Thevenot,
was awarded to Vidal de Castelnaudary for a poem to the glory the learned traveller. It included Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise
of the Virgin. In spite of the English invasion and other and Etienne Pascal. Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, was
adversities the Floral Games survived till, about the year 1500, presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640. Colbert con-
their permanence was secured by the munificent bequest of ceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club.
Clemence Isaure, a rich lady of Toulouse. In 1694 the Acad&mie A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent
des Jeux Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent mathematicians, among whom wereChristian Huyghens and
of Louis XIV. its statutes were reformed and the number of
; Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous
members raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of
was revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of the new
society. Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each
gold and silver lilies, for which there is keen competition. of the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment
Provence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the soil was placed at their disposal. They began their session on the
in which academies most grew and flourished. The Accademia 22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice a
1.4
98 ACADEMIES
week the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the most
Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the re-
post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific sults. Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published
attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded by Sturm. The former, Collegium Experimental sive Curiosum,
in Latin, and C. A. Couplet was made treasurer. At first the begins with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention";
academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian
academy proper. Experiments were undertaken in common experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c.
and results discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, if judged by the
Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted by work it has produced, holds the first place in Germany. Its
the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physi- origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1700 by
cian and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was
made foreign associates. The death of Colbert, who was suc- its first president. Hampered and restricted under Frederick
ceeded by Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French
of the academy. The labours of the academicians were diverted model furnished by Maupertuis, and received its present con-
from the pursuit pure science to such works as the construc-
of stitution in 181 2. It is divided into two classes and four sections
tion of fountainsand cascades at Versailles, and the mathema- physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical.
ticians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of Each section has apermanent secretary with a salary of 1200
lansquenet and basset. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks a
by Louis Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, under whose year. Among the contributors to its transactions (first volume
department as secretary of state the academies came. By its published in 1710), to name only the dead, we find Immanuel
new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten Bekker, Bockling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P. Buttmann, Encke (of
honorary, men of high rank interested in science, and fifteen comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers Grimm, the two Humboldts,
pensionaries, who were the working members. Of these three Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. Mommsen, J. Mtiller, G.
were geometricians, three three mechanicians,
astronomers, Niebuhr, C. Ritter (the geographer), Savigny and Zumpt.
three anatomists, and three chemists. Each
of these three had Frederick II. presented in 1768 A Dissertation on Ennui. To
two associates, and, besides, each pensionary had the privilege the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Grae-
of naming a pupil. There were eight foreign and four free carum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Lalinarum, and the Monumenta
associates. The officers were, a president and a vice-president, Germaniae Historica.
named by the king from among the honorary members, and a The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mannheim was founded
secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held by the elector Palatine in 1755. Since 1780 it has devoted itself
office for life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer specially to meteorology, and has published valuable observa-
of science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as tions under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteorologicae
secretary. The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing Theodora- Palatinae.
in that respect from that of the French Academy, in which the The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Milnchen was
principle of equality among the members was never violated. founded in 1759. It is distinguished from other academies by
Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage the part it has played in national education. Maximilian Joseph,
of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of Bavaria, induced
period were Clairault and Reaumur. To trace the subsequent the government to hand over to it the organization and super-
fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the intendence of public instruction, and this work was carried out
rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among by Privy-councillor Jacobi, the president of the academy. In
itsmembers Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D'Alembert, Lavoisier, recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with
and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. On the 2ist of natural history.
December 1792 it met for the last time, and it was suppressed The Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, which
with its sister academies by the act of the Convention on the dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the
8th of April 1793. Some of its members were guillotined, some Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which publishes medical
were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty. The aristo- transactions, also deserve mention.
cracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by Great Britain and Ireland. In 1616 a scheme for founding a
the Revolution as that of rank. royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent
In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institut scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to King James I.,
National which was to replace all the academies, and its first which was supported by George Villiers, marquis of Buckingham,
class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences. In proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James,
1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch his Academe or College of honour." A list of the proposed
of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its original members is still extant, and includes the names of
members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the engineer, George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden,
the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay- Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton. The constitution is
Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king. The
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaires. In France there were also considerable academy was to consist of three classes, tutelaries, who were
academies in most of the large towns. Montpellier, for example, to be Knights of the Garter, auxiliaries, all noblemen or ministers
had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., of state, and the essentials, "called from out of the most famous
on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it lay gentlemen of England, and either living in the light of things,
was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in or without any title of profession or art of life for lucre." Among
1847, and organized under three sections medicine, science other duties to be assigned to this academy was the licensing of
and letters. Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640, all books other than theological. The death of King James put
under the name of Society de lanternistes; and there were analo- an end to the undertaking. In 1635 a second attempt to found
gous institutions at Nimes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and an academy was made under the patronage of Charles I., with
elsewhere. the title of "Minerva's Museum," for the instruction of young
Germany. The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, noblemen in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was
founded by C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural
J. soon dropped. (For the "British Academy" see III. below.)
philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on About 1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet,
the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted some in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects
of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the connected with experimental science. This was the original oi
death of its founder. The early labours of the society were the Royal Society (q.v.), which received its charter in 1662.
 ACADEMIES 99
A
society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society German scientist, delivered an oration upon the determination
in London, as early as 1683; but the distracted state of the of magnetic variations and longitude. Shortly afterwards the
country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of philosophy empress settled a fund of 4982 per annum for the support of
and literature. The Royal Irish Academy grew from a society the academy; and 15 eminent members were admitted and
established in Dublin about 1782 by a number of gentlemen, pensioned, under the title of professors in the various branches
most of whom belonged to the university. They held weekly of science and literature. The most distinguished of these
meetings, and read, in turn, essays on various subjects. They were Nicholas and Darnel Bernouilli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger,
professed to unite the advancement of science with the history and Wolff.
of mankind and polite literature. The first volume of transac- During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members
tions appeared in 1788. were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court;
Hungary. The Magyar Tudomdnyos Akademia (Hungarian but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a
Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen seminary under the superintendence of the professors. Both
Szechenyi for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian institutions flourished for some time under the direction of
language and the various sciences. It has about 300 members Baron Johann Albrecht Korff (1697-1766). At the accession
and a fine building in Budapest containing a picture gallery and of Elizabeth the original plan was enlarged and improved;
housing various national collections. learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; and, what
Italy. The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at was considered a good omen for the literature of Russia, two
Naples in 1560 by Giambattista della Porta. It arose like the natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius who had
French Academy from a little club of friends who met at della prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled
Porta's house and called themselves the Otiosi. The condition among its members. The annual income was increased to
of membership was to have made some discovery in natural 10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred upon the
science. Della Porta was suspected of practising the black arts institution. Catherine II. utilized the academy for the advance-
and summoned to Rome to justify himself before the papal ment of national culture. She altered the court of directors
court. He was acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close greatly to the advantage of the whole body, corrected many of
his academy. its abuses, added to its means, and infused a new vigour and
The Accademia dei Lined, to which della Porta was admitted spirit into its researches. By her recommendation the most
when at Rome, and of which he became the chief ornament, had intelligent professors visited all the provinces of her vast do-
been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di Monti- minions, with most minute and ample instructions to investigate
celli. Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest members. the natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report
Its device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a Cerberus on the real state of the empire. The result was that no country
with its claws. As a monument the Lincei have left the magni- at that time could boast, within so few years, such a number of
ficent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural History of excellent official publications on its internal state, its natural
Mexico (Rome, 1651, fol.), printed at the expense of the founder productions, its topography, geography and history, and on
and elaborately annotated by the members. This academy the manners, customs and languages of the different tribes that
was resuscitated in 1870 under the title of Reale Accademia dei inhabited it, as came from the press of this academy. In its
Lincei, with a literary as well as a scientific side, endowed in researches in Asiatic languages, oriental customs and religions,
1878 by King Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recog- it proved itself the worthy rival of the Royal Asiatic Society

nition from the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini in England. The first transactions, Commentarii 'Academiae
palace, whose owner made over to it his library and collections. Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae ad annum 1726, with a
The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657 dedication to Peter II., were published in 1728. This was con-
by Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II., tinued until 1747, when the transactions were called Novi
at the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician. It Commentarii Academiae, &c. and in 1777, A eta Academiae
;

was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against the Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, with some alteration in
deductive science of the quadrivium. Its founder left it when he the arrangements and plan of the work. The papers, hitherto in
was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten years, but the grand Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or in French,
foliopublished in Italian (afterwards translated into Latin) in and a preface added, Partie Historique, which contains an ac-
1667 is a landmark in the history of science. It contains ex- count of the society's meetings. Of the Commentaries, fourteen
periments on the pressure of the air (Torricelli and Borelli were volumes were published: of the New Commentaries (1750-1776)
among its members), on the incompressibility of water and on twenty. Of the Ada Academiae two volumes are printed every
universal gravity. year. In 1872 there was published at St Petersburg in 2 vols.,
Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia Tableau general des matures contenues dans les publications de
dette Scienze (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 as I' Academic Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The
a private society, and incorporated under its present name by academy is composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides
royal warrant in 1783. It consists of 40 full members, who the president and director. Each of the professors has a house
must be residents of Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 foreign and an annual stipend of from 200 to 600. Besides the pro-
members. It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings and fessors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present at
awards prizes to learned works. There are, besides, royal the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies.
academies of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo. The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a vast scale.
Portugal. The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal Academy There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and manuscripts; and
of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779. It was reorganized an extensive museum, considerably augmented by the collections
in 1851 and since then has been chiefly occupied in the publication made by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstadt and other professors,
of Portugaliae Monumenta Historica, during their expeditions through the Russian empire. The motto
Russia. The Academic Imperiale des sciences de Saint- Peters- of the society is Paulatim.
bourg, Imperatorskaya Akademiya nailk,was projected by Peter Spain. The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid (see below)
the Great. The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was sought, and had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum (dating
several learned foreigners were invited to become members. from 1657) modelled on that of Naples. It was reconstituted
Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the loth of February in 1847 after the model of the French academy.
1724; but his sudden death delayed its fulfilment. On the Sweden. The Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien owes
2ist of December 1725, however, Catherine I. established it its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, among
according to his plan, and on the 27th the society met for the whom was Linnaeus. They met on the 2nd of June 1739, and
first time. On the ist of August 1726, Catherine honoured the formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum', and at
meeting with her presence, when Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a the end of the year their first publication made its appearance.
IOO ACADEMIES
As the meetings continued and the members increased the There are also other scientific organizations like the American
society attracted the notice of the king; and on the sist of Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874,
March 1741 it was incorporated as the Royal Swedish Academy. as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists,
Though under royal patronage and largely endowed, it is, like founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association
the Royal Society in England, entirely self-governed. Each of of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its Proceedings
the members resident at Stockholm becomes in turn president, annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with
and continues in office for three months. The dissertations headquarters in New York; the National Geographic Society
read at each meeting are published in the Swedish language, (1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological
quarterly, and make an annual volume. The first forty volumes, Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union
octavo, completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions. (1883), the American Society of Naturalists (1883), the Botanical
United States of America. The oldest scientific association Society of America (1893), the American Academy of Medicine
in the United States is the American Philosophical Society (1876); and local academies of science, or of special sciences, in
Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. It many of the larger cities. The Smithsonian Institution at
owed its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published Washington is treated in a separate article.
" AProposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the II. ACADEMIES OF BELLES LETTRES
British Plantations in America," which was so favourably
received that in the same year the society was organized, with Belgium. Belgium has always been famous for its literary
Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as societies. The
little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a

secretary. In 1769 it united with another scientific society society of poets in 1302, and the Catherinists of Alost date from
founded by Franklin, called the American Society Held at 1107. It is at least certain that numerous Chambers of Rhetoric
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its (so academies were then called) existed in the first years of the
present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title of rule of the house of Burgundy.
the American Society, and elected Franklin president, an office France. The French Academy (I' Academic franfaise) was
which he held until his death (1790). The American Philo- established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in its
sophical Society is national in scope and is exclusively scien- original form existed four or five years earlier. About the year
Transactions date from 1771, and its Proceedings from
tific; its 1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet informally
1838. It has a hall in Philadelphia, with meeting-rooms and a each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the king's secretary.
valuable library and collection of interesting portraits and relics. The conversation turned mostly on literary topics; and when
David Rittenhouse was its second and Thomas Jefferson was one of the number had finished some literary work, he read it to
its third president. In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan, of the rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The fame of these
London, presented a fund, the income of which was to supply meetings, though the members were bound to secrecy, reached
a gold medal for the author of the most important discovery the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who promised his protection and
"
relating to navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy offered to incorporate the society by letters patent. Nearly all
(mere natural history excepted)." An annual general meeting the members would have preferred the charms of privacy, but,
is held. considering the risk they would run in incurring the cardinal's
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the displeasure, and that by the letter of the law all meetings of any
second oldest scientific organization in the United States, was sort were prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high
chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most promi- honour the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at
nent men of that time. James Bowdoin was its first president, once to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution,
John Adams its second. The Academy published Memoirs appoint officers and choose a name. Letters patent were granted
beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846. The Rumford by the king on the 2gth of January 1635. The officers consisted
Premium awarded through it for the most "important discovery of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and a permanent
"
or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light is the income of secretary, chosen by vote. They elected also a publisher, not
$5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford. a member of the body. The director presided at the meetings,
The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated being considered as primus inter pares. The chancellor kept the
" The
by Congress with the object that it shall, whenever called upon seals and sealed all the official documents of the academy.

by any department of the Government, investigate, examine, cardinal was ex officio protector. The meetings were held weekly
experiment and report upon any subject of science or art." Its as before.
membership was first limited to 50; after the amendment of The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth
the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit was placed at 100; in its statutes, was the purification of the French language.
"
and in 1907 it was prescribed that the resident membership The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with
should not exceed 1 50 in number, that not more than 10 members all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, and

be elected in any one year, and that the number of foreign to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the arts and
" "
associates be restricted to 50. The Academy is divided into six sciences (Art. 24). They proposed to cleanse the language
committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and en- from the impurities it has contracted in the mouths of the
gineering; chemistry; geology and palaeontology; biology; common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, from the mis-
and anthropology. It gives several gold medals for meritorious usages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit"
researches and discoveries. It publishes scientific monographs (Letter of A cademy to Cardinal Richelieu) .

(at the expense of the Federal Government) Its presidents have

. The number of members was fixed at forty. The original
been Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers, members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 that
Othniel C. Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira the full number was completed. Their first undertaking con-
Remsen. sisted of essays written by the members in rotation. To judge
The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was or- by the titles and specimens which have come down to us, these
ganized in 1812. It has a large library, very rich in natural possessed no special originality or merit, but resembled the
history, and museum, with nearly half a million specimens,
its 6Tri6eteis of the Greek rhetoricians. Next, at the instance of
is strong in conchology and ornithology. The
particularly Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a criticism of Corneille's Cid,
society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings since the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of the academy
1841; it also has published the American Journal of Conchology. that no work could be criticized except at the author's request,
The American Entomological Society (in 1859-1867 the Entomo- and fear of incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from
logical Society of Philadelphia, and since 1876 part of this Corneille an unwilling consent. The critique of the academy
academy) has published Proceedings since 1861, and the Entomo- was re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's
logical News (a monthly). approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was published
 ACADEMIES 101
under the title, Sentiments de I'academie franfaise sur le Cid. J. was elected to the post, and ever since the history
B. Suard
This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a saying attributed of the academy has been determined by the reigns of its succes-
to him on the occasion shows. "Horatius," he said, referring to sive perpetual secretaries. The secretary, to borrow an epigram
"
his last play, was condemned by the Duumviri, but he was of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs. There have been in
absolved by the people." But the crowning labour of the order: Suard (13 years), Frangois Juste Raynouard (9 years),
academy, begun in 1639, was a dictionary of the French language. Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, Arnault, Villemain (34
By the twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles Camille Doucet (19 years),
to compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and Gaston Boissier. Under Raynouard the academy ran a tilt
one on poetry. Jean Chapelain, one of the original members against the abbe Delille and his followers. Under Auger it did
"
and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out that the diction- battle with romanticism, a new literary schism." Auger did
ary would naturally be the first of these works to be undertaken, not live to see the election of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed
and drew up a plan of the work, which was to a great extent ten more years for Victor Hugo after many vain assaults to
carried out. A catalogue was to be made of all the most ap- enter by the breach. The academy is professedly non-political.
proved authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed It accepted and even welcomed in succession the empire, the
among the members, and all approved words and phrases were restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and it tolerated
to be marked for incorporation in the dictionary. For this they the republic of 1848; but to the second empire it offered a
resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other passive resistance, and no politician of the second empire, what-
than the regular days. C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor ever his gifts as an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair.
in chief. To remunerate him for his labours, he received from The one seeming exception, Emile Ollivier, confirms the rule.
the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs. The first edition of this He was elected on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his
dictionary appeared in 1694, the sixth and last in 1835, since discours de reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and
when complements have been added. never delivered. The Institute appears in the annual budget
This old Academic franc.aise perished with the other pre- for a grant of about 700,0x30 fr. It has also large vested funds
revolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little but the name in property, including the magnificent estate and library of
in common with the present academy, a section of the Institute. ChantiJly bequeathed to it by the due d'Aumale. It awards
That Jean Baptiste Suard, the first perpetual secretary of the various prizes, of which the most considerable are the Montyon
new, had been a member of the old academy, is the one con- prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who has
necting link. performed the most virtuous action during the year, and one for
The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 have the French author who has published the book of most service
been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le premier to morality. The conditions are liberally interpreted; the first
siede de I'lnstitut de France, and from it we extract a few lead- prize is divided among a number of the deserving poor, and the
ing facts and dates. Before the Revolution there were in exist- second has been assigned for lexicons to Moliere, Corneille and
ence the following institutions: (i) the Academie de poesie et Madame de Sevigne.
de musique, founded by Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of One methods of the French Academy has to
alteration in the
Ba'if, which counted among its members Ronsard and most of be chronicled: in 1869 it became the custom to discuss the

the Pleiade; (2) the Academie des inscriptions et medailles, claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of the members.
founded in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions et belles- In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher Caro, supported by
lettres; (4) the old Academie des sciences; (5) the Academie A. Dumas fils, and by the aged Desire Nisard, it was decided to
de peinture et de sculpture, a school as well as an academy; (6) abandon this method.
the Academie d 'architecture. A
point of considerable interest is the degree in which, since
The object of the Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the itsfoundation, the French Academy has or has not represented
institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine the best IRerary life of France. It appears from an examination
them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble: of the lists of members that a surprising number of authors of
"II y a pour toute la RepuUique un Institut national charge de the highest excellence have, from one cause or another, escaped
"
recueiller les decouvertes, de perfeclionner les arts et les sciences." the honour of academic immortality." When the academy
As Renan has remarked, the Institute embodied two ideas, was founded in 1634, the moment was not a very brilliant one
one disputable, the other of undisputed truth: That science in French letters. Among the forty original members we find
and art are a state concern, and that there is a solidarity between only ten who are remembered in literary history; of these four
all branches of knowledge and human activities. The Institute may reasonably be considered famous still Balzac, Chapelain,
was at first composed of 184 members resident in Paris and an Racan and Voiture. In that generation Scarron was never one
equal number living in other parts of France, with 24 foreign of the forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or
members, divided into three classes, (i) physical and mathe- Pascal occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic,
matical science, (2) moral and political science, (3) literature Pascal was best known as a mathematician (his Lettres pro-
and the fine arts. It held its first sitting on the 4th of April vinciales was published anonymously) and when his fame was
1796. Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, as rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the life of a
subversive of government, and reconstituted the other classes recluse. The due de la Rochefoucauld declined the honour from
as follows: (i) as before, (2) French language and literature, a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be elected. The
(3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine arts. The class of one astounding omission of the i7th century, however, is the
moral and political science was restored on the proposal of M. name of Moliere, who was excluded by his profession as an
Guizot in 1832, and the present Institute consists of the five actor. 1 On the other hand, the French Academy was never
classes named above. Each class or academy has its own more thoroughly representative of letters than when Boileau,
special jurisdiction and work, with special funds; but there is Corneille, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault were all members.
a general fund and a common library, which, with other common Of the great theologians of that and the subsequent age, the
affairs, are managed by a committee of the Institute two Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, Fenelon, and Massillon,
chosen from each academy, with the secretaries. Each member but not Bourdaloue. La Bruyere and Fontenelle were among
of the Institute receives an annual allowance of 1200 francs, the forty, but not Saint-Simon, whose claims as a man of letters
and the secretaries of the different academies have a salary of were unknown to his contemporaries. Early in the i8th century
francs. almost every literary personage of eminence found his place
The which deals with the language and
class of the Institute naturally in the Academy. The only exceptions of importance
iterature takes precedence, and is known as the Academie 1
The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the
fran<;aise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each Salle des seances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription "Rienne
secretary of sections presiding in turn. Shortly afterwards manque a so. gloire, il manquait & la notre."

I
 IO2 ACADEMIES
were Vauvenargues, who died too early for the honour, and masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour,
two men of genius but of dubious social position, Le Sage and its natural grace. It has disciplined it, but it has emasculated,
the abbe Prevost d'Exiles. The approach of the Revolution impoverished and rigidified it. It sees in taste, not a sense of
affected gravely the personnel of the Academy. Montesquieu the beautiful, but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form
and Voltaire belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais. of mediocrity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school
Of the Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity,
to D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe, fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the
but not to Diderot, Rollin, Condillac, Helvetius or the Baron source and spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced
d'Holbach. Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay under its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer,
did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was never the man. By all its traditions the academy was made to
elected. In the transitional period, when the social life of Paris be the natural ornament of a monarchical society. Richelieu
was distracted and the French Academy provisionally closed, conceived and created it as a sort of superior centralization
neither Andre Chenier nor Benjamin Constant nor Joseph de applied to intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intel-
Maistre became a member. In the early years of the ipth lectual unity and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware
century considerations of various kinds excluded from the ranks of all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges;
of the forty the dissimilar names of Lamennais, Prudhon, Comte but it had in his eyes one fatal defect esprit. Kings of France
and Beranger. Critics of the French Academy are fond of point- could condone a witticism even against themselves, a parvenu
ing out that neither Stendhal, nor Balzac, nor Theophile Gautier, could not."
nor Flaubert, nor Zola penetrated into the Mazarine Palace. On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been
It is not so often remembered that writers so academic as Thierry conservative rather than creative. It has done much by its
and Michelet and Quinet suffered the same exclusion. In later example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on lan-
times neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither guage have, from the nature of the case, failed. For, however
Guy de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing
forty immortals. The non-election, after a long life of distinc- language of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise a
tion, of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset who will set at defiance all
for. Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the kind that no dictionaries and academic rules.
academy can ever be expected to recognize. Germany. Of the German literary academies the most cele-
Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the lan- brated was Die Fruchtbringende Gesettschaft (the Fruitful Society),
guage and literature, the most opposite opinions have been established at Weimar in 1617. Five princes were among the
advanced. On the one hand, it has been asserted that it has original members. The object was to purify the mother tongue.
corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed the lan- The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint
guage of French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent
characteristics of French h'terature, its purity, delicacy and flexi- influence on the language or literature of the country.
bility. Thus Matthew Arnold, in his Essay on the Literary Influence Italy. Italy in the i6th century was remarkable for the
of Academies, has pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French number of its literary academies. Tiraboschi, in his History
Academy as a high court of letters, and a rallying-point for of Italian Literature, has given a list of 171; and Jarkius, in
educated opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in his Specimen Historiae Academiarum Conditarum, enumerates
matters of tone and taste. To it he attributes in a great measure nearly 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave
that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of themselves ludicrous names, or names expressive of ignorance.
vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; and Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the Estravaganti, the Ful-
to the want of a similar institution in England he traces that minales, the Trapessali, the Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious,
eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness which, as the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the
"
he thinks, are barely compensated by English genius. Thus, too, Ethereal. The first academies of Italy chiefly directed their
Renan, one of its most distinguished members, says that it is attention to classical literature; they compared manuscripts;
"
owing to the academy qu'on pent tout dire sans appareil they suggested new readings or new interpretations; they de-
"
scholastique avec la langue des gens du monde." Ah ne dites," ciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment ort a Latin
"
he exclaims, qu'ils n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont ode or debated the propriety of a phrase. Their own poetry
la vie se passe a instruire le proces des mots, a peser les syllables. had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not till the
Us ont fait un chef-d'eeuvre la langue fran$aise." On the other writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian
hand, its inherent defects have been well summed up by P. language that they began to study it with the same minuteness
" "
Lanfrey in his Histoire de Napoleon: This institution had never as modern Latin." They were encouragers of a numismatic
shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the monarchy and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throwing for ever
and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to the spirit of littlespecks of light on the still ocean of the past, but not very
intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any sustained or combined favourable to comprehensive observation, and tending to bestow
labour, a stranger to those great works pursued in common on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real learning."
which legitimize and glorify the existence of scientific bodies, The Italian nobility, excluded as they mostly were from politics,
occupied exclusively with learned trifles, fatal to emulation, and living in cities, found in literature a consolation and a career.
which it pretends to stimulate, by the compromises and calcu- Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they
lations to which it subjects it, directed in everything by petty encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish
considerations, and wasting all its energy in childish tourna- originality. Far the most celebrated was the Accademia della
ments, in which the flatteries that it showers on others are only Crusca or Furfuratorum; that is, of bran, or of the sifted,
a foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the founded in 1582. The title was borrowed from a previous
French Academy seems to have received from its founders the society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, of the well-shaken.
" "
special mission to transform genius into bel esprit, and it would Its device was a sieve; its motto, II piu bel fior ne coglie (it

be hard to produce a man of talent whom it has not demoralized. collects the finest flower) its principal object the purification of
;

Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, it alternately pursues the language. Its great work was the Vocabulario della Crusca,
and avoids them; but it is specially attracted by the gossip of printed at Venice in 1612. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan

politics, and whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go principles, and regarded the i4th century as the Augustan period
into opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices. of the language. Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and
If we examine its influence on the national genius, we shall see this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent
that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated with
never possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its 1
Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502.
 ACADEMIES 103
two older societies the Accademia degli Apatici (the Impartials) 1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), an antiquary of high
and the Accademia Florentina. repute among his contemporaries; and the abbe Jacques de
Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy we Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his appointment more to the
may mention the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations
Alphonso, the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540, of Cicero and Sallust. This company used to meet in Colbert's
to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the
close study of Petrarch; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; the summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of
Infiammati of Padua, 1534; the Rozzi of Siena, suppressed by the minister, who was always present. Their meetings were
Cosimo, 1568. principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues
The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but
witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector
gentleman. It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on
diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first im- matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published
promptus and afterwards set compositions. This gave them work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip-
the name, Belli Humori, which, after they resolved to form an tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. Louvois,
academy changed to Humoristi.
of belles lettres, they who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived
In 1690 the Accademia degli Arcadi was founded at Rome, the company, which had begun to relax its labours. Felibien,
for the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Crescimbeni, the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and
the author of a history of Italian poetry. Among its members Boileau, were added to their number. A series of medals was
were princes, cardinals and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid commenced, entitled Midailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other
disputes about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings masked words, the history of the Grand Monarque.
and dressed like Arcadian shepherds-. Within ten years from But was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of
it

its establishment the number of academicians was 600. finance and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in-
The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 1719, and was made stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques
a royal academy by Charles Albert in 1848. Its emblem is a Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son,
" and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon,
gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto Flores
fructusque perennes," the same as that of the famous Florimen- librarian to the king. By a new regulation, dated the i6th
tane Academy, founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It of July 1701, the Acadimie royale des inscriptions et medailles
,has published valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten
of Savoy. pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was

Spain. The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid held its an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among
first meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the duke the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly
d'Escalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, including the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body:
" The
the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards added, academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute
the founder being chosen president or director. In 1714 the to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such
king granted them the royal confirmation and protection. Their monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg-
device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present
"
Limpia,fixa, y da esplendor It purifies, fixes, and gives bright- and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such
ness." The number of its members was limited to 24; the duke works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities,
d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but his. successors were and of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success in
elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their object, as labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves
marked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and im- to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most
prove the national language. They were to begin with choosing worthy objects of their pursuit."
carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best Among honorary members we find the indefatigable
the first

Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones; Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders),
and composing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan;
from the former. among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient
Sweden. The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 1711
the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language. they completed L'Histoire metallique du roi, of which Saint-
A medal is struck by its direction every year in honour of some Simon was asked to write the preface. In 1716 the regent
illustrious Swede. This academy does not publish its transac- changed its title to that of the Acad&mie des inscriptions et belles-
tions. lettres, a title which better suited its new character.
In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns
III. ACADEMIES OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY
which divided the learned world in the first half of the i8th
France. The old Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (or century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the
'
Petite Academie" founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of
French Academy, which then at least contained the elite of the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu-
French learning. Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and
nost occupied with his own aggrandisement. Literature, and on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis
ven science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper
own glory. Nor were literary men inclined to assert their on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the
ndependence.' Boileau well represented the spirit of the age dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published
vhen, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he wrote: the 45th and 46th vols. of the M&moires de I'academie. On the
'

The least things become important if in any degree they can 2nd of August same year the last seance of the old academy
of the
erve the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus it was that was held. More
fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences,
be Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the suggestion of Colbert it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these
company (a committee we should now call it) had been ap- was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members
>ointed by the king, chosen from the French of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should
Academy, charged
ith the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices and be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation.
legends
or medals. It consisted of four academicians: In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795,
Chapelain,
hen considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip-
of the critique on the Cid; the abbe Amable de Bourzeis
(1606- tions; but most of the members who survived found themselves
104 ACADEMIES
re-elected either in the class of moraland political science, under current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to the authors of
which history and geography were included as sections, or more four works which should be deemed by the academy most
generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em- deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held
braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments. every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses
In 1816 the academy received again its old name. The Pro- of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th of
ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of
various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this
most originality are comparative mythology, the history of institution. In the same year an academy was established at
science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub-
of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members lished some volumes of memoirs.
De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the
IV. ACADEMIES OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, GuUlaume J. de
C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau, Austria. The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was
who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction
has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, A. Remusat, of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla
Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry. (1728-1 800) For many years it did important work, and though
.

In consequence of the attention of several literary men in closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph
Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become
was established in that city in 1805. Its objects were, first, the mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools.
elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and France. Academic de Medecine. Medicine is a science which
monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle-
etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various
Celto-British, Welsh and Erse and, thirdly, researches relating
;
societies have been founded, and privileges granted to the
to Druidism. Theattention of the members was also particu- faculty by his successors. The A cademiede medecine succeeded
larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia. to the old Academie royale de chirurgie et societe royale de medecine.
Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December 20, 1820.
appointed president. The academy still exists as La societe It was divided into three sections medicine, surgery and
nationale des antiquaires de France. pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Academie
Great Britain. The British Academy was the outcome of a des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine
meeting of the principal European and American academies, held matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government
at Wiesbaden in October 1899. A scheme was drawn up for an on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health
international association of the academies of the world under the generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in
two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes.

Royal Society adequatelyrepresented Englandinscience there was Germany. The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called
then no existing institution that could claim to represent England the Academia Caesaraea Leopoldina, was founded in 1662 by
in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academies J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general
this chair was vacant. A plan was proposed by Professor H. invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary
Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works
long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council. of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately but ;

The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume
separate society, and invited certain persons to become the of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first
first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy volume did not make appearance until 1784, when it was.
its
for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor
studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was
a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but
was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council. follows the home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden.
The objects of the academy are therein defined "the promo- By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi-
tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or
history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology members. At their admission the last come under a twofold
and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members obligation first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the
are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated
governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council by any colleague of the academy and, secondly, to apply them-
;

of fifteen elected annually by the fellows. selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides.
Italy. Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy of
V. ACADEMIES or THE FINE ARTS
Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples
about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti- France. The Acadimie royale de peinture et de sculpture at
quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of
the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its object Academie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united
was to explain the paintings, &c., discovered at those places. the Academie d' architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of
For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers.
meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians, From among the members of the society who are painters,
who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume is chosen the director of the French Academie des beaux arts at

of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's
under the title of Antichita di Ercolano. They contain engravings province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors,
of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures, &c., who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense
medals, utensils, &c., with explanations. In the year 1807 an of the government, to complete their studies in that country.
academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab- Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career
lished atNaples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members in this way.
was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by The Academie nationale de musique is the official and adminis-
the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the
three names for each of those needed to complete the full number. poet Ba'if established in his house a school of music, at which
Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought
 ACADEMY
from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues
du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Achille in in bronzeand other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste
Sciro, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes are
death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli, annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four
and there were performed all Gluck's great operas; there prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge
Vestris danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling
Devin du Village. expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive
Great Britain. The Royal Academy of Arts in London, during four years an annual salary of 60. The academy has a
founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those
ACADEMY, ROYAL.) who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures
The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are
in 1710, with the view of promoting the study and practice of full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy.
vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine South America. There are several small academies in the
musical library, and was aided by the performances of the various towns of South America, the only one of note being
gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with that of Rio de Janeiro, 'founded by John VI. of Portugal in
the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish for many 1816 and now known as the Escola Nacional de Bellas Artes.
years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the Spain. In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and
instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, was
harmony. The Royal Academy of Music was formed for the founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi-
performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few
him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The subscription students are supplied by government with the means of drawing
amounted to 50,000, and the king, besides subscribing 1000, and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase
allowed the society to assume the title Royal. It consisted of the requisite instruments are provided with them.
a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest Sweden. An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock-
between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the
the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis- ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI.
solution of the academy after it had existed with honour for The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are
more than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished
dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 1830. It instructs ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to
pupils of both sexe,s in music. (See also the article CONSERVA- reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation
TOIRE for colleges of music.) and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors
Italy. In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was and generally about four hundred students.
established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of Austria. In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture
the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of
members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established encouraging and promoting the fine arts.
so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the middle United States of America. In America the institution similar
of the 1 8th century an academy of the arts was established there, to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy
after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American
furnished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the
by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a academy.
gold medal. Before the effects of the French Revolution reached The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of books in
Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that the British Museum, "Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a
kingdom. In the hall of the academy were some admirable complete bibliography. (F. S.)

examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit, ACADEMY, GREEK or ACADEME (Gr. dxaSij^eiaor waSy pia) ,

particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina, thename given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The
of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated
been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a
restored in the end of the i8th century. In it there are halls for mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum.
nude and plaster figures, for the use of the sculptor and the It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus,
painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister
treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was
greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French. hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced
The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions
French, dwindled into a petty school for drawing from living of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned
models. There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua, with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. dm. 13), who
and another at Venice. bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens.
Russia. The academy of St Petersburg was established in Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato (q.v.) who ,

X 757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for
Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers
for its support was 4000 per annum, and the foundation ad- continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach-
mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate ing by Justinian in A.D. 529 along with the other pagan schools.
institution, augumented the annual revenue to 12,000, and Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he
increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built composed his dialogue The Academic Questions.
for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato
scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceable
have attained that of eighteen. They are clothed, fed and a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination
lodged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read- as a real intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity
ing, writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine
age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that the
arts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, Academy has been divided into either two, three or five main
enamelling, &c.; second, engraving on copper-plates, seal- sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally, in the days
cutting, &c.; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth, of Philo, Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogmatism
 io6 ACADEMY
of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the
combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic
doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism criticism.
which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which (3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder-
afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy. ate scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his
Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of
"
and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, My perception, the tpavratria KaraX^TTTi/oj, by which they expressed a
words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to
I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which
ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?" denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and
" The characteristic of the never to the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute
And again : Academy is

interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable, scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which
to compare together different opinions, to see what may be may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of
advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge imagination (<f>aVTaaia) is that it must be credible, irrefutable
without pretending to dogmatize." and attested by comparison with other impressions; it may be
The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the wrong, but for the person concerned it is valid. In ethics he
general view that there were three academies: the first,
or Old, was an avowed sceptic. During his official visit to Rome, he
academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or gave public lectures, in which he successively proved and dis-
Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or proved with equal ease the existence of justice.
New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus. Sextus (4) In the last period we find a tendency not only to reconcile
notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of the internal divergences of the Academy itself, but also to con-
Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes nect it with parallel growths of thought. Philo of Larissa en-
Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy deavours to show that Carneades was not opposed to Plato,
(i. 19, iv. 59).
Cicero (de Oral. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro insist that and further that the apparent antagonism between Plato and
there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those Zeno was due to the fact that they were arguing from different
who maintain that there -is no justification for the five-fold points of view. From this syncretism emerged the prudent
division hold that the agnosticism of Carneades was really latent non-committal eclecticism of Cicero, the last product of Aca-
in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re- demic development.
futing the Stoic criterion. For detailed accounts of the Academicians see SPEUSIPPUS,
general tendency of the Academic thinkers
The was towards XENOCRATES, &c. also STOICS and NEOPLATONISM.
; Consult his-
tories of philosophy by Zeller and Windelband, and Th. Gomperz,
practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure
to the
Greek Thinkers, ii. 270 (Eng. tr., London, 1905).
inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors.
"
Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: Their ACADEMY, ROYAL. The Royal Academy of Arts in London,
"
writings and method contain all liberal learning,
all history, all to give the original title in full, was founded in 1768,
it for the

polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of purpose of cultivating and improving the arts of painting, sculp-
arts, that no one can undertake any noble
career without their ture and architecture." Many attempts had previously been
aid. ... In a word the Academy is, as it were, the workshop of made in England to form a society which should have for its
every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific object the advancement of the fine arts. Sir James Thornhill,
investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high
alti- his son-in-law Hogarth, the Dilettanti Society, made efforts
tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on in this direction, but their schemes were wrecked by want of
the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and means. Accident solved the problem. The crowds that attended
speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited an exhibition of pictures held in 1758 at the Foundling Hospital
"
nothing, nor amid all the learning which has been profusely for the benefit of charity, suggested a way of making money
lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc- hitherto unsuspected. Two societies were quickly formed, one
" " "
tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their calling itself the Society of Artists and the other the Free
"
progress or regression (Archer Butler, Led. on Anc. Phil. Society of Artists." The latter ceased to exist in 1774. The
ii- 3I5)- former flourished, and in 1765 was granted a royal charter
The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero under the title of the " Incorporated Society of Artists of Great
may be indicated briefly under four heads. Britain." But though prosperous it was not united. A number
(1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted
even by of the members, including the most eminent artists of the day,
Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot resigned in 1768, and headed by William Chambers the archi-
be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as tect, and Benjamin West, presented on z8th November in that
an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be year to George III., who had already shown his interest in the
"
.secondary to some other more fundamental principle of
exist- fine arts, a memorial soliciting his gracious assistance, patron-
"
ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha- age and protection," in establishing a society for promoting
gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles, the arts of design." The memorialists stated that the two prin-
"
one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The cipal objects they had in view were the establishing of a well-
Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and regulated school or academy of design for the use of students in
resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in- the arts, and an annual exhibition open to all artists of distin-
fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful ,of Plato's guished merit; the profit arising from the last of these institu-
" "
successors. He distinguished three spheres, the sensible, the tions would, they thought, fully answer all the expenses of
and a third compounded of the two, to which corre-
intelligible, the first," and, indeed, leave something over to be distributed
" in
spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (56a). Cicero useful charities." The king expressed his agreement with
notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon the proposal, but asked for further particulars. These were
the Socratic principle of hesitancy. furnished to him on the 7th of December and approved, and on
(2) Up to Arcesilaus, the Academy accepted the principle the icth of December they were submitted in form, and the docu-
of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a ment embodying them received his signature, with the words,
" This
principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however, I approve of this plan; let it be put into execution."
"
broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. document, known as the Instrument," defined under twenty-
"
Socrates had said, This alone I know, that I know nothing." seven heads the constitution and government of the Royal
But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even Academy, and contained the names of the thirty-six original
" I cannot know even members nominated by the king. Changes and modifications
the Socratic minimum of certainty:
 ACADEMY 107
in the laws and regulations laid down in it have of course been a council." Four of these were to retire every year, and the
made, but none of them without the sanction of the sover- seats were to go by rotation to every academician. The number
" "
eign, and the Instrument remains to this day in all essential was increased in 1870 to twelve, and reduced to ten in 1875.
particulars the Magna Charta of the society. Four days after The rules as to retirement and rotation are still in force. Newly
the signing of this document on the i4th of December twenty- elected academicians begin their two years' service as soon as
eight of the first nominated members met and drew up the Form they have received their diploma. The council 'has, to quote
of Obligation which is still signed by every academician on receiv- the "Instrument," "the entire direction and management of
"
ing his diploma, and also elected a president, keeper, secretary, the business of the Academy in all its branches; and also the
council and visitors in the schools; the professors being chosen framing of new laws and regulations, but the latter, before
t a further meeting held on the i7th. No time was lost in coming into force, must be sanctioned by the general assembly
establishing the schools, and on the 2nd of January 1769 they and approved by the sovereign. The general assembly consists
were opened at some rooms in Pall Mall, a little eastward of the of the whole body of academicians, and meets on certain fixed
site now occupied by the Junior United Service Club, the presi- dates and at such other times as the business may require;
dent, Sir Joshua Reynolds, delivering on that occasion the first also at the request to the president of any five members. The
"
of his famous discourses." The opening of the first exhibition principal executive officers of the Academy are the president,
at the same place followed on the 26th of April. the keeper, the treasurer, the librarian and the secretary, all
The king when founding the Academy undertook to supply now elected by the general assembly, subject to the approval of
out of his own privy purse any deficiencies between the receipts the sovereign. The president is elected annually on the founda-
derived from the exhibitions and the expenditure incurred on tion day, loth December, but the appointment is virtually for
the schools, charitable donations for artists, &c. For twelve life. No change has ever been made in the conditions attached
years he was called upon to do so, and contributed in all some- to this office, with the exception of its being now a salaried
thing over 5000, but in 1781 there was a surplus, and no further instead of an unsalaried post. The treasurership and librarian-
call has ever been made on the royal purse. George III. also ship, both offices originally held not by election but by direct
gave the Academy rooms in what was then his own palace of appointment from the sovereign, are now elective, the holders
Somerset House, and the schools and offices were removed there being subject to re-election every five years, and the keepership
in 1771, but the exhibition continued to be held in Pall Mall, is also held upon the same terms; while the* secretaryship,

till the completion in 1780 of the new Somerset House, when the which up to 1873 had always been filled like the other offices
Academy took possession of the apartments in it which the king, by an academician, has since then been held by a layman.
on giving up the palace for government offices, had expressly Other officers elected by the general assembly are the auditors
stipulated should be provided. Here it remained till 1837, when (three academicians, one of whom retires every year), the
the government, requiring the use of these rooms, offered in visitors in the schools (academicians and associates), and the
exchange a portion of the National Gallery, then just erected professors of painting, sculpture and architecture who must
in Trafalgar Square. The offer, which contained no conditions, be members and of anatomy and chemistry. There are also
was accepted. But it was not long before the necessity for a a registrar, and curators and teachers in the schools, who are
further removal became imminent. Already in 1850 notice was appointed by the council.
given by the government that the rooms occupied by the Aca- The thirty-six original academicians were named by George
demy would be required for the purposes of the National Gallery, III. Their successors have been elected, up to 1 867, by academi-
and that they proposed to give the Academy 40,000 to provide cians only since that date by academicians and associates
" "
themselves with a building elsewhere. The matter slumbered, together. The original number was fixed in the Instrument
however, till 1858, when the question was raised in the House of at forty, and has so remained. Each academician on his election
Commons as to whether it would not be justifiable to turn the has to present an approved specimen of his work called his
Academy out of the National Gallery without making any pro- diploma work before his diploma is submitted to the sovereign
vision for it elsewhere. Much discussion followed, and a royal for signature. On receiving his diploma he signs the Roll of
"
commission was appointed in 1863 to inquire into the present Institution as an academician, and takes his seat in the general
position of the Royal Academy in relation to the fine arts, and assembly. The class of associates, out of whom alone the academi-
"
ato the circumstances and conditions under which it occupies cians can be elected, was founded in 1769 they were to be
a portion of the National Gallery, &c." In their report, which elected from amongst the exhibitors, and be entitled to every
contained a large number of proposals and suggestions, some of advantage enjoyed by the royal academicians, excepting that of
them since carried put, the commissioners stated that they had having a voice in the deliberations or any share in the govern-
"
come to the clear conclusion that the Royal Academy have ment of the Academy." Those exhibitors who wished to be-
no legal, but that they have a moral claim to apartments at come candidates had to give in their names at the close of the
the public expense." Negotiations had been already going on exhibition. This condition no longer exists, candidates having
between the government and the Academy for the appropriation since 1867 merely to be proposed and seconded by members of
to the latter of a portion of the site occupied by the recently the Academy. On election, they attend at a council meeting
purchased Burlington House, on which the Academy offered to to sign the Roll of Institution as an associate, and receive a
erect suitable buildings at its own expense. The negotiations diploma signed by the president and secretary. In 1867 also
were renewed in 1866, and in March in the following year a lease associates were admitted to vote at all elections of members;
of old Burlington House, and a portion of the garden behind it, in 1868 they were made eligible to serve as visitors in the schools,
was granted to the Academy for 999 years at a peppercorn rent, and in 1886 to become candidates for the professorships of
"
subject to the condition that the premises shall be at all times painting, sculpture and architecture. At first the number of
exclusively devoted to the purpose of the cultivation of the fine associates was limited to twenty; in 1866 the number was
arts." The Academy immediately proceeded to erect, on the made indefinite with a minimum of twenty, and in 1876 the
garden portion of the site thus acquired, exhibition galleries and minimum was raised to thirty. Vacancies in the lists of academi-
schools, which were opened in 1869, further additions being made cians and associates caused by death or resignation can be
in 1884. An upper storey was also added to old Burlington filledup at any time within five weeks of the event, except in
House, in which to place the diploma works, the Gibson statuary the months of August, September and October, but a vacancy
and other works of art. - Altogether the Academy, out of its in the associate list caused by election only dates from the day
accumulated savings, has spent on these buildings more than on which the new academician receives his diploma. The mode
160,000. They are its own property, and are maintained of election is the same in both cases, by marked lists and
first

entirely at its expense. afterwards by ballot. All who at the first marking have four
The government of the " " or more votes are marked for again, and the two highest then go
Academy was by the Instrument
"
vested in a president and eight other persons, who shall form to the ballot. Engravers have always constituted a separate
io8 ACADEMY
and up to 1855 they were admitted to the associateship enabled it to spend large sums on building, and provided it with the
class,
means of maintaining the buildings, has been the annual exhibitions.
only, the number, six, being in addition to the other associates; With the exception of the money left by John Gibson, R.A., some of
now the maximum is four, of whom not more than two may be which was spent in building the gallery containing the statues and
academicians. A class of honorary retired academicians was bas-reliefs bequeathed by him, these exhibitions have provided the
established in 1862, and of honorary retired associates in 1884. sole source of revenue, all other moneys that have come to the

The first honorary foreign academicians were elected in 1869. Academy having been either left in trust, or been constituted trusts,
for certain specific purposes. The first exhibition in 1769 contained
The honorary members consist of a chaplain, an antiquary, a
136 works, of which more than one-half were contributed by members,
secretary for foreign correspondence, and professors of ancient and brought in 699: 17: 6. In 1780, the first year in which the
history and ancient literature. These posts, which date from receipts exceeded the expenditure, the number of works was 489, of
which nearly one-third were by members, and the sum received was
the foundation of the Academy, have always been held by
3069: Is. This increase continued gradually with fluctuations,
distinguished men. and in 1836, the last year at Somerset House, the number of works
Academy Schools. One of the most important functions of the was 1154, and the receipts were 5179: 193. No great addition to
Royal Academy, and one which for nearly a century it discharged the number of works exhibited took place at Trafalgar Square, but
alone, was the instruction of students in art. The first act, as has the receipts steadily grew, and their careful management enabled
been shown, of the newly founded Academy was to establish schools the Academy, when the time came for moving, to erect its own
" "
an Antique Academy," and a " School for the Living Model for buildings and become no longer dependent on the government for a
painters, sculptors and architects. In the first year, 1769, no fewer home. The greater space afforded by the galleries at Burlington
than seventy-seven students entered. A school of painting was House rendered it possible to increase the number of works exhibited,
added in 1815, and special schools of sculpture and architecture in which of late years has reached a total of over 2000, while the receipts
1871. It would occupy too much space to follow the various changes have also been such as to provide the means for further building, and
that have been made in the schools since their establishment. In for a largely increased expenditure of all kinds. It may be noted
one important respect, however, they remain the same, viz. in the that the number of works sent for exhibition soon began to exceed
instruction being gratuitous no fees have ever been charged. Up the space available. In 1868, the last year at Trafalgar Square, the
to the removal of the Academy to its present quarters the schools number sent was 3011. This went on increasing, with occasional
could not be kept permanently open, as the rooms occupied by them fluctuations, at Burlington House, and in the year 1900 it reached
were wanted for the exhibition. They are now open all the year the number of 13,462. The annual winter exhibition of works by
round with the exception of a fortnight at Christmas, and the months old masters and deceased British artists was begun in 1870. It was
of August and September. They consist of an antique school, upper never intended to be a source of revenue, but appreciation by the
and lower schools of painting, a school of drawing from the life, a public has so far prevented it from being a cause of loss. The summer
school of modelling from the life and an architectural school. Ad- exhibition of works by living artists opens on the first Monday in May,
mission is gained by submitting certain specimens of drawing or and closes on the first Monday in August. The winter exhibition of
modelling, and the successful candidates, called probationers, have works by deceased artists opens on the first Monday in January, and
then to undergo a further test in the schools, on passing which they closes on the second Saturday in March. The galleries containing
are admitted as students for three years. At the end of that time the diploma works, the Gibson statuary and other works of art are
they are again examined, and if qualified admitted for a further term open daily, free.
of two years. These examinations are held twice a year, in January Presidents of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1768-
and July. Female students were first admitted in 1860. There are 1792; Benjamin West (resigned), 1792-1805; James Wyatt
many scholarships, money prizes and medals to be gained by the (president-elect), 1805; Benjamin West (re-elected), 1806-1820;
various classes of students during the time of studentship, including Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1820-1830; Sir Martin Archer Shee, 1830-
travelling studentships of the value of 200 for one year, gold and 1850; Sir Charles Lock Eastlake, 1850-1865; Sir Francis Grant,
silver medals, ahd prizes varying from 50 to 10. There are
per- 1866-1878; Frederick, Lord Leighton of Stretton, 1878-1896; Sir
manent curators and teachers in all the schools, but the principal John Everett Millais, 1896; Sir Edward John Poynter, 1896.
teaching is done by the visitors, academicians and associates, elected The library contains about 7000 volumes, dealing with the history,
to serve in each school. The average cost of maintaining these the theory and the practice of the various branches of the fine arts,
schools, including salaries, fees, cost of models, prizes, books, main- some of them of great rarity and value. It is open daily to the
tenance of building, &c., is from 5000 to 6000 a year, apart from students and members, and to other persons on a proper introduction.
certain scholarships and prizes derived from moneys given or be- The trust funds administered by the Royal Academy are:
queathed for this purpose, such as the Landseer scholarships, the The Turner fund (]. M. W. Turner, R.A.), which provides sixteen
Creswick prize, the Armitage prizes and the Turner scholarship annuities of 50 each, for artists of repute not members of the
and gold medal. Academy, also a biennial scholarship of 50 and a gold medal for a
Charities. Another of the principal objects to which the profits landscape painting.
of the Royal Academy have been devoted has been the relief of dis- The Chantrey fund (Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A.), the income of
tressed artists and their families. From the commencement of the which, paid over by the Chantrey trustees, is spent on pictures and
institution a fund was set apart for this purpose, and subsequently sculpture. (See CHANTREY.)
a further sum was allotted to provide pensions for necessitous The Creswick fund (Thomas Creswick, R.A.), which provides an
members of the Academy and their widows. Both these funds were annual prize of 30 for a landscape painting in oil.
afterwards merged in the general fund, and various changes have The Cooke fund (E. W. Cooke, R.A.), which provides two annuities
from time to time been made in the conditions under which pensions of 35 each for painters not members of the Academy, over sixty
and donations have been granted and in their amount. At the years of age and in need.
present time pensions not exceeding a certain fixed amount may be The Landseer fund (Charles Landseer, R.A.), which provides four
given to academicians and associates, sixty years of age, who have scholarships of 40 each, two in painting and two in sculpture,
retired and whose circumstances show them to be in need, provided tenable for two years, open to students at the end of the first two
the sum given does not make their total annual income exceed a years of studentship, and given for the best work done during the
certain limit, and the same amounts can be given to their widows second year.
subject to the same conditions. No pensions are granted without The Armitage fund (E. Armitage, R. A.), which provides two annual
very strict inquiry into the circumstances of the applicant, who is prizes of 30 and. 10, for a design in monochrome for a figure picture.
obliged to make a yearly declaration as to his or her income. The The Cousins fund (S. Cousins, R. A.), which provides sevenannuities
average annual amount of these pensions has been latterly about of 80 each for deserving artists, not members of the Academy, in
2000. Pensions are also given according to the civil service scale need of assistance.
to certain officers on retirement. It may be stated here that with the The Newton bequest (H. C. Newton), which provides an annual
exception of these pensions and of salaries and fees for official services, sum of 60 for the indigent widow of a painter.
no member of the Academy derives any pecuniary benefit from the The Bizofund (John Bizo), to be used in the scientific investigation
funds of the institution. Donations to distressed artists who are or into the nature of pigments and varnishes, &c.
have been exhibitors at the Royal Academy, their widows and The Edwards fund (W. J. Edwards), producing 40 a year for the
children under twenty-one years of age, are made twice a year in benefit of poor artists or artistic engravers.
February and August. The maximum amount that can be granted The Leighton bequest (Lord Leighton, P.R.A.), received from Mrs
to any one applicant in one donation is 100, and no one can receive Orr and Mrs Matthews in memory of their brother, the income from
a grant more than once a year. The average yearly amount thus which, about 300, is expended on the decoration of public places
expended is from 1200 to 1500. In addition to these charities from and buildings.
its general funds, the Academy administers for the benefit of artists, The literature concerning the Royal Academy consists chiefly of
not members of the Academy, certain other funds which have been pamphlets and articles of more or less ephemeral value. More serious
bequeathed to it for charitable purposes, viz. the Turner fund, the works are: William Sandby, The History of the Royal Academy of
Cousins fund, the Cooke fund, the Newton bequest and the Edwards Arts (London, 1862) (withdrawn from circulation on a question of
fund (see below). copyright); Report from the Select Committee on Arts and their Con-,
Exhibitions. The source from which have been derived the funds nexion with Manufactures, with the Minutes of Evidence and Appendix
for carrying on the varied work of the Royal Academy, its schools, (London, 1836); Report of the Royal Commission on the Royal Academy,
its charities and general cost of administration, and which has with Minutes of Evidence and Appendix (London, 1863); Martin
 ACADIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA 109
Archer Shee, The Life of Sir M. A. Shee, P.R.A. (London, 1860); The skin is peculiar. Externally is a thin cuticle; this covers
C R. Leslie, R.A., and Torn Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell
Reynolds, P.R.A. (London, 1865); E. Hodgson, R.A. (the late),
" J. limits. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching
and Fred. A. Eaton, Sec. R.A., The Royal Academy in the Last
of informa- tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering,
Century," Art Journal, 1889-1891. But the chief sources
tion on the subject are the minute-books of the council and of amoeboid nuclei (fig. 2). Inside the syncytium is a not very
the general assembly, and the annual reports, which, however, only regular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again
date from 1859. (F. A. E.)
some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endo-
ACADIAN, in geology, the name given by Sir J. W. Dawson in thelium. In their minute structure the muscular fibres resemble
1867 to a series of black, red and green shales and slates, with those of Nematodes. Except for the absence of the longi-
dark grey limestones, which are well developed at St John, New
tudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the
Brunswick; Avalon in E. Newfoundland, and Braintree in E.
body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the latter are shut
Massachusetts. These rocks are of Middle Cambrian age and
off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open
possess a Paradoxides fauna. They have been correlated with
ultimately into a circular vessel which runs round its base.
limestone beds in Tennessee, Alabama, Central Nevada and
From the circular canal two sac-like, diverticula called the
British Columbia (St Stephen).
See CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; also C. D. Walcott, Bull. U.S. Geol.
Survey, No. 81, 1891; and Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology,
ist ed. 1855, 3rd ed. 1878.

ACADIE, or ACADIA, a name given by the French in 1603 to

that part of the mainland of North America lying between the
latitudes 40 and 46. In the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the
words used in transferring the French possessions to Britain
"
were Nova Scotia or Acadia." See NOVA SCOTIA for the limits
included at that date under the term.
ACANTHOCEPHALA, a compact group of cylindrical, para-
siticworms,' with no near allies in the animal kingdom. Its
members are quite devoid of any mouth or alimentary canal,
but have a well-developed body cavity into which the eggs
are dehisced and which communicates with the exterior by

From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., "Worms, &c.," by permission of

Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
FIG. A longitudinal section through the anterior end of
2.
Echinorhynchus haeruca, Rud. (from Hamann).
a, The proboscis not fully ex- h, One of the spaces in the sub-
b, Proboscis-sheath. [panded. cuticular tissue.
"
'
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., Worms, &c.," by permission of c, Retractor muscles of the pro- *, Longitudinal muscular layer.
nillan & Co., Lid.
d, Cerebral ganglion. [boscis. Circular muscular layer.
;',
FIG. i.
Retinaculum a k, Line of division between the
e, enclosing
A, Five specimens of Echinorhynchus acus, Rud., attached to a nerve. sub-cuticular tissue of the
iece of intestinal wall, 4. X /, One of the retractors of the trunk and that of the pro-
B, The proboscis of one still more highly magnified. g, A lemniscus. [sheath. boscis with the lemnisci.

leans of an oviduct. The size of the animals varies greatly,

" "
lemnisci depend into the cavity of the body (fig. 2). Each
forms a few millimetres in length to Gigantorhynchus consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the
\igas, which measures from 10 to 65 cms. The adults live in proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a scanty
eat numbers in the alimentary canal of some vertebrate, muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the
sually fish, the larvae are as a rule encysted in the body cavity fluid of the tense, extended proboscis can withdraw when it
of some invertebrate, most often an insect or crustacean, more is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when
arely a small fish. The body is divisible into a proboscis and it is wished toexpand the proboscis.
trunk with sometimes an intervening neck region. The There are no alimentary canal or specialized organs for circula-
proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal tion or for respiration. Food is imbibed through the skin from
ows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches the digestive juices of the host in which the Acanthocephala
itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or live.
tiree shapes. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its J. Kaiser has described as kidneys two organs something like
avity is separated from the body cavity by a septum or pro- minute shrubs situated dorsally to the generative ducts into
oscis sheath. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are which they open. At the end of each twig is a membrane
muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end pierced by pores, and a number of cilia depend into the lumen
and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes of the tube; these cilia maintain a constant motion.
the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity (fig. 2). But The central ganglion of the nervous system lies in the proboscis-
he whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, sheath or -septum. It supplies the proboscis with nerves and
ithdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two gives off behind two stout trunks which supply the body (fig. 2).
etractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and the com-
eptum to the body wall (fig. 3). "
plex retains the old name of retinaculum." In the male at
 I IO ACANTHUS ACAPULCO
Some scattered papillae
least there is also a genital ganglion. (ii.) Fam. Gigantorhynchidae. A small family of large forms
may possibly be sense-organs. with a ringed and flattened body. Gigantorhynchus gigas lives
The Acanthocephala are dioecious. There is a "stay" called normally in the pig, but is not uncommon in man in South Russia,
" "
the ligament which runs from the hinder end of the proboscis- its larval host is the grub of Melolontha vulgaris, Cetonis
auratus,
sheath to the posterior end of the body. In this the two testes and in America probably of Lachno sterna arcuala: G. echino-
lie (fig. 3). Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three discus lives in the intestine of ant-eaters: G. spira in that of the
diverticula or vesiculae seminales, and three pairs of cement
glands also are found which pour
their secretions through a duct into
the vasa deferentia. The latter
unite and end in a penis which opens
posteriorly.
The ovaries arise like the testes as
rounded bodies in the ligament. From
these masses of ova dehisce into the
body cavity and float in its fluid.
Here the eggs are and here
fertilized
widge Natural History, vol. ii.. "Worms &c.," by permission of
they segment so that the young em- Macmillan&Co., Ltd.
bryos are formed within their mother's FIG. 4.
body. The embryos escape into the A, The larva of Echinorhynchus proleus from the body cavity of
" Phoxinus laevis, with the proboscis retracted and the whole still
uterus through the bell," a funnel-
continuous with the enclosed in a capsule.
like opening
B, A section through the same; a, the invaginated proboscis;
uterus. Just at the junction of the b, proboscis sheath; c, beginning of the neck; d, lemniscus. Highly
" "
bell and the uterus there is a magnified (both from Hamann).
second small opening situated dorsally.
king vulture, Sarcorhampus papa, and G. taeniod.es in Dicholopus
The " bell " swallows the matured em-
cristatus, a cariama.
bryos and passes them on into the
(iii.) Fam. Neorhynchidae. Sexually mature whilst still in
uterus, and thus out of the body via the larval stage. Neorhynchus clavaeceps in Cyprinus carpio
the oviduct, which opens at one end
has its larval form in the larva of Sialis
into the uterus and at the other on
lutaria and in the leech Nephelis octocula:
to the exterior at the posterior end of
N. agilis is found in Mugil auratus and
the body. But should the "bell"
swallow any of the ova, or even one of
M .
cephalus.
(iv.)Apororhynchidae. With no pro-
the younger embryos, these are passed
boscis. This family contains the single
back into the body cavity through the
species Apororhynchus hemignalhi,
second and dorsal opening.
found near the anus of Hemignathus
The embryo thus passes from the
procerus, a Sandwich Island bird.
body of the female into the alimentary AUTHORITIES. O. Hamann, 0. Jen.
canal of the host and leaves this with Zeitschr. xxv., 1891, p. 113; Zool. Anz. xv.,

yU
From Cambridge Natural His-
r &C
''irc muian & Co! '
the faeces. It is then, if lucky, eaten
by some crustacean, or insect, more
1892, 195; J. Kaiser, Bibl. Zool. ii., 1893;
A. E. Shipley, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.
xxxix., 1896; ibid, xlii., 1899, p. 361;
Ltd.
rarely by a fish. In the stomach it
Villot, Zool. Anz. viii., 1885, p. 19.
FIG. 3. An optical sec- casts its membranes and becomes (A. E. S.)
tion through a
r
U?omHamann)
r
CepS' ^
male Neo- mobile, bores through the stomach
Wal S and encvsts usuall y in the bod
!
y
ACANTHUS
name
(the Greek and Latin
the plant, connected with
for

a, proboscis. cavity of its first and invertebrate host. d/07, a sharp point), a genus of plants
b, Proboscis sheath. By this time the embryo has all the belonging to the natural order Acan-
c, Retractor of the pro- thaceae. The species are natives of
organs of the adult perfected save
d, Cerebral ganglion.
/,/, Retractors of the pro- only
^*
reproductive; these develop
when the first host is swallowed
the southern parts of Europe and the
warmer parts of Asia and Africa. The
best -known is Acanthus mollis (brank-
boscis sheath. by the second or final host, in which
g, g, Lemnisci, each with case the parasite attaches itself to ursine, or bears' breech), a common From Cambridge Natural
two giant nuclei.
h, Space m th
sub-cuticular .
becomes
u f th a li men tary canal and
adult.
species throughout the Mediterranean
region, having large, deeply cut, hairy,
^7m
Co Ltd
->
i'on'of'
-
Macm
layer of the skin.
A curious feature shared by both FlG 5-~ Fully formed
shining leaves. Another species, Acan-
-
I, Ligament. ,

m, m, Testes. larva and adult is the large size of thus spinosus, is so called from its spiny
leaves. They are bold, handsome cav ity of Phoxinus laevis
JSS/SWSS
,

g, Opening of vas deferens. and

the bell. plants, with stately spikes, 2 to 3 ft. (from Hamann). Highly
O. Hamann has divided the group high, of flowers with spiny bracts. A. " la S" i ' cd a Proboscis; -
-

into three families, to which a fourth must be added. mollis, A latifolius and A longi/olius e, lemniSl
(i.) Fam. Echinorhynchidae. This is by far the largest family are broad-leaved species; A. spinosus
and contains the commonest species; the larva of Echino- and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed leaves. In
rhynchus proteus lives in Gammarus pulex and in small fish, decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in metal, and subse-
the adult is common in many fresh-water fish: E, polymorphus, quently carved in stone by the Greeks. It was afterwards, with
larval host the crayfish, adult host the duck: E. anguslatus various changes, adopted in all succeeding styles of architecture
occurs as a larva in Asellus aquaticus, as an adult in the as a basis of ornamental decoration. There are two types, that
perch, pike and barbel: E. moniliformis has for its larval found in the Acanthus spinosus, which was followed by the
host the larvae of the beetle Blaps mucronata, for its final Greeks, and that in the Acanthus mollis, which seems to have
host certain mice, if introduced into man it lives well: E. acus been preferred by the Romans.
is common in whiting: E. porrigeus in the fin- whale, and E. ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on the
strumosus in the seal. A species named E. hominis has been Pacific coast of Mexico, 190 m. S.S.W. of the city of Mexico,
described from a boy. Pop. (1900) 4932. It is located on a deep, semicircular bay,
 ACARNANIA ACCENT in
almost land-locked, easy of access, and with so secure an anchor- ACATALEPSY (Gr. &.-, privative, and KaraXaiJ.l3a.vta', to seize),

age that vessels can safely lie alongside the rocks that fringe the a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility.
shore. It is the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico, ACAULESCENT acaulescens, becoming stemless, from
(Lat.
and it is a port of steamship lines running between
call for a, not, and a stem), a term used of a plant apparently
caulis,
Panama and San Francisco. The town is built on a narrow strip stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed.
of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and ACCA LARENTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the
the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the twins
beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render the town Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the Tiber.
difficult of access from the interior, and give it an exceptionally She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them Romulus
hot and unhealthy climate. The effort to admit the cooling sea took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded the
breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales). The tradition
Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. Acapulco was that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has been
long the most important Mexican port on the Pacific, and the explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called lupa
"
only depot for the Spanish fleets plying between Mexico and (" courtesan," literally she-wolf ") on account of her immoral
Spain's East Indian colonies from 1778 until the independence character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 55). According to another
of Mexico, when this trade was lost. The town has been chosen account, Larentia was a beautiful girl, whom Hercules won in
as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port a game of dice (Macrobius i. 10; Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5,
-

the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The town suffered Quaest. Rom. 35; Aulus Gellius vi. 7). The god advised her
considerably from earthquakes in July and August 1909. There to marry the first man she met in the street, who proved to be a
are exports of hides, cedar and fruit, and the adjacent district of wealthy Etruscan named Tarutius. She inherited all his property
Tabares produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian and bequeathed it to the Roman people, who out of gratitude
corn, beans and coffee. instituted in her honour a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec.
ACARNANIA, a district of ancient 'Greece, bounded on the 23). According to some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the
W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the Lares, and, like Ceres, Tellus, Flora and others, symbolized the
E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Achelous. The Echinades fertility of the earth in particular the city lands and their
islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually being joined up to crops. "
the mainland. Itsmost populous region was the plain of the See Mommsen, Die echte und die falsche Larentia," in Romische
commanded by the principal town Stratus; com- Forschungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History
Achelous,
(Eng. trans. 1906), whose views on the subject are criticized by
munication with the coast was impeded by mountain ridges W. W. Fowler in W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical
and lagoons. Its people long continued in semi -barbarism, Studies (1907) C. Pascal, Studii di antichitd. e Mitologia (1896).
;

having little intercourse with the rest of Greece. In the 5th ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerare, to hasten, celer, quick),
century B.C. with the aid of Athens they subdued the Corinthian hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term employed to
factories on their coast. In 391 they submitted to the Spartan denote the rate at which the velocity of a body, whose motion
king Agesilaus; in 371 they passed under Theban control. In is not uniform, either increases or decreases. (See MECHANICS
the Hellenistic age the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by and HODOGRAPH.)
their Aetolian neighbours. On the advice of Cassander they ACCENT. The word " accent " has its origin in the Lat.
made effective their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the accenlus, which in its turn is a literal translation of the Gr.
pattern of Aetolia. In the 3rd century they obtained assistance 7rpoacj)6ta. The early Greek grammarians used this term for the
from the Illyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V. musical accent which characterized their own language, but later
of Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their the term became specialized for quantity in metre, whence comes
new federal capital, Leucas, standing a siege in his interest. the Eng. prosody. Besides various later developments of usage
" "
For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were de- it is important to observe that accent is used in two different
prived of Leucas and required to send hostages to Rome (167). and often contrasted senses in connexion with language. In all
The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who drafted languages there are two kinds of accent: (i) musical chromatic
its inhabitants into Nicopolis and Patrae. Acarnania took a or pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent. The former
prominent part in the national uprising of 1821; it is now indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound and
joined with Aetolia as a nome. The sites of several ancient another in speech, the latter the difference between one syllable
towns in Acarnania are marked by well-preserved walls, especially and another which is occasioned by emitting the breath in the
those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea. production of one syllable with greater energy than is employed
AUTHORITIES. Strabo
vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv. for the other syllables of the same word. These two senses, it is
40; Livy xxxiii. Corpus Inscr. Graecarum, no. 1739; E.
16-17; to be noticed, are different from the common usage of the word
Oberhummer, Akarnanien im Altertum (Munich, 1887); Heuzey, in the statement that some one talks with a foreign or with a
Mt. Olympe et I'Acarnanie (Paris, 1860). (M. O. B. C.; E. GR.)
vulgar accent. In these cases, no doubt, both differences of
ACARUS (from Gr. ana.pi, a mite), a genus of Arachnids, repre- intonation and differences of stress may be included in the
sented by the cheese mite and other forms. statement, but other elements are frequently no less marked,
ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pelias, king of lolcus e.g. the pronunciation of t and d as real dentals, whereas the
in Thessaly (Ovid, Metam. viii. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224; English sounds so described are really produced not against the
Pindar, Nemea, iv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason, teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce the
and took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonautic interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced as in this
expedition. After his father's death he instituted splendid and its representation by d or z, the production pf o as a uniform
funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists sound instead of one ending as in English in a slight sound,
and poets, such as Stesichorus. His wife Astydameia (called or such dialect changes as lydy (laidy) for lady, or toime for time
Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with Peleus (taime).
(q.v.), who had taken refuge at lolcus, but when her advances In different languages the relations between pitch and stress
were rejected accused him falsely to her husband. Acastus, to differvery greatly. In some the pitch or musical accent pre-
avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep on Mount Pelion, dominates. In such languages if signs are employed to mark
having first hidden his famous sword. On awaking, Peleus was the position of the chief accent in the word it will be the pitch
attacked by the Centaurs, but saved by Cheiron. Having re- and not the stress accent which will be thus indicated. Amongst
covered his sword he returned to lolcus and slew Acastus and the languages of ancient times Sanskrit and Greek both indicate
Astydameia. Acastus was represented with his famous horses by signs the position of the chief pitch accent in the word, and
in the painting of the Argonautic expedition by Micon in the the same method has been employed in modern times for lan-
temple of the Dioscuri at Athens. guages in which pitch accent is well marked, as it is, for example.
112 ACCENT
in Lithuanian, the language still spoken by some two millions distinctions characterize syllables which are stressed. The
of people on the frontier between Prussia and Russia in the strength of the expiration may be greatest either at the begin-
neighbourhood of Konigsberg and Vilna. Swedish also has a ning, the end or the middle of the syllable, and, according as it is
well-marked musical accent. Modern Greek has changed from so, the accent is a falling, a rising, or a rising and falling one.
pitch to stress, the stress being generally laid upon the same Syllables in which the stress is produced continuously whether
syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek. increasing or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables,
In the majority of European languages, however, stress is those in which a variation in the stress occurs without being
more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence strong enough to break the syllable into two are called double-
to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin, pointed syllables. These last occur in some English dialects,
Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are but are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian,
descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree. which have a " sing-song " pronunciation. It is often not easy
To the existence of this accent must be attributed a large part to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether what
of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see INDO- we hear is really two-single-pointed syllables. There is no separ-
EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). In modern languages we can see the ate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') is used for the
same principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. (Anglo- increasing, the grave Ofor the decreasing stress, and the circum-
Saxon) de-tun (oak-town), and in more recent times producing flex (") for the rising and falling (increasing and decreasing) and
v
the contrast between New Town and Newton. In French, stress ( ) for the opposite. A separate notation is much to be desired,
is less marked than it is in English, but here also there is evidence as the nature of the two accents is so different, and could easily
to show that in the development from Latin to .French a very be devised by using S for the falling, (') for the rising stress,
strong stress accent must have existed. The natural result of and for the combination of the two in one syllable. This
producing one syllable of a word with greater energy than the would be clearer than the upright stroke ( ) preceding the stressed
others is that the other syllables have a less proportion of breath syllable, which is used in some phonetic works.
assigned to them and therefore tend to become indistinct or The relation between the two accents in the same language
altogether inaudible. Thus the strong stress accent existing in at the same time is a subject which requires further investiga-
the transition period between Latin and French led to the tion. It is generally assumed that the chief stress and the chief
curtailing of long Latin words like latrocinium or hospitale into pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no means certain for all
the words which we have borrowed from French into English as cases, though the incidence of the chief stress accent in modern
larceny and hotel. It will be observed that the first syllable and Greek upon the same syllable as had the chief pitch accent in
that which bears the accent are the two which best withstand ancient times suggests that the two did frequently fall upon the
change, though the strong tendency in English to stress heavily same syllable. On the other hand, in words like the Sanskrit
the first syllable bids fair ultimately to oust the e in the pro- sapta, the Gr. rra, the pitch accent which those languages
nunciation of larceny. No such changes arise when a strong indicate is upon a syllable which certainly, in the earliest times
pitch accent is accompanied by a weaker stress accent, and at least, did not possess the principal stress. For forms in other
hence languages like ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show that
such conditions existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister the a of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is the repre-
languages or than even their own descendants, when stress takes sentative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the earliest
the place of pitch as the more important element in accent. times, the nasal alone existed (see under N
for the history of
In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be these so-called sonant nasals). It is possible that sporadic
observed. In pitch, the accent may be uniform, rising or changes of accent, as in the Gr. mrrip compared with the Sanskrit
falling. Or there may be combinations of rising and falling or mold, is owing to the shifting of the pitch accent to the same
of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable. In ancient syllable as the stress occupied.
Greek, as is well known, three accents are distinguished (i) the There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent also
acute ('), a rising accent; (2) the grave ('), apparently merely the may shift its position in the history of a language from one
indication that in particular positions in the sentence the acute syllable to another. In prehistoric times the stress in Latin
accent is not used where it would occur in the isolated word; must have rested upon the first syllable in all cases. Only on
A
and (3) the circumflex, which, as its form ( ) shows, and as the this hypothesis can be explained forms like pepercl (perfect of
ancient grammarians inform us, is a combination of the rising parco) and collide (a compound of laedo). In historical times,
and the falling accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being when the stress in Latin was on the second syllable from the end
always long. Different Greek dialects, however, varied the of the word if that syllable was long, or on the third syllable
syllables of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek, from the end if the second from the end was short, we should have
for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable of a expected to find *peparci and *collaedo, for throughout the
word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented. historical period the stress rested in these words upon the second
The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was origin- syllable from the end. The causes for the change of position
ally free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and this are not always easy to ascertain. In words of four syllables
condition of things is still found in the earliest Sanskrit literature. with a long penult and words of five syllables with a short
But in Greek before historical times the accent had become penult there probably developed a secondary accent which
limited to the last three syllables of a word, so that a long word in course of time replaced the earlier accent upon the first
like the Homeric genitive faponkvovo could in no circumstances syllable. But the number of such long words in Latin is com-
be accented on either of its first two syllables, while if the final paratively small. It is no less possible that relations between
syllable was long, as in the accusative plural <t>tpopvovs, the the stress and pitch accents were concerned. For unless we
accent could go back only to the second syllable from the end. are to regard the testimony of the ancient Latin grammarians
As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a frequent inter- as altogether untrustworthy there was at least in classical Latin a
change between e ( a high vowel) and o (a low vowel) occurs in the well-marked pitch as well as a stress accent. This question,
Indo-European languages, it has been suggested that e originally which had long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes
went with the highest pitch accent, while o appeared in syllables in his treatise entitled Recherches s-ar Vhistoire el les ejfels de
of a lower pitch. But if there is any foundation for the theory, I'intensite initiale en latin (Paris, 1902).
which is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the first
and modified by all manner of analogical processes. Thus Toijuiyi' syllable,which leads in time to the modification of borrowed words.
with acute accent and da.ip.uv with the acute accent on the Thus throughout the l8th century there was a struggle going on
over the word balcony, which earlier was pronounced balcony.
preceding syllable would correspond to the rule, so would a\r)8es Swift is the first author quoted for the pronunciation balcony, and
and ihros, but there are many exceptions like 656s where Cowper's balcdny in "John Gilpin" is among the latest instances of the
the acute accent accompanies an o vowel. Somewhat similar old pronunciation. Disregarding the Latin quantity of orator and
 ACCEPTANCE ACCESSORY
senator, English by throwing the stress on the first syllable has some person duly authorized on his behalf. A bill can be accepted
converted them*5nto orator and senator, while Scots lawyers speak in the first instance only by the person or persons to whom it
also of a curator. How far French influence plays a part here is not
is addressed; but if he or they fail to do so, it may, after being
easy to say.
Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which have protested for non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else
been already discussed, there remains the accent of the sentence. "
supra protest," for the sake of the honour of one or more
Here the problem is much more complicated. The accent of a of the parties concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a
word, whether pitch or stress, may be considerably modified in the
sentence. From earliest times some words have become parasitic claim against the drawer and all those to whom he could have
or enclitic upon other words. Pronouns more than most words are resorted.
modified from this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. re (" and "), ACCEPTILATION (from Lat. acceptilatio) in Roman and
,

the Lat. que, have throughout their whole history been enclitic Scots law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation. This formal
upon the preceding word. A very important word may be enclitic, mode of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received
as in English don't, shan't. It is to be remembered that the unit
of language is rather the sentence than the word, and that the form its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a
which is given to the word in the dictionary is very often not the receipt, i.e. carrying it to credit. The words conveying the
form which it takes in actual speech. The divisions of words in release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the expressed
speech are quite different from the divisions on the printed page.
Sanskrit alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this, obligation. Figuratively, in theology, the word acceptilation
and preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken. means free remission or forgiveness of sins.
Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence to ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of approach-
express a great variety of meanings. Thus in English a sentence ing. In law, the word is used in various connexions. The pre-
like You rode to Newmarket yesterday, which contains five words,
may be made to express five different statements by putting the sumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be proved
stress upon each of the words in turn. By putting the stress on that a husband has not had access to his wife within such a period
you the person addressed is marked out as distinct from certain of time as would admit of his being the father. (See LEGITI-
others, by putting it upon rode other means of locomotion to New-
MACY.) In the law of easements, every person who has land
market are excluded, and so on. With the same order of words five
interrogative sentences may also be expressed, and a third series of adjoining a public road or a public navigable river has a right
exclamatory sentences expressing anger, incredulity, &c., may be of access to it from his land. So, also, every person has a right
obtained from the same words. It is to be noticed that for these of access to air and light from an ancient window. For the right
two series a different intonation, a different musical (pitch) accent of access of parents to children under the guardianship of the
appears from that which is found in the same words when employed
to make a matter-of-fact statement. court, see INFANT.
In languages like Chinese, which have neither compound words ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach), in
nor inflection, accent plays a- very important part. As the words method of acquiring property adopted from Roman law, by
law, a
are all monosyllabic, stress could obviously not be so important as
which, in things that have a close connexion with or dependence
pitch as a help to distinguish different senses attached to the same
vocable, and in no other language is variety of pitch so well developed
on one another, the property of the principal draws after it the
as in Chinese. In languages which, like English, show^comparatively property of the accessory, according to the principle, accessio
little pitch accent it is to be noticed that the sentence tends to cedet principali. Accession may take place either in a natural
develop a more musical character under the influence of emotion.
The voice is raised and at the same time greater stress is generally way, such as the growth of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or
in an artificial way. The various methods may be classified as
employed when the speaker is carried away by emotion, though
the connexion is not essential and strong emotion may be expressed (i) land to land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land
by a lowering as well as by a raising of the voice. In either case, (see FIXTURES); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables
however, the stress will be greater than the normal. added to by the art or industry of be by speci-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1890, now in man; this may
no ff., and fication, as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion,
3rd edition), 96 ff., History of English Sounds (1888),
other works; E. Sievers, Grunaziige der Phonetik (1893), 532 ff.
; or commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids,
O. Jespersen, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1904), an abbreviated German respectively. In the case of industrial accession ownership is
translation of the author's larger work in Danish, 216 ff. The books
determined according as the natural or manufactured substance
of Sievers and Jespersen give (especially Sievers) full references to
the literature of the subject. For the accent system of the Indo- is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is pay-
" "
European languages see Betonung in Brugmann's Crundriss der able to the person who has been dispossessed of his property.
vergleichendenGrammatikderindogermanischenSprachen,vo\.\. (1897), In a historical or constitutional sense, the term " accession "
or, with considerable modifications, his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik
is applied to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of
der idg. Sprachen (1902), 32-65 and 343-350. (P. Gi.)
sovereigns or of a single sovereign.
" "
ACCEPTANCE (Lat. accept/ire, frequentative form of accipere, Accession sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquies-
to receive), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of receipt; cence. Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, where there
in law, the act by which a person binds himself to comply with is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each
"
the request contained in a bill of exchange (q.v.), addressed to him creditor by a deed of accession."
by the drawer. In all cases it is understood to be a promise to ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as
pay the bill in money, the law not recognizing an acceptance in principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, aid
which the promise is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in or concealment. In certain crimes, there can be no accessories;
money and partly by another bill. Acceptance may be either all concerned being principals, whether present or absent at the

general or qualified. A general acceptance is an engagement to time of their commission. These are treason, and all offences
pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by the below the degree of felony, as specified in the Offences against the
"
drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word ac- Person Act 1861.
cepted," at the bottom of the bill, or across the face of it. Quali- There are two kinds of accessories before the fact, and after
fied acceptance may be a promise to pay on a contingency occur- it. The first is he who commands or procures another to commit
ring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods consigned by the drawer to felony, and is not present himself; for if he be present, he is a
the acceptor. No contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the principal. The second is he who receives, harbours, assists, or
body of the bill, but a qualified acceptance is quite legal, and comforts any man that has done murder or felony, whereof he
equally binding with a general acceptance upon the acceptor has knowledge.' An accessory before the fact is liable to the
when the contingency has occurred. It is also qualified accept- same punishment as the principal; and there is now indeed no
ance where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned practical difference between such an accessory and a principal
in the bill, or to pay at a different time or place from those in regard either to indictment, trial or punishment. Acces-
specified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the sories after the fact are in general punishable with imprisonment
drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he (with or without hard labour) for a period not exceeding two
chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent parties, years, but in the case of murder punishable by penal servitude
acting at his own risk if they dissent. In all cases acceptance for life, or not less than three years, or by imprisonment (with
involves the signature of the acceptor either by himself or by or without hard labour) to the extent of two years.
 ACCIAJUOLI ACCLIMATIZATION
The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces- process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism main-
sory to any crime and the principal (see ART AND PART). Except tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due
in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of
imagination,
the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect.
previous accession. In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the
ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to
born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning, previously ascertained psychological states, and that voh'tion is
especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to not causally related to the motives involved. An example of
his native state. Having previously been entrusted with this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae
several important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence ("liberty of indifference"), according to which the choice of
in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by con-
ask the aid of Louis XI. on behalf of the Florentines against Pope temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by
Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used
in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern
daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he Painters, I. n. 4, iii. 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for
left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small. the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification
He wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lines (Flor- of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by
ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics; modifying external conditions.
and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the i6th century, to whom is attri-
on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus. buted a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger
"
ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling ofaccidents," from the Latin speaks with great praise.
neuter plural accidentia, casual events), the term for the gram- ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman,
matical changes to which words are subject in their inflections was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 B.C. The year of his
as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since
a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the Cicero (Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on
rudiments of any subject or art. literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very
ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. i, 56; Cicero, Pro Plancio,
variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected; 24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of
a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free
"
tort, it is defined as an occurrence which is due neither to translations from the Greek, his favourite subjects being the
"
design nor to negligence "; in equity, as such an unforeseen legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national
event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius,
"
any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, an effect the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius
is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous
not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence language and show a lively power of description.
as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person Accius wrote other works of a literary character: Didascalicon
of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take and Pragmaticon libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek
"
reasonable precaution against it (Stephen, Digest of Criminal- and Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga
Law, art. 210). The word may also have in law the more and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an
extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused Annales. He also introduced innovations in orthography and
by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, grammar.
Notice of Accidents Act 1894. See also CONTRACT, CRIMINAL See Boissier, Le Poete Accius, 1856; L. Miiller, De Accii fabulis
LAW, EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY, INSURANCE, TORT, &c.
"
Disputatio (1890) Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892)
; ;
" editions of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by
In logic an accident is a quality which belongs to a subject
essence
Bahrens (1886); Plessis, Poesie latine (1909).
but not as part of its (,m Aristotelian language Kara.
<ruw3|37)/c6s, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in delibera-
are necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g. tive or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or
the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the
from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation, passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct
of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that in- distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate
creased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in
thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or such forms as Omnes, omnes, Aequum est, Justum est, &c.; and
vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged
such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body
would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is
accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet
"
have been classed as (i) inseparable," i.e. universally present, or non placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes
"
though no causal connexion is established, and (2) separable," by acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without
" "
where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal. any previous consultation acclaimed one of their number
Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and an as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its
" " " "
accident are classed as accidental," real or ampliative," application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church
" " "
as opposed to verbal or analytical," which merely express services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In
a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation
(<?.<>. when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by
ACCIDENTALISM, a term used philosophy for any system
(i) in shouting such words as A ye or Agreed.
of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which
events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving
the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics, and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats,
accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or re- or under meteorological conditions different from those which
sults from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them.
with Tychism (rbxri, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and
the theories which make chance an objective factor in the some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It
 ACCLIMATIZATION
is often confounded with domestication or with naturalization; from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring
but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated climates very different from that in which they originally flour-
animal or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatized; ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of
that is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost
seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form
but not acclimatized, and many of our most extensively culti- one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of birds, only a
vated plants are in the same category. A naturalized animal or few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet
plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all the even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means
vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine
be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in of Natural History for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account,
many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see Appendix below) by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps
there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions Hall, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama-
which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose
of acclimatization. On the contrary, many species, in a new crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained
country and under somewhat different climatic conditions, at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they
seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land, almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing
and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when
often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus L. the thermometer fell 6 below zero,
all appeared in good spirits

Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road- and vigorous health. Some
of these birds have lived thus ex-
side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds,
of 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis- rain, hail and snow, all through the winter a marvellous
appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less
to T. Kirk ( Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii. than 70) to which many of them had been accustomed for the
p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex-
100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots
the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to
and pig are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly
to such an extent as to injure and probably exterminate many beneficial as compared with the older method of strict protection
native productions. In none of these cases is there any indica- from cold.
tion that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place. Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical
On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable,
naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. It has been some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold.
shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an
in a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively
more efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths.
influence of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by
few, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore
run wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm
them usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Geographie bolaniqtie, latitudes is probably determined by other causes than tempera-
p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and ture alone.
especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species
of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extinct Siberian
most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species
any one them become naturalized. Attempts have also been
of now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes
made naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places
to are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as
where the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous
generally favourable, but in no case do they seem to have genera of waders and aquatic birds.
succeeded. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated A consideration of these and many
analogous facts might
and so perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state induce us to suppose that, the higher animals at least,
among
in any part of Europe. there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in
Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numer-
Plants. Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness ous examples of domestic animals which show that such adapta-
of their adaptation Not only
to meteorological conditions. tion does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long
will most tropical plants refuse to a temperate climate,
live in survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain
but many species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased
of latitude beyond their natural limits. This is probably due to density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same
the fact, established by the experiments of A. C. Becquerel, animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there
that plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly de- readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the
pendent on that of the surrounding medium. Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost
Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adapta-
to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from tion is often more marked. Snakes, which are so abundant in
north to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly
the equator to northern Asia as far as the river Amur, and to cease at lat. 62. Most insects are also very susceptible to cold,
the isothermal of 32 Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature.
montana) abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform
is From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude,
equatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a con- firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitution-
siderable portion of northern Europe. It is true that most ally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but are
terrestrial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less exten-
great range of temperature or very diversified climates, but sive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and,
there is reason to believe that this is d'^e to quite a different set secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less
of causes, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appro- closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native
priate food. When supplied with food and partially protected habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former
 n6 ACCLIMATIZATION
class in countries not extremely differing from that from which All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual
the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize, time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied
in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class, the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice
however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to natural- which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and
ization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant
therefore to inquire whether it is possible. taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first
Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation. It is evident that cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen
acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins
by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate
the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be
be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have
alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is procured this advantage for my people." Hue adds his testi-
not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many mony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no
writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indica- other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example
tions that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional
observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are variation.
propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step
existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad- to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following
duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported
Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed; plants from
taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised
prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the from Darjeeling seed (originally imported from England) both
individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been
acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed little or no evi- tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first
dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at introduced into Greece so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling
;

first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub- northward during two thousand years it must have become
jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical
and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may, range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to be 4000 ft., while
on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can
an acclimatization would take place. thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important
Acclimatization by Variation. A mass of evidence exists fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the

showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the
the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular, upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than
constitutional variations are by no means uncommon. Among those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker
more tender varieties
cultivated plants, for example, hardier and to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons,
often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes.
Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. When geese
are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long
Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States. intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the
Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to
example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland. what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according
Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they
by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced were not fertile, whereas now they are as much so as in Europe.
a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep
to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better
wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in adapted for India than those imported from England; and
Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite
earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as long hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm
as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance
but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that
of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were animals should be removed from one district to another as little
found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds. as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese
Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves
always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country
in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us in which it originated has always been recognized.
unless marked out by tjieir behaviour under exceptional con- Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External
ditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of Modification. Although in some cases no perceptible alteration
1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to
plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them. climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin
In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under
killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips Domestication.
of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be In his Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167),
found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Hue, who, in his A. R.Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among
L' Empire chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes.
from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang: " On the ist day of He found that the butterflies of the family Papilionidae, and some
the 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups
sown to be ready for the harvest in the gth moon. I observed of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and
by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied
higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered. species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of
I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or
well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the
if the following year it would preserve its
precocity. It did so. species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite
 ACCLIMATIZATION 117
distinct from that of the same or closely allied species of ad- It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would

jacent islands; and, lastly, numerous species which have tailed succeed. It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at one
wings in India and the western islands of the Archipelago, of the early meetings of the Societe Zoologique d' Acclimatalion, at

gradually lose the tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea Paris, Isodore Geoffrey St Hilaire insisted that was the only
it

and the Pacific. method by which acclimatization was possible. But in looking
Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due to through the long series of volumes of Reports published by this
other causes than climate only, but they serve to show how society, there is no sign that any systematic attempt at acclimat-
powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form ization has even once been made. A number of foreign animals
and structure of both plants and animals; and they render it have been introduced, and more or less domesticated, and some
probable that changes of constitution are also continually pro- useful exotics have been cultivated for the purpose of testing
duced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no means of their applicability to French agriculture or horticulture; but
detecting them. It is also impossible to determine how far the neither in the case of animals nor of plants has there been any sys-
effects described are produced by spontaneous favourable varia- tematic effort to modify the constitution of the species, by breed-
tions or by the direct action of local conditions; but it is prob- ing largely and selecting the favourable variations that appeared.
able that in every case both causes are concerned, although in Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. This
constantly varying proportions. isa Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and great beauty,
Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Naturalization. which will thrive in the extreme south of France. In the Bulletin
We may now take it as an established fact that varieties of of the society a large number of attempts to introduce this tree
animals and plants occur, both in domesticity and in a state of into general cultivation in other parts of France are recorded in
nature, which are better or worse adapted to special climates. detail, with the failure of almost all of them. But no precautions
There is no positive evidence that the influence of new climatal such as those above indicated appear to have been taken in any
conditions on the parents has any tendpncy to produce variations of these experiments; a.nd we have no intimation that either the
in the offspring better adapted to such conditions. Neither does society or any of its members are making systematic efforts to
it appear that this class of variations are very frequent. It is, acclimatize the tree. The first step would be, to obtain seed from
however, certain that whenever any animal or plant is largely healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at the greatest
propagated constitutional variations will arise, and some of these altitude in its native country, sowing these very largely, and in
will be better adapted than others to the climatal and other a variety of soils and situations, in a part of France where the
conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every recurring climate is somewhat but not much more extreme. It is almost
severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season weeds out those a certainty that a number of trees would be found to be quite
individuals of tender constitution or imperfect structure which hardy. As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in the
may have got on very well during favourable years, and it is same district and farther north in a climate a little more severe.
thus that the adaptation of the species to the climate in which After an exceptionally cold season, seed should be collected from
it has to exist is kept up. Under domestication the same thing the trees that suffered least, and should be sown in various dis-
occurs by what C. Darwin has termed "unconscious selection." tricts all over France. By such a process there can be hardly any
Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his doubt that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any
soil and climate and rejects those which are tender or otherwise part of France, and in many other countries of central Europe;
unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as he finds and more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of
to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those which suffer from this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual
cold, or disease. A more or less close adaptation to local
damp animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are the
conditions thus brought about, and breeds or races are pro-
is species that do not require to be acclimatized.
duced which are sometimes liable to deterioration on removal Acclimatization of Man. On this subject we have, unfortu-
even to a short distance in the same country, as in numerous nately, very little direct or accurate information. The general
cases quoted by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domesti- laws of heredity and variation have been proved to apply to
cation). man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous facts in the
The Method of Acclimatization. Taking into consideration distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at
the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered as least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate.
proved ist, That habit has little (though it appears to have If the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact
some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of animals to that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case consti-
a new climate; but that it has a decided, though still slight, tutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization
influence in plants when, by the process of propagation by buds, has occurred. But we have the same phenomenon in single
shoots or grafts, the individual can be kept under its influence varieties of man, such as the American, which inhabits alike the
for long periods; 2nd, That great and sudden changes of climate frozen wastes of Hudson's Bay and Tierra del Fuego, and the
often check reproduction even when the health of the individuals hottest regions of the tropics, the low equatorial valleys and
does not appear to suffer. In order, therefore, to have the best the lofty plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transfer-
chance of acclimatizing any animal or plant in a climate very dis- ence to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is
similar from that of its native country, and in which it has been to most animals and plants; but there is every reason to believe
proved that the species in question cannot live and maintain itself that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can be acclimat-
without acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the ized to almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively
following: few generations. Some eminent writers haye denied this. Sir
1. We must transport as large a number as possible of adult Ranald Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate
healthy individuals to some intermediate station, and increase of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there is no
them as much as possible for some years. Favourable varia- such thing as acclimatization. Dr Hunt, in a report to the
tions of constitution will soon show themselves, and these should British Association in 1861, argued that "time is no agent,"
be carefully selected to breed from, the tender and unhealthy and " if there is no sign of acclimatization in one generation;
individuals being rigidly eliminated. there is no such process." But he entirely ignored the effect of
2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to pass favourable variations, as well as the direct influence of climate
through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number of the acting on the organization from infancy.
hardiest may be removed to the more remote station, and the Professor Theodor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology,
same process gone through, giving protection if necessary while adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitu-
the stock being increased, but as soon as a large number of
is tional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. Negroes,
healthy individuals are produced, subjecting them to all the for example, who have been for three or four generations acclimat-
vicissitudes of the climate. ized in North America, on returning to Africa become subject to
n8 ACCLIMATIZATION
the same local diseases as other unacclimatized individuals. of which not only a considerable proportion waswhite, but was mostly
descended from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity of
He well remarked that the debility and sickening of Europeans descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guaya-
in many tropical countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate, The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or even
quil.
but are rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratifica- supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed race, and fear
tion and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who or favour has often availed toprocure them an alliance with theoldest
cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are less able and purest-blooded families.

to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sober Spaniards These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate
and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of European troops the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest
in India, and the delicacy of the children of European parents, parts of South America. Although we have here nothing to do
do not affect the real question of acclimatization under proper with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been often
conditions. They only show that acclimatization is in most taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has been
cases necessary, not that it cannot take place. The best examples also sometimes held to prove that neither the European nor his
of partial or complete acclimatization are to be found where half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The
European races have permanently settled in the tropics, and following observation is therefore of interest:
have maintained themselves for several generations. There are, At Guayaquil a lady of good family married or unmarried
for
however, two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against^ and to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does happen it is
these are made the most of by the writers above referred to, felt as a calamity by the whole community. But here, and perhaps
in most other towns in South America, a poor girl of mixed race
and are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are
otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we have the especially if good-looking rarely thinks of marrying one of her own
class until she has as the Brazilians say
" "apprpveitada de sua
possibility of a mixture of native blood having occurred; in the mocidade (made the most of her youth) in receiving presents from
second, there have almost always been a succession of immigrants gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry to her husband, he does

from the parent country, who continually intermingle with the not care to inquire, or is not sensitive, about the mode in which it
was acquired. The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual inter-
families of the early settlers. It is maintained that one or other
course, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to
of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans And as among people of mixed
paralyse, the fertility of the female.
to continue long to flourish in the tropics. race it is almost universal, the population of these must fall off both
There are, however, certain cases in which the sources of error in numbers and quality.

above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and cannot seri- The following example of divergent acclimatization of the
ously affect the results; such as those of the Jews, the Dutch at same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and will
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes:
in South America. One of the most singular cases connected with this subject that
The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, or apparent
have been established for many centuries in climates very impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian in a certain zone of
the Andes. Any person who has compared the physical characters
different from that of their native land; they keep themselves of the native races of South America must be convinced that these
almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around have all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences
them; and they are often so populous in a country that the inter- exist, but none capable of invalidating tnis conclusion. The warmth
mixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot seri- yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon; the Indian of the hot, dry
and treeless coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head
ously affect the local purity of the race. They have, for instance, to the sun with as much zest as an African negro the Indian of the
;

attained a population of millions in such severe climates as Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantly bare-
Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they have succeeded legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude straw hut the
so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst of anti-semitism; piercing wind of the paramos sweeps andNchills the white man to the
very bones;
all these, in the colour and t^tture of the skin, the hair
and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed in rearing children and other important features, are plainly of one and the same race.
and forming permanent communities. Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between
In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best flavoured
are perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant but more saccharine than
in the plains, and which is therefore very desirable to cultivate, but
seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes on this where the red man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the
subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known sierra get ague and dysentery. Those of the plains find the tempera-
botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South ture chilly, and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the
limbs. I have seen the difficulty experienced in getting farms culti-
America, but who was prevented by ill-health from publishing
vated in this zone, on both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent
his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botanist, 1908). residents are generally limited to the major-domo and his family;
As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, both of man and and in the dry season labourers are hired, of any colour that can be
nature, he had few superiors. He says: obtained some from the low country, others from the highlands
The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2 13' S.) are kept pure for three, four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane,
by careful selection. The slightest tincture of red or black blood bars and plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of
entry into any of the old families who are descendants of Spaniards resident Indian labourers, such as exists in the farms of the sierra,
from the Provincias Vascongadas or those bordering the Bay of cannot be kept up in the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are
Biscay, where the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the inter- called. White men, who take proper precautions, and are not
course of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the climate perfectly, but
the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing the creole whites are still too much caballeros to devote themselves
possible. The consequence of this careful breeding is, that the to agricultural work.
women of Guayaquil are considered (and justly) the finest along the In what is now the republic of Ecuador, the only peopled portions
whole Pacific coast. are the central valley, between the two ridges of the Andes height
They are often tall, sometimes very handsome,
decidedly healthy, although pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their 7000 to 12,000 feet and the hot plain at their western base; nor
sons are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to do the wooded slopes appear to have been inhabited, except by
become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, who have farms scattered savage hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians
in the savannahs and are accustomed to take long rides in all of the highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited
weathers, and those whose trade obliges them to take frequent that region exclusively for untold ages; and a similar affirmation
journeys in the mountainous interior, or even to Europe and North may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now, there is little doubt
America, are often as active and as little burdened with superfluous that the progenitors of both these sections came from a temperate
flesh as a Scotch farmer. region (in North America); so that here we have one moiety ac-
The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5S.), which was climatized to endure extreme heat, and the other extreme cold; and
founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is very hot, especially in at this day exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as we
the three or four months following the southern solstice. In March have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always pernicious
1843 the temperature only once fell as low as 83 during the whole and often fatal. But if this great difference has been brought about
month, the usual lowest night temperature being 85. Yet people in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white man?
of all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt that the
very prolific. I
resided in this town itself nine months, and in the neighbourhood inherent adaptability is the same in both, or (if not) that the white
seven months more. The population (in 1863-1864) was about 10,000, man possesses it in a higher degree.
 ACCLIMATIZATION 119
The observations of Spruce are of themselves almost conclu- introduced locally. The sambar, or one or other of its sub-
sive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized species, has also been naturalized in Mauritius, and in the
in the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies Marianne Islands in the open Pacific.

only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately able The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well
to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated and con- known. Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it
clusive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic races. In is and Kerguelen; its presence
also established in the Falklands
South Africa the Dutch have been settled and nearly isolated in much
Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it
of
for over 200 years, and have kept themselves almost or quite seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula.
free from native intermixture. They are still preponderatingly The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes.
fair in complexion, while physically they are tall and strong. Few other rodents have been designedly naturalized, but the
They marry young and have large families. The population, North American grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus) appears to be
according to a census taken in 1798, was under' 22,000. In established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, Bedfordshire,
"
1865 was near 182,000, the majority being of Dutch, German
it England, and may probably spread thence.
or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." In To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and pole-
more recent times, the conditions have been so greatly changed cats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) were intro-

by immigration, that the later statistics cease to have a definite duced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the last quarter
meaning with regard to acclimatization. We have here a of the ipth century. They have spread widely, and have not
population which doubled itself every twenty-two years; and confined their depredations to the rabbits, so that the indigenous
the greater part of this rapid increase must certainly be due flightless birdshave suffered largely.
to the old European immigrants. In the Moluccas, where the Another carnivore of very similar habits, the Indian mongoose
Dutch have had settlements for 250 years, some of the inhabit- (Herpestus griseus or H
mungo) has been naturalized in Jamaica,
.
,

ants trace their descent to early immigrants; and these, as whence it has been carried to other West Indian Islands, and in
well as most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are the Hawaiian group. It has also been tried, but unsuccessfully,

quite as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health,

in Australia. The first introduction into Jamaica took place in
and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate themselves 1872, and ten years later the animal was credited with saving
admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work early many thousands of pounds annually by its destruction of rats.
in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a quiet, tem- But before an equal space of time had further elapsed, it had
itself become a pest; the most recent information, however, is
perate and cheerful life. They also pay great attention to
to the effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that
drainage and general cleanliness. In addition to these examples,
it isobvious that the rapid increase of English-speaking popula- the disturbed faunal equilibrium is being readjusted.
tions in the United States and in Australia is far greater than The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion,
can be explained by immigration, and shows two conspicuous are likely animals to have been naturalized. W. T. Blanford
"
examples of acclimatization. (Fauna of British India, Mammals ") thinks that the presence
On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under of the Indian form, Viverricula malaccensis, in Socotra, the
favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of
to the end in view, man may become acclimatized with at least man.
as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations rather The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia,
than by years) as any of the lower animals. The greatest where destructive to the native fauna and to lambs.
it is

difficulty in his way is not temperature, but the presence of Among primates, a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pileatus) has
parasitic diseases to resist which his body has not been prepared,
been naturalized in Mauritius for centuries, the circumstances
and modern knowledge is rapidly defining these dangers and the of introduction being unknown.
modes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.) The common Australian "opossum" or phalanger (Tricho-
surus vulpeculd) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although
APPENDIX
very destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably
The task of collecting information as to animals which the motive. It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand
have become permanently naturalized away from their native
specimens is superior, as might be expected from the colder
haunts is anything but easy, as few regular records have climate.
been kept by acclimatizers. Moreover, recorders of local fauna The introduction of mammals has been largely in-
Birds.
have been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms, fluenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was not
except when they have had occasion to comment on the effects, absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case of birds
real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas. it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many cases, and
Mammals. It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world- hence is looked upon with especial dislike by naturalists. The
wide distribution of the two rats M
us rattus and M
decumanus,
.
domestic birds have comparatively seldom become feral, doubt-
and of the house-mouse M. musculus; their introduction has
less, as C. Darwin points out, from the reduction of their powers
always been involuntary. Similarly nearly all our domestic of flight in many cases. The guinea-fowl, however, has long
mammals except the sheep have become feral somewhere or been in this condition in Jamaica and St Helena, and the fowl
other, whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the in Hawaii and other Polynesian islands. The pheasant has been
smaller ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and naturalized in the United States, New Zealand, Hawaii and
cats. This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New St Helena. Its naturalization in western Europe is very ancient,
Zealand; in America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle but the race supposed to have been introduced by the Romans
are also feral. Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand.
(Phasianus colchieus) has been much modified within the last
The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as a wild
century or two by the introduction of the ring-necked Chinese
animal in North Australia; it is very liable to revert to a wild form (P. torquatus), which produces fertile hybrids with the old
state, being little altered from its still-existing wild ancestor. breed. Thus those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of
A more curious case is that of the one-humped camel {Camelus mixed blood, and further introductions of pure Chinese stock
dromedarius), a beast only known in domestication, and that in have tended to make the latter the dominant form, at any rate
arid countries; yet a number of these have become feral in the in the United States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian 1 )
Spanish marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal and in New Zealand. In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck
flamingoes. appears to have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in
The red deer (Cemus elaphus) is now widely distributed as a the former the Japanese race (P. tiersicolor) is also naturalized.
wild animal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer (C. 1
The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongoHcus), a very different
dama) and the Indian sambar (C. aristotelis or unicolor) have been bird, has recently been introduced into England.
120 ACCLIMATIZATION
The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) is locally estab- with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by man

lished in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants of is the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), now established all over
less common species. The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevesi) is at New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United States and
large on some English estates. Of the partridges, the continental Jamaica. It bears a good character, and is one of the marked
red-leg (Caccabis rufa) is established in England, and its ally, successes of naturalization. The redpoll (Acanthis linaria),
the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St Helena, as is the Cali- chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and greenfinch (Chloris Moris) are
fornian quail (Lophortyx califarnica ) in New Zealand and Hawaii. established in New Zealand, the last named being a pest there,
The latter, however, though thriving as an aviary bird, has as is also the cirl-bunting (Emberiza cirlus) the yellow-hammer
failed at large in England, as did the bob-white (Ortyx virginianus) (E. citrinella) being perhaps confused with this also.
both there and in New Zealand. Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah,
The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led Acridotheres tristis, but some other species seem to have been
to many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans,
have been unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), how- Seychelles, Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand.
ever, the only endemic British bird, is naturalized in some parts Its alleged destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open
of Europe. to doubt.
Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is natural- The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is naturalized in
ized to a small extent in Britain, and also, to a less degree, the New Zealand, Australia and to some extent in the United
Egyptian goose (Chenalopex aegyptiacus); the latter bird also States. Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the
occurs wild in New Zealand. The modern presence of the black song- thrush and blackbird ( Turdus musicus and Merula merula)
swan of Australia (Chenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be are common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuc-
due to a natural irruption of the species about half a century cessfully, to establish the latter in the United States. The
ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so. so-called hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), really a member
Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little favour of this group, is one of the successful introductions into New
that few attempts have been made to naturalize them; the Zealand. The robin (Erithacus rubecula) failed there.
continental little owl (Athene noctua), however, has for some Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and the Australian "magpie" or
time been well established in England, where it has hardly, if piping crow (Gymnorhina) are to be found in New Zealand, but
ever, appeared naturally. only locally, especially the former.
Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has Reptiles and Amphibians. Very little naturalization has been
become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese turtle- effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in regard to these
dove (Turtur chinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is the small groups, but the occurrence of the edible frog of the continent
East Indian zebra dove (Geopelia striala) in the Seychelles, and of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an introduced animal in certain
the allied Australian (G. tranquilld) in St Helena. There has British localities is well known. An Australian tree-frog (Hyla
also been very little naturalization of parrots, but the rosella peronii) is naturalized in many parts of the north island of New
parrakeet of Australia (Platycercus eximius) is being propagated Zealand.
by escaped captives in the north island of New Zealand, and its Fish. The instances of naturalization in this class are few,
ally the mealy rosella (P. pallidiceps) is locally wild in Hawaii, but important. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), originally
the stock in this case having descended from a single pair in- a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized in Europe,
tentionally liberated. Attempts to naturalize that well-known where indeed it is in places a true domestic creature, with
Australian grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Melopsiltacus un- definite variations. It is, however, quite feral also, and has
dulatus) in proved abortive, and none of
England have so far been introduced into North America.
the species experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in New
effected a settlement. The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic form (C.
cana) of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles. Some auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely distributed as a pet,
of the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed, and is feral in some places.
especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus), which is now The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) of the East Indies has been
an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in the established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable food-
Australasian States and in North America. It is, in fact, as fish.

notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as the The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however,
rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New
New Zealand animals (London, 1905) it is not regarded in this Zealand. These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo
light, considering that some very common exotic birds were fario and 5. trutla); they attain a great size. So far, attempts
needed to keep down the insects, which it certainly did. Even to establish the true salmon in alien localities have been un-
in the United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer successful, but the American rainbow trout (S. irideus) has
of weed-seeds. The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina, thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char of the same conti-
some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans. nent (S. fontinalis) inhabits at least one stream there to the
The tree-sparrow (P. monlanus) has been locally
allied exclusion of the common trout.
naturalized in the United States; it is a more desirable bird, Invertebrates. Many and other invertebrates, mostly
insects
being less prolific and pugnacious, but it is expelled from towns noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have
by the house-sparrow. been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in
The so-called Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora), although a Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported
destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed by accident into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover.
or design, and is now found in several East Indian islands besides The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately
Java, in south China, St Helena, India, Zanzibar and the east encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the native
African coast. An allied but much smaller weaver-finch, a form a more objectionable pest, disappears.
flesh-fly,
of the spice-bird (Munia nisoria punclala), is introduced and The widedistribution of three common cockroaches (Peri-
well distributed over the Hawaiian islands. The little rooibek planeta americana, Blatla orientalis and Ectobia germanica) is
of South Africa (Estrilda aslrild) has been so long and well well known, but these are chiefly house-insects.
established in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontia or
the St Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Mada- Pieris rapae) is now established in North America; and the
gascar (Foudia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird march of the jigger, or foot-infesting flea (Sarcopsytta penetrans)
Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands. of tropical America, across Africa, has taken place in quite
Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete recent years.
 ACCOLADE ACCOMMODATION 121
The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced ACCOLTI, BERNARDO (1465-1536), Italian poet, born at
the edible snail (Helix pomatia) into England, and the common Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti. Known in his own
garden snail and slugs (Helix aspersa, Limax agrestis and day as /' Unico Aretino, he acquired great fame as a reciter of
Arion hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New impromptu verse. He was listened to by large crowds, com-
Zealand. In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe are posed of the most learned men and the most distinguished
noticed to replace native forms as the ground is broken. prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal Bembo has left
General Remarks. A great deal has been said about the up- on record a testimony to his extraordinary talent. His high
setting of the balance of nature by naturalization, and as to the reputation with his contemporaries seems scarcely justified by
ill-doing of exotic forms. But certain considerations should be the poems he published, though they give evidence of brilliant
borne in mind in this connexion. In the first place, naturaliza- fancy. It is probable that he succeeded better in his ex-
tion experiments fail at least as often as they succeed, and often temporary productions than in those which were the fruit of
quite inexplicably. Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed deliberation. His works, under the title Virginia, Comedia,
to establish themselves in New Zealand. This may ultimately Capitoli e Strambotti di Messer Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were
throw some light on the disappearance of native forms; for published at Florence in 1513, and have been several times
these have at times declined without any assignable cause. reprinted.
Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing off ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455-1532), brother of the preceding,
of the original forest or other vegetation, in which case their known as the cardinal of Ancona, was born in Florence on the
recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, and the fauna which i5th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the i2th of December
has established itself in the presence of cultivation is needed to 1532 (Ciaconi, Vitae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 295). He was made
replace them. bishop of Ancona, 1505, and cardinal on the i?th of March 1511,
Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing ones by Julius II. He was abbreviator under Leo X., and in that
may often be due rather to the spread of disease and parasites capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther (L. Cardella,
than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native birds have Memorie Storiche de' Cardinali, 1793, iii. 450). He held succes-
been found suffering from a disease which attacks poultry. And sively the suburban sees of Albano and Sabina, also the sees
the recession of the New Zealand earthworms and flies before of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, and was made arch-
exotic forms probably falls under this category. As man can- bishop of Ravenna, 1524, by Clement VII.
not easily avoid introducing parasites, and must keep domestic F. Cristofori (Storia dei Cardinali, 1888) and others have
animals and till the land, a certain disturbance in aboriginal confused him with his nephew BENEDETTO (1497-1549), son of
faunas is absolutely unavoidable. Under certain circumstances, Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, was
however, the native animals may recover, for in some cases made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as a writer
they even profit by man's advent, and at times themselves in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet.
become pests, like the Kea parrot (Nestor notabilis), which ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodarc, to make fit, from ad,
attacks sheep in New Zealand, and the bobolink or rice-bird to, cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting,
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus) in North America. Finally, it should adapting, adjusting or supplying with what is needed (e.g.
never be forgotten that the worst enemies of declining forms have housing).
" "
been collectors who have not given these species the chance of In theology the term accommodation is used rather loosely
recovering themselves. (F. FN.) to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or idea,
ACCOLADE (from Ital. accolala, derived from Lat. collum, in a context other than that in which it originally occurred; the
the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood; actual wording of the quotation may be modified to a greater or
but whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use of lesser extent. Such accommodation, though sometimes purely
the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on the literary or stylistic, generally has the definite purpose of instruc-
neck or cheek, is not agreed. Both these customs appear to be tion, and is frequently used both in the New
Testament and
of great antiquity. Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings in pulpit utterances in all periods as a means of producing a
of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights reasonably accurate impression of a complicated idea in the
on the left cheek; and William the Conqueror is said to have minds of those who are for various reasons unlikely to compre-
made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knighthood hend it otherwise. There are roughly three main kinds, (i)
on his sonHenry. At first it was given with the naked fist, a A later Biblical passage quotes from an earlier, partly as a
veritable box on the ear, but for this was substituted a gentle literary device, but also with a view to demonstration. Some-
stroke with the flat of the sword on the side of the neck, or on times it is plain that the writer deliberately
"
accommodates "
either shoulder as well. In Great Britain the sovereign, in a quotation (cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New
conferring knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade. Testament quotations of Old Testament predictions are often
" "
Accolade is also a technical term in music-printing for a for us accommodations striking or forced as the case may be
"
sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture it while the New Testament writer, following the exegetical
denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows. methods current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15,
"
ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO (1415-1466), Italian jurist and his- 18, xxvi. 31, xxvii. 9 (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century
torian, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, of a noble family, several Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments. To say
members of which were distinguished like himself for their attain- " New Testament fact in Old
that he is merely describing a
ments in law. He was for some time professor of jurisprudence "
Testament phraseology may be true of the result rather than
in the university of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated of his design. (2) Much besides in the Bible parable, metaphor,
"
Poggio, in 1459, became chancellor of the Florentine republic. &c. has been called an accommodation," or divine conde-
He died at Florence. In conjunction with his brother Leonardo, scension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century rational-
he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, entitled De ism (see APOLOGETICS) held that the Biblical writers made great
Bello a Christianis contra Barbaras gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et use of conscious accommodation intending moral common-
Judaea recuperandis libri tres (Venice, 1432, translated into places when they seemed to be enunciating Christian
dogmas.
"
Italian, 1543, and into French, 1620), which, though itself of Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. Semler, is econ-
little interest, is said to have furnished Tasso with the historic
" "
omy," which also occurs in the kindred sense of reserve (or
basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's of Disciplina Arcania, modern term for the supposed early
De Praestantia Virorum sui Aevi was published at Parma in Catholic habit of reserving esoteric truths). Isaac Williams on
1689. His brother Francesco (1418-1483) was also a distin- Reserve in Religious Teaching, No. 80 of Tracts for the Times,
guished jurist, and was the author of Consilia sen responsa (Pisa, made a great sensation; see R. W. Church's comments in The
1481); Commentaria super lib. ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481); Oxford Movement. Strictly, accommodation (2) or (3) modifies,
Commentaria (Pavia, 1493); de Balneis Puteolanis (1475). in form or in substance, the content of religious belief; reserve,
 122 ACCOMMODATION BILL ACCORSO
from prudence or cunning, withholds part. " Economy " is duke died in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal
used in both senses. property (the duchy of Bracciano he left to his son by his first
ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its wife) to his widow. Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to
name implies, is a bill of exchange accepted and sometimes live in retirement at Padua, where she was followed
by Lodovico
endorsed without any receipt of value in order to afford tem- Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of the Vene-
porary pecuniary aid to the person accommodated. (See BILL tian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the
pro-
OF EXCHANGE.) perty. But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico
ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which "accompanies"), a hired a band of bravos and had Vittoria assassinated
(22nd
of
musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental compo- December He himself and nearly all his accomplices
1585).
sition added to support and heighten the principal vocal or were afterwards put to death by order of the republic.
instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, single About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she has
instruments or the orchestra. The accompaniment may be been greatly maligned by some biographers. Her story formed
the basis of Webster's drama, The Tragedy of Paolo Giordano
obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms an essential part Ursini (1612), and of Tieck's novel, Vittoria Accoramboni
of the composition or not. The term obbligato or obbligato (1840); it is told moreLudwig accurately in D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria
accompaniment is also used for an independent instrumental Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), and an excellent sketch of her life
is given in Countess E.
solo accompanying a vocal piece. Owing to the early custom Martinengo-Cesaresco's Lombard Studies
of only writing the accompaniment in outline, by means of a (London, 1902). (L. V.*)
" ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree), in law, an agreement
figured bass," to be filled in by the performer, and to the
between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against
changes in the number, quality and types of the instruments of
" " the other, to give and accept in substitution for such
the orchestra, additional accompaniments have been written right any
for the works of the older masters; such are Mozart's " addi- good legal consideration. Such an agreement when executed
" discharges the cause of action and is called Accord and Satis-
tional accompaniments to Handel's Messiah or those to many of
the elder Bach's works by Robert Franz. In common parlance faction.
ACCORDION (Fr. accordion; Ger. Handharmonica, Ziehhar-
any support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument
monica), a small portable reed wind instrument with keyboard,
is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely
" " the smallest representative of the organ
vamped by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise family, invented in
In the history of song 1829 by Damian,
in Vienna.
to the dignity of an artistic composition.
the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is important,
The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which
is attached a keyboard with from The keys on
and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental parts practi- 5 to 50 keys.
being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open
cally constitute a duet, in which the instrumental part may be at
valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of narrow
least as important as that of the voice.
ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex, tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the
lower board of the bellows, having their free ends
a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the ac- is bent, some
" inwards, some outwards. Each key produces two notes, one
possibly due to confusion with accomplish," to complete, Lat.
From the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are
complere, to fill up), in law, one who is associated with another compressed,
the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in the
or others in the commission of a crime, whether as principal
or accessory. The term is chiefly important where one of
American organ; see HARMONIUM) when the bellows are ex-
those charged with a crime turns king's evidence in the expect- panded. The pitch of the note is determined by the length and
thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending to sharpen
ation of obtaining a pardon for himself. Accordingly, as his
the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers it. The right
evidence is tainted with self-interest, it is a rule of practice
tiand plays the melody on the keyboard, while the left works
to direct a jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice
the bellows and manipulates the two or three bass
is not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the harmony
circumstances of the offence and the participation of the accused ieys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic and dominant.
in it. An accomplice who has turned king's evidence usually The archetype of the accordion is the cheng (q.v.), or Chinese
receives a pardon, but has no legal right to exemption from organ, between which and the harmonium it forms a connecting
link structurally, although not invented for some
punishment till he has actually received it. thirty years
VITTORIA after the harmonium. The timbre of the accordion is coarse
ACCORAMBONI, (1557-1585), an Italian lady
famous for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her and devoid of beauty, but in the hands of a skilful performer
;he best instruments are not entirely without artistic merit.
tragic history. She was born in Rome of a family belonging to
the minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a Improvements in the construction of the accordion produced the
view to bettering their fortunes. After refusing several offers of concertina (q.v.), melodion and melophone.
See Adolf Mueller, Accordion- Schule oder vollstandige Anleitung,
marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to Francesco das Accordion in kurzer Zeit richtig spielen zu erlernen (Wien,
1834).
Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew of Cardinal See also FREE REED VIBRATOR. (K. S.)
Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become pope. Vittoria ACCORSO (ACCURSIUS), MARIANGELO (c. 1490-1 544), Italian
was admired and worshipped by all the cleverest and most critic, was born at Aquila, kingdom of Naples. He was
in the
brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious and extravagant a great favourite with Charles V., at whose court he resided for
although poor, she and her husband were soon plunged in debt. :hirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various
Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. Orsini, duke of "oreign missions. To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin
Bracciano, one of the most powerful men in Rome, and her ic added an intimate acquaintance with several modern lan-
brother Marcello, wishing to see her the duke's wife, had Peretti ;uages. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for
murdered (1581). The duke himself was suspected of complicity, which his travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he
inasmuch as he was believed to have murdered his first wife, displayed uncommon diligence. His work entitled Dialribae in
Isabella de' Medici. Now that Vittoria was free he made her Ausonium, Solinum el Ovidium (1524) is a monument of erudi-
an offer of marriage, which she willingly accepted, and they :ion and critical skill. He was the first editor of the Letters of
were married shortly after. But her good fortune aroused much lassiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul (1538); and his edition
jealousy, and attempts were made to annul the marriage; she if Ammianus Marcellinus
(1533) contains five books more than
was even imprisoned, and only liberated through the interfer- any former one. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced
ence of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo. On the death of Gregory >y some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed
XIII., Cardinal Montalto, her first husband's uncle, was elected >y him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volscian and a
in his place as Sixtus V. (1585); he vowed
vengeance on the loman are introduced as interlocutors (1531). Accorso was
duke of Bracciano and Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge which
to Venice and thence to Sal6 in Venetian territory. Here the most solemnly and energetically repudiated.
 ACCOUNT ACCOUNTANTS 123
ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, c'im- was published in London by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is
putare, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially
of moneys described as A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke
paid and received, hence a statement made as to the receipt to learn to knows the good order of the kepyng of the famouse recon-
and payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or con- ynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in Englyshe, Debitor
duct, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c. A and Creditor. A
short book of instruction was also published in
"
further sense-development is that of esteem, consideration. 1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, I am but
" "
As a stock-exchange term account is used in several senses, the renuer and reviver of an auncient old copie printed here in
(i) The periodical settlements occurring, in London, monthly London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and
for British government and a few other first-class securities, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth

fortnightly for all others. The settlement extends over four by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, and this booke in
days in mining shares and three days in other securities. The Saint Ollaves parish in Marke Lane." John Mellis refers to the
"
first day is the carry-over, contango," or making-up, day, on fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple
"
which speculative commitments are carried over, or continued: system of double entry) is after the forme of Venice." The
that is, the bulls, who have bought stock for the rise, arrange very interesting and able book described as T he Mer chants Mirr our,
the rate of interest that they have to give on their stock to a or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts;

moneylender, or bear, who will pay for it or take it in for them; framed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so tearmed) Italian
and the bears, who have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635,
they receive from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold, contains many references to early books on the science of ac-
"
the backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of countancy. In a chapter in this book, headed Opinion of
the stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority
bargains. On the second day, called ticket-day or name day, a of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had
ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate buyer and then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the
the firm which will pay for the stock is passed through the same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time
various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, so that the actual of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations
transfer of the stock can be made directly. In the mining of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers
market the passing of names takes two days. On the last day, to "ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo"; and he adds:
"
account day, pay day or settling day, cheques are paid to meet That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other
speculative differences, or against the delivering of stock. (2) for Creditor, manifest in a certaine place, Naturalis Historiae
is

The period between two settlements. A nineteen-day account where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus:
Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7,
is one in which nineteen days elapse between one pay-day and Huic Omnia Expensa.
another. (3) The volume or condition of commitments. A Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola
Utramque Paginam facit."
speculator is said to have a large account open when he has dealt
heavily either for the rise or fall. A bull account exists in a stock An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-
or group of stocks when it or they have been bought for the rise entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks,
by a large number of opera tors; in the contrary case, when there pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote
have been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed. times.
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, formerly an officer in the English There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book
Court of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, and printed the second edition having been published in 1636,
by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed. The office the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book
was abolished by the Chancery Funds Act 1872, and the duties is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was

transferred to the paymaster-general (q.v.). beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the
ACCOUNTANTS. The term "accountant" is one to which, numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly
of late years, its original meaning has been more generally at- appreciated in the 1 7th century. From this time there has been
tributed that of an expert in the science of book-keeping. It a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the
issometimes adopted by book-keepers, but this is an erroneous authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art,
application of the term it properly describes those competent
;
and thus proving that the professional accountant was then
to design and control the systems of accounts required for the known and employed. Very early in the i8th century the
record of the multifarious and rapid transactions of trade and services of an accountant practising in the city of London were
finance. It assumes the possession of a wide knowledge of the made use of in the course of an investigation into the trans-
principles upon which accountancy is based, which may be actions of a director of the South Sea Company, who had been
shortly described as constituting a science by means of which dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the
all mercantile and financial transactions, whether in money or accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two
in money's worth, including operations completed and engage- firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made
ments undertaken to be fulfilled at once or in a future, however upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles
remote, may be recorded; and this science comprises a know- Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London.
ledge of the methods of preparing statistics, whether relating In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, West-
to finance or to any transactions or circumstances which can minster and Southwark was first published, n
individuals and
be stated by numeration, and of ascertaining or estimating on firms were therein described as accountants; in the same direc-
correct bases the cost of any operation whether in money, in tory, for the period 1809-1811, the number had risen to 24;
commodities, in time, in life or in any wasting property. Gener- and in that for 1822-1824, there were 73 firms of practising
ally, accountancy may be described as being the science by means accountants recorded.
of which all operations, as far as they are capable of being shown The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping
in figures, are accurately recorded and their results ascertained were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very
and stated. actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the
The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain Italian merchants of the 14th, isth and i6th cen-
is difficult to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally of very turies; but it was not until the beginning of the ipth
ear ly existence, being mentioned as officers of im- century that, in consequence of the adoption of
History
portance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of improved methods manufacture and transit, resulting from
of
Edward I. The art of accountancy on a scientific principle the application of waterand steam power to manufactures and
must certainly have been understood in Italy before 1495, methods of conveyance which largely increased the trade of
when Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice his treatise on Great Britain, the profession of an accountant became one
book-keeping; but the first known English book on the science which men of scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for
124 ACCOUN TANTS
their business career. Corporations and companies were formed of accounts than was once required. The efficiency, in most
to carry out large operations previously either left to the state cases, of audits conducted by skilled accountants has led the
or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and manu- public to attach exceptional value to their audit certificates,
factures which were becoming less profitable when carried on by and to demand extensive knowledge and ability in the conduct
hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, the services of the audit of the accounts of public companies. One other
of public accountants were necessarily required to devise systems requirement which is generally regarded as indispensable, is

of accounts of control, and to enable the results of

and methods that the work of audit should be very expeditiously performed;
the various transactions carried on to be ascertained with the for it is easy to understand that, were the presentation of the
least waste of power or chance of loss by negligence or fraud. accounts of a company and the distribution of dividends materi-
The largenumber of companies formed in 1843 and 1844, when ally delayed in consequence of the audit, much inconvenience
a great amount of capital was invested in railways and extensive would result, while the value of the criticism of the accounts of
speculation resulted, also added to the demand for the services business operations would be much deteriorated if it could not
of professional accountants. The Companies' Clauses Consoli- be made very shortly after the accounts were closed. In these
dation Act 1845 made provision for the audit of the accounts circumstances, in the cases of large concerns with wide ramifica-
of companies regulated by act of parliament, and gave some tions and numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors
extensive powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large should have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal
extent, selected from among professional accountants. The examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large
Companies Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially
of accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies; reduced. This delegation of duty by auditors is generally well
and the acts relating to bankruptcy passed between the years understood, and is in accordance with the requirements of
1831 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late years
accountants. The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an extent which,
companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, and if persisted in, might render it dangerous for men of reputation

it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint professional and means to accept the duties.
accountants to this duty. The experience and professional While the number of practising accountants has of late years
knowledge of trained accountants have, in fact, been utilized been steadily increasing and their services are correspondingly
by their appointment as auditors in the majority of joint-stock appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exer-
companies, whether manufacturing, banking, trading or created cising the profession and for improving its status has
for any other purpose. Until the Companies Act 1900 was passed naturally become apparent. The first important steps
there was no general obligation upon limited companies to have in this direction were taken by the accountants in Scotland
auditors; this act not only requires that auditors shall be ap- the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated
pointed in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and by royal charter in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and
to a limited extent defines their rights and duties. The legis- Aberdeen being also incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867.
lature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at all clearly The Institute of Accountants was formed in London in 1870,
the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable to suppose that but did not receive a royal charter until the nth May 1880,
any general definition will prove an impossibility, as the work when all the then existing accountants' societies and institutes
which auditors undertake must vary very widely, and depends in England were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered
largely upon the scope of the operations the accounts of which Accountants in England and Wales, and means were provided
are to be examined. by which all the then practising accountants in these countries
The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area: could claim membership thereof. In the year 1885 the Society
they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of of Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained

Duties businesses, the owners of which are in default or their no charter; this body, while numbering among its members
affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the a considerable number of practising accountants in the United
courts and by appointment of creditors and others; they are Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to cities and
largely engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differ- boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other
ences relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare accountants. A large proportion of its members also consists
the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary of accountants practising abroad. In 1888 an Institute of
statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms and Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great many
companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases of institutes and societies have been formed in the British colonies
fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon to and in the United States, some of which have local charters.
unravel and properly state the accounts of complicated trans- It is curious to note, however, that, outside the United Kingdom,
actions. Their services are commonly required to certify the it was only in the British colonies that associations of practising

profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately or to accountants existed, until, in 1895, an Institute of Accountants
companies by means of a published prospectus; and, in cases (Nederlands Inslituut van Accountants) was founded in Utrecht
of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway companies for Dutch accountants; when, although the principles of ac-
and public bodies, the statements of the profits of the businesses countancy have been well understood and practised in Holland
to be acquired are generally made by them. In a very large since the i6th century, and probably earlier, it was found
"
number of financial operations they are called upon to give ad- necessary to borrow the words
"
accountant and " account-
"
vice and prepare accounts, and in few business matters requiring ancy from the English language to convey to the Dutch an
arithmetical calculations or involving the investigation of figures, idea of the meaning of the terms. Three others have since been
formed, the N ederlandsche Academic van Accountants (1902);
'

and particularly where a considerable acquaintanceship with

the principles of law is needed, are their services not utilized. the Nalionale Organisalie van Accountants (1903); and the
One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants N ederlandsche Bond van Accountants (1902). Sweden has a
is the audit of accounts, and duty has, of late years, been
this society, Svenska Revisorsamfundet, formed in 1899; Belgium,
widely extended. Originally, auditors were appointed to ex- the Chambre Syndicate des Experts ComptaUes, founded in 1903.
amine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; but the In South America, accountants have acquired a certain status
provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to audit, and in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru.
the requirements of most articles of association of limited com- In the United States the organization of professional account-
Auditors. Ponies, put much graver responsibilities on auditors, ants is of quite recent growth. The first society formed in
who are now generally required to certify to the America was " The New York State Society of Certified Public
accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts, Accountants," and shortly afterwards (in 1896) the New York
the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge state legislature passed an act authorizing the State university
 ACCOUTREMENT ACCUMULATION
to confer the degree of certified public accountant (C.P.A.) on ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow), an
the members of the society, while requiring all subsequent addition to that which already exists; increase in any substance
entrants to pass an examination. This degree, however, can by the addition of particles from the outside. In law, the term
be obtained, like other university degrees, without being a is used for the increase of property caused
by gradual natural
member of the society. Other states, notably Pennsylvania, additions, as on a river bank or seashore.
Maryland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey, ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the
have followed the example of New York. In 1903 the various Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England,
state societies formed themselves into a federation. There is 208 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 23 m. N. by W. from
also an independent society of practising accountants, the Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop.
American Association of Public Accountants, with objects (1891)138,603; (1901) 43,122- It lies in a deep valley on the
similar to those of the federation, but steps have been taken to Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder. Cotton spinning and printing
bring about an amalgamation between the two in order to form works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and chemical
one central society to look after their common interests, without, manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain the industrial
however, interfering with the individual organization of the population. The church of St James dates from 1763, and the
various state societies. other numerous places of worship and public buildings are all
See R. Brown, History of Accounting and Accountants (Edin- modern. The borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
burgh), 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the subject; also councillors.Area 3427 acres.
G. W. Haskins, Accountancy, its Past and Present (U.S.A., 1900);
S. S. Dawson, Accountant's Compendium', G. Lisle, Accounting in Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted
Theory and Practice (1899); F. W. Pixley, Auditors and their Lia- by Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II. 's reign,
bilities (1901). The professional periodicals, The Accountant (vol. i., but came again into the hands of the Lacys, and was given by
1877); Accountant's Journal (vol. i., 1883-1884); The Accountants' them about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it
Magazine (vol. i., 1897); Incorporated Accountants' Journal (vol. i.,
1889-1890); Accountics (U.S.A., vol. i., 1897) may also be consulted, into a grange. It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1287,
and also the Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors, was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became merged
and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. GR.) in the duchy of Lancaster. In 1553 the commissioners of
ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from a chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be continued
and coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has charge as a place of divine service. In 1836 Old and New Accrington
of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; a term used were merely straggling villages with about 5000 inhabitants. By
especially, in the plural, of the military equipment of a soldier 1861 the population had grown to 17,688, chiefly owing to its
other than his arms and clothing. position as an important railway junction. A charter of in-
ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5 31' N., o 12' W., corporation was granted in 1878. The date of the original
since 1876 capital of the BritishGold Coast colony. Population chapel is unknown, but it was probably an oratory which was
about 20,000, including some 150 Europeans. Accra is about an offshoot of Kirkstall Abbey. Ecclesiastically the place was
80 m. E. of Cape Coast (q.i>.), the former capital of the colony. dependent on Altham till after the middle of the igth century.
The name is derived from the Fan ti word Nkran (an ant), by ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up), strictly
which designation the tribe inhabiting the surrounding district a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous
was formerly known. The town grew up around three forts adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the benefit
established in close proximity St James (British), Crevecoeur of some person or persons in the future. Previous to 1800,
(Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish). The last named was this accumulation of property was not forbidden by English
ceded to Britain in 1850, Crevecoeur not till 1871. Fort St law, provided the period during which it was to accumulate
James is now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison. did not exceed that forbidden by the law against perpetuities,
Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher Town viz. the period of a life or lives in being, and twenty-one years
and Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite origin. Ussher afterwards. In 1800, however, the law was amended in conse-
Town represents Crevecoeur, the fort being renamed after H. T. quence of the eccentric will of Peter Thellusson (1737-1797), an
Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast (1867-1872). The sea English merchant, who directed the income of his property,
frontage extends about three miles; there is, however, no har- consisting of real estate of the annual value of about 5000 and
bour, and steamers have to lie about a mile out, goods and personal estate amounting to over 600,000, to be accumulated
passengers being landed in surf boats. The streets formerly during the lives of his children, grandchildren and great-grand-
consisted largely of mud hovels, but since a great fire in 1894, children, living at the time of his death, and the survivor of them.
which destroyed large parts of James Town and Ussher Town, The property so accumulated, which, it is estimated, would have
more substantial buildings have been erected. Christiansborg, amounted to over 14,000,000, was to be divided among such
the finest of the three forts, is the official residence of the governor descendants as might be alive on the death of the survivor of
of the colony. Westwards of the landing-place, where is the those lives during which the accumulation was to continue.
customs house, lies James Town. Beyond the fort are various The bequest was held valid (Thellusson .
Woodford, 1798, 4
public buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main thoroughfare, Vesey, 237). In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who
which runs two miles in a straight line to Christiansborg. This were the actual heirs. It was decided by the House of Lords
street contains a fine stone church built in 1895 for the use of (June 9, 1859) in favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles
the Anglican community, a branch of the Bank of British West Sabine Augustus Thellusson. Owing, however, to the heavy
Africa, telegraph offices and the establishments of the principal expenses, the amount inherited was not much larger than that
trading firms. In Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are originally bequeathed.
the residences of the principal officials, and here a racecourse To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the
has been laid out. (Accra is almost the only point along the Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the "Thellusson Act")
Gold Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town is rolling was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should
grass land, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and be accumulated for any longer term than either (i) the life of
Akim. At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m. N. by E. of the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from his death;
Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens. or (3) during the minority of any person living or en ventre sa
Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be raised mere at the time of the death of the grantor; or (4) during the
(July i, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, is governed by a minority of any person who, if of full age, would be entitled to
town council with power to raise and spend money. The council the income directed to be accumulated. The act, however, did
consists in equal proportions of nominated and elected members, not extend to any provision for payment of the debts of the
no racial distinctions being made. Accra is connected by cable
grantor or of any other person, nor to any provision for raising
with Europe and South Africa, and is the sea terminus of a railway
portions for the children of the settlor, or any person interested
serving the districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations. under the settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce
 126 ACCUMULATOR
of timber or wood upon any lands or tenements. The act was face film of oxide generally found on lead. Some of the oxygen is
extended to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amend- always fixed on the other (positive) plate, forming a surface film of
peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so that
ment Act 1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland. the first plate is peroxidized, and the peroxide
The act was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892, previously formed
on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a
spongy
which forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase state. By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate is alter-
of land for any longer period than during the minority of any nately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In successive
oxidations, the action pene-
person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to receive trates farther into the plate,
the income. (See also TRUST and PERPETUITY.) furnishing each time a larger
ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices quantity of spongy PbO 2 on
whose function is to store energy in one form or another, as, for one plate and of spongy lead
on the other. It follows that
example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see the duration of the successive
HYDRAULICS, 179). In the present article the term is re-
charging currents also in-
stricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes creases. At the beginning, a
a special type of battery. The ordinary voltaic cell is made few minutes suffice; at the_i
end, many hours are required.
by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction main- After the first six or eight
tains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted, pj G j.
cycles, Plante allowed a period
such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials, of repose before reversing. He claimed that the PbO2 formed by
" " reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more
by a fresh charge of the original substances. But in some
cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials, because crystalline than if no repose were allowed. The following figures
show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in
they can be brought back to their original state by forcing a successive charges (between one charge and the next the
plate stood
reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses in repose for the time stated, then was reduced, and again charged
the chemical action and re-establishes the original conditions, as anode) :

thus enabling the cell to repeat its electrical work. Cells which
Separate Periods of
can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are Repose.
accumulate " the chemical
"
called accumulators because they
work of an electric current. An accumulator is also known as
a
" " " "
reversible battery,"storage battery or secondary
battery." The last name
dates from the early days of electro-
lysis. When a liquid like sulphuric acid was electrolysed for a
moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was found that
the electrodes could themselves produce a current when de-
tached from the primary battery. Such a current was attri-
" "
buted to an electric polarization of the electrodes, and was
regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being
that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage of
electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored,
not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposi-
tion. Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are
used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the interpreta-
tion now put on them be kept in mind. "Reversible battery"
isan excellent name for accumulators.
Sir W. R. Grove first used "polarization" effects in his gas

battery, but R. L. G. Plante (1834-1889) laid the foundation of

modern methods. That he was clear as to the function of an
accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the lead-
sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long time, and
had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail chimique de la
pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be excelled.
Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization in 1859, his
object being to investigate the conditions under which its maxi-
mum effects can be produced. He found that the greatest storage
and the most useful electric effects were obtained by using lead
" "
plates in dilute sulphuric acid. After some forming opera-
tions described below, he obtained a cell having a high electro-
motive force, a low resistance, a large capacity and almost
perfect freedom from polarization.
The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid cell
arises largely from the fact that not only are the active materials
(lead and lead peroxide, PbO 2 ) insoluble in the dilute acid, but
that the sulphate of lead formed from them in the course of dis-
charge is also insoluble. Consequently, it remains fixed in the
place where it is formed; and on the passage of the charging
current, the original PbC"2 and lead are reproduced in the places
they originally occupied. Thus there is no material change in
the distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active
materials are in a porous, spongy condition, so that the acid is
within reach of all parts of them.
Plant6 carefully studied the changes which occur in the formation,
charge and discharge of the cell. In forming, he placed two sheets
w ^, them by narrow strips
of lead in sulphuric acid, separating
flame
Q f caoutchouc (fig. i). When a charging current is
sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated at one plate
escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the sur-
 ACCUMULATOR 127
" "
the Faure or pasted type has been one in which the issue Plante process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of two
was doubtful, but the general tendency is towards a mixed type grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces
at the present time. There are many good cells, the value of are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space
all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting).
also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by
the Electrical Power
laid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the
evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The Plante formation is used for the positives of two
B.P.S.
following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice. kinds of cell. The paste for the positive plates is a
cell.
"
The " chloride cell has a Plante positive with a pasted mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the
negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0-4 negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. Figs. 4 and
inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about
Chloride
half an inch in diameter. Into each of these holes
cell.
is thrust a roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has

been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the

plate), then ribbed or
gimped, and finally coiled
into a rosette. The
rosettes have sufficient

spring to fix themselves

in the holes of the lead
plate, but are keyed in
position by a hydraulic
-press. The plates are
"
then formed " by pass-
ing a current for a long
time. In a later pattern
a kind of discontinuous
longitudinal rib is put in
the ribbon, and increases
the capacity and life by
strengthening the mass FIG. 7.
FIG. 3. Tudor negative plate. without interfering with
the diffusion of acid. 5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and
The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting. Fig. 6
of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is is the cross section of the casting used for the Plante
positive
made by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, connected of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the
The bars on side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a complete cell.
horizontally by small bars of triangular section.
the two faces are
" " The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the Plante
staggered, that is, those on one face are
not opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on glass
oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the slats, and are separated by three rows of glass tubes
" exide " Hart cell.
negative. | inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved
" "
The larger sizes of negative plate are of a box type, formed teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes.
by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the
same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of
course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the acid.
A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned bolt draws
the lug ends of adjacent cells
together, fitting in a corresponding
tapered hole in the lugs, and thus
increasing the contact area. The
positive and negative tapers being
different, a cell cannot be con-
nected up in the wrong way.
In America, in addition to some
of the cells already described, there
are types which are not
Gould cell.
found in England. Two
FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.
may be described. The Gould cell
"
is of the Plante type. A special
with paste. A feature of the "
chloride cells is the use of effort is made to reduce local and
separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared wood. other deleterious action by starting
These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material with perfectly homogeneous plates.
or from the formation of
" "
trees of lead which sometimes They are formed from sheet lead
grow across in certain forms of battery. blanks by suitable machines, which FIG. 8. Hart Accumulator.
The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one gradually raise the surface into a
piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at series of ribsand grooves. The sides and middle of the blank are
intervals b y horizontal ribs to give the plates strength left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over
Tudor cell
to withstand buckling in both directions (fig. 2). The the surface of the plate. The grooves are very fine, and when the
thickness of the plates is about 0-4 inch, and the developed active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action,
surface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same
they hold it
very securely.
size. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope. A
peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is filled with
 128 ACCUMULATOR
red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its
surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled
natch celt.
with paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen-
ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from
one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active
material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held
"
between two positive boxes," the outsides of which have pro-
jecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material
on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the
same time, the clearance between the ribs allows room for acid
to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face
of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this
envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than ^j inch
thick.
Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators
Traction Cells,
have practically but traction cells are employed for
all failed,
electric broughams and light vehicles for use in towns. There
are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed
by limited space, weight and vibration. The plates are gener-
ally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive
is not used somuch as in lighting types. The acid is generally
a stronger in order to get a higher electromotive force
little

(E.M.F.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out

of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are
" "
placed between the plates. The chloride
"
traction cell uses
"
a special variety of wood separator: the exide type of
plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now
made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming useless. The
specific output can be made as high as 10 or n
watt-hours per
pound of cell, but this involves a chance of shorter life. The
average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50
watt-hours per 1000 Ib per mile.
Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as
traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a rule two cells are
put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to
give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are
generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere-
hours, and the current for a single cylinder engine will average
one to one and a half amperes during the running intervals.
General Features. The tendency in stationary cells is to allow
plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material
which falls from the plates may collect there without risk of
short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates,
which means that (a) there is more acid within reach, and (b)
a slight buckling is not so dangerous, arid indeed is not so likely
to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than
formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the
same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials
in as porous a state as possible.
The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to
classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the
form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to
compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures are
impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in-
stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are
more important than specific output. Except in the case of
traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce
weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight
of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours.
TABLE I.

Type of Cell.
 ACCUMULATOR 129
(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The
positive plates ought to show a rich dark brown colour, the negatives
a dull slate-blue, and the space between ought to be quite clear and
free from anything like solid matter. All the positives ought to be
alike, and similarly all the negatives. If the cells show similarity in
these respects they will probably be in good working order.
As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple rules,
of which these are the chief :
(i ) Never discharge below a potential
difference of 1-85 (or in rapid discharge, 1-8) volt. (2) Never leave
if it be avoidable.
the cells discharged, (3) Give the cells a special
full charging once a month. (4) Make a periodic examination of each
cell, determining its E.M.F., density of acid, the condition of its plates
and freedom from growth. Any incipient growth, however small,
must be carefully watched. (5) If any cell shows signs of weakness,
keep it off discharge till it has been brought back to full condition.
See that it is free from any connexion between the plates which would
cause short-circuiting; the frame or support which carries the plates
sometimes gets covered by a conducting layer. To restore the cell,
two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may be dis-
connected and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose ;

or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order

" "
put in parallel with it. This acts as a milking cell, not only pre-
venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied
with a charging current till its potential difference (P.D.) is normal.
Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and
a voltmeter. The former enables him to determine from time to
time the density of the acid in the cells; instruments specially con-
structed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desir-
able that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter
should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable con-
nector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell.
A portable glow lamp should also be available, so that a full light
can be thrown into any cell a frosted bulb is rather better than a
;

clear one for this purpose. He must also have some form of wooden
scraper to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping must
be done gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the
ordinary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the
plates become detached. It is important that these should fall
below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore suffi-
cient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and
" "
the floor of the cell for these scalings to accumulate without
touching the plates. _
It is desirable that they be disturbed as little
as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the free space.
It sometimes happens that brass nuts or bolts, &c., are dropped
into a cell these should be removed at once, as their partial solu-
;

tion would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the
liquid must be kept above the top of the plates. Experience shows
the advisability of using distilled water for this purpose. It may
sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute
acid, but strong acid must never be added.
The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and disintegra-
tion. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge,
caused by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At
such times asymmetry in the cell is apt to make some part of the
plate take much more than its share of the current. That part then
expands unduiy, as explained later, and curvature is produced. The
only remedy is to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as
gently as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one
part falling on some other say, on the negative. In the next charg-
ing the scale is reduced to a projecting bit of lead, which grows still
further because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to
scrape off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a
white hard surface on the active material, is due to neglect or exces-
sive discharge. It often yields if a small
quantity of sulphate of soda
be added to the liquid in the cell. Disintegration is due to local
action, and there is no ultimate remedy. The end can be deferred
by care in working, and by avoiding strains and excessive discharge
as much as possible.
Accumulators in Repose. Accumulators contain only three
active substances spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy
lead peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric acid between

TABLE II.

'
Substance.
130 ACCUMULATOR
the first to show the importance of diffusion. About one half like o-i volt may be lost in the cells, by ordinary ohmic fall, so
the acid diffused out in 30 minutes, a good illustration of the that a voltage reading of 1-75 means an E.M.F. of a little over
slowness of this process. The rate of diffusion is much the same 1-8 volt, and a very weak density of the acid inside the pores.
for both positive and negative plates; but slower for discharged Guided by these figures, an engineer can determine what ought
plates than for charged ones. Discharge affects the rate of to be the permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working
diffusion on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate. conditions. Messrs W. E. Ayrton, C. G. Lamb, E. W. Smith
This is in accordance with the density values given in Table I. and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the working of a cell
For while lead .sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates, through varied conditions (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1890), and a
the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different; brief rtsumi of their results is given below.
100 volumes of lead form 290 volumes of sulphate (a threefold They began by charging and discharging between the limits of 2-4
and i -6 volts.
Fig. 13 shows a typical discharge curve. Noteworthy points
are:
(i) At the beginning and at the end there is a rapid fall in P.D.,
with an intermediate period of fairly uniform value. (2) When the

21

10 IS 20 25
Time in m/nuAjs
FIG. 11.

expansion), and 100 volumes of peroxide form 186 volumes

of

sulphate (a twofold expansion). The influence of diffusion on

the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A cell was
prepared with 20% acid. It also held a porous pot contain-
ing stronger acid, and into this the positive plate was suddenly
transferred from the general body of liquid. The E.M.F. rose
by diffusion of stronger acid into the pores. Curve I. in fig. 12
shows the rate of rise when the porous pot contained 34 % acid ;

curve II. was obtained with the stronger (58%) acid (Gladstone
and Hibbert, Phtt. Mag., 1890). Of these two curves the first
is more useful, because its conditions are nearer those which

occur in practice.
At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates
to be standing in 25% acid, while inside the pores the acid may
not exceed 8%or 10%. If the discharge be stopped, we have
conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the E.M.F. begins to rise.
In one minute it has gone up by about 0-08 volt, &c.
Charge and Discharge. The most important practical ques-
tions concerning an accumulator are: its maximum rate of

working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its efficiency;

and its length of life. Apart from mechanical injury all these
depend primarily on the
way the cell is made, and
then on the method of

charging and discharging.

For each type and size
of cell there is a normal
maximum discharging cur-
rent. Up to this limit any
current may be taken;
beyond it, the cell may
sufferif discharge be con-

FlG. 12.
tinued for any appreciable
time. The most important
point to is the voltage at which discharge shall
attend to
cease. The potential difference at terminals must not fall
below i -80 volt during discharge at ordinary rates (10
hours) or 1-75 to 1-70 volt for i or 2 hour rate. The reason
underlying the figures is simple. These voltages indicate that
the acid in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, and
that if the discharge continue the chemical action will change:
sulphate will not be formed in situ for want of acid. Any such
change in action is fatal to reversibility and therefore to life

and constancy in capacity. To illustrate: when at slow dis-

charge rates the voltage is 1-80 volt, the acid in the pores has
weakened to a mean value of about 2-5% (see fig. n),
which is quite consistent with some part of the interior being
practically pure water. With high discharge rates, something
 ACCUMULATOR
Further, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive action
will tend to force off the outer layers. It is evident that limitation
of P.O. to 1-8 volt ought to prevent these injuries, because it pre-
vents exhaustion of acid in the plugs.
Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by study of successive periods
of rest, the observations being taken between the limits of 2-4 and I -8
volts. Curves A and B show the state and capacity at the beginning.
After a 10 days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles

2-4
2.2

2.Q
1-8
132 ACCUMULATOR
are almost identical at end of discharge and beginning of charge, the
resistance falls from 0-0055 to 0-0033 ohm.
While a current flows through a cell, heat is produced at the rate
of CRXo-24 calories (water-gram-degree) per second. As a conse-
quence the temperature tends to rise. But the change of tempera-
ture actually observed is much greater during charge, and much less
during discharge, than the
foregoing expression would
suggest; and it is evident
*-2
that, besides the heat pro-
duced according to Joule's
law, there are other actions
s .
which warm the cell during
10
J3 charge and cool it during
discharge. Duncan and
Ij Wiegand (loc. cit.), who
first observed the thermal
changes, ascribe the chief
7 influence to the electro-
1
chemical addition of H 2 SO 4
$I to the liquid during charge
11
and its removal during dis-
i charge. Fig. 1 8 gives some
results obtained by Ayrton,
Lamb, &c. This elevation
PIG. 18. of temperature (due to
electrolytic strengthening
of acid and local action) is a measure of the energy lost in a cycle, and
ought to be minimized as much as possible.
Chemistry. The chemical theory adopted in the foregoing pages
is very simple. It declares that sulphate of lead is formed on both
plates during discharge, the chemical action being reversed in charg-
ing. The following equations express the experimental results.
Condition before discharge:
Liquid
[y.
H 2SO,
L n. I
 ACCUMULATOR 133
value is so small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of obser-
134 ACCURSIUS ACENAPHTHENE
have been incited to try alkaline liquids as electrolytes. Many indisposition, interrupted his public lectures, and shut himself
attempts have been made to construct accumulators in this way, up, tillwith the utmost expedition he had accomplished his
though with only moderate success. The Lalande-Chaperon, design. Accursius was greatly extolled by the lawyers of his
Desmazures, Waddell-Entz and Edison are the chief cells. own and the immediately succeeding age, and he was even called
T. A. Edison's cell has been most developed, and is intended for the idol of jurisconsults, but those of later times formed a much
traction work. He made the plates of very thin sheets of nickel- lower estimate of his merits. There can be no doubt that he
plated steel, in each of which 24 rectangular holes were stamped, disentangled the sense of many laws with much skill, but it is
leaving a mere framework of the metal. Shallow rectangular equally undeniable that his ignorance of history and antiquities
pockets of perforated nickel-steel were fitted in the holes and ofteji led him into absurdities, and was the cause of many defects
then burred over the framework by high pressures. The pockets in his explanations and commentaries. He died at Bologna in
contained the active material. On the positive plate this con- 1260. His eldest son Franciscus (1225-1293), who also filled
sisted of nickel peroxide mixed with flake graphite, and on the the chair of law at Bologna, was invited to Oxford by King
negative plate of finely divided iron mixed with graphite. Both Edward I., and in 1275 or 1276 read lectures on law in the
kinds of active material were prepared in a special way. The university.
graphite gives greater con- ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a
ductivity. The liquid was causa, a suit or trial at law), a legal term signifying the charging
a 20% solution of caustic of another with wrong-doing, criminal or otherwise. An accusa-
potash. During discharge tion which is made in a court of justice during legal proceedings
the iron was oxidized, isprivileged (see PRIVILEGE), though, should the accused have
and the nickel reduced to been maliciously prosecuted, he will have a right to bring an
a lower state of oxidation. action for malicious prosecution. An accusation made outside a
This change was reversed court of justice would, if the accusation were false, render the
during charge. Fig. 24 shows accuser liable to an action for defamation of character, while,
the general features. if the accusation be committed to writing, the writer of it is

The chief results obtained liable to indictment, whether the accusation be made only to

by European experts showed the party accused or to a third.person. A threat or conspiracy

that the E.M.F. was 1-33 to accuse another of a crime or of misconduct which does not
with a transient higher
volt, amount to a crime for the purpose of extortion is in itself
value following charge. A indictable.
cell weighing 17-8 Ib had ACCUSATIVE casus, a translation of
(Lat. accusalivus, sc.
FIG. 24.-Ed.son Accumulator.
a resistance of
and an output at 60 amperes of 210 watt-hours, or at
^^ohnl; the Gr. amem/ci) the case concerned with cause and
irrSxris,
effect, from curio, a cause), in grammar, a case of the noun,
1 20 amperes of 177 watt-hours. Another and improved cell denoting primarily the object of verbal action or the destination
weighing 12-7 ft gave 14-6 watt-hours per. pound of cell of motion.
at a 2O-ampere rate, and 13-5 watt-hours per pound at a 60- ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form
of the Gr. els), the number one at dice, or the single point
ampere rate. The cell could be charged and discharged at
almost any rate. A full charge could be given in i hour, and on a die or card; also a point in the score of racquets, lawn-
it would stand a discharge rate of 200 amperes (Journ. Inst. tennis, tennis and other court games.
Elec. Eng., 1904, pp. 1-36). ACELDAMA (according to Acts i. 19, " the field of blood "),
the name given to the field purchased by Judas Iscariot with the
Subsequently Edison found some degree of falling-off in capa-
city, due to an enlargement of the positive pockets by pressure money he received for the betrayal of Jesus Christ. A different
of gas. Most of the faults have been overcome by altering the version is given in Matthew xxvii. 8, where Judas is said to have
form of the pocket and replacing the graphite by a metallic cast down the money in the Temple, and the priests who had paid
"
conductor in the form of flakes. it to have recovered the pieces, with which they bought the
REFERENCES. G. Plant6, Recherches sur I'Slectricite (Paris, 1879); potter's field, to bury strangers in." The MS. evidence is greatly
Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of Secondary Batteries (London, in favour of a form Aceldamach. This would seem to mean
"
1884); Reynier, L' Accumulateur voltaique (Paris, 1888); Heirn, the field of thy blood," which is unsuitable. Since, however,
Die Akkumulatoren (Berlin, 1889); Hoppe, Die Akk. fiir Elektricitat
we find elsewhere one name appearing as both Sirach and Sira
(Berlin, 1892); Schoop, Handbuch fiir Akk. (Stuttgart, 1898); Sir
E. Frankland,
"
Chemistry of Storage Batteries," Proc. Roy. Soc., (ch = ), Aceldamach may be another form of an original
1883; Reynier, Jour. Soc. Franc, de Phys., 1884.; Heim, "tX d. Aceldama (tayi S^ti), the " field of blood." A. Klostermann,
Einfluss der Sauredichte auf die Kapazitat der Akk.," Elek. Zeits.,
" however, takes the ch to be part of the Aramaic root demach,
1889; Kohlrausch and Heim, Ergebnisse von Versuchen an Akk. "
to sleep "; the word would then mean
"
field of sleep
"
or
fur Stationsbetrieb," Elek. Zeits., 1889; Darrieus, Bull. Soc. In-
tern, des Elect., 1892; F. Dolezalek, The Theory of the Lead Accumu- cemetery (Probleme im Aposteltexte, 1-8, 1883), an explanation
lator (London, 1906); Sir D. Salomons, Management of Accumulators which fits in well with the account in Matthew xxvii. The
(London, 1906); E. J. Wade, Secondary Batteries (London, 1001); traditional site (now Hak el-Dum), S. of Jerusalem on the N.E.
L. Jumau, Les Accumulateurs electriques (Paris, 1904). (W. Hr.)
slope of the "Hill of Evil Counsel" (Jebel Deir Abu Tor), was
ACCURSIUS (Ilal. ACCORSO) FRANCISCUS (i 182-1 260)
, ,
Italian used as a burial-place for Christian pilgrims from the 6th
jurist, was born at Florence about 1182. A pupil of Azo, century A.D. till as late, apparently, as 1697, and especially in the
he first practised law in his native city, and was afterwards time of the Crusades. Near it there is a very ancient charnel-
appointed professor at Bologna, where he had great success as house, partly rock-cut, partly of masonry, said to be the work of
a teacher. He undertook the great work of arranging into Crusaders. . ".

one body the almost innumerable comments and remarks upon ACENAPHTHENE, Ci 2 Hio, a hydrocarbon isolated from the
the Code, the Institutes -and Digests, the confused dispersion fraction of coal-tar boiling at 26o-27O by M. P. E. Berthelot,
of which among the works of different writers caused much who, in conjunction with Bardy, afterwards synthesized it from
obscurity and contradiction. This compilation, bearing the title a-ethyl naphthalene (Ann. Chem. Phys., 1873, vol. xxix.). It
Glossa ordinaria or magistrates, but usually known as the Great forms white needles (from alcohol), melts at 95 and boils at
Gloss, though written in barbarous Latin, has more method 278. Oxidation gives naphthalic acid (1-8 naphthalene
than that of any preceding writer on the subject. The best dicarboxylic acid).
edition of it is that f Denis Godefroi (1549-1621), published at Acenaphthalene, CM Hg, a hydrocarbon crystallizing in yellow
Lyons in 1589, in 6 vols. folio. When Accursius was employed tables and obtained by passing the vapour of acenaphthene
in this work, it is said that, hearing of a similar one proposed over heated litharge. Sodium amalgam reduces it to acenaph-
and begun by Odofred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned thene chromic acid oxidizes it to naphthalic acid.
;
 ACEPHALI ACETO-ACETIC ESTER
ACEPHALI (from &-, privative, and Kf<f>a\ri, head), a term | many plants, and as the esters of n-hexyl and n-octyl alcohols
applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in in the seeds of Heracleum giganteum, and in the fruit of Hera-
cleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, on the large scale,
particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself,
in the end of the sth century, from the rule of the patriarch of from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the destructive
" without
Alexandria (Peter Mongus), and remained king or distillation of wood. In the former process it is obtained in the
" were reconciled Mark 1
The form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which also the colouring
bishop till they by I. (799-Sig).
term is also used to denote clerici iiagrantes, i.e. clergy without matters of the wine, salts, &c., are dissolved; and this impure
title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow (cf. Hinschius i. acetic acid is what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic
p. 64). Certain persons in England during the reign of King acid (in the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who
Henry I. were called Acephali because they had no lands by obtained it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood-
tue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The vinegar was discovered in the middle ages. Towards the close
name is also given to certain legendary races described by of the i Sth century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary
ancient naturalists and geographers as having no heads, their to the formation of vinegar from alcohol. In 1830 J. B. A.
mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified Dumas converted acetic acid into trichloracetic acid, and in
with Pliny's Blemmyae. 1842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative into the original
ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically, acetic acid by reduction with sodium amalgam. The synthesis
leaderless. The word is used literally in biology; and meta- of trichloracetic acid from its elements was accomplished in
phorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence with 1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken in conjunction with Melsens's
a beginning wanting. In zoology, the mollusca are divided into observation provided the first synthesis of acetic acid. An-
cephalous and acephalous (Acephala), according as they have hydrous acetic acid glacial acetic acid is a leafy crystalline
or have not an organized part of their anatomy as the seat of the mass melting at 16-7C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent
brain and special senses. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata smell. 118, giving a vapour of abnormal specific
It boils at

(q.v.), are commonly known as bivalve shell-fish. In botany gravity. It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first
the word is used for ovaries not terminating in a stigma. a contraction and afterwards an increase in volume. It is
Acephalocyst is the name given by R. T. H. Laennec to the detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric acid,
hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm. which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized
ACERENZA (anc. Acerunlia), a town of the province of by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide,
Potenza, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 155 m. N.E. of the which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide. It is a
station of Pietragalla, which is 9 m. N.W. of Potenza by rail, monobasic acid, forming one normal and two acid potassium
2730 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4499. Its situation is salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper.
one of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal lead
south. It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of the acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.); basic

Republic, and its importance as a fortress was specially ap- copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.).
preciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th cen- Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Glacial acetic acid is occa-
turies. It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of which sionally used as a caustic for corns. The dilute acid, or vinegar,
is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate. may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting as a pleasant
ACEROSE (from Lat. acus, needle, or acer, sharp), needle- refrigerant. Acetic acid has no valuable properties for internal
shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as descriptive of administration. Vinegar, however, which contains about 5 %
the leaves, e.g., of pines. From Lat. acus, chaff, comes also the acetic acid, is frequently taken as a cure for obesity, but there
" is no warrant for this application.
distinct meaning of mixed with chaff." Its continued employment
ACERRA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the may, indeed, so injure the mucous membrane of the stomach
province of Caserta, 9 m. N.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1901) as to interfere with digestion and so cause a morbid and
16,443. The town lies on the right bank of the Agno, which dangerous reduction in weight.
divides the province of Naples from that of Caserta, 90 ft. above The acetates constitute a valuable group of medicinal agents,
the sea, in a fertile but somewhat marshy district, which in the the potassium salt being most frequently employed. After
middle ages was very malarious. The ancient name (Acerrae) absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to car-
was also borne by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia bonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are administered
Transpadana (the latter now Pizzighettone on the Adda, 13 m. whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity of the blood
W.N.W. of Cremona). It became a city with Latin rights in or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without exerting the dis-
332 B.C. and later a municipium. It was destroyed by Hannibal turbing influence of alkalies upon the digestive tract. The
in 216 B.C., but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be substituted.
Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully held They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive.
against the insurgents. It received a colony under Augustus, but H
ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, C6 10 O3 or CH3-CO-CH 2 -COOC 2 6 a H ,

appears to have suffered much from floods of the river Clanis. chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who
Under the Empire we hear no more of it, and no traces of showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl
antiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain. acetate was a sodium compound of composition CeHgOjNa,
ACERRA, in Roman
antiquity, a small box or pot for holding which on treatment with acids gave a colourless, somewhat oily
incense, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or censer in liquid of composition CeHioOs. E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa in
which incense was burned. The name was also given by the 1865 examined the reaction and concluded that Geuther's sodium
Romans to a little altar placed near the dead, on which incense salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester of acetone carboxylic
was offered every day till the burial. In ecclesiastical Latin the acid and possessed the constitution CH 3 CO-CHNa-COOC 2 Hj.

term acerra is still applied to the incense boats used in the This view was not accepted by Geuther, who looked upon
Roman ritual. his compound CeHioOs as being an acid. J. Wislicenus also
ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient investigated the reaction very thoroughly and accepted the
ioman vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about half a Frankland-Duppa formula (Annalen, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877,
11) ; it is also a word used technically in zoology, by analogy 190, p. 257).
or certain cup-shaped parts, the suckers of a mollusc, the
e.g. The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over
'
cket of the thigh-bone, &c. ;
and in botany for the receptacle calcium chloride and treating it with sodium wire, which is
Fungi. best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and is then
ACETIC ACID (acidum aceticum), CH
3 -C0 2 H, one of the most heated on a water bath for some hours, until the sodium all
aportant organic acids. It occurs naturally in the juice of dissolves. After the reaction is completed, the liquid is
1
See Gibbon, ch. xlvii. (vol. v. p. 129 in Bury's ed.). acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:5) and then shaken
136 ACETONE ACETOPHENONE
with salt solution, separated from the salt solution, washed, Crude acetone may be purified by converting it into the crystal-
dried and fractionated. The portion boiling between 175 and sodium bisulphite compound, which is separated by filtration
line

i8sC. is redistilled. The yield amounts to about of that 30% and then distilled with sodium carbonate.
required by theory. OH CH \ 3

v!ix< +Na C0 =2 ,/
2 o+2Na S0 +C0 +H
3 2 3 2 0.
A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl
2
c

acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce It is then dehydrated and redistilled.
aceto-acetic ester. L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted,
Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite (q.v.).
studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that if For this purpose the crude distillate is redistilled over sulphuric
sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above re- acid and then fractionated.
action the same result is obtained. He explains the reactions Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, boiling
thus- /O /ONa at 56- 53C.,and-has a specific gravity o-8i9(o/4C.). It is readily
-C(f OC 2 H 6
CHs-C \nr H +NaOC2 H 6 =CH 3 ,
)C Hs soluble in water, alcohol, ether, &c. In addition to its applica-
\OC H 2 6
tion in the cordite industry, it is used in the manufacture of
this reaction being followed by chloroform (q.v.) and sulphonal, and as a solvent. It forms a
/ONa IT
hydrazone with phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxyl-
CH3-CCK>C H 6 + ">CH-COOC 2 H5 = 2C2 H OH+
2 5
X OC2 H S CH 8 -C(ONa):CH-COOC2 H 6 ;
amine. Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into iso-
and on acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic ester. propyl alcohol; oxidation by chromic acid gives carbon dioxide
Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at i8iC.; it and acetic acid. With ammonia it reacts to form di- and tri-
acetoneamines. It also unites directly with hydrocyanic acid
is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled undergoes
some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid CsHgQi. It to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric acid.

undoubtedly contains a keto-group, for it reacts with hydro- By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash,
cyanic acid, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine and ammonia; hydrochloric acid, &c., acetone is converted into condensation
sodium bisulphite also combines with it to form a crystalline products, mesityl oxide 6 H 10 O, phorone C 9 H 14 O, &c., being
C
compound, hence it contains the grouping CH 3 -CO-. J. Wis- formed. On with sulphuric acid, it is converted
distillation

licenus found that only one hydrogen atom in the -CH 2 - group into mesitylene CgH^symmetrical trimethyl benzene). Acetone
is directly replaceable by sodium, and that if the sodium be has also been used in the artificial production of indigo. In
then replaced by an alkyl group, the second hydrogen atom the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives iodoform. Acetone
in the group can be replaced in the same manner. These alkyl has been employed medicinally in cases of dyspnoea. With
substitution products are important, for they lead to the syn- potassium iodide, glycerin and water, it forms the preparation
thesis of many organic compounds, on account of the fact spirone, which has been used as a spray inhalation in paroxysmal
that they can be hydrolysed in two different ways, barium sneezing and asthma.
hydroxide or dilute sodium hydroxide solution giving the so- ACETOPHENONE, or PHENYL-METHYL KETONE, C8 H8 O or
called ketone hydrolysis, whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide C 6 H CO-CH
6 3, in chemistry, the simplest representative of the
class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones. It can be prepared
gives the acid hydrolysis.
Ketone hydrolysis; by distilling a mixture of dry calcium benzoate and acetate,
CH 3 -CO-C(XY)-C02 C2 H 6 ^CH -CO-CH(XY)+C H OH+CO
3 2 6 2 ;
Ca(O2CC6H 5 ) 2 -KCH3CO2 )2Ca = 2CaCO,+2C,H6 CO-CHj or by l

Acid hydrolysis: condensing benzene with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhy-
drous aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts), C 6 H 6 +
CH -CO-C(XY)-C02C 2 H 6 ->CH 3 -CO2 H+C 2 H 6 OH+CH(XY)-COOH;
CH,COCl = Ha+CeHl COCHj.
3
It crystallizes in colourless
(where X and Y = alkyl groups). plates melting at2oC. and boiling at 2O2C.; it is insoluble in
Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Aceto-
water, but readily dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents.
acetic ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been
It is reduced by nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol
used in the production of pyridines (q.v.), quinolines (q.v.}, C6 H5-CH-OH-CH3 phenyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation
pyrazolones, furfurane (q.v.), pyrrols (q.v.), uric acid (q.v.), and forms benzoic acid. On the addition of phenylhydrazine it
many complex acids and ketones. and with hydroxylamine furnishes an
gives a phenylhydrazone,
For a discussion as to the composition, and whether it is to
" " oxime melting at S9C. This oxime under-
be regarded as possessing the keto form CH 3 -COCH 2 -COOC 2 H 6 ^jj'>C-N-OH
or the "enol" form CH,-C(OH) CH-COOC 2 H 6l see ISOMERISM, and
goes a peculiar rearrangement when it is dissolved in ether and
:

also papers by J. Wislicenus (Ann., 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, IQO, p.

257), A. Michael (Journ. Prak. Chent., 1887, [2] 37, p. 473), L. Knorr
phosphorus pentachloride is added to the ethereal solution,
(Ann., 1886, 238, p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of Chem. Soc., the excess of ether distilled off and water added to the residue
1892, 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1891, 266, p. 70; 1892, 270, being converted into the isomeric substance acetanilide,
PP- 289, 333; 1893, 276, p. 212). CeHsNHCOCHs, a behaviour shown by many ketoximes and
ACETONE, or DIMETHYL KETONE, CH
3 -CO-CHs, in chemistry, known as the Beckmann change (see Berichte, 1886, 19, p. 988).
the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones. It is present With sodium ethylate in ethyl acetate solution it forms the
in very small quantity in normal urine, in the blood, and in sodium derivative of benzoyl acetone, from which benzoyl
larger quantities in diabetic patients. It is found among the acetone, CsHs-CO-CHrCO-CH^ can be obtained by acidification
products formed in the destructive distillation of wood, sugar, with acetic acid. When heated with the halogens, acetophenone is
cellulose, &c., and for this reason it is always present in crude substituted in the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine
wood spirit, from which the greater portion of it may be re- gives phenacyl bromide, CeHsCO-CHjBr. Numerous derivatives
covered by fractional distillation. On the large scale it is pre- of acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most import-
pared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate (CH( CO2)2Ca = ant being orthoaminoacetophenone, NH
2 -C6H 4 -CO-CH 3 which is ,

CaCO3 3 COCH 3
+CH E. R. Squibb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.,
. obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic acid with water.
1895, 17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic It is a thick yellowish oil boiling between 242 C. and 250 C.
acid through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture of It condenses with acetone in the presence of caustic soda to
pumice and precipitated barium carbonate, and kept at a aquinoline. Acetonyl-acelophenone, CeHs-CO-CHz-CHrCO-CHs,
temperature of from 500 C. to 600 C. The mixed vapours of isproduced by condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium aceto-
acetone, acetic acid and water are then led through a condensing acetate with subsequent elimination of carbon dioxide, and on
apparatus so that the acetic acid and water are first condensed, dehydration gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane. Oxazoles (q.v.)
and then the acetone is condensed in a second vessel. The are produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with acid-amides
barium carbonate used in the process acts as a contact substance, (M. Lewy, Berichte, 1887, 20, p. 2578). K. L. Paal has also ob-
since the temperature at which the operation is carried out tained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto-
is always above the decomposition point of barium acetate. acetic-ester with substances of the type 2 R. NH
 ACETYLENE 137
ACETYLENE, klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of 100 Volumes of Volumes of Acetylene,
H Brine absorb 5
carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula C 2 2 .It is
Water no
a colourless gas, having a density of 0-02. When Alcohol 600
n P re P are d by the action of water upon calcium carbide, Paraffin 150
it has a very strong and penetrating odour, but when Carbon disulphide 100
Fusel oil 100
it is thoroughly purified from sulphuretted and phosphuretted
Benzene 400
hydrogen, which are invariably present with it in minute traces, Chloroform 400
this extremely pungent odour disappears, and the pure gas has Acetic acid 600
a not unpleasant ethereal smell. It can be condensed into the Acetone 2500
liquid state by cold or by pressure, and experiments by G. from this table that where it is desired to collect
It will be seen
Ansdell show that if the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21-53 and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. water saturated
atmospheres at a temperature of o C., it is converted into the with salt, isthe best for the purpose, but in practice it is found
liquid state, the pressure needed increasing with the rise of that, unless is agitated with acetylene, or the gas bubbled
water
temperature, and decreasing with the lowering of the tempera- through, the top layer soon gets saturated, and the gas then
ture, until at 82 C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmo- dissolves but slowly. The great solubility of acetylene in acetone
spheric pressure. The critical point of the gas is 37 C., at which was pointed out by G. Claude and A. Hess, who showed that
temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for lique- acetone will absorb twenty-five times its own volume of acety-
faction. The properties of liquid and solid acetylene have been lene at a temperature of 15 C. under atmospheric pressure,
investigated by D. Mclntosh (Jour. Chem. Soe., Abs., 1907, i. and that, providing the temperature is kept constant, the liquid
458). A great future was expected from its use in the liquid acetone will go on absorbing acetylene at the rate of twenty-
state, since a cylinder fitted with the necessary reducing valves five times its own volume for every atmosphere of pressure to
would supply the gas to light a house for a considerable period, which the gas is subjected.
the liquid occupying about -j-J^ the volume of the gas, but in the At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with all
United States and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene under
acetylene was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents pressure, but it was soon found that there were serious diffi-
occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained con- culties still to be overcome. The chief trouble was that acetone
ditions. As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot and expands a small percentage of its own volume while it is absorb-
L. J. G. Vieille made a series of valuable researches upon the ing acetylene therefore it is impossible to fill a cylinder with
;

explosion of acetylene under various conditions. They found acetone and then force in acetylene, and still more impracticable
that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be heated at one point only partly to fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the
by a platinum wire raised to a red heat, the whole mass decom- space above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high
poses and gives rise to such tremendous pressures that no cylinder pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder
would be able to withstand them. These pressures varied from containing compressed acetylene only. This difficulty was
71,000 to 100,000 Ib. per square inch. They, moreover, tried the overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous briquettes
effect of shock upon the liquid, and found that the repeated and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of acetone, so
dropping of the cylinder from a height of nearly 20 feet upon a that after allowing for the space taken up by the bricks the
large steel anvil.gave no explosion, but that when the cylinder quantity of acetone soaked into the brick will absorb ten times
was crushed under a heavy blow the impact was followed, after the normal volume of the cylinder in acetylene for every atmo-
a short interval of time, by an explosion which was manifestly sphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected, whilst all danger
due to the fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escap- of explosion is eliminated.
ing gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved
the metal. A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and conse-
in the same way
of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high quently upon this exemption a large business has grown up in
pressure. Continuing these experiments, they found that in the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting
acetylene gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses,
brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the buoys, yachts, &c., for which it is particularly adapted.
firing in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond the Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous
point at which the decomposition started, while if the acetylene gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having
was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 Ib on the square apparently shown that it acts upon the blood in the
inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the mass and same way as carbon monoxide to form a stable com-
became in reality detonation. These results showed clearly that pound. Very extensive experiments, however, made by
liquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for general introduction Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. Crismer, and others, all con-,
for domestic purposes, since, although the occasions would be clusively show that acetylene is much less toxic than carbon
rare inwhich the requisite temperature to bring about detonation monoxide, and indeed than coal gas.
would be reached, still, if this point were attained, the results When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale
would be of a most disastrous character. The fact that several grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being repre-
accidents had already happened accentuated the risk, and in sented that it had the power of combining with
Great Britain the storage and use of liquefied acetylene are certain metals, more especially copper and silver, to
prohibited. form acetylides of a highly explosive character, and
When liquefied acetylene is allowedto escape from the cylinder that even with coal gas, which contains less than i%, such
in which itcontained into ordinary atmospheric pressure,
is copper compounds had been known to be formed in cases where
some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such the gas-distributing mains were composed of copper, and
rapidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature of that accidents had happened from this cause. It was there-
90 C., and convert it into a solid snow-like mass. fore predicted that the introduction of acetylene on a large scale
Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal tem- would be followed by numerous accidents unless copper and
perature and pressure takes up a little more than its own volume its alloys were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas.
of the gas, and yields a solution giving a purple-red These fears have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded,
Solubility
p rec ipit a te with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and and ordinary gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with
acetylene. a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipi- this gas.
tates consisting of acetylides of the metals. The Acetylene has the property of inflaming spontaneously when
solubility of the gas in various liquids, as given by different brought in contact with chlorine. If a few pieces of carbide be
observers, is dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of gas take
138 ACETYLENE
fireas they reach the surface, and if a jet of acetylene be passed amount. Mixed with air, like
gas, and, light for light, less in
up into a bottle of chlorine it takes fire and burns with a heavy every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive
red flame, depositing its carbon in the form of soot. If chlorine mixture. F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of ex-
be bubbled up into a jar of acetylene standing over water, plosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the other
a violent explosion, attended with a flash of intense light and combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as follows:
the deposition of carbon, at once takes place. When the gas is Acetylene . .
3 to 82
kept in a small glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the sur- Hydrogen .
51072
face of the glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has Carbon monoxide 13 to 75
shown that when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it Ethylene .
4 to 22
Methane .
5 to 13
undergoes certain polymerization changes which lead to the
deposition of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the The methods which can be and have been employed from time
tube. It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later by to time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are
P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence of water exceedingly numerous. Before the commercial pro-
at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed.
Acetylene is duction of calcium carbide made it one of the most
The poly- readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under its easily obtainable gases, the processes which were most auction.
merization influence to form an enormous number of organic largely adopted for its preparation in laboratories
ot were: first, the decomposition of ethylene bromide by dropping
compounds; indeed the gas, which can itself be directly
acetylene.
p re p are(j f rom j ts constituents, carbon and hydrogen, it slowly into a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying

under the influence of the electric arc, can be made the starting- the evolved gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it
point for the construction of an enormous number of different through a second flask containing a boiling solution of alcoholic
organic compounds of a complex character. In contact with potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime;
nascent hydrogen it builds up ethylene; ethylene acted upon by and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing the
sulphuric acid yields ethyl sulphuric acid; this can again be products of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, the
decomposed in the presence of water to yield alcohol, and it flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal solution
has also been proposed to manufacture sugar from this body. of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide was produced.
Picric acid can also be obtained from it by first treating acety- This on being washed and decomposed with hydrochloric acid
lene with sulphuric acid, converting the product into phenol by yielded a stream of acetylene gas. This second method of pro-
solution in potash and then treating the phenol with fuming duction has the great drawback that, unless proper precautions
nitric acid. are taken to purify the gas obtained from the copper acetylide,
Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is it is always contaminated with certain chlorine derivatives of

attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this reason acetylene. Edmund Davy first made acetylene in 1836 from a
" "
Endo- termed an endo thermic compound, in contradis- compound produced during the manufacture of potassium from
thermic tinction to those bodies which evolve heat in their potassium tartrate and charcoal, which under certain conditions
nature of "
formation, and which are called exothermic." Such yielded a black compound decomposed by water with consider-
acetylene.
en(j o th erm i c bodies are nearly always found to show con- able violence and the evolution of acetylene. This compound
siderable violence in their decomposition, as the heat of formation was afterwards fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed
stored up within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it is it to be potassium carbide. He also made the corresponding
undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its easy sodium compound and showed that it evolved the same gas,
detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion of ful- whilst in 1862 F. Wohler first made calcium carbide, and found
minating mercury when in contact with it under pressure. The that water decomposed it into lime and acetylene. It was not,
observation that acetylene can be resolved into its constituents however, until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was
by detonation is due to Berthelot, who started an explosive made by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France
wave in it by firing a charge of o-i gram of mercury fulminate. that if lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of
It has since been shown, however, that unless the gas is at a the electric furnace, the lime is reduced to calcium, which unites
pressure of more than two atmospheres this wave soon dies out, with the excess of carbon present to form calcium carbide.
and the decomposition is only propagated a few inches from the The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation
detonator. Heated in contact with air to a temperature of by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of com-
480 C., acetylene ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance mercial importance. In the manufacture of calcium carbide
of which varies with the way in which it is brought in contact in the electric furnace, lime and anthracite of the Maauhc-
with the air. With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting highest possible degree of purity are employed. A hire of
dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out in a good working mixture of these materials may be taken "'^^
sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of intense brilliancy as being 100 parts by weight of lime with 68 parts
and almost perfect whiteness, by the light of which colours can by weight of carbonaceous material. About 1-8 ft of this is
be judged as well as they can by daylight. Having its ignition used up for each pound of carbide produced. The two principal
point below that of ordinary gas, it can be ignited by any red- processes utilized in making calcium carbide by electrical
hot carbonaceous matter, such as the brightly glowing end of a power are the ingot process and the tapping process. In
cigar. For its complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs the former, the anthracite and lime are ground and carefully
approximately twelve volumes of air, forming as products of mixed in the right proportions to suit the chemical actions
combustion carbon dioxide and water vapour. When, however, involved. The arc is struck in a crucible into which the mixture
the air is present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incom- isallowed to flow, partially filling it. An ingot gradually builds
plete, and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen up from the bottom of the crucible, the carbon electrode being
and water vapour are produced. This is well shown by taking a raised from time to time automatically or by hand to suit the
cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on apply- diminution of resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the
ing a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the cylinder rising ingot. The crucible is of metal and considerably larger
and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also being thickly than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of un-
coated with it, and often containing a ball of carbon. If now, reduced material which protects the crucible from the intense
after a few moments' interval to allow some air to diffuse into heat. When the ingot has been made and the crucible is full,
the cylinder, a taper again be applied, an explosion takes place, the latter is withdrawn and another substituted. The process
due to a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. It is probable is not continuous, but a change of crucibles only takes two or

that when a flame is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon three minutes under the best conditions, and only occurs every
monoxide are being produced, but when an acetylene flame ten or fifteen hours. The essence of this process is that the coke
burns properly the products are as harmless as those of coal and lime are only heated to the point of combination, and are not
 ACETYLENE
" boiled " after silicon in the carbide. The ammonia found in the acetylene is
being formed. It is found that the ingot of
calcium carbide formed in the furnace, although itself consisting probably partly due to the presence of magnesium nitride in
of pure crystalline calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded the carbide.
by a crust which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action
converted constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity
acetylene than the carbide itself. In breaking up and sending formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which
out the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums, the carbide is decomposed. The formation of nitrides and
the crust is removed by a sand blast. A statement of the amount cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion
made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a certain into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen of the
amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this process. For atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial purposes.
instance, in practical working it has been found that a furnace Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present in com-
return of 0-504 Ib per kilowatt hour is brought down to 0-406 mercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of aluminium
Ib per kilowatt hour when the material has been broken up, sulphide. A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium sulphide, zinc
sorted and packed in air-tight drums. In the tapping process a sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only sulphur compounds
fixed crucible is used, lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly which can resist the heat of the electric furnace without decom-
as big as the crucible and a much higher current density is used. position or volatilization, and of these aluminium sulphide is
The carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at the only one which is decomposed by water with the evolu-
short intervals. There is no unreduced material, and the process tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the early samples of carbide
isconsiderably simplified, while less expensive plant is required. this compound used to be present in considerable quantity, but
The run carbide, however, is never so rich as the ingot carbide, now rarely more than -fa %
is to be found. Phosphuretted
since an excess of lime is nearly always used in the mixture to hydrogen, one of the most important impurities, which has been
act as a flux, and this remaining in the carbide lowers its gas- blamed for the haze formed by the combustion of acetylene
yielding power. Many attempts have-been made to produce the under certain conditions, is produced by the action of water upon
substance without electricity, but have met with no commercial traces of calcium phosphide found in carbide. Although at first
success. it was no uncommon thing to find 5 %
of phosphuretted
Calcium carbide, as formed in the electric furnace, is a beauti- hydrogen present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced
ful crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density of 2-22, and by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely above
showing a fracture which is often shot with iridescent 0-1 5 %> ar>d it is often not one-fifth of that amount.
colours- II can ^ e kept unaltered in dry air, but the In the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and
carbide. smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads to water, all that has to be done is to bring these two aeaen-
the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and compounds into contact, when they mutually react tionot
gives it a distinctive odour. It is infusible at temperatures up to upon each other with the formation of lime and acety- acetylene
2000 C., but can be fused in the electric arc. When heated to lene, while, if there be sufficient water present, the lime
a temperature of 245 C. in a stream of chlorine gas it becomes combines with it to form calcium hydrate.

incandescent, forming calcium chloride and liberating carbon,

Calcium carbide. Water. Acetylene. Lime.
and it can also be made to burn in oxygen at a dull red heat,
CaC 2 + H 2
= CH2 2 + CaO
leaving behind a residue of calcium carbonate. Under the same
Lime. Water. Calcium hydrate.
conditions it becomes incandescent in the vapour of sulphur, =
CaO + HO 2 Ca(HO) 2
yielding calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide; the vapour of
phosphorus will also unite with it Acted upon by
at a red heat. The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought
water it is at once decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with an
hydrate. Pure crystalline calcium carbide yields 5-8 cubic feet excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an excess of
of acetylene per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide water, and these two main operations again may be varied by
as sold commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity of the
material with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds contact may be modified or even eventually stopped. The result
the ingot, yields at the best 5 cubic feet of gas per pound under is that although the forms of apparatus utilized for this purpose

proper conditions of generation. The volume of gas obtained, are all based on the one fundamental principle of bringing about
however, depends very largely upon the form of apparatus used, the contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter into
and while some will give the full volume, other apparatus will double decomposition with it, they have been multiplied in
only yield, with the same carbide, 3! feet. The purity of the number to a very large extent by the methods employed in order
carbide entirely depends on the purity of the material used in to ensure control in working, and to get away from the dangers
its manufacture, and before this fact had been fully grasped by and inconveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid
manufacturers, and only the purest material obtainable em- generation.
ployed, it contained notable quantities of compounds which In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authori-
during its decomposition by water yielded a somewhat high pro- ties have divided them into as many as six different
Genera-
ort i n of impurities in the acetylene generated from classes, but this is hardly necessary, as they may be
impurities P tors.
it. Although at the present time a marvellous im- divided into two main classes first, those in which
provement has taken place all round in the quality of the water is brought in contact with the carbide, the carbide being in
carbide produced, the acetylene nearly always contains minute excess during the first portion of the operation; and, second, those
traces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phos- in which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water
phuretted hydrogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and oxygen, and present being always in excess. The first class may again be
sometimes minute traces of carbon monoxide and dioxide. The subdivided into generators in which the water rises in contact
formation of hydrogen is caused by small traces of metallic with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, and in which
calcium occasionally found free in the carbide, and cases have a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water and again with-
been known where this was present in such quantities that the drawn as generation becomes excessive. Some of these generators
evolved gas contained nearly 20 %
of hydrogen. This takes are constructed to make the gas only as fast as it is consumed
place when in the manufacture of the carbide the material is at the burner, with the object of saving the expense and room
kept too long in contact with the arc, since this overheating which would be involved by a storage-holder. Generators with
causes the dissociation of some of the calcium carbide and the devices for regulating and stopping at will the action going on
"
solution of metallic calcium in the remainder. The presence are generally termed automatic." Another set merely aims at
of free
hydrogen is nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride the gas from the carbide and putting it into a storage-
developing
formed by the combination of the nascent hydrogen with the holder with as little loss as possible, and these are termed
 140 ACHAEA
"non-automatic." The points to be attained in a good per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have
generator are : been obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value under
1. Low temperature of generation. these conditions. When acetylene was first introduced as a
2.
Complete decomposition of the carbide. commercial illuminant in England, very small union jet nipples
3. Maximum evolution of the gas. were utilized for its consumption, but after burning
4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus.
5. Ease charging and removal of residues.
in for a short time these nipples began to carbonize,
6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of the flame being distorted, and then smoking occurred with the
the gas. formation of a heavy deposit of soot. While these troubles
When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat is were being experienced in England, attempts had been made in
evolved; indeed, the action develops about one- twentieth of America to use acetylene diluted with a certain proportion of
the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon. As, however, air which permitted it to be burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples;
the temperature developed is a function of the time needed to but the danger of such admixture being recognized, nipples of
complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies with the same class as those used in England were employed, and the
every form of generator, and while the water in one form may same troubles ensued. In France, single jets made of glass
never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another may become were first employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot
red-hot and give a temperature of over 800 C. Heating in a and others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming
generator is not only a source of danger, but also lessens the from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged and
yield of gas and deteriorates its quality. The best forms of splayed each other out into a butterfly flame. Soon afterwards,
generator are either those in which water rises slowly in contact J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking air into the flame
with the carbide, or the second main division in which the car- at or just below the burner tip, and at this juncture the Naphey
bide falls into excess of water. or Dolan burner was introduced in America, the principle em-
It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large scale as ployed being to use two small and widely separated jets instead
a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes of purifica- of the two openings of the union jet burner, and to make each
tion as will render it harmless and innocuous to health a minute bunsen, the acetylene dragging in from the base of
an d P r P ert y an d the sooner it is recognized as ab-
>
the nipple enough air to surround and protect it while burning
solutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming from contact with the steatite. This class of burner forms a
it the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves. basis on which all the later constructions of burner have been
The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty in founded, but had the drawback that if the flame was turned
removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen. There are three sub- low, insufficient air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips
stances which can be relied on more or less to remove this com- was drawn in, owing to the reduced flow of gas. This fault has
pound, and the gas to be purified may be passed either through now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner tip,
acid copper salts, through bleaching powder or through chromic which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition.
acid. In experiments with these various bodies it is found When acetylene wasfirst introduced on a commercial scale

that they are all of them effective in also ridding the acetylene attempts were made to utilize its great heat of combustion by
of the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, provided only that using it in conjunction with oxygen in the oxy- ~
the surface area presented to the gas is sufficiently large. The hydrogen blowpipe. It was found, however, that when t leae ^^
method of washing the gas with acid solutions of copper has using acetylene under low pressures, the burner tip blowpipe.
been patented by A. Frank of Charlottenburg, who finds that a became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some
concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in an acid, the liquid of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by the

being made into a paste with kieselguhr, is the most effective. carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the use of
Where the production of acetylene is going on on a small scale acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred inches of
this method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient water was prohibited, no advance was made in this direction.
one, as the acid present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper The introduction of acetylene dissolved under pressure in
salt converts the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen acetone contained in cylinders filled with porous material drew
into phosphates and sulphides. The vessel, however, which attention again to this use of the gas, and by using a special
contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain or construction of blowpipe an oxy-acetylene flame is produced,
enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the gas which is far hotter than the oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the
must be washed after purification to remove traces of hydro- same time is so reducing in its character that it can be used
chloric acid, and care must be taken to prevent the complete for the direct autogenous welding of steel and many minor
neutralization of the acid by the ammonia present in the gas. metallurgical processes.
The second process is one patented by Fritz Ullmann of Geneva, REFERENCES. F. H. Leeds and W. A. Butterfield, Calcium
who utilizes chromic acid to oxidize the phosphuretted and Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, L' Acetylene et ses appli-
cations (1896); V. B. Lewes, Acetylene (1900); F. Liebetanz,
sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the ammonia, and this method Calcium-carbid und Acetylen (1899); G. Pelissier, L'Eclairage a
of purification has proved the most successful in practice, the V acetylene (1897) C. de Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et I' acetylene
;

chromic acid being absorbed by kieselgiihr and the material (1897). For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on
sold under the name of "Heratol." Acetylene, see A. Ludwig's Fiihrer durch die gesammte Calcium-
carbid-und-Acetylen-Literatur, Berlin. (V. B. L.)
The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who recom-
mends the use of bleaching powder. Dr P. Wolff has found that ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Peloponnese,
when this is used on the large scale there is a risk of the ammonia stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and Cyllene
present in the acetylene forming traces of chloride of nitrogen on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the N., border-
in the purifying-boxes, and as this is a compound which deton- ing the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain Panachaicus
ates with considerable local force, it occasionally gives rise to projects. Achaea is bounded on the W. by the territory of Elis,
explosions in the purifying apparatus. If, however, the gas be on the E. by that of Srcyon, which, however, was sometimes
first passed through a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia included in it. The origin of the name has given rise to
this danger is avoided. Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which much speculation; the current theory is that the Achaeans
the gas is washed with water containing calcium chloride, and (q.v.) were driven back into this region by the Dorian invaders
then passed through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing of the Peloponnese. Another Achaea, in the south of Thessaly,
material. called sometimes Achaea Phthiotis, has been supposed to be
When acetylene is burnt from a coo union jet burner, at all the cradle of the race. In Roman times the name of the province
ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the pres- of Achaea was given to the whole of Greece, except Thessaly,
sure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame results, free Epirus, and Acarnania. Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve
from smoke, and developing an illuminating value of 240 candles cities of Achaea these met as a religious confederacy in the
;
 ACHAEAN LEAGUE ACHAEANS 141
temple of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history The federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 266-
first

see ACHAEAN LEAGUE. During the middle ages, after the Latin 263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 243-241
conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin princi- against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 and 229
pality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 1209).
with Aetolia against Demetrius. A greater danger arose (227-223)
It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, when from the attacks of Cleomenes III. (q.v.). Owing to Aratus's
the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant of it to irresolute generalship, the indolence of the rich burghers and
his son-in-law, Theodorus II., despot of Mistra. In 1460 it was the inadequate provision for levying troops and paying mercen-
conquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the Turks. In modern aries, the league lost several battles and much of its territory;
times the coast of Achaea is mainly given up to the currant but rather than compromise with the Spartan Gracchus the
industry; the currants are shipped from Patras, the second town assembly negotiated with Antigonus Doson, who recovered the
of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza). lost districtsbut retained Corinth for himself (223-221). Simi-
1

ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of larly the Achaeans could not check the incursions of Aetolian
Achaea. Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, these adventurers in 220-218, and when Philip V. came to the rescue
towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates issuing from he made them tributary and annexed much of the Peloponnese.
the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf. It was no Under Philopoemen the league with a reorganized army routed
doubt as a protection against such dangers that the earliest the Aetolians (210) and Spartans (207, 201). After their bene-
league of twelve Achaean cities arose, though we are nowhere volent neutrality during the Macedonian war the Roman general,
explicitly informed of its functions other than the common
T. Quinctius Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and
worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitra- sanctioned the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus
tion between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the bringing the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control. The
century, when we find it fighting in the Theban wars (368- league even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (190).
362 B.C.), against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). About 288 The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was forbidden by
Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league, which had furnished Rome. Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained un-
a useful base for pretenders against Cassander's regency; but willing members. After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats
by 280 four towns combined again, and before long the ten initiated a strongly philo-Roman policy, declared war against

surviving cities of Achaea had renewed their federation. Anti- King Perseus and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia.
gonus' preoccupation during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's This agitation induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent
t4thprostration after the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth Achaeans, and, failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain
amassed by Achaean adventurers abroad and the subsidies of them seventeen years. These hostages, when restored in 150,
Egypt, the standing foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's swelled the ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders,
importance. Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of to cover their maladministration at home, precipitated a war
Aratus (q.v.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 228 it by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome. The federal troops
comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina. were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus Mc.-e-
Aratus probably also organized the new federal constitution, donicus, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus (146).
the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not in name),
perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately and took measures to isolate the communities (see POLYBIUS).
determine. The league embraced an indefinite number of city- Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising the dependent
states which maintained their internal independence practically cities of Peloponnese and central Greece; this body sat at Argos
undiminished, and through their several magistrates, assemblies and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment.
and law-courts exercised all traditional powers of self-govern- The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper provision
ment. Only in matters of foreign politics and war was their for securing efficient armies and regular payment of imposts,
competence restricted. and for dealing with disaffected members. Moreover, owing to
The central government, like that of the constituent cities, was difficulties of travel, the assembly and magistracies. were practi-
of a democratic cast. The chief legislative powers resided in a cally monopolized by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in
popular assembly in which every member of the league over their own interest. But their rule was mostly judicious, and when
thirty years of age could speak and vote. This body met for at last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the
three days in spring and autumn at Aegium to discuss the league's country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean
policy and elect the federal magistrates. Whatever the number league to have combined city autonomy with an organized
of its attendant burgesses, each city counted but one on a central administration, and in this way to have postponed the
division. Extraordinary assemblies could be convoked at any entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century.
time or place on special emergencies. A
council of 1 20 unpaid CHIEF SOURCES. Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii., xxviii.),who
followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., xxxviii., &c.) Pausanias vii.
delegates, selected from the local councils, served partly as a
is ;

committee for preparing the assembly's programme, partly as 9-24; Strabo viii. 384; E. Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893,
London), chs. v.-ix. M. Dubois, Les ligues Hlolienne et Acheenne
;

an administrative board which received embassies, arbitrated (Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv.; G % Hertzberg, Ge-
between contending cities and exercised penal jurisdiction over schichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig, 1866) L. ;

offenders against the constitution. But perhaps some of these Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863) E. Hicks, Greek ;

Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 169, 187, 198, 201; W.

duties concerned the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are
nowhere described. The chief magistracy was the strategia
P (tenable every second year), which combined with an unre-
stricted command in the field a large measure of civil authority. (M. O. B. C.)
Besides being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general) ACHAEANS ('Axaioi, Lat. Achivi), one of the four chief
had practically the sole power of introducing measures before divisions of the ancient Greek peoples, descended, according
the assembly. The ten elective demiurgi, who presided over to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. This
this body, formed a kind of cabinet, and perhaps acted as Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely with the
departmental chiefs. We also hear of an under-strategus, a lonians, but historically they approach nearer to the Aeolians.
secretary, a cavalry commander and an admiral. All these higher Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of Achaeus. In the
officers were unpaid. Philopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans are the master race in
assembly from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent Greece; they are represented both in Homer and in all later
communities on an equal footing with their former suzerains. traditions as having come into Greece about three generations
The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage; before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.), i.e. about 1300 B.C. They
it summoned contingents, imposed taxes and fined or coerced found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as
refractory members. Pelasgians, who continued down to classical times the main
 142 ACHAEMENES ACHENWALL
element in the population even in the states under Achaean extinct and the Persian empire came to an end (330). The ad-
and later under Dorian rule. In some cases it formed a serf jective Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent
" "
class, e.g. the Penestae in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and of Persian (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See PERSIA.
the Gymnesii at Argos, whilst it practically composed the whole The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother
population of Arcadia and Attica, which never came under of Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became satrap
either Achaean or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the of Egypt (484 B.C.) he commanded the Persian fleet at Salamis,
;

Aegean from the Stone Age, and, though still in the Bronze .Age and was (460 and slain by Inarus, the leader of
B.C.) defeated
at the Achaean conquest, had made great advances in the useful the second rebellion of Egypt.
and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753-1821), Prussian chemist, was
hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres bom at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern,
were at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each in Silesia, on the 2oth of April 1821. He was a pioneer in turn-
being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus built ing to practical account A. S. Marggraf 's discovery of the presence
Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the lead until of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of the i8th century he was
the Achaean conquest. All the ancient dynasties traced their producing considerable quantities of beet-sugar, though by a very
descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achaean conquest imperfect process, at Kunern, on an estate which was granted
was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands. The him about 1800 by the king of Prussia. There too he carried
Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European language adopted on a school of instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an
by their conquerors with slight modifications. (See further international reputation. For a time he was director of the
PELASGIANS for a discussion of other views.) physics class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published
The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and several volumes of chemical and physical researches, discovering
grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, who among other things a method of working platinum.
with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity. ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born
They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into on the roth of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala Uni-
Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops, versity, where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D.
who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master of at Lund in 1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany
Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship of at Wadstena Academy. He devoted himself to the study of
Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia. They lichens, and all his publications were connected with that class
brought with them iron, which they used for their long swords of plants, his Lichenographia, Universalis (Gottingen, 1804)
and for their cutting implements; the costume of both sexes being the most important. He died at Wadstena on the i3th of
was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used round August 1819.
shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped or rectangular ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid. The
"
shields of the latter; they fastened their garments with brooches, expression fidusAchates " has become proverbial for a loyal
3
a.n' burned dead instead of burying them as did the Pelas-
their and devoted companion.
"
gians. They introduced aspecial style of ornament (" geo- ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, white river "), the largest
metric ") instead of that of the Bronze Age, characterized by river in Greece (130 m.). Mt. Pindus, and, dividing
It rises in
spirals and marine animals and plants. The Achaeans, or Aetolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. In the lower
Hellenes, as they were later termed, were on this hypothesis part of its course the river winds through fertile, marshy plains.
one of the fair-haired tribes of upper Europe known to the Its water is charged with fine mud, which is deposited along its
ancients as Keltoi (Celts), who from time to time have pressed banks and at its mouth, where a number of small islands (Echi-
down over the Alps into the southern lands, successively as naxles) have been formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its
Achaeans, Gauls, Goths and Franks, and after the conquest of impetuosity; and its upper portion was called by some Inachus,
the indigenous small dark race in no long time died out under the name Achelous being restricted to the shorter eastern
climatic conditions fatal to their physique and morale. The branch. Achelous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (II. xxi.
culture of the Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent 193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several other
with that of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hallstatt) rivers in Greece. The name appears in cult and in mythology
and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova) . as that of the typical river-god; a familiar legend is that of his
See W. Ridge way, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a detailed contest with Heracles for Deianira.
discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway and J. L. Myres ACHENBACH, ANDREAS German landscape
(1815- ),
in the Classical Review, vol. xvi., 1902, pp. 68-93, '35- See also
painter, was born at Cassel in 1815. He began his art education
J. B. Bury's History of Greece (1902), and art. in Journal of Hellenic
in 1827 in Dusseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy.
Studies, xv., 1895, pp. 217 foil.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek
Epic (1907), chap. li. ; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906); In his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German
G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. B. Monro's romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the stronger
ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. Ri.) influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new channels, and
ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI), the eponymous ancestor of he became the founder of the German realistic school. Although
"
the royal house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, a clan <j>pfiTpt] his landscapes evince too much of his aim at picture-making and
" lack personal temperament, he is a master of technique, and is
of the Pasargadae (Herod, i. 125), the leading Persian tribe.
According to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod, historically important as a reformer. A number of his finest
iii. 75, vii. u, he was the father of Teispes, the great-grandfather works are to be found at the Berlin National Gallery, the New
of Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at Dresden, Darmstadt,
after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name. Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg.
Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely the His brother, OSWALD ACHENBACH (1827-1905), was born at
mythical ancestor of the family, cannot be decided. According Diisseldorf and received his art education from Andreas. His
to Aelian (Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an eagle. We landscapes generally dwell on the rich and glowing effects of
leam from Cyrus's proclamation that Teispes and his successors colour which drew him to the Bay of Naples and the neighbour-
had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of Elam (Susiana), hood of Rome. He is represented at most of the important
where they ruled as vassals of the Median kings, until Cyrus German galleries of modern art.
the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian empire. After the ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (1710-1772), German statistician,
death of Cambyses, the younger line of the Achaemenidae came was born at Elbing, in October 1719. He
East Prussia, in
to the throne with Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who was, like studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at the
Cyrus, the great-grandson of Teispes. Cyrus, Darius and all the last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1 746, where
later kings of Persia call themselves Achaemenides (Hakha- for two years he read lectures on history and on the law of
manishiya). With Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced those inquiries
 ACHERON ACHILLES
by which his name became known. In 1 748 he was
in statistics which in some cases belong to the common stock of Indo-Ger-
given a professorship at Gottingen, where he resided till his manic myths. According to one of these stories Thetis used to
death in 1772. His chief works were connected with statistics. lay the infant Achilles every night under live coals, anointing
The Staatsverfassung der heutigen vornehmslen europaischen him by day with ambrosia, in order to make him immortal.
Reiche appeared first in 1749, and revised editions were pub- Peleus, having surprised her in the act, in alarm snatched the
lished in 1762 and 1768. boy from the flames; whereupon Thetis fled back to the sea
ACHERON, inGreek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter. in anger (Apollodorus in. 13; Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869).
As a punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their According to another story Thetis dipped the child in the waters
contest with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over of the river Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable,
which departed souls were ferried by Charon. The name (mean- except that part of his heel by which she held him; whence the
" " "
ing the river of woe ") was eventually used to designate the proverbial heel of Achilles (Statius, Achilleis, i. 269). With
whole of the lower world (Stobaeus, Ed. Phys. i. 41, 50, 54). this may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero
ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i. Sigurd. The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron,
21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the court of who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him with
Esarhaddon at Nineveh. There are references in Rumanian, the entrails of lions and the marrow of bears and wild boars. To
Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic and Syriac literature to a legend, of prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis disguised him in
which the hero is Ahikar (for Armenian, Arabic and Syriac, see female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of
The Story of Ahikar, F. C. Conybeare, Rendel Harris and Agnes King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, coming to the island
Lewis, Camb. 1898), and it was pointed out by George Hoffmann in the disguise of a pedlar, spread his wares, including a spear
in 1880 that this Ahikar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are iden- and shield, before the king's daughters, among whom was
tical. Ithas been contended that there are traces of the legend Achilles. Then he caused an alarm to be sounded; whereupon
even in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity the but Achilles seized the arms, and so revealed him-
girls fled,
between it and the Life of Aesop by Maximus Planudes (ch. self, and was easily persuaded to follow the Greeks (Hyginus,
xxiii.-xxxii.). An eastern sage Achaiicarus is mentioned by Fab. 96; Statius, Ach. i.; Apollodorus, I.e.}. This story may
Strabo. It would seem, therefore, that the legend was un- be compared with the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur
doubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship of the or Perceval.
various versions can scarcely be recovered. During the first nine years of the war as described in the Iliad,
See the Jewish Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia Biblica; Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took twelve cities.
also M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. 2, 1898, p. 163 f. In the tenth year occurred the quarrel with Agamemnon. In
ACHILL ("Eagle"), the largest island off Ireland, separated order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had visited the camp
from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored Chryseis, his prize
Achill Sound. Pop. (1901) 4929. It is included in the county of war, to her father, a priest of the god, but as a compensation
Mayo, in the western parliamentary division. Its shape is deprived Achilles, who had openly demanded this restoration,
triangular, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and 12 from of his favourite slave Briseis. Achilles withdrew in wrath to his
N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m. The. island is mountainous, the tent, where he consoled himself with music and singing, and
highest points being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the west, and refused to take any further part in the war. During his absence
Slievemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme western point the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed his
is the bold and rugged promontory of Achill Head, and the north- anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate him, lending
western and south-western coasts consist of ranges of magnifi- him his chariot and armour. The slaying of Patroclus by the
cent cliffs, reaching a height of 800 ft. in the cliffs of Minaun, Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his indifference; eager
near the village of Keel on the south. The seaward slope of to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied forth, equipped with
Croaghaun is abrupt and in parts precipitous, and its jagged new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, slew Hector, and, after
flanks, together with the serrated ridge of the Head and the view dragging his body round the walls of Troy, restored it to the aged
over the broken coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and King Priam at his earnest entreaty. The Iliad concludes with
Galway, attract many visitors to the island during summer. the funeral rites of Hector. It makes no mention of the death
Desolate bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the of Achilles, but hints at its taking place "before the Scaean
mountains; and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by gates." In the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have
fishing and tillage, or by seeking employment in England and been buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus,
Scotland during the harvesting. The Congested Districts at a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his
Board, however, have made efforts to improve the condition of memory; his soul dwells in the lower world, where it is seen by
the people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway Odysseus. The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms
to Achill Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the sound, is also mentioned. The Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus took up
improved communications and make for prosperity. Dugort, the story of the Iliad. It told how Achilles, having slain the
the principal village, contains several hotels. Here is a Protest- Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, who
" "
ant colony, known as the Settlement and founded in 1834. had come to the assistance of the Trojans, was himself slain by
There are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, stone circles and the Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was guided by Apollo to his
like) at Slievemore and elsewhere. vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vi. 57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600).
ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus), one of the most famous of the Again, it is said that Achilles, enamoured of Polyxena, the
legendary heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure of daughter of Priam, offered to join the Trojans on condition that
Homer's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of Peleus, he received her hand in marriage. This was agreed to; Achilles
king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, by Thetis, one of went unarmed to the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was
the Nereids. His grandfather Aeacus was, according to the slain by Paris (Dictys iv. n). According to some, he was slain
legend, the son of Zeus himself. The story of the childhood of by Apollo himself (Quint. Smyrn. iii. 61; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3).
Achilles in Homer differs from that given by later writers. Ac- Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris.
cording to Homer, he was brought up by his mother at Phthia with Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the
his cousin and intimate friend Patroclus, and learned the arts pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the
of war and eloquence from Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his wife; or that
taught him music and medicine. When summoned to the war he was carried to the Elysian fields, where his wife was Medea
against Troy, he set sail at once with his Myrmidones in fifty or Helen. He was worshipped in many places: at Leuke, where
ships. he was honoured with offerings and games; in Sparta, Elis, and
Post-Homeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque especially Sigeum on the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus
which bear all the evidence of their primitive origin, and
details was erected.
144 ACHILLES TATIUS ACHIN
Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated who achieved some notoriety as a versifier of the school of the
for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and grief, at Secentisti.
the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, full of affection ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. axat/iews, an Indian
for his mother and respect for the gods. In works of art he is plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order Gesneraceae
represented, like Ares, as a young man of splendid physical pro- (to which belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), natives of
portions, with bristling hair like a horse's mane and a slender tropical America, and well known in cultivation as stove or
neck. Although the figure of the hero frequently occurs in warm greenhouse plants. They are herbaceous perennials,
groups such as the work of Scopas showing his removal to the generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome flowers.
island of Leuke by Poseidon and Thetis, escorted by Nereids The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and varies widely
and Tritons, and the combat over his dead body in the Aeginetan in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, scarlet, blue or
sculptures no isolated statue or bust can with certainty be purple. A large number of hybrids exist in cultivation. The
identified with him; the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa plants are grown in the stove till the flowering period, when they
Borghese), which was thought to have the best claim, is generally may be removed to the greenhouse. They are propagated by
taken for Ares or possibly Alexander. There are many vase and cuttings, or from the leaves, which are cut off and pricked in well-
wall paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his life. drained pots of sandy soil, or by the scales from the underground
"
Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: with- tubes, which are rubbed off and sown like seeds, or by the seeds,
"
out a lip (a, xeiXos), Achilles being regarded as a river-god, a which are very small.
stream which overflows its banks, or, referring to the story that, ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a Dutch government forming the
when Thetis laid him in the fire, one of his lips, which he had northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an esti-
"
licked, was consumed (Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); restrainer mated area of 20,544 sq. m. The government is divided into
of the people" (ex^-Xaos); "healer of sorrow" (dxe-Xutos) ; three assistant-residencies the east coast, the west coast and
"the obscure" (connected with dxXus, "mist"); "snake- Great Achin. The physical geography (see SUMATRA) is imper-
"
born the snake being one of the chief forms taken
(ex<- s ), fectly understood. Ranges of mountains, roughly parallel to
by Thetis. The most generally received view makes him a god the long axis of the island, and characteristic of the whole of it,
of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning. appear to occupy the interior, and reach an extreme height of
See E. H. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen, ii., Achille'is, 1887; about 1 2 ,000 ft. in the south-west of the government. The coasts
F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cydus, 1865-1882; articles in Pauly- are low and the rivers insignificant, rising in the coast ranges
Wissowa, Real-Encydopddie der dassischen Altertumswissenschaft, and flowing through the coast states (the chief of which are
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites and Roscher's
Lexikon der Mythologie; see also T. W. Allen in Classical Review, Pedir, Gighen and Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak'and
May 1906; A. E. Crawley, J. G. Frazer, A. Lang, Ibid., June, July Langsar on the E.; Kluwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W.).
1893, on Achilles in Scyros. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 12 re- The chief ports are Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin
presents the conflict over the dead body of Achilles. (formerly Kraton, now the seat of the Dutch government),
ACHILLES TATIUS, Greek rhetorician, author
of Alexandria,
Segli on the N., Edi on the E., and Analabu or Melabuh on
of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and Cleitophon, the W. Kotaraja lies near the northern extremity of the island,
flourished about A.D. 450, perhaps later. Suidas, who alone calls and consists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered
him Statius, says that he became a Christian and eventually in enclosed groups called kampongs, and buried in a forest of
a bishop like Heliodorus, whom he imitated but there is no fruit-trees. It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in the
evidence of this. Photius, while severely criticizing his lapses valley of the Achin river, which in its upper part, near Seli-
into indecency, highly praises the conciseness and clearness of mun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. and a
his style, which, however, is artificial and laboured. Many of the depth of 1 5 ft.; but in its lower course, north of its junction
incidents of the romance are highly improbable, and the char- with the Krung Daru, the valley broadens to 125 m. The
acters, except the heroine, fail to enlist sympathy. The descrip- marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on higher ground by
tive passages and digressions, although tedious and introduced kampongs full of trees. The river at its mouth is 327 ft. broad
without adequate reasons, are the best part of the work. The and 20-33 ft- deep, but before it lies a sandbank covered at low
large number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Ediiio water by a depth of only 4 ft. The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja
princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by Jacobs, 1821; occupies the old Achinese citadel. The town is connected by
later editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858. There are rail with Olehleh, and the line also extends up the valley. The
translations in many languages; in English by Anthony H[odges], construction of another railway has been undertaken along the
1638, and R.. Smith, 1855. See also ROMANCE.) east coast. The following industries are of some importance
Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a Miscel- gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of
laneous History of Famous Men, and a treatise On the Sphere. pottery, fishing and coasting trade. The annual value of the
Part of the last is extant under the title of An Introduction to the exports (chiefly pepper) is about 58,000; of the imports, from
Phaenomena of Aratus. But if the writer is the prudentissimus 165,000 to 250,000. The population of Achin in 1898 was
Achilles referred to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his estimated at 535,432, of whom 328 were Europeans, 3933 Chinese,
Matheseos libri, iv. 10, 17 (ed. Kroll), he must have lived long 30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics.
before the author of Leucippe. The fragment was first pub- The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, some-
lished in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petavius, with a Latin what taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true Malays,
translation, 1630. Nothing definite is known as to the author- regard themselves as distinct from the other Sumatrans. Their
ship of the other works, which are lost. nobles claim Arab descent. They were at one time Hinduized,
ACHILLINI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1512), Italian philosopher, as is evident from their traditions, the many Sanskrit words in
born on the zgth of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as their language, and their general appearance, which suggests
a lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and Hindu as well as Arab blood. They are Mahommedans, and
Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle. His philosophical although Arab influence has declined, their nobles still wear the
works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and Moslem flowing robe and turban (though the women go un-
reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551 and 1568. veiled), and they use Arabic script. The chief characteristic is
He was ako distinguished as an anatomist (see ANATOMY), man is a soldier and ever^ village
their love of fighting; every
among his writings being Corporis humani Anatomia (Venice, has its army. They are industrious and skilful agriculturists,
1516-1524), and Analomicae Annotationes (Bologna, 1520). He metal-workers and weavers. They build excellent ships. Their
died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512. chief amusements are gambling and opium-smoking. Their
His brother, GIOVANNI PILOTED ACHILLINI (1466-1533), was social organization is communal. They live in kampongs, which
the author of // Viridario and other writings, verse and prose, and combine to form mukims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest
his grand-nephew, CLAUDIO ACHILLINI (1574-1640), was a lawyer English term), which again combine to form sagis, of which
 ACHOLI ACID
there are three. Achin literature, unlike the language, is en- sions on the continent of Asia, no reference was made in the
tirely Malay; includes poetry, a good deal of theology and
it articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was
several chronicles. Northern Sumatra was visited by several exchanged that it should be modified, while no proceedings
European travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo, hostile to Achin should be attempted by the Dutch.
Friar Odorico and Nicolo Conti. Some of these as well as This reservation was formally abandoned by the British
Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly government in a convention signed at the Hague on the 2nd
occupied the position of Achin. But the first voyager to visit of November 1871; and in March 1873 the government of
Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan Batavia declared war upon Achin. Doubtless there was provo-
d'Acunha's fleet, in 1 506. It was then a mere dependency of the cation, for the sultan of Achin had not kept to the understanding
adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the that he was to guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign
only states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of sultan. traders; but the necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in
Yet before twenty years had passed Achin had not only gained Holland. A Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, and
independence, but had swallowed up all other states of northern attacked the palace. It was defeated with considerable loss,
Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in the time of Sultan including that of the general (Kohler). The approach of the
Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under whom the subject coast south-west monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the
extended from Am opposite Malacca round by the north to attempt; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January
Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board of not less than noo 1874. Thenatives, however, maintained themselves in the
miles; and besides this, the king's supremacy was owned by interior, inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a
the large island of Nias, and by the continental Malay states of guerilla warfare. General van der Heyden appeared to have
Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak. subdued them in 1878-81, but they broke out again in 1896
The chief attraction of Achin to traders in the i7th century under the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with
must have been gold. No place in the East, unless Japan, was the Dutch. He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was
so abundantly supplied with gold. The great repute of Achin not ended. General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign
as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to this port the in 1898 seq., but in 1901, the principal Achinese chiefs on the
first Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to
to the Indies were directed. Sir James Lancaster, the English the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people. Several expeditions
commodore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4,
of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reigning, and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender
Alauddin Shah. Another exchange of letters took place be- escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued.
tween King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 1613. But native See P. J. Veth, Atchin en zijne betrekkingen tot Nederland
caprice and jealousy of the growing force of the European nations (Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjeh en de Atjehers (Leyden, 1877);
Kielstra, Beschrijving van den Atjeh-oorlog (The Hague, 1885);
in these seas, and the rivalries between those nations themselves,
Van Langen, Atjeh's Wesskust, Tijdschrift Aardrijko, Genotktsch.
were destructive of sound trade; and the English factory, (Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; Renaud, Jaarboek van het Mynwezen
though several times set up, was never long maintained. The (1882); J. Jacobs, Het famille-en Kampongleven op Croat Atjeh
French made one great effort (1621) to establish relations with (Leyden, 1894); C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia, 1894).
Achin, but nothing came of it. Still the foreign trade of Achin, ACHOLI, a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on
though subject to interruptions, was important. William the east bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, about a hundred miles north
Dampier (c. 1688) and others speak of the number of foreign of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Shilluks of the White
merchants settled there English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, Nile. They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with
Chinese, &c. Dampier says the anchorage was rarely without wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some
ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing vast quantities pierce the ears. Their dwelling-places are circular huts with a
of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium. Besides high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of
the Chinese merchants settled at Achin, others used to come grain and a sunk fireplace. The interior walls are daubed with
annually with the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs
in June. A regular fair was then established, which lasted two in red, white or grey. The Acholi are good hunters, using nets
months, and was known as the China camp, a great resort of and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle. In war they use
foreigners. spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide. Their
Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of the dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, Lango and Ja-Luo
first independent king of Achin; and they had little remission tribes, all four being practically pure Nilotic. Their religion is
till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of Malacca (1641). a vague fetishism. By early explorers the Acholi were called
Not less than ten times before that event were armaments Shuli, a name now obsolete.
despatched from Achin to reduce Malacca, and more than once ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, XP^MO., colour), in optics,
its garrison was hard pressed. One of these armadas, equipped the property of transmitting white light, without decomposing
by Iskandar Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources. it into the colours of the spectrum; "achromatic lenses-" are

It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and among lenseswhich possess this property, (See LENS, ABERRATION
these a hundred were greater than any then used in Europe. and PHOTOGRAPHY.)
Sixty thousand men were embarked. ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour), the
On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow was name loosely applied to any sour substance; in chemistry it has
placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured the a more precise meaning,denoting a substance containing hydrogen
oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more queens which may be replaced by metals with the formation of salts.
were allowed to reign successively. In 1699 the Arab or fana- An acid may therefore be regarded as a salt of hydrogen. Of
ticalparty suppressed female government, and put a chief of the general characters of acids we may here notice that they
Arab blood on the throne. The remaining history of Achin was dissolve alkaline substances, certain metals, &c., neutralize
one of rapid decay. alkalies and redden many blue and violet vegetable colouring
After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816, matters.
a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring British The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of
colonies to the maintenance of influence in Achin; and in 1819 acids. Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced when
a treaty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta govern- wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the Greeks and
ment which excluded other European nationalities from fixed Romans, who considered it to be typical of acid substances;
residence in Achin. When the British government, in 1824, this is philologically illustrated by the words 6%vs, acidus, sour,
made a treaty with the Netherlands, surrendering the remaining and 6os, acetus, vinegar. Other acids became known during
British settlements in Sumatra in exchange for certain posses- the alchemistic period; and the first attempt at a generalized
146 ACID
conception these substances was made by Paracelsus,
of this view lacked generality since the halogen acids, which con-
who supposed them to contain a principle which conferred the tained no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in prop-
properties of sourness and solubility. Somewhat similar views erties to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded.
were promoted by Becher, who named the principle acidum This and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic hypo-
primogenium, and held that it was composed of the Para- thesis and the adoption, on -the ground of probability, and much
" " "
celsian elements earth and water." At about the same time more from convenience, of the tenet that " acids are parti-
Boyle investigated several acids; he established their general cular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter can be re-
"
reddening of litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic placed by metals ; while, on the constitution of salts, he held
"
substances, and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with that neutral salts are those compounds of the same class in
alkalies. Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who which the hydrogen is replaced by its equivalent in metal. The
held that acids were the fundamentals of all salts, and the substances which we at present term anhydrous acids (acid
erroneous idea that sulphuric acid was the principle of all acids. oxides) only become, for the most part, capable of forming salts
The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and com- with metallic oxides after the addition of water, or they are
bustion necessitated the view that many acids, such as those compounds which decompose these oxides at somewhat high
produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, carbonic, temperatures."
&c., should be regarded as elementary substances. This prin- The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasicity as
ciple more or less prevailed until it was overthrown by Lavoisier's
enunciated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of the
doctrine that oxygen was the acid-producing element; Lavoisier modern theory. A polybasic acid contains more than one atom
of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in such
being led to this conclusion by the almost general observation
that acids were produced when non-metallic elements were an acid the replacement may be entire with the formation of
burnt. The existence of acids not containing oxygen was, in normal salts, partial with the formation of acid salts, or by two
overthrow this idea, but, although Berthollet or more different metals with the formation of compound salts
itself, sufficient to
had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted hydrogen (or hydro- (see SALTS). These facts may be illustrated with the aid of
sulphuric acid) contained no oxygen, Lavoisier's theory held its orthophosphoric acid, which is tribasic:

own until the researches of Davy, Gay-Lussac and Thenard on Acid. Normal salt. Acid salts.
HaPO,. Ag,PO 4 Na HPO 4 NaH,PO 4
hydrochloric acid and chlorine, and of Gay-Lussac on hydro-
. s .
;

Phosphoric Silver phosphate. Acid sodium

cyanic acid, established beyond all cavil that oxygen was not acid. phosphates.
essential to acidic properties. Compound salts.
In the Lavoisierian nomenclature acids were regarded as Mg(NH 4 )PO 4 ; Na(NH )HPO 4 4 .

Magnesium ammonium Microcosmic

binary oxygenated compounds, the associated water being salt.
phosphate ;

relegated to the position of a mere solvent. Somewhat similar

Reference should be made to the articles CHEMICAL ACTION,
views were held by Berzelius, when developing his dualistic
THERMOCHEMISTRY and SOLUTIONS, for the theory of the
conception of the composition of substances. In later years
" " strength or avidity of acids.
Berzelius renounced the oxygen acid theory, but not before
Organic Acids. Organic acids are characterized by the
Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had submitted that
presence of the monovalent group CO -OH, termed the carboxyl
hydrogen and not oxygen was the acidifying principle. Oppo-
" " group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals
sition to the theory centred mainly about the
hydrogen-acid
with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the
hypothetical radicals which it postulated; moreover, the electro-
formation of esters. The basicity of an organic acid, as above
chemical theory of Berzelius exerted a stultifying influence on
the correct views of Davy and Dulong. In Berzelius' system defined, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups present.
+ - Oxy-acids are carboxyh'c acids which also contain a hydroxyl
potassium sulphate is to be regarded as K 2 O.SO3 electrolysis ; group; similarly we may have aldehyde-acids, ketone-acids, &c.
should simply effect the disruption of the positive and negative Since the more important acids are treated under their own
components, potash passing with the current, and sulphuric acid headings, or under substances closely allied to them, we shall
against the current. Experiment showed, however, that instead here confine ourselves to general relations.
of only potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is Classification. It is convenient to distinguish between ali-
also liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but phatic and aromatic acids; the first named being derived from
" "
readily explained by the hydrogen-acid theory. By this open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon
theory potassium liberated at the negative electrode and
is nuclei. Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided according
combines immediately with water to form potash and hydrogen. to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon. Methane and its
Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig homologues give origin to the "paraffin" or "fatty series" of
promoted his doctrine of polybasic acids. Dalton's idea that the general formula C,,H 2n +iCOOH, ethylene gives origin to the
elements preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions H
acrylic acid series, C n 2 n-iCOOH, and soon. Dibasic acids of
had as an immediate inference that metallic oxides contained the paraffin series of hydrocarbons have the general formula
one atom of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple ex- H
C n 2 (COOH) 2 "; malonic and succinic acids are important
pansion of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined members. The isomerism which occurs as soon as the molecule
with one atom of acid to form one atom of a neutral salt. This contains a few carbon atoms renders any classification based on
view, which was specially supported by Gay Lussac and Leopold
j
empirical molecular formulae somewhat ineffective; on the other
Gmelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all acids hand, a scheme based on molecular structure would involve
were monobasic. The untenability of this theory was proved more detail than it is here possible to give. For further informa-
by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric acids; for tion, the reader is referred to any standard work on organic
he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- and meta- chemistry. A list of the acids present in fats and oils is given
phosphoric acids contained respectively 3, 2 and i molecules of in the article OILS.
" "
basic water (which were replaceable by metallic oxides) and Syntheses of Organic Acids. The simplest syntheses are un-
one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P 2 OB. Graham's work was doubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained directly
developed by Liebig, who called into service many organic from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
acids citric, tartaric, comenic and meconic and
cyanuric, The simplest of all include: (i) the synthesis of sodium oxalate
showed that these resembled phosphoric acid; and he estab- by passing carbon dioxide over metallic sodium heated to 35~
lished as the criterion of polybasicity the existence of com- 360; (2) the synthesis of potassium formate from moist carbon
pound salts with different metallic oxides. In formulating these dioxide and potassium, potassium carbonate being obtained
facts Liebig at first retained the dualistic conception of the simultaneously; (3) the synthesis of potassium acetate and
structure of acids; but he shortly afterwards perceived that propionate from carbon dioxide and sodium methide and sodium
 ACIDALIUS ACINACES 147
ethide; (4) the synthesis of aromatic acids by the interaction
of salts with calcium formate yield aldehydes (q.v.);
distilled

carbon dioxide, sodium and a bromine substitution derivative; distilledwith soda-lime, ketones (q.v.) result.
and (5) the synthesis of aromatic oxy-acids by the interaction of ACIDALIUS, VALENS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic,
carbon dioxide and sodium phenolates (see SALICYLIC ACID). was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg. After studying at
Carbon monoxide takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate Rostock, Greifswald and Helmstedt, and residing about three
from sodium hydrate, or soda lime (at 2oo-22o), and of sodium years in Italy, he settled at Breslau, where he is said to have
acetate and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium embraced the Roman Catholic religion. Early in 1595 he ac-
ethylate at i6o-2oo. Other reactions which introduce carb- cepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty miles from Breslau,
oxyl groups into aromatic groups are: the action of carbonyl
where he died of brain fever on the 25th of May, at the age
chloride on aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium of twenty-eight. His excessive application to study, and the
chloride, acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decom-
attacks made upon himin connexion with a pamphlet of which

posed by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride he was reputed the author, doubtless hastened his premature end.
C1-CO-NH2 , cyanuric acid (CONH) 3 ,
nascent cyanic acid, or Acidalius wrote notes on Velleius Paterculus (1590), Curtius
carbanile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride, (1594), the panegyrists, Tacitus and Plautus, published after his
acid-amides being obtained which are readily decomposed to death.
give the acid. An important nucleus-synthetic reaction is the See Leuschner, Commentatio de A. V. Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis
"
(!757); F. Adam, Der Neisser Rektor," in Bericht der Philomathie
saponification of nitriles, which may be obtained by the interac- in Neisse (1872).
tion of potassium cyanide with a halogen substitution derivative
or a sulphonic acid. ACID-AMIDES, chemical compounds which may be considered
Acids frequently result as oxidation products, being almost as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with
invariably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation. There are acidyl residues, the substances produced being known as
certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be success- primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the number
Thus primary alcohols of hydrogen atoms replaced. Of these compounds, the primary
fully applied to the synthesis of acids.
and aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series, readily amides of the type R-CO-NH 2 are the most important. They
yield on oxidation acids containing the same number of carbon
may be prepared by the dry distillation of the ammonium salts
of the acids (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 977), by the partial
atoms. These reactions may be shown thus:
hydrolysis of the nitriles, by the action of ammonia or ammonium
R-CH OH - R-CHO -> R-CO-OH.
2
carbonate on acid chlorides or anhydrides, or by heating the
In the case of aromatic aldehydes, acids are also obtained by esters (q.v.) with ammonia. They are solid crystalline compounds
means of " Cannizzaro's reaction " (see BENZALDEHYDE). An
(formamide excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the
important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is from hydro- however, decreasing as the carbon content of the
solubility,
carbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, or methyl- molecule increases.They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up
benzene, yields benzoic acid, the xylenes, or dimethyl-benzene, when boiled with acids or alkalies. They
into their components
yield methyl-benzoic acids and phthalic acids. Ketones, form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is passed
secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols yield a mixture of into their ethereal solution; these compounds, however, are
acids on oxidation. We may also notice the disruption of un- very unstable, being readily decomposed by water. On the
saturated acids at the double linkage into a mixture of two acids, other hand, they show faintly acid properties since the hydrogen
when fused with potash. of the amido group can be replaced by metals to give such com-
In the preceding instances the carboxyl group has been
pounds as mercury acetamide (CHsCONH) 2 Hg. Nitrous acid
synthesized or introduced into a molecule; we have now to decomposes them, with elimination of nitrogen and the formation
consider syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl
of the corresponding acid,
groups. Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the RCO-NH +ONOH = R-COOH + N -|-H O.
2 2 2

malonic acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yield nitriles.
discussed under their own
headings. The electrosyntheses call By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on the amides,
for mention here. It is apparent that metallic salts of organic they are converted into amines containing one carbon atom
acids would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, the positive ion being less than the original amide, a reaction which possesses great
the metal, and the negative ion the acid residue. Esters, how- W. Hofmann),
theoretical importance (A.
ever, are not ionized. It is therefore apparent that a mixed salt R-CONH2 -^ R-CONHBr -> R-NH2 +K CO 3 +KBr+H 2O.
2

and ester, for example KO C-CH

2 2 -CH2 -CO2 C2 H5 would give only
, Formamide, H-CONH a h'quid readily soluble in water,
2, is
two and the rest of the molecule. If a solu-
ions, viz. potassium boiling at about 195 C. with partial decomposition. Acetamide,
tion of potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane,
CHa-CONHj, is a white deliquescent crystalline solid, which
carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner, melts at 82-83 C. and boils at 222 C. It is usually prepared
normal potassium succinate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide, by distilling ammonium acetate. It is readily soluble in water
potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented: and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Benzamide, C6H 6 -CONH 2 ,

CHs-CO 2 |K CH 3 CO2 K- CH 2 -CO2]K CH2 CO2 K' crystallizes in leaflets which melt at 130 C. It is prepared by
-> I + + I f
- ii
+ + the action of ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride. It
CH 3 -CO 2 |K
!

CH 3 CO2 K- CHz-COjK CH 2 CO2 K'

yields a silver salt which with ethyl iodide forms benzimido-
By electrolysing a solution
potassium ethyl succinate, of ethyl ether, C 6 H 6 C (NH)-OC 2 H6 a behaviour which points to
:
,

K0 C-(CH )2CO C H
2 2 2 2 6, the KO
groups are split off and 2 C- the silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imido-
the two residues -(CH 2 ) 2 CO 2 C 2 H5 combine to form the ester H
benzoic acid, C 6 5 C (NH)-OH (J. Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 104).
:

H
(CH2 ) 4 (CO2 C 2 6 )2. In the same way, by electrolysing a mix- On the preparation of the substituted amides from the corre-
ture of a metallic salt and an ester, other nuclei may be con-
sponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1901,
densed; thus potassium acetate and potassium ethyl succinate 59, p. 391). The secondary and tertiary amides of the types
yield CHs-CH.-CHrC^CjHs. (RCO) 2 NH and (RCO) 3 N
may be prepared by heating the
Reactions. Organic acids yield metallic salts with bases, primary amides or the nitriles with acids or acid anhydrides to
and ethereal salts or esters (q.v.), R-CO-OR', with alcohols. 200 C. Thiamides of the type R-CSNH2 are known, and result
Phosphorus chlorides give acid chlorides, R-CO-C1, the hy- by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen to the nitriles, or
droxyl group being replaced by chlorine, and acid anhydrides, by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on the. acid-amides.
(R-CO) 2 0, a molecule of water being split off between two They readily decompose on heating, and are easily hydrolysed
carboxyl groups. The ammonium salts when heated lose one by alkalies; they possess a somewhat more acid character than
molecule of water and are converted into acid-amides, R-CO-NH 2 , the acid-amides.
which by further dehydration yield nitriles, R- CN. The calcium ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short
 148 ACINET A ACKNOWLEDGMENT
and straight, and worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the and Instilutiones Therapiae Generalis (Nuremberg and
Altdorf,
right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in the 1784-1795), besides various handbooks and translations.
bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian nobility ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINE CHOQUET (1813-1890),
it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a badge of dis- French poet, was born in Paris on the 3Oth of November 1813.
tinction. The
acinaces was an object of religious worship with Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists,
the Scythians and others (Herod, iv. 62). Victorine Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and
ACINET A (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial there married in 1843 Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist.
Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and cup- After little more than two years of happy married life her
shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous budding. husband died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice
O. Biitschli has separated off the genus Metacineta-(f.or A. mysta- with a favourite sister. In 1855 she published Contes en vers, and
cina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission. in 1862 Contes et poesies. Very different from these simple and
ACINUS (Lat. for a berry), a term in botany applied to such charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's real
fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small seed- reputation rests. She published in 1874 Poesies, premieres poesies,
like berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to grape- poesies philosophiques, a volume of sombre and powerful verse,
stones. By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy to similar expressing her revolt against human suffering. The volume
granules or glands, or lobules of a gland. was enthusiastically reviewed in the Revue des deux mondes for
ACIREALE, a town and episcopal see of the province of May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though he deprecated the impiele
Catania, Sicily; from the town of the same name it is distant dtsesperee of the verses, did full justice to their vigour and the
9 m. N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418. It has some importance as excellence of their form. Soon after the publication of this
a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans. volume Madame Ackermann removed to Paris, where she gathered
It takes its name from the river Acis, into which, according to round her a circle of friends, but published nothing further
the legend, Acis, the lover of Galatea, was changed after he had except a prose volume, the Pensees d'un solitaire (1883), to which
been slain by Polyphemus. The rocks which Polyphemus hurled she prefixed a short autobiography. She died at Nice on the
at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de' Ciclopi, or 2nd of August 1890.
Faraglioni, a little to the south of Acireale. See also Anatole France, La vie lilteraire, 4th series (1892) ; the
ACIS, in Greek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the comte d'Haussonville, Mme. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoleux, La
poesie philosophique au XlXe. siecle (vol. i., Mme. Ackermann d'apres
nymph Symaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, was the lover de nombreux documents inedits, Paris, 1906).
of the Nereid Galatea. His rival the Cyclops Polyphemus sur-
prised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock.
ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German in-
His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by ventor and publisher, was born on the 2oth of April 1764 at
Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jaci), Schneeberg, in Saxony. He had been a saddler and coach-
which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, Met. builder in different German cities, Paris and London for ten years
before, in 1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school
xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punica, xiv. 221).
ACKERMAN, FRANCIS in the Strand. Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and
1335-1387), Flemish soldier and
(c.
applied it in 1817 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts,
diplomatist, was born and about 1380 became promi-
at Ghent,
nent during the struggle between the burghers of that town and Literature, Fashions,' &c. (monthly until 1828 when forty volumes
Louis II. (de Male), count of Flanders. He was partly respon- .
had appeared). Rowlandson and other distinguished artists

sible for inducing Philip van Artevelde to become first captain

were regular contributors. He also introduced the fashion of
the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 1825 with
of the city of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of some troops
scoured the surrounding country for provisions and thus saved Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated volumes of
Ghent from being starved into submission. By his diplomatic topography and travel, The Microcosm of London (3 vols., 1808-
abilities he secured the assistance of the citizens of Brussels, 1811), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), The Rhine (1820), The
Louvain and Liege, and, having been made admiral of the World in Miniature (43 vols., 1821-1826), &c. Ackermann was
Flemish fleet, visited England and obtained a promise of help an enterprising man he patented (1801) a method for rendering
;

from King Richard II. After Artevelde's death in November paper and cloth waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the
1382, he acted as leader of the Flemings, gained several victories
purpose and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises
with gas. Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed
and increased his fame by skilfully conducting a retreat from
Damme to Ghent in August 1385. He took part in the conclu- much to him. After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected
sion of the treaty of peace between Ghent and Philip the Bold, nearly a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers.
duke of Burgundy, the successor of Count Louis, in December He died at Finchley, near London, on 'the 3Oth of March 1834.

Trusting in Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his

ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of
1385.
on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the
friends, Ackerman remained in Flanders, and was murdered at
Ghent on the 22nd of July 1387, leaving a
forms oknow, aknow and acknow, acknowledge is formed on
memory of chivalry
and generosity. analogy of "knowledge"), an admission that something has
been given or done, a term used in law in various connexions.
See Jean Froissart, Chronigues, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
(Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, Chronodromon, edited by
The acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor
K. de Lettenhove in the Chronigues relatives a I'histoire de la Belgigue or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of Limita-
sous la domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870). tions. The signature to a will by a testator, if not made in the
ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801), presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards acknowledged in
German physician, was born at Zeulenroda, in Upper Saxony, on their presence. The acknowledgment by a woman married before
the I7th of February 1756, and died at Altdorf on the gth of March 1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real property not her separate
1801. At the age of fifteen he became a student of medicine property, requires to be made by her before a judge of the High
at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom he followed to Gottingen Court or of a county court or before a perpetual or special
in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle. commissioner. Before such an acknowledgment can be received,
A few years' practice at Stendal (1778-1799), where there were the judge or commissioner is required to examine her apart
numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable original from her husband, touching her knowledge of the deed, and to
observations to his translation (1780-1783) of Bernardino ascertain whether she freely and voluntarily consents to it. An
Ramazzini's (1633-1714) treatise on diseases of artificers. In 1786 acknowledgment to the right of the production of deeds of
he became professor of medicine at the university of Altdorf, in conveyance is an obligation on the vendor, when he retains any

Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, and then, from portion of the property to which the deeds relate, and is entitled
1794 till his death in 1801, that of pathology and therapeutics. to retain the deeds, to produce them from time to time at the
He wrote Instilutiones Historiae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792) request of the person to whom the acknowledgment is given,
 ACLAND ACNE 149
to allow copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe sodium and ferric metasilicate, NaFe(SiOs)2. In its crystallo-
custody (Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9). The term "acknow- graphic characters it is close to ordinary pyroxene (augite and
"
ledgment is, in the United States, applied to the certificate diopside), being monoclinic and having nearly the same angle
of a public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before between the prismatic cleavages. There are, however, important
him to be the deed or act of the person who executed it. differences in the optical characters: the birefringence of acmite
" "
is the sum paid in some parts
Acknowledgment money is negative, the pleochroism is
strong and the extinction angle
of England by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the on the plane of symmetry measured to the vertical axis is small
manor. (3-5). The hardness is 6-65, and the specific gravity 3-55.
ACLAND, CHRISTIAN HENRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815), Crystals are elongated in the direction of the vertical axis, and
usually called Lady Harriet Acland, was born on the 3rd of are blackish green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour.
January 1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester. In Being isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in com-
1770 she married John Dyke Acland, who as a member of parlia- position between augite or diopside and aegirite are not un-
ment became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy common, and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine-
towards the American colonies, and, entering the British army diopside.
in 1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the 2oth Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks rich in
regiment of foot. Lady Harriet accompanied her husband, and, soda, such as nepheline-syenites, phonolites, &c. It was first
when he was wounded at Ticonderoga, nursed him in his tent at discovered as slender crystals, sometimes a foot in length, in
the front. In the second battle of Saratoga Major Acland was the pegmatite veins of the granite of Rundemyr, near Kongsberg
again badly wounded and subsequently taken prisoner. Lady in Norway, and was named by F. Stromeyer in 1821 from the
Harriet was determined to be with him, and underwent great Gr. aK//i7, a point, in allusion to the pointed terminations of
hardship to accomplish her object, proving herself a courageous the crystals. Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian
and devoted wife. A story has been told that being provided sea -god) was described in 1835 fr m tne elaeolite-syenite of
with a letter from General Burgoyne .to the American general southern Norway. Although exhibiting certain varietal differ-
Gates, she went up the Hudson river in an open boat to the ences, the essential identity of acmite and aegirite has long been
enemy's lines, arriving late in the evening. The American out- established, but the latter and more recent name is perhaps in
posts threatened to fire into the boat if its occupants stirred, more general use, especially among petrologists.
"
and Lady Harriet had to wait eight dark and cold hours," ACNE, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the
until the sun rose, when she at last received permission to join sebaceous glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the
her husband. Major Acland died in 1778, and Lady Harriet on disease being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous
" "
the 2ist of July 1815. follicles by a comedo," familiarly known as blackhead." It
ACLAND, SIR HENRY WENTWORTH, BART. (1815-1900), is now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is
English physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on the organism known as bacillus acnes. It shows itself in the
the 23rd of August 1815, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and
Dyke Acland (1787-1871). Educated at Harrow and at Christ be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the
Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and skin. This affection is likewise most common in early adult life,
then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh. Returning and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the face, where it
to Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ may, when of much extent, produce considerable disfigurement.
Church in 1845, and in 1851 Radcliffe librarian and physician to It is apt to persist for months or even years, but usually in time
the Radcliffe infirmary. Seven years later he became regius disappears entirely, although slight traces may remain in the
professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 1894. He form of scars or stains upon the skin. Eruptions of this kind
was also a curator of the university galleries and of the Bodleian are sometimes produced by the continued internal use of certain
Library, and from 1858 to 1887 he represented his university drugs, such as the iodide or bromide of potassium. In treating
on the General Medical Council, of which he served as president this condition the face should first of all be held over steaming
from 1874 to 1887. He was created a baronet in 1890, and ten water for several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed. The
years later, on the i6th of October 1900, he died at his house in blackheads should next be removed, not with the finger-nail,
Broad Street, Oxford. Acland took a leading part in the revival but with an inexpensive little instrument known as the " comedo
of the Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of expressor." When the more noticeable of the blackheads have
natural science into the university. As Lee's reader he began been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for three or
to form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations four minutes with a lather made from a special soap composed
on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the Oxford of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru. Any lather remaining
University museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for the en- on the face at the end of this time should be wiped off with a
couragement of the study of science, especially in relation to soft handkerchief. As thistreatment might give rise to some
"
medicine, was largely due to his efforts. To Henry Acland," irritation of the skin, should be replaced every fourth night
it
"
said his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, physiology was an en- by a simple application of cold cream. Of drugs used internally
trusted gospel of which he was the solitary preacher to the sulphate of calcium, in pill, 5 grain three times a day, is a very
heathen," but on the other hand his thorough classical training useful adjunct to the preceding. The patient should take plenty
preserved science at Oxford from too abrupt a severance from of exercise in the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet,
the humanities. In conjunction with Dean Liddell, he revolu- and, if present, constipation and anaemia must be suitably treated.
tionized the study of art and archaeology, so that the cultivation Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more severe
of these subjects, for which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with no relation to
cared before that time, began to flourish in the university. the foregoing, and in most cases secondary to seborrhea of the
Acland was also interested in questions of public health. He scalp. It is characterized by great redness of the nose and
served on the royal commission on sanitary laws in England cheeks, accompanied by pustular enlargements on the surface
and Wales in 1869, and published a study of the outbreak of of the skin, which produce marked disfigurement. Although
cholera at Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on often seen in persons who live too freely, it is by no means con-
sanitary matters. His memoir on the topography of the Troad, fined to such, but may arise in connexion with disturbances of
with panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise the general health, especially of the function of digestion, and
which he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health. in females with menstrual disorders. It is apt to be exceed-
ACME (Gr. 61^17, point), the highest point attainable; first ingly intractable to treatment, which is here too, as in the pre-
used as an English word by Ben Jonson. ceding form, partly local and partly constitutional. Of internal
ACMITE, or AEGIRITE, a mineral of the pyroxene (q.v.} group, remedies preparations of iodine and of arsenic are sometimes
which may be described as a soda-pyroxene, being essentially a found of service.
150 ACOEMETI ACOMINATUS
ACOEMETI (Gr. eucoi/uTjTOS, sleepless), an order of Eastern an officeor order until the time of Ecgbert of York (767), the
monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission friend of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican influence. The
day or night. This was done by dividing the communities into Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it was then in use both
choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. Their as an office and as an order, and Aelfric (1006) in both his pastoral
first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in the begin- epistle and canons mentions the acolyte. The conclusion, then,
ning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in which seems warranted by the evidence, is that the acolyte was
Constantinople. Here also, c. 460, was founded by the consular an office only at Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican
Studius the famous monastery of the Studium, which was put Church, found its way as such into the Roman books at some
in the hands of the Acoemeti and became their chief house, so period before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne.
that they were sometimes called Studites. At Agaunum (St The duties of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical,
Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Bur- are identical with those mentioned in the Staluta Ecclesiae
"
gundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office Antiqua of Aries: It is the duty of acolytes to carry the candle-
was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion sticks, to light the lamps of the church, to administer wine and
with the Eastern Acoemeti. water for the Eucharist." It might seem, from the number forty-
The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part in two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, that at Rome the acolytes
the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries, at were divided among the seven ecclesiastical regions of the city;
firststrenuously opposing Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, but we have no proof that, at that date, there were six acolytes
in his attempted compromise with the monophysites; but after- attached to each region. From the ancient division of the Roman
wards, in Justinian's reign, falling under ecclesiastical censure acolytes into Palatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the
for Nestorian tendencies. Lateran palace, Stationarii, or those who served at the churches
See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetzer und where there was a " station," and Regionarii, or those attached
Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.); and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- directly to the regions, it would seem that the number forty-two
pddie (3rd ed.) also the general histories of the time.
; (E. C. B.) was only the actual number then existing and not an official
ACOLYTE (Gr.ciKoXouflos, follower), the last of the four minor number. We get a glimpse of their duties from the Ordines
orders in the Roman Church. As an office it appears to be of Romani. When the pope rode in procession to the station an
local origin, is entirely unknown in the Eastern Church, with
and acolyte, on foot, preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and
the exception of the Armenians who borrowed it from the West. at the church seven regionary acolytes with candles went before
Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was only to be found at him in the procession to the altar, while two others, bearing the
Rome and Carthage. When in 251 Pope Cornelius, in a letter to vessel that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his
Fabius of Antioch, mentions among the Roman clergy forty-two adoration. During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible (Ordo
acolytes, placing them after the subdeacons and before the other VI.) and three assisted at the washing of the hands. At the
minor officials (see Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives moment of communion the acolytes received in linen bags the
no hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as hold- consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting priests. This office
ing an already established position. Their institution has there- of bearing the sacrament is an ancient one, and is mentioned in
fore to be sought for at an earlier date than his pontificate. It the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman acolyte, who was martyred
is possible that the Liber Pontificalis refers to the office under on the Appian Way while carrying the Hosts from the cata-
the Lathi synonym, when it says of Pope Victor (186-197) that combs. The official dress of the acolyte, according to Ordo V.,
he made sequentes cleros, a term sequens which Pope Gaius was a close-fitting linen garment (camisia) girt about him, a
(283-293) uses in the sense of acolyte. While the office was well napkin hanging from the left side, a white tunic, a stole (orarium)
known hi Rome, there is nothing to prove that it was also an and a chasuble (planeta) which he took off when he sang on the
order through which, as to-day, every candidate to the priest- steps of the ambone.
hood must pass. The contrary is a fact proved by many monu- At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council of
mental inscriptions and authentic statements. Though the Trent (Sess. xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while remaining an
office is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (2007-258) makes order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical office, since the duties
many references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters, are now performed, almost everywhere, by laymen. The office
this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were known. has been revived, though unofficially, in the Church of England,
Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, says nothing as a result of the Tractarian movement.
about acolytes; neither does St Augustine. The Irish Church See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecclesiae ordinationibus
did not know them; and in Spain the council of Toledo (400) (Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 152; Martene, De Antiquis Ec-
1739), ii. pp. 47 and 86; Mabillon, Musaeum
clesiae ritibus (Antwerp,
makes no mention either of the office or of the order. The Italicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, Liturgia Romana
Statuta Ecclesiae Anliqua (falsely called the Canons of the Fourth Vetus; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d' archeologie chrelienne et de liturgie,
Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican collection, originating in vol.i. col.
348-536. (E. TN.)
the province of Aries at the beginning of the 6th century, ACOMINATUS (AKOMJNATOS), MICHAEL (c. 1140-1220),
.

mentions the acolyte, but does not give, as in the case of the Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was born at Chonae (the
other orders, any form for the ordination. The Roman books are ancient Colossae) At an early age he studied at Constantinople,
.

silent, and there is no mention of it in the collection known as

and about 1175 was appointed archbishop of Athens. After the
the Leonine Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Mass- capture of Constantinople by the Franks and the establishment
of the Latin empire (1204), he retired to the island of Ceos, where
book, which, as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to
St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in one MS. he died. He was a versatile writer, and composed homilies,
of the loth century given by Muratori we find a form for the speeches and poems, which, with his correspondence, throw
ordination of an acolyte. While there is frequent mention of considerable light upon the miserable condition of Attica and
the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it is only in the Ordo Athens at the time. His memorial to Alexis III. Angelus on the
VIII. (which is not earlier than the 7th century) that we find the abuses of Byzantine administration, the poetical lament over the
very simple form for admitting an acolyte to his office. At the degeneracy of Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas
end of the mass the cleric, clad in chasuble and stole and bearing and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special
a linen bag on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and mention.
Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1879-1880) Migne, Patrologia
receives a blessing. There is no collation of power or order but ;

Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellissen, Michael Akominatos (1846), con-

a simple admission to an office. The evidence available, there-
taining several pieces with German translation; F. Gregorovius,
fore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a local office Geschichte der Stadt Athen im Mittelalter, i. (1889); G. Finlay,
and was not a necessary step or order for every candidate. History of Greece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877).
In England, though the ecclesiastical organization came from His younger brother NICETAS (Niketas), sometimes called
Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace of such CHONIATES, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up
 ACONCAGUA ACONITE
politics as a career. He held several appointments under the object various acts of parliament were passed at this time (Lords'
" "
Angelus emperors (amongst them that of great logothete or Journals, vol. i., and Commons' Journals, vol. i., passim). In
" "
chancellor) and was governor of the theme of Philippopolis 1564 he was sent to report on the fortifications of Berwick (Co/.
at a critical period. After the fall of Constantinople he fled to St. Pap. For. Ser. 1564-1565, passim; Acts P.C., 1558-1570,

Nicaea, where he settled at the court of the emperor Theodorus p. 146); his report is now in the Record Office (C.S.P. For.,
Lascaris, and devoted himself to literature. He died between 1564-1565, No. 512).
1 2 10 and 1 2 20. His chief work is his History, in 2 1 books, of the But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the
period from 1180 to 1206. In spite of its florid and bombastic history of religious toleration. Before reaching England he had
style, it is of considerable value as a record (on the whole im- published a treatise on the methods of investigation, De Methodo,
partial) of events of which he was either an eye-witness or had hoc est, de recte investigandarum tradendarumque Scientiarum
heard at first hand. Its most interesting portion is the de- ratione (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical spirit placed him
scription of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read outside the recognized religious societies of his time. On his
all
with Villehardouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same arrival in London he had joined the Dutch Reformed Church
The little treatise On the Statues destroyed by the "
subject. in Austin Friars, but he was infected with Anabaptistical and
Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is of Arian opinions " and was excluded from the sacrament by
special interest to the archaeologist. His dogmatic work(67j(rai;p6s Grindal, bishop of London. The real nature of his heterodoxy
'OpOodo^ias, Thesaurus Orthodoxae Fidei), although it is extant in is revealed in his Stratagemata Satanae, published in
1565 and
a complete form in MS., has only been published in part. It is translated into various languages. The " stratagems of Satan "
one of the chief authorities for the heresies and heretical writers "are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian church. Aconcio
of the 1 2th century. sought to find the common denominator of the various creeds;
Editions: History, editio princeps, H. Wolf (1557); and in the this was essential doctrine, the rest was immaterial. To arrive
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., 1st ed.,Bekker (1835) Rhetorical ;
at this common basis, he had to reduce dogma to a low level,
Pieces in C. Sathas, tJitaauavLiai Bi(3\io0ijK7), i. (1872); Thesaurus in and his result was generally repudiated. Even Selden applied
Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxix., cxl. see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
" " ;
to Aconcio the remark ubi bene, nil melius; ubi male, nemo
de Villehardouin in Causeries du Lundi, ix. S. Reinach,
" Geoffrey " ;

The dedication of such a work to Queen Elizabeth illus-

La fin de 1'empire grec in Esquisses Archeologiques (1888); C. pejus.
Neumann, Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); trates the tolerance or religious laxity during the early years of
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. Ix. and (for both Michael and Nicetas)
; her reign. Aconcio found another patron in the earl of Leicester,
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
and died about 1566.
ACONCAGUA, a small northern province of central Chile, AUTHORITIES. Cough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ. Strype's
bounded N. by Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and Grindal, pp. 62, 66; Bayle's Dictionnaire G. Tiraboschi, Storia
;

Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific. Its area is officially com- della lett. italiana (Florence, 1805-1813); Osterreichisches Biogr.
m. Lexikon Nouvelle biogr. generate Diet. Nat. Biogr. (A. "F. P.)
puted at 5487
; ;
sq. Pop. (1895) I1 3t 1 (>5'> (rpo 2 ,
official esti-
mate based on civil registry returns)131,255. The province is ACONITE (Aconitum)i a genus of plants belonging to the
very mountainous, and is traversed from east to west by the broad natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly
valley of the Aconcagua river. The climate is hot and dry, the known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embracing
rainfall being too small to influence climatic conditions. The about 60 species, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the
valleys are highly fertile, and where irrigation is employed large northern hemisphere. They are distinguished by having one
crops are easily raised. Beyond the limits of irrigation the of the five blue or yellow coloured sepals (the posterior one) in
country is semi-barren. Alfalfa and grapes are the principal the form of a helmet; hence the English name monkshood.
products, and considerable attention is given to the cultivation Two of the petals placed under the hood of the calyx are sup-
of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and melons. The " Vale of ported on long stalks, and have a hollow spur at their apex,
Quillota," through which the railway passes between Valparaiso containing honey. They are handsome plants, the tall stem
and Santiago, is celebrated for its gardens. The Aconcagua being crowned by racemes of showy flowers. Aconitum Napellus,
river rises on the southern slope of the volcano Aconcagua, flows common monkshood, is a doubtful native of Britain, and is of
eastward through a broad valley, or bay in the mountains, and therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occa-
enters the Pacific 12 m. north of Valparaiso. The river has a sionally been mistaken for horse-radish. The aconite has a short
course of about 200 m., and its waters irrigate the best and underground stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots
most populous part of the province. Two other rivers the descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to
Ligua and Choapa traverse the province, the latter forming new plants. When put to the h'p, the juice of the aconite root
the northern boundary line. The capital is San Felipe, on the produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-radish
Aconcagua river; it had a population of 11,313 in 1895, and an root, which belongs to the natural order Cruciferae, is much
estimated population of 11,660 in 1902. The other chief town longer than that of the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour
is Santa Rosa de los Andes (est. pop.
6854), which is a principal is yellowish, and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves
station on the Transandine branch of the state railway. The on it.

only port in the province is Los Vilos, in lat. 32 S., from which Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some having
a railway 40 m. long runs north-east to the valley of the Choapa. blue and others yellow flowers. Aconitum lycoctonum, wolfsbane,
Another short line connects Cabildo, in the valley of the Ligua, is a yellow-flowered species common on the Alps of Switzerland.
with the state railway. The roots of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nepal)
ACONCIO, GIACOMO (1492-1566?), pioneer of religious tolera- poison called bikh, bish or nabee. It contains considerable
tion, was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is the most
1492. He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernar- deadly poison known. Aconitum palmatum yields another of
dino Ochino who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found the celebrated bikh poisons. The root of Aconitum luridum, of
refuge in England. Like them, his revolt against Romanism the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that of A. ferox or
took an extremer form than Lutheranism, and after a temporary A Napellus. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental,
.

residence in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in England hardy perennials. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil,
soon after EKzabeth's accession. He had studied law and and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propa-
theology, but his profession was that of an engineer, and in this gated by divisions of the root or by seeds; great care should be
capacity he found employment with the English government. taken not to leave pieces of the root about owing to its very
He was granted an annuity of 60 on the 27th of February 1560, poisonous character.
and letters of naturalization on the 8th of October 1561 (Co/. Chemistry. The active principle of Aconitum Napellus is the
Stale Papers, Dom. Addenda, 1547-1566, p. 495), and wasfor
Ser., alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Geiger and Hesse
some time occupied with draining Plumstead marshes, for which (Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267). Alder Wright and A. P. Luff obtained
 152 ACONTIUS ACORN
apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic acid by hydrolysis; while, in but definite. It is of undoubted value as a local anodyne in
1892, C. Ehrenberg and A. Purfiirst (Journ. Prat. Chem., 1892, sciatica and
neuralgia, especially in ordinary facial or trigeminal
45 p. 604) observed acetic acid as a hydroly tic product. This, and
, neuralgia. The best method of application is by rubbing in a
allied alkaloids, have formed the subject of many investigations small quantity of the aconitine ointment until numbness is felt,
by Wyndham Dunstan and his pupils in England, and by Martin but the costliness of this preparation causes the use of the
Freund and Paul Beck in Berlin. But their constitution is not aconite liniment to be commonly resorted to. This should be
yet solved, there even being some divergence of opinion as to painted on the affected part with a camel's hair brush dipped in
their empirical formulae. Aconitine (GsI^NOjs, according to chloroform, which facilitates the absorption of the alkaloid.
Dunstan; C^H^NOu, according to Freund) is a crystalline Aconite is indicated for internal administration whenever it
base, soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alco- desirable to depress the action of the heart in the course of a
holic solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory. fever. Formerly used in every fever, and even in the septic states
When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine. Hydrolysis that constantly followed surgical operations in the pre-Listerian
gives acetic acid and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the epoch, aconite is now employed only in the earliest stage of the
alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives less serious fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and,
aconine. Pseudaconitine, obtained from Aconitum ferox, gives notably, laryngitis. The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the
on hydrolysis acetic acid and veratrylpseudaconine, the latter vocal cords with threatened obstruction to the respiration
of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric acid and pseud- that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved by the
aconine: Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese aconites, sedative action of this drug upon the circulation. In order to
"
known locally as kuza-uzu," hydrolyses to japbenzaconine,' reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these cases, without at the
which further breaks down to benzoic acid and japaconine. same time lessening the power of the heart, the drug must be
Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and myoctonine which given in doses of about two minims of the tincture every half-
occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. The usual test for hour and then every hour until the pulse falls to the normal rate.
solutions of aconitine consists in slight acidulation with acetic Thereafter the drug must be discontinued. It is probably never
acid and addition of potassium permanganate, which causes the right to give aconite in doses much larger than that named.
formation of a red crystalline precipitate. In 1905, Dunstan and There is one condition of the heart itself in which aconite is
his collaborators discovered two new aconite alkaloids, indaconi- sometimes useful. Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all
" mohri "
tine in (Aconitum chasmanthum, Stapf), and bikh- cases of valvular disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hyper-
" "
aconitine in bikh (Aconitum spicatum); he also proposes to trophy with over-action. But the practitioner must be assured
classify these alkaloids according to whether they yield benzoic that neither valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium
or veratric acid on hydrolysis (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, pp. is present.
1620, 1650). Toxicology. In a few minutes after the introduction of a
From the root of Aconitum Napellus are prepared a liniment poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The
and a tincture. The dose of the latter (Brit. Pharmacop.) is of initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary canal.

importance as being exceptionally small, for it is not advisable There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness in the
to give more than at most five drops at a time. The official mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually super-
preparation is an ointment which contains one part of the alka- venes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be observed.
loid in fifty. It must be used with extreme care, and in small After about an hour there is severe vomiting. Much motor
quantities, and it must not be used at all where cuts or cracks are weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above de-
present in the skin. scribed soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail,
Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine. Aconite first stimu- death occurring from asphyxia. As in strychnine poisoning,
lates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and tempera- the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The
ture, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or to a mucous only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia. The treatment
membrane; the therefore gives place to a long-
initial tingling is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant emetic.
continued anaesthetic action. Taken internally aconite acts The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or
very notably on the circulation, the respiration and the nervous strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in
system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute maximal doses. Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also
being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or be employed.
even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful youth
falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole. Immediately before of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told byCallimachus
arrest the heart may beat much faster than normally, though in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of two of Ovid's
with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles Heroides (xx., xxi.). During the festival of Artemis at Delos,
may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian maiden of whom
veratrine and colchicum. The action of aconitine on the circu- he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the goddess. He
lation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory "
wrote on an apple the words, I swear by the sacred shrine of
centre in the medulla oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves), the goddess that I will marry you," and threw it at her feet. She
and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and picked it up, and mechanically read the words aloud, which
muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them out. Unaware
not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; but, although she
becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory was betrothed more than once, she always fell ill before the wed-
centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action, ding took place. The Delphic oracle at last declared the cause
the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart. of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended goddess; where-
Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals, upon her father consented to her marriage with Acontius (Aris-
the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses it taenetus, Epistolae, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses,
therefore tends to relieve pain, if this be present. The activity i.,tells the story with different names).
of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by
contracted, and afterwards dilated. The cerebrum is totally analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of wood
unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence re- keeping the vane on the mast-head. The etymology of the word
maining normal to the last. The antipyretic action which con- (earlier akerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the New English
siderable doses of aconite display is not specific, but is the Dictionary. from a word (Goth, akran) which
It is derived
result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its meant fruit," originally " of the unenclosed land," and so of
"

slight diaphoretic action. the most important forest produce, the oak. Chaucer speaks of
The "
Therapeutics. indications for its employment are limited, achornes of okes." By degrees, popular etymology connected
 ACORUS CALAMUS ACOUSTICS 153
" " "
the word both with corn and oak-horn," and the spelling style. Among his other publications are De procuranda salute
changed accordingly. Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 1588), De Christo revelato libri
ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the novem (Rome, 1590), De temporibus novissimis libri quatuor
natural order Araceae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint (Arum) (Rome, 1590), and three volumes of sermons issued respectively
the representation in Britain of that order of Monocotyledons. in 1596, 1597 and 1599.
The name is derived from acorus, Gr. o/copos, the classical AUTHORITIES. Jps6 R. Carricido, El P. Jose de Acosta y su
name for the plant. It was the Calamus aromaticus of the importancia en la literatura cientifica espanola (Madrid, 1899); C.
medieval druggists and perhaps of the ancients, though the latter Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, Premiere
Partie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward
has been referred by some to the Citron grass, Andropogon Grimston's translation of the Historia reprinted (1880) for the
Nardus. The spice
"
Calamus " or " Sweet-cane " of the Scrip- Hakluyt Society with introduction and notes by Sir Clements R.
tures, one of the ingredients of the holy anointing oil of the Jews,
Markham. (J. F.-K.)
was perhaps one of the fragrant species of A ndropogon. The plant ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), a Portuguese Jew of noble family,
is a herbaceous perennial with a long, branched root-stock was born at Oporto towards the close of the i6th century. His
creeping through the mud, about f inch thick, with short joints father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up in
and large brownish leaf-scars. At the ends of the branches are the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites of the
tufts of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long church till the course of his inquiries led
him, after much painful
and about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in the doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for Judaism. Passing
true Flag (Iris); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), which very over to Amsterdam, he was received into the synagogue, having
much resemble the leaves, bear an apparently lateral, blunt, his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel. His wayward dis-
tapering spike of densely packed, very small flowers. A long position found, however, no satisfaction in the Jewish fold. He
leaf (spathe) borne immediately below the spike forms an appar- came into conflict with the authorities of the synagogue and was
ent continuation of the scape, though really a lateral outgrowth excommunicated. Unlike Spinoza (who was about fifteen at
from it, the spike of flowers being terminal. The plant has a wide the time of Acosta's death), Acosta was not strong enough to
distribution, growing in wet situations in the Himalayas, North stand alone. Wearied by his melancholy isolation, he was
America, Siberia and various parts of Europe, including Eng- driven to seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having re-
land, and has been naturalized in Scotland and Ireland. Though canted his heresies, he was readmitted after an excommunication
regarded as a native in most counties of England at the present of fifteen years, but was soon excommunicated a second time.
day, where it is now found thoroughly wild on sides of ditches, After seven years of exclusion, he once more sought admission,
ponds and rivers, and very abundantly in some districts, it is and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was again
probably not indigenous. It seems to have been spread in western received. His vacillating autobiography, Exemplar Humanae
and central Europe from about the end of the i6th century by Vitae, was published with a " refutation " by Limborch in 1687,
means of botanic gardens. The botanist Clusius (Charles de and republished in 1847. In this brief work Acosta declares his
1'Escluse or Lecluse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna opposition both to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks
from a root received from Asia Minor in 1574, and distributed with the more bitterness of the latter religion. The only authority
it to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was which he admits is the lex naturae. Acosta was not an original
probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational Deists.
Gerard. It is very readily propagated by means of its branch- His history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy by
ing root-stock. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used Gutzkow. Acosta committed suicide in 1647. The significance
medicinally. The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is of his career has been much exaggerated.
associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder. ACOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de
Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions it as Jussieu in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of
a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague. In India it is used as an Botany, embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods,
insectifuge, and is administered in infantile diarrhoea. It is an horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and fungi.
ingredient in pot-pourri, is employed for flavouring beer and is The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or cotyledon.
chewed to clear the voice; and its volatile oil is employed by Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, with usually
makers of snuff and aromatic vinegar. The rhizome of Acorus one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while in flowerless plants
Calamus is sometimes adulterated with that of Iris Pseudacorus, there is no seed and therefore no true cotyledon. The term is
which, however, is distinguishable by its lack of odour, a stringent synonymous with Cryptogams, by which it was replaced in later
taste and dark colour. systems of classification.
ACOSTA, JOSE DE (15397-1600), Spanish author, was born ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. O.KOVH.V to hear), a title frequently
at Medina del Campo about the year 1 539. He joined the Jesuits given to the science of sound, that is, to the description and
in 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he acted theory of the phenomena which give rise to the sensation
as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was appointed of sound (q.v.). The term " acoustics " might, however, with
theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, and in 1583 advantage be reserved for the aspect of the subject more im-
published a catechism in Quichua and Aymara the first book mediately connected with hearing. Thus we may speak appro-
printed in Peru. Returning to Spain in 1587, and placing him- priately of the acoustic quality of a room or hall, describing it
self at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, Acosta was im- as good or bad acoustically, according as speaking is heard in it
prisoned in 1592-1593; on his submission in 1594 he became easily or with difficulty. When a room has bad acoustic quality
superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and in 1598 rector of the we can almost always assign the fault to large smooth surfaces
Jesuit college at Salamanca, where he died on the I5th of Feb- on the walls, floor or ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of
ruary 1600. His treatise De natura novi orbis libri duo (Sala- the speaker so that the direct waves sent out by him at any
manca, 1588-1589) may be regarded as the preliminary draft of instant are received by a hearer with the waves sent out previ-
his celebrated Hisloria natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, ously and reflected at these smooth surfaces. The syllables
1590) which was speedily translated into Italian (1596), French overlap, and the hearing is confused. The acoustic quality of
(1597), Dutch (1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English a room may be improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces
(1604). The Hi'storia is in three sections: books I. and II. deal by curtains or by arrangement of furniture. The echo is then
with generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography broken up into small waves, none of which may be sufficiently
and natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and VII. distinct to interfere with the direct voice. Sometimes a sound-
with the religious and political institutions of the aborigines. ing-board over the head of a speaker improves the hearing
Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish colonial policy, probably by preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him.
Acosta deserves high praise as an acute and diligent observer A large bare floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when
whose numerous new and valuable data are set forth in a vivid a room is filled by an audience the hearing is much improved
154 ACQUI ACRE
Wires are frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably rather than with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined
with the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a
roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to suppose stormy experience during the three centuries preceding the
that they are efficient. The only cure appears to consist in Christian era. The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus
breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the reflexion shall be calls it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais,
much less regular and distinct. Probably drapery assists by probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom
absorbing the sound to some extent, and thus it lessens the echo of Alexander. Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for
besides breaking it up. (J. H. P.) the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt. About 165 B.C.
ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles in
province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is 21 m. Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 1 53 B.C. Alex-
S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,786. Its warm sulphur springs ander Hulas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the Syrian
are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae Statiellae they crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates
were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus and Liut- to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to
prand speak of the ancient bath establishment. In the neigh- obtain Jewish support against his rival, including the revenues
bourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct which sup- of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in vain. Jonathan
plied it. The place was connected by road with Alba Pompeia threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 150 B.C. he was received
and Augusta Taurinorum. The tribe of the Statielli, to whom by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later,
the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early period, however, Tryphon, an officer of the Syrians, who had grown
but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the north of suspicious of the Maccabees, enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais
the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral. and there treacherously took him prisoner. The city was also
ACR&, or AQDIRY, a river of Brazil and principal tributary of assaulted and captured by Alexander Jannaeus, by Cleopatra
the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing easterly and by Tigranes. Here Herod built a gymnasium, and here the
and northerly to a junction with the Purts at 8 45' S. lat. The Jews met Petronius, sent to set up statues of the emperor in
name is also applied to a district situated on the same river the Temple, and persuaded him to turn back. St Paul spent a
and on the former (1867) boundary line between Bolivia and day in Ptolemais. The Arabs captured the city in A.D. 638,
Brazil. The region, which abounds in valuable rubber forests, and lost it to the crusaders in mo. The latter made the town
was settled by Bolivians between 1870 and 1878, but was in- their chief port in Palestine. It was re-taken by Saladin in
vaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade and 1187, besieged by Guy de Lusignan in 1189 (see below), and
became tributary to the rubber markets of Manaos and Para. again captured by Richard Coeur de Lion in 1191. In 1229 it
In 1899 the Bolivian government established a custom-house at was placed under the control of the knights of St John (whence
Puerto Alonso, on the Acre river, for the collection of export one of its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in
duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian 1291. The Turks under Sultan Selim I. captured the city in 1517,
settlers and finally brought about a boundary dispute between after which it fell into almost total decay. Maundrell in 1697
the two republics. In July 1899 the Acreanos declared their found it a complete ruin, save for a khan occupied by some
independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the French merchants, a mosque and a few poor cottages. Towards
following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil. the end of the i8th century it seems to have revived under
Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar el- Amir, the local
Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, governor of Damascus,
settled at Petropolis on the i7th of November 1903 through the improved and fortified it, but by heavy imposts secured for him-
purchase by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to self all the benefits derived from his improvements. About 1780
about the nth parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq. m. Jezzar peremptorily banished the French trading colony, in
'

ACRE, Akka, or ST JEAN D'ACRE, the chief town of a govern- spite of protests from the French government, and refused to
mental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, Nazareth and receive a consul. In 1799 Napoleon, in pursuance of his scheme
Tiberias. It stands on a low promontory at the northern ex- for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, ap-
tremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m. N. N.W. from Jerusalem, and peared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March-May)
25 m. S. of Tyre. The population is about n,ooo; 8000 being was repulsed by the Turks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a
Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, &c. It was long force of British sailors. Jezzar was succeeded on his death by
"
regarded as the Key of Palestine," on account of its command- his son Suleiman, under whose milder rule the town advanced in
ing position on the shore of the broad plain that joins the inland prosperity till 1831, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced
plain of Esdraelon, and so affords the easiest entrance to the the town and destroyed its buildings. On the 4th of November
interior of the country. But trade is now passing over to Haifa, 1840 it was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French
at the south side of the bay, as its harbour offers a safer road- squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule.
stead, and is a regular calling -place for steamers. Business, Battle of Acre. The battle of 1189, fought on the ground
rapidly declining, is still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame, to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the
&c., in the town market. There are few buildings of interest, Crusades. The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king of
owing to the frequent destructions the town has undergone. Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 4th of
The wall, which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from October 1189 to the relieving army which Saladin had collected.
the crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804) The Christian army consisted of the feudatories of the kingdom
from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of European crusaders
within. Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion. and the military orders, and contingents from Egypt, Turkestan,
History. Few towns have had a more chequered or calami- Syria and Mesopotamia fought under Saladin. The Saracens
tous history. Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified lay in a semicircle east of the town facing inwards towards Acre.
with the 'Aak of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. The Christians opposed them with crossbowmen in first line and
(c. 1500 B.C.), and it is certainly the Akka of the Tell el-Amarna the heavy cavalry in second. At Arsuf the Christians fought
correspondence. To the Hebrews it was known as Acco (Re- coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat
vised Version spelling), but it is mentioned only once in the between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The crusaders
Old Testament, namely Judges i. 31, as one of the places from were so far successful that the enemy had to send up reinforce-
which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants. ments from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of
Theoretically it was in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the
Josephus assigns it by name to the district of one of Solomon's crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms,
provincial governors. Throughout the period of Hebrew domina- met with no great resistance. But the victors scattered to
tion, however, its political connexions were always with Syria plunder. Saladin rallied his men, and, when the Christians
 ACRE ACRON
began to with their booty, let loose his light horse upon
retire which dye and wool a fine yellow; and the solutions of the
silk
them. No
connected resistance was offered, and the Turks salts are characterizedby their fine yellowish-green fluorescence.
slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh troops of the It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner (Ber., 1884,
Christian right wing. Into this fight Guy's reserve, charged 17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with aniline,
with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was also drawn, and, the resulting ortho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane being
thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the town to the north- reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which on
ward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, they fell upon the oxidation yields chrysaniline. Benzoflavin, an isomer of chrys-
Templars, who suffered severely in their retreat. In the end the aniline,! is also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by K. Oehler
crusaders repulsed the relieving army, but only at the cost of (English Patent96i4)from meta-phenylenediamine and benzalde-
7000 men. (R. A. S. M.) hyde. These substances condense to form tetra-aminotriphenyl-
ACRE, a land measure used by English-speaking races. methane, which, on heating with acids, loses ammonia and yields
Derived from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat. ager, diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which benzoflavin is ob-
Gr. &yp6s, Sans, ajras, it has retained its original meaning tained by oxidation. It is a yellow powder, soluble in hot water.
" "
open country," in such phrases as God's acre," or a church- The formulae of these substances are:
"
yard, broad acres," &c. As a measure of land, it was first
defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a day; HN 2

statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward I.,

Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights
/\c/\/
I

and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq. 7s

yds. In addition to this " statute " or " imperial acre," other
"
acres
"
are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, Ireland,
Wales and certain English counties. The Scottish acre con- NH ?
v
Chrysaniline. Benzoflavin.
tains 6150-4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in Wales,
the land measures erw (4320 sq. yds.), slang (3240 sq. yds.) and ACRO (or ACRON), HELENIUS, Roman grammarian and com-
"
paladr are called acres "; the Leicestershire acre (2308^ sq. mentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd' century A.D.
yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and Cheshire acre He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius. A
(10,240 sq. yds.) are examples of local values. collection of scholia on Horace,
originally anonymous in the
H
ACRIDINE, Ci 3 9 N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring com- earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was wrongly
pound found in crude coal-tar anthracene. It may be separated attributed to him at a much later date, probably during the
by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and then precipitating 1 5th century. It has been published by Pauly (1861) and
the sulphuric acid solution with potassium bichromate, the Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia.
resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed by ammonia. See Pseudoacronis Scholia in Horatium Vetustiora, ed. O. Keller
It was first isolated in 1890 by C. Graebe and H. Caro (Ann., (1902-1904).
1871, 158, p. 265). Many synthetic processes are known for the .
ACROBAT (Gr. &KpoffaTelv, to walk on tiptoe), originally
a rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover pro-
production of acridine and its derivatives. A. Bernthsen (Ann.,
fessional performers on the trapeze, &c., contortionists, balancers
1884, 224, p. i) condensed diphenylamine with fatty acids, in the
presence of zinc chloride. Formic acid yields acridine, and the
and tumblers. Evidence exists that there were very skilful
higher homologues give derivatives substituted at the meso performers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient
carbon atom, Romans. Modern rope-walkers (e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers
N N generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such assistance
in balancing, and by shifting this are enabled to maintain, or
+HCOOH->C H /|\C H ->C,H4<|>C
6 5 6 S 8 H4
CHO readily to recover, their equilibrium^
CH ACR06ENAE (" growing at the apex "), an obsolete botanical
C H .NH-C,H
6
N
6 6
N
term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and
+CH COOH-C H /|\C H -C H <|>C
a 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 H4
which were erroneously distinguished from the lower
ferns),
COCH, C(CH,) (Algae and Fungi)
by apical growth of the stem. The lower
Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of phenyl- Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae (" growing all
ortho-toluidine through a red-hot tube (C. Graebe, Ber., 1884, over a misnomer, as apical growth is common among them.
"),
17, P- *37)', by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, in ACROLITHS (Gr. d/cpoXifloi, i.e. ending in stone), statues
presence of aluminium chloride (O. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which the
102); by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane trunk of the figure was of wood, and the head, hands and feet of
over heated litharge (O. Fischer) by heating salicylic aldehyde
; marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or, more
with aniline and zinc chloride to 260 C. (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1886, commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were exposed.
19, p. 2452) and by distilling acridone over zinc dust (C. Graebe,
; Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the best known
Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1735). specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans.
Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized
feebly basic character. They combine readily with the alkyl by a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and
iodides to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily trans- soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of the
formed by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to face and extremities (Gr. aKpov, point, and (ityas, large).
N-alkyl acridones. Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at It is more frequent in the female sex, between the ages of 25
110 C. It is characterized by its irritating action on the skin, and 40. Its causation is generally associated with disturbances
and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions of its salts. On in the pituitary gland, and an extract of this body has been tried
oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields acridinic acid in the treatment, as one of the recent developments in organo-
(quinoline -o-/3-dicarboxylic acid) C9H 5 N(COOH) 2 Numerous .
therapeutics; thyroid extract has also been used, but without
derivatives of acridine are known and may be prepared by marked success, on the apparent analogy of acromegaly with
methods analogous to those used for the formation of the myxoedema.
parent base. For the preparation of the naphthacridines, see ACRON, a Greek physician, born at Agrigentum in Sicily,
F.Ullmann, German Patents 117472, 118439, 12 7S86, 128754, and was contemporary with Empedocles, and must therefore have
also Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 316, 2670. Phenyl-acridine is the parent lived in the 5th century before Christ. The successful measure of
base of chrysaniline, which is the chief constituent of the dye- lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, to put
stuff phosphine (a bye-product in the manufacture of rosauiline). a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said to have origin-
Chrysaniline (diamino-phenylacridine) forms red-coloured salts, ated with him; but this has been questioned on chronological
 i 5 6 ACROPOLIS ACT
grounds. Suidas gives the titles of several medical works written The great poets of the Italian renaissance, among them Boc-
by him Doric dialect.
in the caccio, indulged in them, as did also the early Slavic writers.
ACROPOLIS (Gr. cUpos, top, TroXis, city), literally the upper Sir John Davies (1569-1626) wrote twenty-six elegant Hymns to
" "
part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally Astraea, each an acrostic on Elisabetha Regina and Mistress
;

chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, Mary Page, in Fame's Route, 1637, commemorated 420 cele-
and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the brities of her time in acrostic verses. The same trick of com-
nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower position is often to be met with in the writings of more recent
ground. The word Acropolis, though Greek in origin and asso- versifiers. Sometimes the lines are so combined that the final
ciated primarily with Greek towns (Athens, Argos, Thebes, letters as well as the initials are significant. Edgar Allan Poe
Corinth), may be applied generically to all such citadels (Rome, worked two names one of them that of Frances Sargent
Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Hill at Edin- Osgood into verses in such a way that the letters of the names
burgh). The most famous is that of Athens, which, by reason corresponded to the first letter of the first line, the second letter
of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected of the second, the third letter of the third, and so on.
upon it, is generally known without qualification as the Acropolis Acrostic verse has always been held in slight estimation from a
(see ATHENS). literary standpoint. Dr Samuel Butler says, in his "Character of
"
ACROPOLITA (AKROPOLITES), GEORGE (1217-1282), Byzan- a Small Poet," He uses to lay the outsides of his verses even, like
tine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople. At an a bricklayer, by a line of rhyme and acrostic, and fill the middle
early age he was sent by his father to the court of John Ducas with rubbish." Addison (Spectator, No. 60) found it impossible
Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom and by his to decide whether the inventor of the anagram or the acrostic
successors (Theodorus II. Lascaris and Michael VIII. Palaeo- were the greater blockhead; and, in describing the latter, says,
"
logus) he was entrusted with important state missions. The I have seen some of them where the verses have not only been
" "
office of great logothete or chancellor was bestowed upon him edged by a name at each extremity, but have had the same name
in 1244. As commander in the field in 1257 against Michael running down like a seam through the middle of the poem."
Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed little military capacity. And Dryden, in Mac Flecknoe, scornfully assigned Shadwell the
He was captured and kept for two years in prison, from which rule of
he was released by Michael Palaeologus. Acropolita's most Some peaceful province in acrostic land.
important political task was that of effecting a reconciliation The name acrostic is also applied to alphabetical or " abece-
"
between the Greek and Latin Churches, to which he had been darian verses. Of these we have instances in the Hebrew
formerly opposed. In 1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X., psalms (e.g. Ps. xxv. and xxxiv.), where successive verses begin
and in the following year, at the council of Lyons, in the with the letters of the alphabet in their order. The structure of
emperor's name he recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome. Ps. cxix. is still more elaborate, each of the verses of each of the
In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John IL, emperor of twenty-two parts commencing with the letter which stands at
Trebizond, and died in the same year soon after his return. His the head of the part in our English translation.
historical work (XpoviK?) 2vyypa<t>ii, Annales) embraces the period At one period much religious yerse was written in a form
from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to its imitative of this alphabetical method, possibly as an aid to the
recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a con- memory. The term acrostic is also applied to the formation of
tinuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus. It is valuable words from the initial letters of other words. 'Ix^-*, referred to
"
as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great above, is an illustration of this. So also is the word Cabal,"
logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador which, though it was in use before, with a similar meaning, has,
afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of from the time of Charles II., been associated with a particular
events. Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as far ministry, from the accident of its being composed of Clifford,
as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to under- Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington and Lauderdale. Akin to this
stand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the construc- are the names by which the Jews designated their Rabbis; thus
tion of his sentences. He was also the author of several shorter Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (better known as Maimonides) was
"
works, amongst them being a funeral oration on John Batatzes, styled Rambam," from the initials R.M.B.M.; Rabbi David
an epitaph on his wife Eirene and a panegyric of Theodorus II. Kimchi (R.D.K.), " Radak," &c.
Lascaris of Nicaea. While a prisoner at Epirus he wrote two Double acrostics are such as are so constructed, that not only
treatises on the procession of the Holy Ghost ('E/oropewis, Pro- initial letters ofthe lines, but also the middle or last letters,
cessio Spiritus Sancli). form words. For example: i. By Apollo was my first made.
Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), with the editor's famous 2. A shoemaker's tool. 3. An Italian patriot. 4. A tropical
treatise Georgiis eorumque Scriptis; editions in the Bonn Corpus
De fruit. The initials and finals, read downwards, give the name
Scriplorum Hist. Byz., by I. Bekker (1836), and Migne, Patrologia
Graeca, cxl. ; in the Teubner series by A. Heisenberg (1903), the
of a writer and his nom de plume. Answer: Lamb, Elia.
second volume of which contains a full life, with bibliography; see 1. L yr E
also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). 2. A w L
ACROSTIC (Gr. a/cpos, at the end, and orixs, line or verse), a 3. M azzin I
short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters 4. B anan A
of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The fancy for ACROTERIUM (Gr. aKpurypiov, the summit or vertex), in archi-
writing acrostics is of great antiquity, having been common tecture, a statue or ornament of any kind placed on the apex of
among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with a pediment. The term is often restricted to the plinth, which
the Latin writers since Ennius and Plautus, many of the argu- forms the podium merely for the acroterium.
ments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respec- ACT (Lat. actus, actum), something done, primarily a volun-
tive titles. One of the most remarkable acrostics was contained tary deed or performance, though any accomplished fact is often
in the verses cited by Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, included. The signification of the word varies according to the
and attributed to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of sense in which it is employed. It is often synonymous with
" "
which form the words "IijcroOj Xptords Qtov w6s crcoriip: "Jesus statute (see ACT OF PARLIAMENT). It may also refer to the
Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour." The initials of the shorter result of the vote or deliberation of any legislature, the decision
form of this again make up the word Ixdvs (fish), to which a of a court of justice or magistrate, in which sense records, decrees,
mystical meaning has been attached (Augustine, De Civitate Dei, sentences, reports, certificates, &c., are called acts.
18, 23), thus constituting another kind of acrostic. In law it means any instrument in writing, for declaring or
The monks of the middle ages, who wrote in Latin, were fond justifying the truth of a bargain or transaction, as: "I deliver
of acrostics, as well as the poets of the Middle High German this as my act and deed." The origin of the legal use of the word
" "
period, notably Gottfried of Strassburg and Rudolph of Ems. act is in the acta of the Roman magistrates or people, of their
 ACTA DIURNA ACTINOMYCOSIS 157
courts of law, or of the senate, meaning (i) what was done before Leclerc, Des journaux chez les Remains (1838); Renssen, De
Diurnis aliisque Romanorum Actis (1857); Hubner, De Senatus
the magistrates, the people or the senate; (2) the records of
Populique Romani Actis (1860); Gaston Bpissier, Tacitus and other
such public proceedings. Roman Studies (Eng. trans., W. G. Hutchison, 1906), pp. 197-229.
" "
In connexion with other words act is employed in many

phrases, e.g. act of God, any event, such as the sudden, violent ACTAEON, son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a famous Theban
or overwhelming occurrence of natural forces, which cannot hero and hunter, trained by the centaur Cheiron. According to
be foreseen or provided against. This is a good defence to a suit the story told by Ovid (Metam. iii. 131; see also Apollod iii. 4),
for non-performance of a contract. Act of honour denotes the having accidentally seen Artemis (Diana) on Mount Cithaeron
acceptance by a third party of a protested bill of exchange for while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and
the honour of any party thereto. Act of grace denotes the grant- pursued and killed by his fifty hounds. His statue was often
ing of some special privilege. set up on rocks and mountains as a protection against excessive
In universities, the presenting and publicly maintaining a heat. The myth itself probably represents the destruction of
thesis by a candidate for a degree, to show his proficiency, is an vegetation during the fifty dog-days. Aeschylus and other tragic
act.
"
The Act " at Oxford, up to 1856 when it was abolished, poets made use of the story, which was a favourite subject in
was the ceremony held early in July for this purpose, and the ancient works of art. There is a well-known small marble group
" "
expressions Act Sunday,"Act Term " still survive. in the British Museum illustrative of the story.
In dramatic literature, act signifies one of those parts into which ACTA SENATUS, or COMMENTARII SENATUS, minutes of
a play is divided to mark the change of time or place, and to give the discussions and decisions of the Roman senate. Before the
a respite to the actors and to the audience. In Greek plays there first consulship of Julius Caesar (59 B.C.), minutes of the pro-

are no separate acts, the unities being strictly observed, and the ceedings of the senate were written and occasionally published,
action being continuous from beginning to end. If the principal but unofficially; Caesar, desiring to tear away the veil of mystery
actors left the stage the chorus took up the argument, and con- which gave an unreal importance to the senate's deliberations,
tributed an integral part of the play, though chiefly in the form first ordered them to be recorded and issued authoritatively.
of comment upon the action. When necessary, another drama, The keeping of them was continued by Augustus, but their
which is etymologically the same as an act, carried on the history publication was forbidden (Suetonius, Augustus, 36). A young
to a later time or in a different place, and thus we have the Greek senator (ab actis senatus) was chosen to draw up these Acta,
groups of three dramas, in which the same characters
trilogies or which were kept in the imperial archives and public libraries
reappear. The Roman poets first adopted the division into acts, (Tacitus, Ann. v. 4). Special permission from the city praefect
and suspended the stage business in the intervals between them. was necessary in order to examine them. For authorities see
Their number was usually five, and the rule was at last laid down ACTA DIURNA.
by Horace in the Ars Poelica ACTINOMETER (Gr. axns, ray, ^frpov, measure), an instru-
Neve minor, neu sit quinto productior actu ment for measuring the heating and chemical effects of light.

"
Fabula, quae posci vult, et spectata reponi. The name was first given by Sir John Herschel to an apparatus
Ifyou would have your play deserve success, for measuring the heating effect of solar rays (Edin. Journ.
Give it five acts complete, nor more nor less." (Francis.)
Science, 1825); Herschel's instrument has since been discarded
On was almost universally observed
the revival of letters this rule in favour of the pyrheliometer (Gr. irvp, fire, j}Xios, sun).
by dramatists, and that there an inherent convenience and
is (See RADIATION.) The word actinometer is now usually applied
fitness in the number five is evident from the fact that Shake- to instruments for measuring the actinic or chemical effect
speare, who refused to be trammelled by merely arbitrary rules, of luminous rays; their action generally depends upon photo-
adopts it in all his plays. Some critics have laid down rules as to chemical changes (see PHOTO-CHEMISTRY). Certain practical
the part each act should sustain in the development of the plot, forms are described in the article PHOTOGRAPHY.
but these are not essential, and are by no means universally ACTINOMYCOSIS (STREPTOTRICHOSIS), a chronic infective dis-
recognized. In comedy the rule as to the number of acts has not ease occurring in both cattle and man. In both these groups it
been so strictly adhered to as in tragedy, a division into two acts presents the same clinical course, being characterized by chronic
or three acts being quite usual since the time of Moliere, who inflammation with the formation of granulomatous tumours,
first introduced it. It may be well to mention here Milton's which tend to undergo suppuration, fibrosis or calcification.
Samson Agonistes as a specimen in English literature of a It used to be believed that this disease was caused by a single
dramatic work founded on a purely Greek model, in which, vegetable parasite, the Ray-Fungus, but there is now an over-
consequently, there is no division into acts. whelming mass of observations to show that the clinical features
"
For acting," as the art and theory of dramatic representation may be produced by a number of different species of parasites,
(or histrionics, from Lat. histrio, an actor), see the article DRAMA. for which the generic name Streptothrix has been generally
ACTA DIURNA (Lat. acta, public acts or records; diurnus, adopted. In 1899 the committee of the Pathological Society of
daily, from dies), called also Acta Populi, Acta Publica and London recommended that the term Streptotrichosis should be
simply Ada or Diurna, in ancient Rome a sort of daily gazette, used as the appropriate clinical epithet of the large class of
containing an officially authorized narrative of noteworthy Streptothrix infections. And since that year the name Actino-
events at Rome. Its contents were partly official (court news, mycosis has been falling into disuse, and in any case is only used
decrees of the emperor, senate and magistrates), partly private synonymously with Streptotrichosis. For a further account
(notices of births, marriages and deaths). Thus to some extent of these parasites see the articles on BACTERIOLOGY and on
it filled the place of the modern newspaper ("<?") The origin of PARASITIC DISEASES.
the Acta is attributed to Julius Caesar, who first ordered.the keep- Pathological Anatomy. The naked-eye appearance of the
ing and publishing of the acts of the people by public officers different organs affected by Streptothrix infection varies accord-
(59 B.C.; Suetonius, Caesar, 20). The Acta were drawn up from ing to the duration and acuteness of the disease. In some
day to day, and exposed in a public place on a whitened board tissues theappearance is that of simple inflammation, whereas
(see ALBUM). After remaining there for a reasonable time they in others may be characteristic. The liver when affected
it
were taken down and preserved with other public documents, shows scattered foci of suppuration, which may become aggre-
so that they might be available for purposes of research. The gated into spheroidal masses, surrounded by a zone of inflam-
Acta differed from the Annals (which were discontinued in 133 mation. In the lungs the changes may be any that are produced
B.C.) in that only the greater and more important matters were by the following conditions, (i) An acute bronchitis. (2) A
given in the latter, while in the former things of less note were phthisical lung, grey nodules being scattered here and there
recorded. Their publication continued till the transference of almost exactly simulating tuberculous nodules. (3) An acute
the seat of the empire to Constantinople. There are no genuine broncho-pneumonia with some interstitial fibrosis and a tend-
fragments extant. ency to abscess formation. The most characteristic lesions are
 i 58 ACTINOZOA ACTION
in the skin. These appear as nodules, sarcomatous-looking, originated by the praetor peregrinus for the determination of
soft and pulpy. Their colour is mottled, yellow and purplish controversies between foreigners, but found more flexible than
red. The skin over them is thinned out, and broken down in the earlier system and made available for citizens by the Lex
places to form one or two crateriform ulcers from which a clear Aebutia. Under both these systems the praetor referred the
sticky fluid exudes. The size varies from that of a pea to a matter in dispute to an arbiter (judex), but in the later he settled
small orange. The pus is characteristic, varying in consistency the formula (i.e. the issues to be referred and the appropriate
though usually viscid, and containing numerous minute specks. form of relief) before making the order of reference. In the third
The disease is more common in males than in females, and stage, the formulary stage fell into disuse, and after A.D. 342 the
more prevalent Germany and Russia than in England. The
in magistrate himself or his deputy decided the controversy after
infection is probably spread by grain (corn or barley), on which the defending party had been duly summoned by a libellus.
the fungus may often be found. In a great number of recorded The classifications of actiones in Roman law were very numer-
cases the patient has been following agricultural pursuits. The ous. The division which is still most universally recognized is
disease can only be transmitted from one individual to another that of actions in rem and actions in personam (Sohm, Roman
with considerable difficulty, and no case of direct transmission Law, tr. by Ledlie, and ed. 277). An action in rem asserts a right
from animal to man has yet been noted. to a particular thing against all the world. An action in per-
Clinical History. The course of actinomycosis is usually a sonam asserts a right only against a particular person. Perhaps
chronic one, but occasionally the fungus gets into the blood, the best modern example of the distinction is that made in
when the course is that of an acute infective disease or even maritime cases between an action against a ship after a collision
pyaemia. The symptoms are entirely dependent on the organ at sea, and an action against the owners of the ship.
" "
attacked, and are in no way specially characteristic. During In English law the term action at a very early date became
life a diagnosis of phthisis is continually made, and only a micro- associated with civil proceedings in the Court of Common Pleas,
scopic examination after death renders the true nature of the which were distinguished from pleas of the crown, such as in-
disease apparent. The nature of the skin lesion is the most dictments or informations and for suits in the Court of Chancery
evident, and here the parasite can be detected early in the or in the Admiralty or ecclesiastical courts. The English action
illness. The only drug which appears tohave any beneficial was a proceeding commenced by writ original at the common law.
influence on the course of the disease is potassium iodide, and The remedy was of right and not of grace. The history of actions
this has occasionally been used with great benefit. Surgical is the history of civil procedure in the courts of common law.

interference is usually needed, either excision of the part affected, As a result of the reform of civil procedure by the Judicature Acts
" "
or, where possible, a thorough scraping of the lesion and free the term action in English law now means at the High Court of
" a civil
application of antiseptics. Justice proceeding commenced by writ of summons or
"
ACTINOZOA, a term in systematic zoology, first used by in such other manner as may be prescribed by rules of court
H. M. D. de Blainville about 1834, to designate animals the (e.g. by originating summons). The proceeding thus commenced
organs of which were disposed radially about a centre. De ends by judgment and execution. This definition includes pro-
Blainville included in his group many unicellular forms such as ceedings under the Chancery, Admiralty and Probate jurisdic-
Noctiluca (see PROTOZOA), sea -anemones, corals, jelly-fish and tion of the High Court, but excludes proceedings commenced by
hydroid polyps, echinoderms, polyzoa and rotifera. T. H. petition, such as divorce suits and bankruptcy and winding-up
Huxley afterwards restricted the term. He showed that in de matters, as well as criminal proceedings in the High Court or
Blainville's group there were associated with a number of applications for the issue of the writs of mandamus, prohibition,
heterogeneous forms a group of animals characterized by being habeas corpus or certiorari. The Judicature Acts and Rules
" "
composed of two layers of cells comparable with the first two have had the effect of abolishing all the forms of action used
layers in the development of vertebrate animals. Such forms he at the common law and of creating one common form of legal
distinguished as Coelentera, and showed that they had no special proceeding for all ordinary controversies between subjects in
affinity with echinoderms, polyzoa, &c. He divided the Coelen- whatever division of the High Court. The stages in an English
tera into a group Hydrozoa, in which the sexually produced action are the writ, by which the persons against whom relief
embryos were usually set free from the surface of the body, is claimed are summoned before the court; the pleadings and

and a group Actinozoa, in which the embryos are detached from interlocutory steps, by which the issues between the parties are
the interior of the body and escape generally by the oral aper- adjusted; the trial, at which the issues of fact and law involved
ture. Huxley's Actinozoa comprised the sea-anemones, corals are brought before the tribunal; thejudgment, by which the relief
and sea-pens, on the one hand, and the Ctenophora on the other. sought is granted or refused; and execution, by which the law
Later investigations, whilst confirming the general validity of gives to the successful party the fruits of the judgment.
Huxley's conclusions, have slightly altered the limits and The procedure varies according as the action is in the High
(See ANTHOZOA, COELENTERA, CTENO-
definitions of his groups. Court, a county court or one of the other local courts of record
PHORA and HYDROZOA.) (P. C. M.) which still survive; but there is no substantial difference in the
ACTION, in law, a term used by jurists in three different incidents of trial, judgment and execution in any of these courts.
senses: (i) a right to institute proceedings in a court of justice The initial difference between actions in the High Court and the
'

to obtain redress for a wrong (aclio nihil aliud est quam jus county court is that the latter are commenced by plaint lodged
prosequendi in judicio quod alicui debetur, Bracton, de Legibus in the court, on which a summons is prepared by the court and
Angliae, bk. iii. ch. i., f. 98 b) (2) the proceeding itself (action n'est
; served by its bailiff, whereas in the High Court the party pre-
outer chose que loyall demande de son droit, Co. Litt. 285 (a)); (3) pares the writ and lodges it in court for sealing, and when it is
the particular form of the proceeding. The term is derived from sealed, himself effects the service.
the Roman law (actio), in which it is used in all three senses. In An action is said to " lie " when the law provides a remedy
the history of Roman law, actions passed through three stages. for some particular act or omission by a subject which infringes
The first period (terminated about 170 B.C. by the Lex Aebutia) the legal rights of another subject. An act of such a character
"
isknown as the system of legis actiones, and was based on the is said to give a cause of action." In the action the person who
precepts of the XII. tables and used before the praetor urbanus. alleges himself aggrieved claims a judgment of the court in his
These actiones were five in number sacramenti, per judicis pos- favour giving an adequate and appropriate remedy for the injury
tulationem, per condiclionem, per manus injectionem, per pignoris or damage which he has sustained by the infraction of his rights.
captionem. The first was the primitive and characteristic action As to the time within which an action must be brought, see
of the Roman law, and the others were little more than modes LIMITATION, STATUTES OF. When the rights of a subject are in-
of applying it to cases not contemplated in the original form, fringed by the illegal action of the state, an action lies in England
or of carrying the result of it into execution when the action had against the officers who have done the wrong, unless the claim
been decided. The legis actiones were superseded by the formulae, be one arising out of breach of a contract with the state, or out
 ACTIUM ACTON
" For a breach by the state of a contract of conduct, or defining rights and conferring them upon or with-
of an Act of State."
made between the state and a subject the remedy of the subject holding them from certain persons or classes of persons. The
is, as a general rule, not by action against the agents of the state collective body of such declarations constitutes the statutes of
who acted for the state with reference to the making or breach of the realm or written law of the British nation, in the widest sense,
the contract, but against the Crown itself by the proceeding from Anglo-Saxon times to the present day. It is not, however,
called Petition of Right (see PETITION). till the earlier half of the I3th century that, in a more limited
" "
While as a generic term action in its proper legal sense constitutional sense, the statute-book is generally held to open,
" "
includes suits by the Crown and criminal actions (see Co. Litt. and the parliamentary records only begin to assume distinct out-
de bk. iii. ch. v. f. 1046; Brad- lines late in the reign of Edward It gradually became a fixed
284b; Bracton, Legibus Angliae, I.

laugh v. Clarke, 1883, 8 App. Cas. 354, 361, 374), in popular constitutional principle that an act of parliament, to be valid,
language it is taken to mean a proceeding by a subject and is must express concurrently the will of the entire legislature.
now rarely applied in England even by lawyers to criminal pro- It was not, however, till the reign of Henry VI. that it became
ceedings. What are now known as " penal actions," i.e. pro- customary, as now, to introduce bills into parliament in the form
ceedings in which an individual who has not suffered personally of finished acts; and the enacting clause, regarded by constitu-
by a breach of the law sues as a common informer for the statu- tionalists as the first perfect assertion, in words, of popular right,
tory penalty either on his own benefit or on behalf also of the came into general use as late as the reign of Charles II. It is
Crown (qui tarn pro rege quam'pro se ipso), bear some analogy to thus expressed in the case of all acts other than those granting
"
the actio popularis of Roman law, from which they are derived money to the crown: Be it enacted by the King's most
(see the statute 4 Hen. VII. 1488) ; but they are now treated excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the
for most purposes as civil and not as criminal proceedings. The Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in this present
law of Scotland follows the lines of the civil law, and the ex- Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same."
" " is
pression criminal action in use to distinguish proceedings to Where the act is a money grant the enacting clause is prefaced
"
punish offences against the public as distinguished from civil by the words, Most gracious Sovereign, we, Your Majesty's
action, brought to enforce a private right. most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United
In the United States, and the British colonies in which English Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, in Parliament assembled,
law runs by settlement, charter, proclamation or statute, the towards making good the supply 1 which we have cheerfully
nature of an action is substantially the same as in England. The granted to Your Majesty in this session of Parliament, have
differences between one state of the Union and another, and one resolved to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter
colony and another, depend mainly on the extent to which the mentioned and do therefore most humbly beseech Your
;

old procedure of the common law has been abolished, simplified Majesty that it may be enacted, &c." The use of the pre-
or reformed by local legislation. amble with which acts are usually prefaced is thus quaintly
"
AUTHORITIES. Roman Law: Sohm, Institutes of Roman Law, set forth by Lord Coke: The rehearsal or preamble of the
W. G. Ledlie (and ed., 1901). English Law: Pollock and Maitland, statute is a good meane to find out the meaning of the statute,
English Law; Holmes, The Common Law; Bullen and Leake, "
and, as it were, a key to open the understanding thereof (Co.
Prec. Pleadings (3rd ed. 6th ed. 1905).
Originally the collective acts of each session formed
;

Litt. 7ga).
ACTIUM
(mod. Punta), the ancient name of a promontory in but one statute, to which a general title was attached, and for
the north of Acarnania (Greece) at the mouth of the Sinus this reason an act of parliament was up to 1892 generally cited
Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite Nicopolis, built by Augustus as the chapter of a particular statute, e.g. 24 and 25 Viet. c. 101.
on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an Titles were, however, prefixed to individual acts as early as 1488.
ancient temple of Apollo Actius, which was enlarged by
Now, by the Short Titles Act 1892, it is optional to cite most
Augustus, who also, in memory of the battle, instituted or important acts up to that date by their short titles, either indi-
renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci.
vidually or'collectively. Most modern acts have borne short titles
Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the battle of
independently of the act of 1892. (See PARLIAMENT; STATUTE.)
Actium. There was on the promontory a small town, or rather ACTON (JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG ACTON),
village, also called Actium. IST BARON (1834-1902), English historian, only son of Sir Richard
History. Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian
Acton, yth baronet, and grandson of the Neapolitan admiral,
colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of
Sir J. F. E. Acton, 6th baronet (q.v.), was born at Naples on the
Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century it fell loth of January 1834. His grandfather, who had succeeded
to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods there.
in 1791 to the baronetcy and family estates in Shropshire,
Actium is famous as the site of Octavian's decisive
chiefly
previously held by the English branch of the Acton family,
victory over Mark Antony (2nd of September 31 B.C.). This
represented a younger branch which had transferred itself first
battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final to France and then to Italy, but by the extinction of the elder
conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been per-
branch the admiral became head of the family; his eldest son,
suaded by Cleopatra to retire to Egypt and give battle to mask
Richard, had married Marie Louise Pelline, the daughter and
his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization
heiress of Emerich Joseph, due de Dalberg (q.i>.), a naturalized
of his army would sufficiently account for his decision. The French noble of ancient German lineage who had entered the
fleets met outside the gulf, each over 200 strong (the totals given
French service under Napoleon and represented Louis XVIII.
by ancient authorities are very conflicting). Antony's heavy at the congress of Vienna in 1814, and after Sir Richard Acton's
battleships endeavoured to close and crush the enemy with their death in 1837 she became (1840) the wife of the 2nd Earl Gran-
artillery; Octavian's light and mobile craft made skilful ville. > Coming of a Roman Catholic family, young Acton was
use of skirmishing tactics. During the engagement Cleopatra educated at Oscott till 1848 under Dr (afterwards Cardinal)
suddenly withdrew her squadron and Antony slipped away Wiseman, and then at Edinburgh, and at Munich under Dol-
behind her. His flight escaped notice, and the conflict remained He had wished to go to
linger, whose lifelong friend he became.
undecided, until Antony's fleet was set on fire and thus
Cambridge, but for a Roman Catholic this was then impossible.
annihilated.
By DoUinger he was inspired with a deep love of historical re-
AUTHORITIES. Dio Cassius, 50.12-51 3 Plutarch, A ntonius, 62-68
. ; ;
search and a profound conception of its functions as a critical
Velleius Paterculus, ii. 84-85. C. Merivale, History of the Romans
under the Empire, instrument. He was a master of the chief foreign languages,
iii.
pp. 313-325 (London, 1851) V. Gardthausen,
;

and began at an early age to collect a magnificent historical

library, with the object, never in fact realized, of writing a great
History of Liberty. In politics he was always an ardent Liberal.
ACT OF PARLIAMENT. An act of parliament may be re- 1
Where the grant is not of supply, the preamble varies a little,
garded as a declaration of the legislature, enforcing certain rules e.g. in the Prince of Wales's Children Act 1889.
 i6o ACTON
"
Without being a notable traveller, he spent much time in the 1877 on The History of Freedom in Antiquity" and "The His-
chief intellectual centres of Europe, and in the United States, tory of Freedom in Christianity" these last the only tangible
and numbered among his friends such men as Montalembert, portions put together by him of his long-projected "History of
De Tocqueville, Fustel de Coulanges, Bluntschli, von Sybel Liberty"; and an essay on modern German historians in the
and Ranke. He was attached to Lord Granville's mission to first number of the English Historical Review, which he helped

Moscow, as British representative at the coronation of Alexander to found (1886). After 1879 he divided his time between London,
II. in 1856. In 1859 Sir John Acton settled in England, at his Cannes and Tegernsee in Bavaria, enjoying and reciprocating
country house, Aldenham, in Shropshire. He was returned to the society of his friends. In 1872 he had been given the hono-
the House of Commons in that year for the Irish borough of rary degree of doctor of philosophy by Munich University; in
Carlow, and became a devoted admirer and adherent of Mr 1888 Cambridge gave him the honorary degree of LL.D., and in
Gladstone; but he was practically a silent member, and his 1889 Oxford the D.C.L.; and in 1890 he was made a felloe
parliamentary career came to an end after the general election of All Souls. His reputation for learning had gradually been
of 1865, when, having headed the poll for Bridgnorth, he was t spread abroad, largely through Gladstone's influence. The latter
unseated on a scrutiny he contested Bridgnorth again in 1868,
;
found him a valuable political adviser, and in 1892, when the
but without success. Meanwhile he had become editor of the Liberal government came in, Lord Acton was made a lord-in-
Roman Catholic monthly paper, the Rambler, in 1859, on J. H. waiting. Finally, in 1895, on the death of Sir John Seeley, Lord
Newman's retirement from the editorship and in 1862 he
; Rosebery appointed him to the Regius Professorship of Modern
merged this periodical in the Home and Foreign Review. His History at Cambridge. The choice was an excellent one. His
contributions at once gave evidence of his remarkable wealth of inaugural lecture on "The Study of History," afterwards pub-
historical knowledge. But though a sincere Roman Catholic, lished with notes displaying a vast erudition, made a great im-
his whole spirit as a historian was hostile to ultramontane pression in the university, and the new professor's influence on
pretensions, and his independence of thought and liberalism historical study was felt in many important directions. He
of view speedily brought him into conflict with the Roman delivered two valuable courses of lectures, on the French Revolu-
Catholic hierarchy. As early as August 1862, Cardinal Wiseman tion and on Modern History, but it was in private that the
publicly censured the Renew; and when in 1864, after Dollinger's effects of his teaching were most marked. The great Cambridge
appeal at the Munich Congress for a less hostile attitude towards Modern History, though he did not live to see it, was planned
historical criticism, the pope issued a declaration that the under his editorship, and all who came in contact with him
opinions of Catholic writers were subject to the authority of the testified to his stimulating powers and his extraordinary range of
Roman congregations, Acton felt that there was only one way of knowledge. He was taken ill, however, in 1901, and died on
reconciling his literary conscience with his ecclesiastical loyalty, the igth of June 1902, being succeeded in the title by his son,
and he stopped the publication of his monthly periodical. He Richard Maximilian Dalberg Acton, 2nd Baron Acton (b.i87o).
continued, however, to contribute articles to the North British Lord Acton has left too little completed original work to rank
Review, which, previously a Scottish Free Church organ, had among the great historians his very learning seems to have
;

been acquired by friends in sympathy with him, and which for stood in his way; he knew too much and his literary conscience
some years (until 1872, when it ceased to appear) actively pro- was too acute for him to write easily, and his copiousness of
moted the interests of a high-class Liberalism in both temporal information overloads his literary style. But he was one of the
and ecclesiastical matters; he also did a good deal of lecturing most deeply learned men of his time, and he will certainly be
on historical subjects. In 1865 he married the Countess Marie, remembered for his influence on others. His extensive library,
daughter of the Bavarian Count Arco- Valley, by whom he had formed for use and not for display, and composed largely of books
one son and three daughters. In 1869 he was raised to the full of his ownannotations, was bought immediately after his
peerage by Gladstone as Baron Acton he was an intimate
;
death by Mr Andrew Carnegie, and presented to Mr John Morley,
friend and constant correspondent of the Liberal leader, and the by whom it was forthwith given to the university of Cambridge.
two men had the very highest regard for one another. Matthew See Mr Herbert Paul's excellent Introductory Memoir to the
Arnold used to say that "Gladstone influences all round him interesting volume of Lord Acton's Letters to Mrs Drew (1904), and
the authorities cited there; also Dom Gasquet's Lord Acton and his
but Acton; it is Acton who influences Gladstone." Circle (1906). A Bibliography of the Works of Lord Acton, by W. A.-
In 1870 came the great crisis in the Roman Catholic world Shaw, was published by the Royal Historical Society in 1903. The
over the promulgation by Pius IX. of the dogma of papal infalli- Edinburgh Review of April 1903 contains a luminous essay; and
Lord Acton, who was in complete sympathy on this Mr Bryce has a chapter on Acton in his Studies of Contemporary
bility.
Biography (1903). Lord Acton's Lectures on Modern History, edited
subject with Bellinger (<?..), went to Rome in order to throw by J. N. Figgis and R. V. Laurence, appeared in 1906; and his
all his influence against it, but the step he so much dreaded was History of Freedom and other Essays and Historical Essays and Studies
not to be averted. The Old Catholic separation followed, but (by the same editors) in 1907. (H. CH.)
Acton did not personally join the seceders, and the authorities ACTON, SIR JOHN FRANCIS EDWARD, BART. (1736-1811),
prudently refrained from forcing the hands of so competent prime minister Naples under Ferdinand IV., was the son of
of
and influential an English layman. In 1874, when Gladstone Edward Acton, a physician at Besancon, and .was born there in
published his pamphlet on The Vatican Decrees, Lord Acton 1736, succeeding to the title and estates in 1791, on the death of
wrote during November and December a series of remarkable his cousin in the third degree, Sir Richard Acton of Aldenham
letters to The Times, illustrating Gladstone's main theme by Hall, Shropshire. He served in the navy of Tuscany, and in
numerous historical examples of papal inconsistency, in a way 1775 commanded a frigate in the joint expedition of Spain and
which must have been bitter enough to the ultramontane party, Tuscany against Algiers, in which he displayed such courage
but demurring nevertheless to Gladstone's conclusion and in- and resource that he was promoted to high command. In 1779
sisting that the Church itself was better than its premisses Queen Maria Carolina of Naples persuaded her brother the Grand-
implied. Acton's letters led to another storm in the English Duke Leopold of Tuscany to allow Acton, who had been recom-
Roman Catholic world, but once more it was considered prudent mended to her by Prince Caramenico, to undertake the re-
by the Vatican to leave him alone. In spite of his reservations, organization of the Neapolitan navy. The ability displayed by
he regarded "communion with Rome as dearer than life." him in this led to his rapid advancement. He became com-
Thenceforth he steered clear of theological polemics. He de- mander-in-chief of both services, minister of finance, and finally
voted himself to persistent reading and study, combined with prime minister. His policy was devised in concert with the
congenial society. With all his capacity for study he was a man English ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, and aimed at sub-
of the world, and a man of affairs, not a bookworm. Little in- stituting the influence of Austria and Great Britain for that of
deed came from his pen, his only notable publications being a Spain, at Naples, and consequently involved open opposition
masterly essay in the Quarterly Review of January 1878 on to France and the French party in Italy. The financial and
"Democracy in Europe" two lectures delivered at Bridgnorth in
;
administrative measures which were the outcome of a policy
 ACTON ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 161
which necessitated a great increase of armament made him neither Jewish nor Gentile Christianity was a uniform genus,
intensely unpopular, and in December 1798 he shared the flight but included several species, and that the apostolic leaders
of the king and queen. For the reign of terror which followed from the first stood for mutual understanding and unity. Hence
the downfall of the Parthenopean Republic, five months later, the Tubingen school did its chief work in putting the needful
Acton has been held responsible. In 1804 he was for a short time question, not in returning the correct answer. Their answer
deprived of the reins of government at the demand of France; could not be correct, because, as Ritschl showed (in his Altkath.
but he was speedily restored to his former position, which he held Kirche, 2nded., 1857), their premisses were inadequate. Still the
till, in February 1806,
on the entry of the French into Naples, attitude created by the Tubingen theory largely persists as a
he had to flee with the royal family into Sicily. He died at biassing element in much that is written about Acts. On the
Palermo on the I2th of August 1811. whole, however, there is a disposition to look at the book more
He had married, by papal dispensation, the eldest daughter objectively and to follow up the hints as to its aim given by the
of his brother, General Joseph Edward Acton (b. 1737), who author in his opening verses. Thus (i) his second narrative is
was in the Neapolitan service, and left three children, the elder the natural sequel to his first. As the earlier one set forth in
son, Sir Richard, being the father of the first Lord Acton. orderly sequence (Ka0erjs) the providential stages by which Jesus
The second son, Charles Januarius Edward (1803-1847), after was led, " in the power of the Spirit," to begin the establishment
being educated in England and taking his degree at Magdalene of the consummated Kingdom of God, so the later work aims
College, Cambridge, in 1823, entered the Academia Ecclesiastica at setting forth on similar principles its extension by means of
at Rome. He left this with the rank of prelate, in 1828 was His chosen representatives or apostles. This involves emphasis
secretary to the nuncio at Paris and was made vice-legate on the identity of the power, Divine and not merely human,
of Bologna shortly afterwards. He became secretary of the expressed in the great series of facts from first to last. Thus (2)
congregation of the Disciplina Regolare, and auditor of the the Holy Spirit appears as directing and energizing throughout
Apostolic Chamber under Gregory XVI., by whom he was the whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome in
made a cardinal in 1842. Cardinal Acton was protector of the either ministry, of Master or disciples. But (3) the continuity
is more than similarity of activity resting on the same Divine
English College at Rome, and had been mainly instrumental
in the increase, in 1840, of the English vicariates-general energy. The working of the energy in the disciples is condi-
to eight, which paved the way for the restoration of the tioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His
"
hierarchy by Pius IX. in 1850. He died on the 23rd of June Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, the Spirit of
1847. Jesus," is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence
ACTON, an urbandistrict in the Baling parliamentary division the pains taken to exhibit (i. 2, 4 f. 8, ii. i ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 49)
of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, 9 m. W. of St. the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means
Paul's Cathedral. Pop. (1861) 3151; (1901) 37,744. Its ap- His continued action in the world. And (4) the scope of this
pearance is now wholly that of a modern residential suburb. action is nothing less than humanity (ii. 5 ff.), especially within
The derivation offered for its name is from Oak-town, in refer- the Roman empire. It was foreordained that Messiah's witnesses
ence to the extensive forest which formerly covered the locality. should be borne by Divine power through all obstacles and to
The land belonged from early times to the see of London, a grant ever-widening circles, until they reached and occupied Rome
being recorded in 1220. Henry III. had a residence here. At itself for the God of Israel now manifest (as foretold by Israel's
the time of the Commonwealth Acton was a centre of Puritanism. own prophets) as the one God of the one race of mankind.
Philip Nye (d. 1672) was rector; Richard Baxter, Sir Matthew (5) Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke xxiv.
Hale (Lord Chief- Justice), Henry Fielding the novelist and 46-48, the divinely appointed method of victory is through
John Lindley the botanist (d. 1865) are famous names among suffering (Acts xiv. 22). This explains the large space devoted
residents here. Acton Wells, of saline waters, had considerable to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy amid
reputation in the i8th century. them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It forms one side
ACT ON PETITION, the term for a part of the procedure in of the virtual apologia for the absence of that earthly prosperity
the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division, now of infrequent in which the pagan mind was apt to see the token of Divine
occurrence. It was more freely used in the old Admiralty and approval. Another side is the recurring exhibition of the fact
Divorce courts before the Judicature Acts. (See PLEADING.) that these witnesses were persecuted only by those whose action
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book of the Bible, which should create no bias against the persecuted. Their foes were
now stands fifth in the New Testament, was read at first as the chiefly Jews, whose opposition was due partly to a stiff-necked
companion and sequel of the Gospel of Luke. Its separation was disinclination to bow to the wider reading of their own religion
due to growing consciousness of the Gospels as a unit of sacred to which the Holy Spirit had from of old been pointing (cf.
records, to which Acts stood as a sort of appendix. Historically the prominence given to this idea in Stephen's long speech)
it is of unique interest and value: it has no fellow within the and partly to jealousy of those who, by preaching the wider
New Testament or without it. The so-called Apocryphal Acts Messianic Evangel, were winning over the Gentiles, and particu-
of certain apostles, while witnessing to the impression produced larly proselytes, in such great numbers.
by our Acts as a type of edifying literature, only emphasize this Such, then, seem to be the author's main motifs. They make
fact. It is the one really primitive Church history, primitive in up an account fairly adequate to the manifoldness of the book;
spirit as in substance; apart from it a connected picture of yet they may be summed up in three ideas, together constituting
the Apostolic Age would be impossible. With it, the Pauline the moral which this history of the expansion of Christianity
Epistles are of priceless historical value; without it, they would aims at bringing home to its readers. These are the universality
remain bafflingly fragmentary and incomplete, often even mis- of the Gospel, the jealousy of national Judaism, and the Divine
leading. initiative manifest in the gradual stages by which men of Jewish
Plan and Aim. All agree that the Acts of the Apostles is
i. birth were led to recognize the Divine will in the setting aside
the work of an author of no mean skill, and that he has exercised of national restrictions, alien to the universal destiny of the
careful selection in the use of his materials, in keeping with a Church. The practical moral is the Divine character of the
definite purpose and plan. It is of moment, then, to discover Christian religion, as evinced by the manner of its extension in
from his emphasis, whether by iteration or by fulness of scale, the empire, no less than by its original embodiment in the
what objects he had in mind in writing. Here it is not needful Founder's life and death. Thus both parts of the author's work
to go farther back than F. C. Baur and the Tubingen school, with alike tend to produce assured conviction of Christianity as of
its theory of sharp antitheses between
Judaic and Gentile Chris- Divine origin (Luke i. i, 4; Acts i. i f.).
tianity, of which they took the original apostles and Paul respect- This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious
ively as typical. Gradually their statement of this position aim a sine qua non to any theory of an early Christian writing.
underwent serious modifications, as it became realized that Though meant for men of pagan birth in the first instance, it is
1.6 5
162 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
" "
to themas inquirers or even converts, such as Theophilus, fulness with which the origin of the Antiochene Church and its
that the argument is addressed. In spite of all difficulties, this place in the further extension of the Gospel are described (see
religion is worthy of personal belief, even though it mean oppo- LUKE). Again, the attitude of Acts towards the Roman Empire
sition and suffering. Among the features of the occasion which is just what would be expected from a close comrade of Paul
suggested the need of such an appeal was doubtless the existence (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller and Roman Citizen,
of persecution by the Roman authorites, perhaps largely at the 1895), but was hardly likely to be shared by one of the next
instigation of local Judaism. To meet this special perplexity, generation, reared in an atmosphere of resentment, first at Nero's
the author holds up the picture of early days, when the great conduct and then at the persecuting policy of the Flavian Caesars
protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the (see REVELATION). Finally, the book itself seems to claim to
hands of Roman justice. It is implied that the present distress be written by a companion of Paul. In chap. xvi. 10 the writer,
is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding; without any previous warning, passes from the third person to
meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong the first. Paul had reached Troas. There he saw a vision invit-
"
reassurance. The Acts of the Apostles is in fact an Apology for ing him to go to Macedonia. But when he saw the vision,
f "
the Church as distinct from Judaism, the breach with which is straightway -we sought o go forth into Macedonia. Thence-
" we "
accordingly traced with great fulness and care. forth at certain
re-emerges in the narrative until
points
From this standpoint Acts no longer seems to end abruptly. Rome is reached. Irenaeus quotes these passages as
(iii. 14. i)
Whether as exhibiting the Divine leading and aid, or as recording proof that Luke, the author, was a companion of the apostle.
the impartial and even kindly attitude of the Roman State The minute character of the narrative, the accurate description
"
towards the Christians, the writer has reached a climax. He of the various journeyings, the unimportance of some of the
" "
wished, as Harnack well remarks, to point out the might of details, especially some of the incidents of the shipwreck, are
the Holy Spirit in the apostles, Christ's witnesses; and to show strong reasons for believing that the narrative is that of an eye-
how this might carried the Gospel from Jerusalem to Rome and witness. If so, we can scarcely help coming to the conclusion

gained for it entrance into the pagan world, whilst the Jews in that this eye-witness was the author of the work; for the style
growing degree incurred rejection. In keeping with this, verses of this eye-witness is exactly the style of the writer who
26-28 of chapter xxviii. are the solemn closing verses of the work. composed the previous portions (see Harnack, op. cit., reinforc-
"
But verses 30, 31 are an appended observation. ing the argument as already worked out by B. Weiss, 1893, and
Yet the writer is, in fact, ending up most fitly on one of his especially by Sir J. C. Hawkins in Horae Synopticae, 1899, PP-
keynotes, in that he leaves Paul preaching in Rome itself,
"
un- 143-147). Most scholars admit that the " we " narrative is that
" " " of a personal companion of Paul, who was probably none other
molested. Paulus Romae, apex Evangelii.
The full force of this is missed by those who, while rejecting than Luke, in view of his traditional authorship of Acts. But
the idea that the author had in reserve enough Pauline history many suppose that the tradition arose from confused remem-
"
to furnish another work, yet hold that Paul was freed from the brance of the use by a later author of Luke's we " document
imprisonment amid which Acts leaves him (see PAUL). But for or travel-diary. This supposition would compel us to believe
those, on the other hand, who see in the writer's own words in either that the skilful writer of Acts was so careless as to incor-
"
xx. 38, uncontradicted by anything in the sequel, a broad hint porate a document without altering its form, or that we " is
that Paul never saw his Ephesian friends again, the natural view introduced intentionally. In the latter case we must suppose
is open that the sequel to the two years' preaching was too well either that the writer was an eye-witness, or that he wished to
known to call for explicit record. Nor would such silence touch- be thought an eye-witness. E. Zeller, a follower of Baur, adopted
ing Paul's speedy martyrdom be disingenuous, any more than this latter alternative, and P. W. Schmiedel adheres to it. In-
on the theory that martyrdom overtook him several years later. deed it is hard to see how it can be avoided on the theory that
The writer views Paul's death (like the horrors of Nero's Vatican the author of Acts used a travel-document by another hand
Gardens in 64) as a mere exception to the rule of Roman policy (see below, Sources). On the whole, then, the most tenable
"
heretofore illustrated. Not even by the Roman authorities were theory is that the writer of the we " sections was also the
some of Nero's acts regarded as precedents. author of Acts; and that he was Luke, Paul's companion during
2. External evidence, which is relatively early and
Authorship. most of his later ministry, and also his " counterpart," "as a
widespread Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement
(e.g. Hellene, who yet had personal sympathy with Jewish primitive
"
and Origen), all points to Luke, the companion and fellow- Christianity (Harnack, op. cit. p. 103; see also LUKE).
worker of Paul (Philem. 24), who probably accompanied him 3. Sources. So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts
as physician also (Col. iv. 14). It must be noted too that evidence being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composi-
for his authorship of the third Gospel counts also for Acts. This tion, one may say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps
carries us back at least to the second quarter of the 2nd century the literary analysis within scientific limits. The more one
(Justin, Dial. 103, and most probably Marcion), when A.ovKai> realizes the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a
no doubt stood at the head of the Gospel, especially where whole, the more one feels that the speeches in the first part of
it was used side by side with the others. We have every reasori Acts (e.g. that of Stephen) and indeed elsewhere, too are not
" "
to trust the Church's tradition at this time, particularly as Luke free compositions of our author, the mere outcome of dra-
was not prominent enough as an associate of Paul to suggest the matic idealization such as ancient historians like Thucydides
theory as a guess. Nor does Eusebius, who knew the ante- or Polybius allowed themselves. The Christology, for instance
Nicene literature intimately, seem to know of any other view of the early Petrine speeches is such as a Gentile Christian writing
ever having been held. If, then, the traditional Lucan author- c. 80 A.D. simply could not have imagined. Thus we are forced
ship is to be doubted, it must be on internal evidence only. The to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian
form of the book, however, in all respects favours Luke, who material, akin to that implied also in the special parts of the
was of non- Jewish birth (see Col. iv. 12-14 compared with 10 f.), Third Gospel. Paul Feine (Eine vorkanonische Ueberlicfcnmg
and as a physician presumably a man of culture. The medical des Lukas, 1891) suggested that a single document explains this
cast of much of its language, which is often of a highly technical material in both works, as far as Acts xii. Others maintain
nature, points strongly the same way; while the early tradition
1
that at any rate two sources underlie Acts i.-xii., or even i.-xv.
that Luke was born in the Syrian Antioch admirably suits the (see A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte, p. 131 ff.). In particular
1
This argument, first worked out by Dr W. K. Hobart, The we can recognize a source embodying the traditions of the
Medical Language of St Luke (Dublin, 1882), but hitherto neglected largely Hellenistic Church of Antioch, a secondary gloss from
by many Continental scholars, has been urged afresh by Harnack, "
which may survive in the Bezan addition to xi. 27, when we
Lukas der Arzt (Leipzig, 1906; Eng. trans., London, 1907), to which
reference may be made for all matters connected with Lucan author-
were assembled. " Further, if our author was a careful inquirer
ship; comp. also R. J. Knowling in The Expositor's Greek Testa- (Luke i. 3), especially if he was in the habit of taking down in
ment. writing what he heard from different witnesses, this may explain
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 163
some phenomena.' Such a man as Luke would have rare
of the of the apostle Paul; and here we can compare the statements
facilities for collecting Palestinian materials, varying no doubt made in the Acts with the Epistles. The result is a general
in accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and
in Caesarea, where he probably resided for some two years in there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been
contact with men like Philip the Evangelist (xxi. 8). There and drawn to two remarkable exceptions. These are, the account
elsewhere he might also learn a good deal from John Mark, Peter's given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as com-
friend (i Pet. v. 13; Acts xii. 12). In any case the study of pared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle
sources (Quellenkritik) is a comparatively new one, and the Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.
resources of analysis, linguistic in particular, are by no means In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's move-
exhausted. One important analogy exists for the way in which ments until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia
our author would handle any written sources he may have had (see PAUL) do not really amount to more than can be explained
by him, namely, the manner in which he uses Mark's Gospel by the different interests of Paul and our author respectively.
narrative in compiling his own Gospel. Guided by this objective But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Gal. ii. i-io and Acts
criterion, and safeguarded by growing insight into the author's xv. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually
3
plastic aim, we need not despair of reaching large agreement assumed, it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to
as
to the nature of the sources lying behind the first half of Acts. the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication
In the second or strictly Pauline half we are confronted by of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given
the so-called "we" passages. Of these two main theories are in Gal. ii. 9 f. and Acts xv. 20 f., are not at all the same. 4 Nay
that which in them traces of an earlier docu- ii. i-io = Acts xv., the
Gal.
possible: (i) sees more, if
historicity of the "Relief
ment whether entries in a travel-diary, or a more or less visit" ofActs xi. 30, xii. 25, seems definitely excluded by Paul's
consecutive narrative written later; and (2) that which would narrative of events before the visit of Gal. ii. i ff. Accordingly.
regard the "we" as due to the author's breaking instinctively Sir W. M. Ramsay and others argue that the latter visit itself
into the first person plural at certain points where he felt himself coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Gal. ii. 10 witness

specially identified with the history. On the former hypothesis, thereto.

it is still in debate whether the "we" document does or does But why, then, does not Paul refer to the public charitable
not lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated object of his visit? It seems easier therefore to admit that the
by the formula in question (e.g. cc. xiii.-xv., xxi. ig-xxvi.). visit of Gal. ii. i ff. is one altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing
On the latter, well be questioned whether the presence or
it may to its private nature as preparing the way for public develop-
absence of "we" be not due to psychological causes, rather ments with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case it
than to the writer's mere presence or absence.
1
That is, he may would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be
be writing sometimes as a member of Paul's mission at the tacit explanatory allusion, in Gal. ii. 10 (see further PAUL);
critical stages of onward advance, sometimes rather as a witness and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in
absorbed in his hero's words and deeds (so "we" ceases between Gal. ii. i ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey
xx. 15 and xxi. i). Naturally he would fall into the former and to Acts xv.
attitude mostly when recording the definitive transition of Paul We pass next to the Paul of Acts. Paul insists that he was
and his party from one sphere of work to another (xvi. 10 ff., appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Cir-
xx. 5 ff., xxvii. i ff.). At such times the whole "mission" was cumcision; and that circumcision and the observance of the
as one man in its movements. Jewish law were of no importance to the Christian as such. His
4. Historical Value. The question of authorship is largely words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided.
bound up with that as to the quality of the contents as history. But in Acts it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles.
Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (i.-xii.) deals It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the in-
with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as tolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation (xv. 10 f.,
"
central figure at any rate in cc. i.-v. Yet in cc. vi.-xii.," as cf. i). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between
Harnack' observes, "the author pursues several lines at once.
2
Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal. ii. ii ff.). The brethren in
(i) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community Antioch send Paul and Barnabas up to Jerusalem to ask the
and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and
labours); (2) he inserts in vi. i ff. a history of the Hellenistic carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of
Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the Acts Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the
firsttends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish
Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of Philip Christians to himself by personally observing the law of Moses.
in Samaria and on the coast . . .
; (4) lastly, he relates the He circumcises the semi-Jew, Timothy; and he performs his
history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young vows in the temple. He is particularly careful in his speeches
Antiochene church. In the small space of seven chapters he to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this
pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians
at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition he claims perfect freedom in principle, for himself as for the
of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian, Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither
he has here set himself the greatest task." No doubt gaps abound in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to
"
in these seven chapters. But the inquiry as to whether what which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The
is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what
facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet con- it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if

cluded." The difficulty is that we have but few external means he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law?
of testing this portion of the narrative (see below, Date). Some There is, nevertheless, no essential contradiction here, only
of it may well have suffered partial transformation in oral tradi- such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the stand-
tion before reaching our author; e.g. the nature of the Tongues points and aims of the two writers amid their respective
at Pentecost does not accord with what we know of the gift 'Though this view had the support of "J. B. Lightfoot, it" should
>f
"tongues" generally. The second part pursues the history be remembered that this was before the South Galatian theory
as to the date of Paul's work among the Galatians came to prevail.
4
1
This view has received Harnack's support, op. cit. 89 f. Harnack, indeed, argues (op. cit. pp. 188 ff.) that the Abstinences
-
A postelgeschichte
(1908), p. 46. Harnack finds that our sense of defined for Gentiles were in the original text of Acts xv. 20 purely
"
the trustworthiness of the book is enhanced by a thorough study moral, and had no reference to Jewish scruples as to eating blood.
of the chronological procedure of its author, both where he speaks He regards "what is strangled' (irwxriv) as originally a mistaken
and where he keeps silence." In this aspect the book " as a whole gloss, which crept into the text. External evidence is against this,
is according to the aims of the author and in reality a historical nor does it seem demanded by the context; in fact xv. 21 rather
"
work (p. 41 cf. pp. I-2O, 222 ff.).
; goes against it.
 164 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES
historical conditions. Peter's function in relation to the Gentiles ment is hardly, if at all, less marked in tne " we " sections, which
belongs to the early Palestinian conditions, before Paul's dis- are substantially the witness of a companion of Paul (and where
tinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate a efforts to dissect out the miracles are fruitless), than in the rest
personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of of the work. The scientific method, then, is to consider each
" " " "
the Twelve has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, miracle on its own merits, according as we find reason to
Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the suppose that it has reached our author more or less directly. But
two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall the record of miracle as such cannot prejudice the question of
not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages authorship. Even the form in which the gift of Tongues at
(Acts xv.). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt Pentecost is conceived does not tell against a companion of Paul,
with him that the Law could not justify (Gal. ii. 15 ff.), and since it may have stood in his source, and the first outpouring
argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle of the Messianic Spirit may soon have come to be thought of as
"
(cf. a yoke," Acts xv. 10); yet for Jews it might continue for unique in some respects, parallel in fact to the Rabbinic tradition
the time (pending the Parousia) to be seemly and expedient, as to the inauguration of the Old Covenant at Sinai (cf. Philo,
especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he De decem oraculis, 9, ii, and the Midrash on Ps. 'Ixviii. ii).
conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apos- Finally as to such historical difficulties in Acts as still perplex
tolate was not involved (i Cor. ix. 19 ff.). There is no reason the student of the Apostolic age, one must remember the possi-
to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this bilities of mistake intervening between the facts and the accounts

spirit in Gal. ii. n f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to reaching its author, at second or even third hand. Yet it must
draw back for expediency's sake. This incident it simply did be strongly emphasized, that recent historical research at the
not fall within the scope of Acts (see below) to narrate, since hands of experts in classical antiquity has tended steadily to
it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's verify such parts of the narrative as it can test, especially those
submission of the issue in Acts xv. to the Jerusalem conference, connected with Paul's missions in the Roman Empire. That is
Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision no new result; but it has come to light in greater degree of
in favour of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a recent years, notably through Sir W. M. Ramsay's researches.
decision for his own policy in the quarter to which they were The proofs of trustworthiness extend also to the theological
most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an under- sphere. What was said above of the Christology of the Petrine
" "
standing with the Pillar Apostles, as recorded in Gal. ii. i-io speeches applies to the whole conception of Messianic salvation,
(see further PAUL), be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he the eschatology, the idea of Jesus as equipped by the Holy Spirit
was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts xv. Paul's for His Messianic work, found in these speeches, as also to titles
own " free " attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just like
"
Jesus the Nazarene
"
and " the Righteous One " both in
what is implied by the hostile rumours as to his conduct in and beyond the Petrine speeches. These and other cases in
Acts xxi. which he would be glad to disprove as at least
21, which we are led to discern very primitive witness behind Acts,
exaggerated (ib. 24 and 26). What is clear is that such lack of do not indeed give to such witness the value of shorthand notes or
formal accord as here exists between Acts and the Epistles, tells even of abstracts based thereon. But they do support the theory
against its author's dependence on the latter, and so favours his that our author meant to give an unvarnished account of such
having been a comrade of Paul himself. words and deeds as had come to his knowledge. The perspective
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice. Did its author of the whole is no doubt his own; and as his witnesses probably
follow the plan adopted by all historians, of his age, or is he an furnished but few hints for a continuous narrative, this perspec-
exce pti n ? Ancient historians (like many of modern tive, especially in things chronological, may sometimes be faulty.
Speeches.
times) used the liberty of working up in their own Yet when one remembers that by 70-80 A.D. it must have been
language the speeches recorded by them. They did not dream a matter of small interest by what tentative stages the Messianic
of verbal fidelity; even when they had more exact reports before salvation first extended to the Gentiles, it is surely surprising
them, they preferred to mould a speaker's thoughts to their own that Acts enters into such detail on the subject, and is not content
methods of presentation. Besides this, some did not hesitate to with a summary account of the matter such as the mere logic of
give to the characters of their history speeches which were never the subject would naturally suggest. In any case, the very differ-
uttered. The method of direct speech, so useful in producing ence of the perspective of Acts and of Galatians, in recording the
a vivid idea of what is supposed to have passed through the mind same epochs in Paul's history, argues such an independence in
of the speaker, was used to give force to the narrative. Now the former as is compatible only with an early date.
how far has the author of Acts followed the practice of his con- Quellenkritik, then, a distinctive feature of recent research
temporaries? Some of his speeches are evidently but summaries upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as
of thoughts which occurred to individuals or multitudes. Others an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we
claim to be reports of speeches really delivered. But all these may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging
speeches have to a large extent the same style, the style also of such a book. For among the results of the Tubingen criticism
the narrative. They have been passed though one editorial was what Dr W. Sanday calls " an unreal and artificial standard,
mind, and some mutual assimilation in phraseology and idea the standard of the igth century rather than the ist, of Germany
may well have resulted. They are, moreover, all of them, the rather than Palestine, of the lamp and the study rather than of
merest abstracts. The speech of Paul at Athens, as given by active life." This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences
Luke, would not occupy more than a minute or two in delivery. between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In
But these circumstances, while inconsistent with verbal accuracy, the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like
do not destroy authenticity; and in most of the speeches (e.g. Mommsen, Ramsay, Blass and Harnack, trained amid othe
xiv. 15-17) there is a varied appropriateness as well as an allusive- methods and traditions than those which had brought the con-
ness, pointing to good information (see under Sources). There structive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.
is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free
composition of 5. Dale. External evidence now points to the existence
its author, without either written or oral
basis; and in general Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century.
he seems more conscientious than most ancient historians As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, it
touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now existence in Marcion's day (120-140) is now assured. Further,
understood. the traces of it in Polycarp " and Ignatius, 2 when taken together,
Objections to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the
miracles require to be stated more discriminately than has some- resemblance of Acts xiii. 22, and i Ciem. xviii. i, in features no
Mirades. times been the case. Particularly is this so as regards 1
Polyc. ad Philipp. i. 2, Acts ii. 24; ii. I, Acts x. 42; ii. 3, Ac
the question of authorship. As Harnack observes xx. 35; vi. 3, Acts vii. 52.
"
(Lukas der Arzt, p. 24), the miraculous" or supernormal ele- 2
Ign. ad Magn. v. i, Acts i. 25; ad Smyrn. iii. 3, Acts x. 41.
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 165
found in the Psalm (Ixxxix. 20) quoted by each, can hardly be has not yet gone far enough to yield any sure or final result as
accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and to the history of this text, so as to show what in its extant forms
Smyrna not later than c. A.D. 115, and perhaps in Rome as early is primary, secondary, and so on. Beginnings have been made
as c. A.D. 96. towards grouping our authorities; but the work must go on
With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some much further before a solid basis for the reconstruction of its
advocacy of a date prior to A.D. 70, the bulk of critical primitive form can be said to exist. The attempts made at such
opinion is decidedly against it. The prologue to Luke's Gospel a reconstruction, as by Blass (1895, 1897) and Hilgenfeld (1899),
itself implies the dying out of the generation of eye-witnesses are quite arbitrary. The like must be said even of the contribu-
as a class. A strong consensus of opinion supports a date about tion to the problem made by August Pott, 1 though he has helped
A.D. So; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75 to define one condition of success the classification of the strata
Western " texts and has taken some steps in the right
"
seems no less possible. Of the reasons for a date in one of the in
earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tubingen direction, in connexion with the complex phenomena of one
school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among" these witness, the Harklean Syriac.
are the supposed traces of 2nd-century Gnosticism and
" "
hier- Assuming, however, that the original form of the Western
"
archical ideas of organization; but especially the argument text had been reached, the question of its historical value, i.e.
from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which its relation to the original text of A cts, would yet remain. On this
Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior point the highest claims have been made by Blass. Ever since
"
to Pliny's correspondence with Trajan on the subject. Another 1894 he held that both the Western " text of Acts (which he
fact, now generally admitted, renders a 2nd-century date yet styles the text) and its rival, the text of the great uncials
more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to (which he styles the a text), are due to the author's own hand.
Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of Further, that the former (Roman) is the more original of the two,
this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things being related to the latter (Antiochene) as fuller first draft to
"
recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the severely pruned copy. But even in its later form, that ft stands
later works of Josephus, we should have to place the book nearer the Grundschrift than a, but yet is, like a, a copy from it,"
about A.D. 100. But this is far from being the case. the theory is really untenable. In sober contrast of Blass's
Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. sweeping theory stand the views of Sir W. M. Ramsay. Already
(i)The circumstances attending the death of Herod Agrippa I. in in The Church in the Roman Empire (1893) he held that the Codex
A.D. 44. Here Acts xii. 21-23 s largely parallel to Jos. Antt. xix.
'
Bezae rested on a recension made in Asia Minor (somewhere
8. 2 but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone
;
between Ephesus and S. Galatia), not later than about the middle
gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public
of the 2nd century. Though " some at least of the alterations
appearance. Hence the parallel, when analysed, tells against de-
pendence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the Egyptian in Codex Bezae arose through a gradual process, and not through
pseudo-prophet in Acts xxi. 37 f., Jos. Jewish War, ii. 13. 5, Antt. xx. the action of an individual reviser," the revision in question
8.6; for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of was the work of a single reviser, who in his changes and additions
Jqsephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them
Sicarii. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3) expressed the local interpretation put upon Acts in his own time.
the curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which His aim, in suiting the text to the views of his day, was partly to
Theudas and Judas of Galilee are referred to in both as accidental, make it more intelligible to the public, and partly to make it more
the more so that again there is difference as to numbers. Further,
to make out a case for dependence at all, one must assume the complete. To this end he "added some touches where surviving
mistaken order (as it may be) in Gamaliel's speech as due to gross tradition seemed to contain trustworthy additional particulars,"
carelessness in the author of Acts an hypothesis unlikely in itself. such as the statement that Paul taught in the lecture-room of
Such a mistake was far more likely to arise in oral transmission of "
Tyrannus from the fifth to the tenth hour." In his later work,
the speech, before it reached Luke at all.
on St Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895), Ramsay's
6. Place. The is still an open question.
place of composition views gain both in precision and in breadth. The gain lies chiefly
" "
For some time Rome and
Antioch have been in favour; and in seeing beyond the Bezan text to the Western text as a
Blass combined both views in his theory of two editions (see whole.
below, Text). But
internal evidence points strongly to the Generally speaking, then, the text of Acts as printed by West-
Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighbourhood of cottandHort, on the basis of the earliest MSS. (**B), seems as near
" the autograph as that of any other part of the New Testament;
Ephesus. Note the confident local allusion in xix. 9 to the
" "
whereas the Western " text, even in its earliest traceable forms,
"
school of Tyrannus not a certain Tyrannus," as in the in-
" "
ferior text and in xix. 33 to Alexander also the very minute
;
is secondary. This does not mean that it has no historical value
topography in xx. 13-15. At any rate affairs in that region, of its own. It may well contain some true supplements to the
including the future of the church of Ephesus (xx. 28-30), are original text, derived from local tradition or happy inference
treated as though they would specially interest
" " a few perhaps from a written source used by Luke. Certain of
Theophilus
and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the these may even date from the end of the ist century, and the
adjacent Bithynia. Finally it was in this region that there larger part of them are probably not later than the middle of the
arose certain early glosses (e.g. on xix. 9, xx. 15), probably the and. But its value lies mainly in the light cast on ecclesiastical
earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence thought in certain quarters during the epoch in question. The
with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the nature of the readings themselves, and the distribution of the
.
Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman witness for them, alike point to a process involving several stages
policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength and several originating centres of diffusion. The classification
" " "
of Judaism in Asia (cf. Rev. ii. 9, iii. 9, and see Sir W. M. of groups of Western " witnesses has already begun. When
Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches, ch. xii.). completed, it will cast light, not only on the origin and growth of
7. Text. The apparatus criticus of Acts has grown consider- this type of text, but also on the exact value of the remaining
ably of recent years; yet mainly in one direction, that' of the so- witnesses to the original text of Acts and further on the early
"
called Western text." This term, which our growing knowledge, handling of New Testament writings generally. Acts, from its
especially of the Syriac and other Eastern versions, is rendering very scope, was least likely to be viewed as sacrosanct as regards
more and more unsatisfactory, stands for a text which used to its text. Indeed there are signs that its undogmatic nature caused
be connected almost exclusively with the " eccentric " Codex it to be comparatively neglected at certain times and
places, as,
Bezae, and is comparable to a Targum on an Old Testament book. e.g., Chrysostom explicitly witnesses.
But it is now
recognized to have been very widespread, in both LITERATURE. An account of the extensive and varied literature
east and west, for some 200 years or more from as early as the that has gathered round Acts may be found intwo representative
middle of the 2nd century. The process, however, of sifting out 1
Der abendldndische Text der Apostelgeschichte u. die Wir-quelle
the readings of all our present witnesses MSS., versions, Fathers (Leipzig, 1900). See a review in the Journal of Theol. Studies, ii. 439 ff.
i66 ACTUARY ADAIR
commentaries, viz., H. H. Wendt's edition of Meyer (1899), and linen industries, and an export
of tobacco, walnut-wood, cocoons
that by R. J. Knowling in Tlie Expositor's Greek Testament, vol. and vegetables Constantinople market. Imports are
for the
(1900), supplemented by his Testimony of St Paul to Christ
80,000 and exports at 480,000.
ii.
valued at
(1905). See also J. Moffatt, The Historical New Testament (1901).
See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890-1900).
412 ft., 655 ff. C. Clemen, Die Apostelgesch. im Lichte der netteren
;

Forschungen (Giessen, 1905); and A. Harnack, Die Apostelgeschichte ADAD, the name of the storm-god in the Babylonian-Assyrian
(J- V. B.)
(1908). pantheon, who is also known as Ramman (" the thunderer ").
ACTUARY. The name of actuarius, sc. scriba, in ancient The problem involved in this double name has not yet been
Rome, was given to the clerks who recorded the Acta Publica of definitely solved. Evidence seems to favour the view that
the senate, and also to the officers who kept the military accounts Ramman was the name current in Babylonia, whereas Adad was
and enforced the due fulfilment of contracts for military supplies. more common in Assyria. To judge from analogous instances
In its English form the word has undergone a gradual limita- of a double nomenclature, the two names revert to two different
tion of meaning. At first it seems to have denoted any clerk or centres for the cult of a storm-god, though it must be confessed
registrar; then more particularly the secretary and adviser of any that up to the present it has been impossible to determine
joint-stock company, but especially of an insurance company; where these centres were. A god Hadad who was a prominent
and it is now applied specifically to one who makes those calcula- deity in ancient Syria is identical with Adad, and in view of this
tions as to the probabilities of human life, on which the practice it is plausible to assume for which there is also other evidence
of life assurance and the valuation of reversionary interests, that the name Adad represents an importation into Assyria
deferred annuities, &c., are based. The first mention of the word from Aramaic districts. Whether the same is the case with
in law is in the Friendly Societies Act of 1819, where it is used Ramman, identical with Rimmon, known to us from the Old
"
in the vague sense, actuaries, or persons skilled in calculation," Testament as the chief deity of Damascus, is not certain though
but it has received .still further recognition in the Friendly probable. On the other hand the cult of a specific storm-god
Act of 1875 and the Life Assurance Companies Act of
Societies in ancient Babylonia is vouched for by the occurrence of the sign
1 870. The word has been used with precision since the establish- Im the " Sumerian " or ideographic writing for Adad-Ramman
ment of the " Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ire- as an element in proper names of the old Babylonian period.
"
land in 1848. The Quarterly Journal, Charter of Incorporation, However this name may have originally been pronounced, so
and by-laws of this society may be usefully consulted for particu- much is that through Aramaic influences in Baby-
certain,
lars as to the requirements for membership (see also ANNUITY). lonia and Assyria he was identified with the storm-god of the
The registrar in the Lower House of Convocation is also called western Semites, and a trace of this influence is to be seen in
the actuary. the designation Amurru, also given to this god in the religious
ACUMINATE (from Lat. acumen, point), sharpened or literature of Babylonia, which as an early name for Palestine
pointed, a woid used principally in botany and ornithology, to and Syria describes the god as belonging to the Amorite
denote the narrowing or lance-shaping of a leaf or of a bird's district.
feather into a point, generally at the tip, though sometimes The Babylonian storm-god presents two aspects in the hymns,
(with regard to a leaf) at the base. The poet William Cowper incantations and votive inscriptions. On the one hand he
used the word to denote sharp and keen despair, but other is the god who, through bringing on the rain in due season,

authors, Sir T. Browne, Bacon, Bulwer, &c., use it to explain causes the land to become fertile, and, on the other hand, the
a material pointed shape. storms that he sends out bring havoc and destruction. He is
ACUNA, CHRISTOVAL DE (1597-1:. 1676), Spanish missionary pictured on monuments and seal cylinders with the lightning
and explorer, was born at Burgos in 1597. He was admitted and the thunderbolt, and in the hymns the sombre aspects of
a Jesuit in 1612, and afterwards sent on mission work to Chile the god on the whole predominate. His association with the
and Peru, where he became rector of the college of Cuenca. In sun-god, Shamash, due to the natural combination of the two
1639 he accompanied Pedro Texiera in his second exploration deities who
alternate in the control of nature, leads to imbuing
of the Amazon, in order to take scientific observations, and draw him with some of the traits belonging to a solar deity. In Syria
up a report for the Spanish government. The journey lasted Hadad is hardly to be distinguished from a solar deity. The
ten months; and on the explorer's arrival in Peru, Acuna pre- process of assimilation did not proceed so far in Babylonia and
pared his narrative, while awaiting a ship for Europe. The king Assyria, but Shamash and Adad became in combination the
of Spain, Philip IV., received the author coldly, and it is said gods of oracles and of divination in general. Whether the will
even tried to suppress his book, fearing that the Portuguese, of the gods is determined through the inspection of the liver of
who had just revolted from Spain (1640), would profit by its the sacrificial animal, through observing the action of oil bubbles
information. After occupying the positions of procurator of in a basin of water or through the observation of the movements
the Jesuits at Rome and censor (calificador) of the Inquisition of the heavenly bodies, it is Shamash and Adad who, in the ritual
at Madrid, Acuna returned to South America, where he died, connected with divination, are invariably invoked. Similarly
probably soon after 1675. His Nuevo Descubrimiento del Gran in the annals and votive inscriptions of the kings, when oracles
Rio de las Amazonas was published at Madrid in 1641; French are referred to, Shamash and Adad are always named as the
and English translations (the latter from the French, appeared gods addressed, and their ordinary designation in such instances
"
in 1682 and 1698. is bele biri, lords of divination." The consort of Adad-Ramman
ACUPRESSURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and premere, to is Shala, while as Amurru his consort is called Aschratum. (See
press), the name given to a method of restraining haemorrhage, BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION.) (M. JA.)
introduced by Sir J. Y. Simpson, the direct pressure of a metallic ADAGIO ad agio, at ease), a term in music to indicate
(Ital.
needle, either alone or assisted by a loop of wire, being used to slow time; also a slow movement in a symphony, sonata, &c.,
"
close the vessel near the bleeding point. or an independent piece, such as Mozart's pianoforte Adagio
ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to in B minor."
prick), a form of surgical operation, performed by pricking the ADAIR, JOHN (d. 1722), Scottish surveyor and map-maker
part affected with a needle. It has long been used by the Chinese of the 1
7th century. Nothing is known of his parentage, birth-
in cases of headaches, lethargies, convulsions, colics, &c. (See place or early life. His name first came before the public in
SURGERY.) 1683, when a prospectus was published in Edinburgh entitled An
"
ADABAZAR, an important commercial town in the Khoja Hi Account of the Scottish Atlas, stating that the Privy Council
sanjak of Asia Minor, situated on the old military road from Scotland has appointed John Adair, mathematician and skilfull
Constantinople to the east, and connected by a branch line with mechanick, to survey the shires." In 1686 an act of tonna|
the Anatolian railway. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 10,000; Chris- was passed in Adair's favour. He was then employed on a survey
tians, 8000). It was founded in 1540 and enlarged in 1608 by of the Scottish coast and two years later was made a fellow of
the settlement in it of an Armenian colony. There are silk and the Royal Society. Two other acts of tonnage were passed for
 ADALBERON ADAM 167
Adair, one in 1695 'and the other in 1705. In 1703 he published Bremen a and it was
city of importance, called by his biographer,
the first part of his Description of the Sea Coasts and Islands of Adam of Bremen, the New Rome.
Scotland, for the use of seamen. The second part never appeared. See Adam of Bremen, GestaHammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum,
edited by J. M. Lappenberg, in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
He is thought to have died in London about the end of 1722. Band vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); C.Grunhagen,
Scriptores.
He must have lost a considerable amount of money in the execu- Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg und die Idee eines Nordischen
tion of his work, and in 1723 some remuneration was made to his Patriarchal (Leipzig, 1854).
widow by the government. Some of his work is preserved in ADALBERT (originally VOYTECH), (c. 950-997), known as
the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh and in the King's Library the apostle of the Prussians, the son of a Bohemian prince, was
of the British Museum, London. born at Libice (Lobnik, Lubik), the ancestral seat near the
ADALBERON, or ASCELIN (d. 1030 or 1031), French bishop junction of the Cidlina and the Elbe. He was educated at the
and poet, studied at Reims and became bishop of Laon in 977. monastery of Magdeburg; and in 983 was chosen bishop of
When Laon was taken by Charles, duke of Lorraine, in 988, he Prague. The extreme severity of his rule repelled the Bohemians,
was put into prison, whence he escaped and sought the protec- whom he vainly strove to wean from their national customs and
tion of Hugh Capet, king of France. Winning the confidence pagan rites. Discouraged by the ill-success of his ministry, he
of Charles of Lorraine and of Arnulf, archbishop of Reims, he withdrew to Rome until 993, when, in obedience to the command
was restored to his see; but he soon took the opportunity to of the pope, he returned to his own people. Finding little amend-
betray Laon, together with Charles and Arnulf, into the hands ment, however, in their course of living, he soon afterwards went
of Hugh Capet. Subsequently he took an active part in ecclesi- again to Rome, and obtained permission from the pope to devote
astical affairs, and died on the igth of July 1030 or 1031. Adal- himself to missionary labours, which he carried on chiefly in
beron wrote a satirical poem in the form of a dialogue dedicated North Germany and Poland. While preaching in Pomerania
to Robert, king of France, in which he showed his dislike of Odilo, (997) he was assassinated by a heathen priest.
abbot of Cluny, and his followers, and his objection to persons
'
See U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du-moyen dge,
of humble birth being made bishops. The poem was first pub- Bio.-Bibl. (1905); Bolland, Ada Sanctorum, April 23; H. G. Voigt,
lished by H. Valois in the Carmen panegyricum in laudem Beren- Adalbert von Prag (1898), a thoroughly exhaustive monograph.

garii (Paris, 1663), and in modern times by J. P. Migne in the ADALIA (med. Anlaliyah; the crusaders' Satalia), the ancient
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844). Adalberon must Attalia the largest seaport on the south coast of Asia
(q.v.),
not be confounded with his namesake, Adalberon, archbishop Minor, though in point of trade it is now second to Mersina.
of Reims (d. 988 or 989). The unsuitability of the harbour for modern steamers, the bad
See Richer, Histariarum libri III. et IV., which appears in the anchorage outside and the extension of railways from Smyrna
Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores. Band (Hanover
iii.
have greatly lessened its former importance as an emporium for
and Berlin, 1826-1892) A. Olleris,
;
(Euvres de Gerbert pape sous le
nom de Sylvestre II. (Paris, 1867) ; Histoire litteraire de la France, west central Anatolia. It is not connected by a chaussee with any
tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869). point outside its immediate province, but it has considerable
ADALBERT, or ADELBERT (c. 1000-1072), German arch- importance as the administrative capital of a rich and isolated
bishop, the most famous ecclesiastic of the nth century, was sanjak. Adalia played a considerable part in the medieval
the son of Frederick, count of Goseck, a member of a noble Saxon history of the Levant. Kilij Arslan had a palace there. The
family. He was educated for the church, and began his clerical army of Louis VII. sailed thence for Syria in 1148, and the fleet
career at Halberstadt, where he attained to the dignity of provost. of Richard of England rallied there before the conquest of Cyprus.
Having attracted the notice of the German king, Henry III., Conquered by the Seljuks of Konia, and made the capital of the
Adalbert probably served as chancellor of the kingdom of Italy, province of Tekke, it passed after their fall through many hands,
and 1045 was appointed archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen,
in including those of the Venetians and Genoese, before its final
his province including the Scandinavian countries, as well as occupation by the Ottoman Turks under Murad II. (1432). In
a larger part of North Germany. In 1046 he accompanied the i8th century, in common with most of Anatolia, its actual
Henry to Rome, where he is said to have refused the papal chair; lord was a Dere Bey. The family of Tekke Oglu, domiciled near
and in 1052 he was made legate by Pope Leo IX., and given the Perga, though reduced to submission in 1812 by Mahmud II.,
right to nominate bishops in his province. He sought to increase continued to be a rival power to the Ottoman governor till within
the influence of his archbishopric, sent missionaries to Finland, the present generation, surviving by many years the fall of the
Greenland and the Orkney Islands, arid aimed at making Bremen other great Beys of Anatolia. The records of the Levant (Turkey)
a patriarchal see for northern Europe, with twelve suffragan Company, which maintained an important agency here till 1825,
bishoprics. He consolidated and increased the estates of the contain curious information as to the local Dere Beys. The
church, exercised the powers of a count, denounced simony and present population of Adalia, which includes many Christians
initiated financial reforms. The presence of this powerful and and Jews, still living, as in the middle ages, in separate quarters,
active personality, who was moreover a close friend of the the former round the walled mina or port, is about 25,000. The
emperor, was greatly resented by the Saxon duke, Bernard II., port is served by coasting steamers of the local companies only.
who regarded him as a spy sent by Henry into Saxony. Adalbert, Adalia is an extremely picturesque, but ill-built and backward
who wished to free his lands entirely from the authority of the place. The chief thing to see is the city wall, outside which runs
duke, aroused further hostility by an attack on the privileges of a good and clean promenade. The government offices and the
the great abbeys, and after the emperor's death in 1056 his lands houses of the better class are all outside the walls.
were ravaged by Bernard. He took a leading part in the govern- See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie.et de la Pisidie, \.
ment of Germany during the minority of King Henry IV., and (1890). (D. G. H.)
was styled pair onus of the young king, over whom he appears ADAM, the conventional name of the first created man
to have exercised considerable influence. Having accompanied according to the Bible.
Henry on a campaign into Hungary in 1063, he received large 1. The Name. The use of " Adam " (DIN) as a proper name
gifts of crown estates, and obtained the office of count palatine in is an early error. Properly the word adam designated man as
Saxony. His power aroused so much opposition that in 1066 a species; with the article prefixed (Gen. ii. 7, 8, 16, iv. i; and
the king was compelled to assent to his removal from court. In doubtless ii. 20, iii. 17) it means the first man. Only in Gen. iv.
1069 he was recalled by Henry, when he made a further attempt 25 and v. 3-5 is adam a quasi-proper name, though LXX. and
"
to establish a northern patriarchate, which failed owing to the Vulgate use Adam " (A5a/i) in this way freely. Gen. ii. 7
" the
hostility of the papacy and the condition of affairs in the Scan- suggests a popular Hebrew derivation from addmah,
dinavian kingdoms. He died at Goslar on the i6th or i7th of ground." Into the question whether the original story did not
" "
March 1072, and was buried in the cathedral which he had built give a proper name which was afterwards modified into Adam
atBremen. Adalbert was a man of proud and haughty bearing, important as this question is we cannot here enter.
with large ideas and a strong, energetic character. He made 2. Creation of Adam. For convenience, we shall take " Adam "
 i68 ADAM
"
as a symbol for the first man," and inquire first, what does (so primitive man believed) would enable any being to escape
tradition say of his creation? In Gen. ii. 4^-8 we read thus: death (an idea spiritualized in Prov. iii. 18).
"
''At the time when Yahweh-Elohim 1 made earth and heaven, Next, which of the trees is the tree of life "? Various sacred
earth was as yet without bushes, no herbage was as yet sprouting, trees were known to the Semitic peoples, such as the fig-tree
because Yahweh-Elohim had not caused it to rain upon the earth, (cp. iii. 7), which sometimes appears, conventionalized, as a
and no men were there to till the ground, but a stream 2 used to sacred tree. 9 But clearly the tree referred to was more than a
"
go up from the earth, and water all the face of the ground, then sacred tree "; it was a tree from whose fruit or juice, as culture
Yahweh-Elohim formed the man of dust of the ground, 3 and advanced, some intoxicating drink was produced. The Gao-
blew into his nostrils breath of life, 4 and the man became a living kerena of the Iranians 10 is exactly parallel. At the resurrection,
being. And Yahweh-Elohim planted a garden 6 in Eden, east- those who drink of the life-giving juice of this plant will obtain
"
ward; and there he put the man whom he had formed." (See perfect welfare/' including deathlessness. It is not, however,
EVE.) either from Iran or from India that the Hebrew tree of life is
How greatly this simple and fragmentary tale of Creation derived, but from Arabia and Babylonia, where date-wine (cp.
differs from that in Gen. i. 40 (see COSMOGONY) need hardly
i-ii. Enoch xxiv. 4) is the earliest intoxicant. Of this drink it may
be mentioned. Certainly the priestly writer who produced the well have been said in primitive times (cp. Rig Veda, ix. 90. 5,
latter could nothave said that God modelled the first man out " "
of Soma) that it cheers the heart of gods (in the speech of
of moistened clay, or have adopted the singular account of the
"
the vine, Juclg. ix. 13). Later writers spoke of a tree of
"
formation of Eve in ii. 21-23. The latter story in particular (see mercy," distilling the oil of life," "i.e. the oil that heals, but
"
EVE) shows us how childlike was the mind of the early men, 4 Esdr. ii. 12 (cp. viii. 53) speaks of the tree of life," and Rev.
whose God is not " wonderful in counsel " (Isa. xxviii. 29), and xxii. 2 (virtually) of
"
trees of life," whose leaves have a healing
fails in his first
attempt to relieve the loneliness of his favourite. virtue (cp. Ezek. xlvii. 12). The oil-tree should doubtless be
For no beast however mighty, no bird however graceful, was a grouped with the river of oil in later writings (see PARADISE).
fit companion for God's masterpiece, and, apart from the serpent, Originally it was enough that there should be one tree of life, i.e.
the animals had no faculty of speech. All therefore that Adam that heightened and preserved vitality.
could do, as they passed before him, was to name them, as a A third enigma why no "fountain of life "? The references
lord names his vassals. But here arises a difficulty. How came to such a fountain in Proverbs (xiii. 14, &c.) prove that the idea
Adam by the requisite insight and power of observation? For was familiar,
'
12
and in Rev. xxii. i we are told that the river of
" "
as yet he had not snatched the perilous boon of wisdom. Clearly Paradise was a river of water of
(see PARADISE). The
life
the Paradise story not homogeneous.
is serpent, too, in
mythology a regular symbol of water. Possibly
is

3. How the Animals were named. Some moderns, e.g. von the narrator, or redactor, desired to tone down the traces of
Bohlen, Ewald, Driver (in Genesis, p. 55, but cp. p. 42), have mythology. Just as the Gathas (the ancient Zoroastrian hymns)
found in ii. 19, 20 an early explanation of the origin of language. omit Gaokerena, and the Hebrew prophets on the whole avoid
This is hardly right. The narrator assumes that Adam and Eve mythological phrases, so this old Hebrew thinker prunes the
had an innate faculty of speech. 6 They spoke just as the birds primitive exuberance of the traditional myth.
sing, and their language was that of the race or people which 5. The Serpent. The keen-witted, fluently speaking serpent
descended from them. Most probably the object of the story gives rise to fresh riddles. How comes it that Adam's ruin is
" "
is, not to answer any curious question (such as, how did human effected by one of those very beasts of the field which he
speech arise, or how came the animals by their names?), but to had but lately named (ii. 19), that in speech he is Adam's equal
dehort its readers or hearers from the abominable vice referred and in wisdom his superior? Is he a pale form of the Babylonian
to in Lev. xviii. 23.' There may have been stories in circulation chaos-dragon, or of the serpent of Iranian mythology who sprang
"
like that of Ea-bani ( 8), and even such as those of the Skidi from heaven to earth to blight the good creation "? It is true
" "
Pawnee, in which people marry animals, or become animals. that the serpent of Eden has mythological affinities. In iii. 14,
"
Against these it is said (ver. 206) that for Adam he found no 15, indeed, he is degraded into a mere typical snake, but iii. 1-5
helper (qualified) to match him." shows that he was not so originally. He is perhaps best regarded,
4. Three Riddles. Manifold are the problems suggested by the in the light of Arabian folk-lore, as the manifestation of a demon

Eden-story (see EDEN; PARADISE). For instance, did the original residing in the tree with the magic fruit.
13
He may have been a
story mention two trees, or only one, of which the fruit was prince among the demons, as the magic tree was a prince
taboo? In iii. 3(cp. w. 6, ii) only " the tree in the midst of among the plants. Hence perhaps his strange boldness. For
"
the garden is spoken of, but in ii. 9 and iii. 22 two trees are some unknown reason he was ill disposed towards Yahweh-
referred to, the fruit of both of which would appear to be taboo. Elohim (see iii. 36), which has suggested to some that he may be
To this we must add that in ii. 17 " the tree of the knowledge of akin to the great enemy of Creation. To Adam and Eve, how-
" "
good and evil appears to have the qualities of a tree of life," ever, he is not unkind. He bids them raise themselves in the
except indeed to Adam. This passage seems to give us the key scale of being by eating the forbidden fruit, which he declares
to the mystery. There was only one tree whose fruit was for- to be not fatal to life but an opener of the eyes, and capable of
" " " the "
bidden; it might be called either the tree of life or equalizing men with gods (iii. 4, 5). To the phrase ye shall
" "
tree of knowledge," but certainly not the tree of knowledge be as gods " a later writer may have added knowing good and
" " "
of good and evil." 8 The words " life " and " knowledge " evil," but to be as gods originally meant to live the life
(
= " wisdom ") are practically equivalent; perfect knowledge of gods wise, powerful, happy." The serpent was in the main
"
1
The English
Bible gives the LORD GOD." This, however, does right, but there is one point which he did not mention, viz. that
not adequately represent the Hebrew. for any being to retain this intensified vitality the eating of the
3
See commentaries of Gunkel and Cheyne. As in v.io, the ocean-
stream is meant. (See EDEN.) 9 See illustration in Toy's Ezekiel Books of the Old
(Sacred
3
A widely spread mythic representation. (Cp. COSMOGONY.) Testament), p. 182.
4
See an illustration from Naville's Book of the Dead (Egyptian) in "Gaokerena is'the mythic white haoma p\a.nt(Zendavesla,Vendidad,
Jewish Cyclopaedia, {. I74a. xx. 4; Bundahish, xxvii. 4). It is an idealization of the yellow
1
Or park. (See PARADISE.) haoma of the mountains which was used in sacrifices (Yasna, x.
6
The later Jews, however, supposed that before the Fall the 6-10). It corresponds to the soma plant (Asclepias acida) of the
animals could speak, and that they had all one language (Jubilees, ancient Aryans of India. On the illustrative value of Gaokerena see
iii. 28; Jos.
Antiquities, i. I, 4). Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, pp. 400-439.
" See
Life of Adam and Eve (apocryphal), 36, 40; Apocal. Mas.
7
Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus, referring to Dorsey, Traditions of "
the Skidi Pawnee, 80 ff. 9; Secrets of Enoch, viii. 7, xxii. 8, 9. Oil of life," in a Bab. hymn,
8 " pp." 2,
Good and evil may be a late marginal gloss. See further '> Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, ed. 3, p. 526.
"
Ency. Bib. col. 3578, and the commentaries (Driver leaves the Cp. the Bab. myths of Adapa and of the Descent of Ishtar.
phrase); also Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and Ass. p. 553; Sayce,
18
W. R. Smith, Relig. of Semites, pp. 133, 442; Ency. Bib.,
Hibbert Lectures, p. 242. "Serpent," 3.4-
 ADAM 169
fruit would have to be constantly renewed. Only thus could 8. Origin of the Adam-story. That the Hebrew story of the
even the gods escape death. 1 first man in forms is no mere recast of a Babylonian
both its

6. The Divine Command broken. The serpent has gone the myth, is generally admitted. The holy mountain is no doubt
right way to work; he comprehends woman's nature better Babylonian, and the plantations of sacred trees, one of which
than Adam comprehends that of the serpent. By her curiosity at least has magic virtue, can be paralleled from the monuments
Eve is undone. She looks at the fruit; then she takes and eats; (see EDEN). But there is no complete parallel to the description
her husband does the same (iii. 6). The consequence (ver. 7) of Paradise in Gen. ii., or to the story of the rib, or to that of

may seem to us rather slight: "they knew (became sensible) the serpent. The first part of the latter has definite Arabian
that they were naked, and sewed fig-leaves together, and made affinities; the second is as definitely Hebrew. We may now
themselves girdles (aprons)." But the real meaning is not slight; add that the insertion of iii. 7 (from " were opened") to 19
the sexual distinction has been discovered, and a new sense a passage which has probably supplanted a more archaic and
of shame sends the human pair into the thickest shades, when definitely mythological passage may well have been the conse-
Yahweh-Elohim walks abroad. The God of these primitive quence of the change in the conception of the first man referred
men is surprised:
"
Where art thou? " By degrees, he obtains to above. Still there are four Babylonian stories which may

a full confession not from the serpent, whose speech might serve as partial illustrations of the Hebrew Adam-story.
not have been edifying, but from Adam and Eve. The sentences The first is contained in a fragment of a cosmogony in Berossus,
which he passes are decisive, not only for the human pair and the now confirmed in the main by the sixth tablet of the Creation-
serpent, but for their respective races. Painful toil shall be the epic. It represents the creation of man as due to one of the in-
lot of man; subjection and pangs that of woman.
2
The serpent ferior gods who (at Bel's command) mingled with clay the blood
too (whose unique form preoccupied the early men) shall be which flowed from the severed head of Bel (see COSMOGONY).
humiliated, as a perpetual warning to man who is henceforth The three others are the myths of Adapa, 6 Ea-bani and Etana.
his enemy of the danger of reasoning on and disobeying the As to Adapa, it may be mentioned here that Fossey has shown
will of God. reason for holding that the true reading of the name is Adamu.
Versions of the Adam-story.
7. Theologians in all ages have It thus becomes plausible to hold that
"
Adam " in Gen. ii.-iii.
allegorized this strange narrative.
3
The serpent becomes the was originally a proper name, and that it was derived from
inner voice of temptation, and the saying in iii. 15 becomes an Babylonia. More probably, however, this is but an accidental
anticipation of the final victory of good over evil a view which coincidence; both adam and adamu may come from the same
"
probably arose in Jewish circles directly or indirectly affected Semitic root meaning to make." Certainly Adamu (if it is nc f
by the Zoroastrian eschatology. But allegory was far from more convenient to write " Adapa ") was not regarded as the
the thoughts of the original narrators. Another version of the progenitor of the human race, like the Hebrew Adam. He was,
Adam-story is given by Ezekiel (xxviii. 11-19), for underneath however, certainly a man one of those men who were not, of
the king of Tyre (or perhaps Missor) 4 we can trace the majestic course, rival first-men, but were specially created and endowed.
figure of the first man. This Adam, indeed, is not like the first Adamu or Adapa, we are told, received from his divine father
man of Gen. ii.-iii., but more like the "bright angel" who is the gift of wisdom, 7 but not that of everlasting life. He had a
the first man in the Christian Book of Adam (i. 10; Malan, p. 12). chance, however, of obtaining the gift, or at least of eating the
He dwells on a glorious forest-mountain (cp. Ezekiel xxxi. 8, food and drinking the water which makes the gods ageless and
1 8), and is led away by pride to equalize himself with Elohim immortal. But through a deceit practised upon him by his
(cp. 2, 2 Thess. ii. 4), and punished.
xxviii. And with this divine father Ea, he supposed the food and drink offered to him
" "
passage us group Job xv. 7, 8, where Job is ironically de-
let on a certain occasion by the gods to be food of death," water
"
scribed as vying with the first man, who was brought forth of death," just as Adam and Eve at first believed that the fruit
"
before the hills" (cp. Prov. viii. 25) and drew wisdom to him- of the magic tree would produce death (Gen. iii. 4, 5).
" "
self by hearkening in the council of Elohim." No reference is The second story is that of Ea-bani, 8 who was formed by the
made in Job to this hero's fall. The omission, however, is re- goddess Arusu ( = the mother-goddess Ishtar) of a lump of clay
paired, not only in Ezek. xxviii. 16, but also in Isa. xiv. 12-15, (cp. Gen. ii. 7). This human creature, long-haired and sensual,
where the king, whose name is given in the English Bible as was drawn away from a savage mode of life by a harlot, and
" " " "
Lucifer (or margin, day-star "), son of the morning," and Jastrow, followed by G. A. Barton, Worcester and Tennant,
who, like the other king in Ezekiel, is threatened with death, is considers this to be parallel to the story which may underlie
a copy of the mythical Adam. the account of the failure of the beasts, and the success of the
The two conceptions of the first man are widely different. The woman Eve, as a " help-meet " for Adam. This, however, is
passages last referred to harmonize with the account given in most uncertain.
" "
Gen. i. 26, for in our image certainly suggests a being equal The third is that of Etana. 9 Here the main points are that
in brightness and in capacities to the angels a view which, as Etana is induced by an eagle to mount up to heaven, that he may
we know, became the favourite one in apocryphal and Haggadic win a boon from the kindly goddess Ishtar. Borne by the eagle,
descriptions of the Adam before the Fall. And though the he soared high up into the ether, but became afraid. Downward
priestly writer, to whom the first Creation-story in its present the eagle and his burden fell, and in the epic of Gilgamesh we
form is due, says nothing about a sacred mountain as the dwell- find Etana in the nether world. According to Jastrow, this
ing-place of the first-created man, yet this mountain belongs to attempted ascension was an offence against the gods, and his fall
the type of tradition which the passage, Gen. i. 26-28, imperfectly was his punishment. We are not told, however, that Etana
but truly represents. The glorious first man of Ezekiel, and the had the impious desire of Ezekiel's first man, and if he fell, it was
god-like first men of the cosmogony (cp. Ps. viii. 5) who held the through his own timidity (contrast Ezek. xxviii. 16). But cer-
6
regency of the earth, require a dwelling-place as far above the tainly the myth does help us to imagine a story in which, for
common level of the earth as they are themselves above the child- some sin against the gods, some favoured hero was hurled down
like Adam
of the second creation-narrative (Gen. ii.). On this from the divine abode, and such a story may some day be dis-
sacred mountain, see COSMOGONY. covered.
1
Note the food and drink of the gods in the Babylonian Adapa To these illustrations it is unsafe to add the scene on a cylinder
(or Adamu?) myth.
2
The mortality of man forms no preserved in the British Museum, representing two figures, a
" part of the curse (cp. iii. 19,
dust thou art "). 6
See Jastrow, Re!, of Bab. and Ass. pp. 548-554; R. J. Harper,
3
See H. Schultz, Alttest. Theologie, ed. 4, pp. 679 ff., 720; in Academy, May 30, 1891; Jensen, Keilinschr. Bibliothek, vi. 93 ff.
)river, Genesis, p. 44. 7
The wisdom was probably to qualify him as a ruler. It is too
4 "
See Cheyne, Genesis and Exodus.
6 " "
much to say with Hommel that Adapa is the archetype of the
Cp. the fair shepherd Yirna of the Avesta (Vend, ii.), the first Johannine Logos."
lan and the founder of civilization to the Iranians, though not like 8
Jastrow, op. cit. p. 474 ff. Jensen, Keil. Bibl.
; vi. 120 ff.
the Yama of the Vedas. '
Jastrow, p. 522 f.; Jensen, vi. 112 ff.
 170 ADAM
man (with horns) and perhaps a woman, both clothed, on either second which harmonizes with Gen. ii.-iii. In one of the two
side of a fruit-tree, towards which they stretch out their hands. 1 passages which express it we are also told that each member of
"
For the meaning of this is extremely problematical. Some better the human race is the Adam of his own soul." Adam, like
monumental illustration may some day be found, for it is clear Satan in Ecclus. xxi. 27, has become a psychological symbol.
that the Babylonian sacred literature had much to tell of offences Truly, a worthy development of the seed-thoughts of the original
against the gods in the primeval age. narrator, and (must we not add ?) entirely opposed to any
The student may naturally ask, Whence did the Israelites (a doctrine of Original Sin.
comparatively young people) obtain the original myth ? It is In 4 Ezra, too, we find no real endorsement of such a doctrine.
most probable that they obtained it through the mediation either It is true, not only physical death (iii. 7), but spiritual, is traced
of the Canaanites or of the North Arabians. Babylonian influence, to the act of Adam (iii. 21, 22, iv. 30, 31, vii. 118-121). But
as is now well known, was strongly felt for many centuries in two modifying facts should be noticed. One is that Adam is
Canaan, and even the cuneiform script was in common use said to have had from the first a wicked heart, owing to which
among the high officials of the country. When the Israelites he fell, and his posterity likewise, into sin and guilt. All men
entered Canaan, they would learn myths partly of Babylonian have the same seed of evil in them that Adam had; they sin
origin. North Arabian influence must also have been strong among and die, like him. The other is that, according to iii. 7-12,
the Israelites, at least while they sojourned in North Arabia. From there are at least two ages of the world. The first ended with
the Kenites, at any rate, they may have received, not only a the Flood, so that any consequences of Adam's sin were, strictly
strong religious impulse, but a store of tales of the primitive speaking, of limited duration. The second began with righteous
age, and these stories too may have been partly influenced by Noah and his household, " of whom came all righteous men."
"
Babylonian traditions. We must allow for stages of development It was the descendants of these who began again to do un-
both among the Israelites and among their tutors. godliness more than the former ones." Doubtless the problem
9. Biblical
References to the Adam-story. It is remarkable how of evil is most imperfectly treated, even from the writer's point
influence the Adam-story has had on the earlier parts of the
little of view. But it would be cruel to pick holes in a writer whose
Old Testament. The garden of Eden is referred to in Isa. li. 3, thinking, like that of St Paul, is coloured by emotion.
Ezek. xxxvi. 35, Joel ii. 5; cp. Ezek. xxviii. 13, xxxi. 8, 9, 16, At this point we might well make more than a passing reference
which are later. And it is mostly in the " humanistic "
18, all of to St Paul (Rom. v. 14; i Cor. xv. 22, 45, 47), whose doctrine of
book of Proverbs that we find allusions to the " tree of life " sin is evidently of mixed origin. But we cannot find space for
"
'Prov. iii. 18, xi. 30, xiii. fountain of
12, xv. 4), and to the this here. In compensation let it be mentioned that in Rev.
" "
life perhaps (see 4) an omitted portion of the old Paradise- xii. 9 (cp. xx. 2) the great dragon," who persecuted the woman
" "
story (Prov. x. n, xiii. 14, xiv. 27, xvi. 22), the only other clothed with the sun," is identified with the old serpent, that
Biblical reference (apart from Rev. xxi. 6) being in that exquisite is called the Devil and Satan." The identification is incorrect.
passage, Ps. xxxvi. 9. One can hardly be surprised at this.
. But it may be noticed here that the phrase " the old serpent "
The Adam-story is and could not please
plainly of foreign origin, sheds some light on the Pauline phrases " the first man Adam "
"
the greater pre-exilic prophets. In late post-exilic times, how- and the last Adam " (i Cor. xv. 45, 47). The underlying idea
ever, foreign tales, even if of mythical origin, naturally came is that the new age (that of the new heaven and earth) will be

into favour, especially as religious symbols. If even now philo- opened by events parallel to those which opened the first age.
sophers and theologians cannot resist the temptation to allegorize, As the old serpent deceived man of old, so shall it be again.
how inevitable was it that this course should be pursued by early And as at the head of the first age stands the first Adam, whose
Jewish theologians! doings affected all his descendants to their harm, so at the head
10. Incipient Reflexion on the Story. Let us give some instances of the second shall stand the second Adam, whose actions shall
of this. 6 we find the story of Eve's temptation
In Enoch Ixix. be potent for good. There is reason to suspect that the expres-
" the "
read in the light of that of the fallen angels (Gen. vi. i, 2,4) who sion second Adam is the coinage either of St Paul or of

conveyed an evil knowledge to men, and so subjected mankind some one closely connected with him (as Prof. G. F. Moore has
"
to mortality. Evidently the writer fears culture. Elsewhere shown), for there is no prool that such terms as the last," or
" " "
eating the fruit of the tree of wisdom is given as the cause of the second Adam," were generally current among the Jews.
the expulsion of the human pair. In the Wisdom of Solomon 12. Jewish Legends. The parallelism between the first and
(x. i, 2) we find another view. Here, as in Ezekiel, the first man second Adam in i Cor. xv. 45 is a parallelism of contrast. Jewish
is pre-eminently wise and strong; though he transgressed, wisdom legends, however, suggest another sort of parallelism. The
rescued him, i.e. taught him repentance (cp. Life of Adam and Haggadah gives the most extravagant descriptions of the glory
Eve, 1-8). Elsewhere (ii. 24; cp. Jos. Ant. i. i, 4) death is of Adam before his fall. The most prominent idea is that being
traced to the envy of the devil, still implying an exalted view of in the image of God the God whose essence is light he must
Adam. It is held that, but for his sin, Adam would have been have had a luminous body (like the angels). " I made thee of
immortal. Clearly the Jewish mind is exposed to some fresh the light," says God in the Book of Adam and Eve (Malan, p. 16),
"
foreign influences. As in the Talmud and the Jerusalem Targum, and I willed to bring children of light from thee." Similarly
"
the serpent has even become the devil, i.e. Satan. The period of in Baba batra, 580, v/e read, he was of extraordinary beauty
syncretism has fully come, and Zoroastrianism in particular, and sun-like brightness." So glorious was he that even the
more indirectly than directly, is exercising an attractive power angels were commanded through Michael to pay homage to
upon the Jews. For all that, the theological thinking is char- Adam. Satan, disobeying, was cast out of heaven; hence his
acteristically Jewish, and such guidance as Jewish thinkers ill-will towards Adam (Life of Adam and Eve, 13-17; cp.
required was mainly given by Greek culture. On this subject Koran, xvii. 63, xx. 115, xxxviii. 74).
see further EVE, 5. It only remains to give due honour to one of the most beautiful
1 1Growth of a Theology. Let us now turn to the Apocalypses
. of legends, that of the deliverance of Adam's spirit from the
of Baruch and of Ezra (both about 70 A.D.). Different views nether world by the Christ, the earliest form of which is a
are here expressed. According to one (xvii. 3, xix. 8, xxiii. 4) Christian interpolation iaApoc. Moses, 42 (cp. Malan, Adam and
the sin of Adam was the cause of physical death; according to Eve, iv. 15, end). We may compare a partly parallel passage in
another (liv. 15, Ivi. 6), only of premature physical death, while 37, where the agent is Michael, and notice that such legendary
according to a third (xlviii. 42, 43) it is spiritual death which is developments were equally popular among Jews and Christians.
to be laid to his account. Of these three views, it is only the AUTHORITIES. On the apocryphal Books of Adam, see Hort,
Diet, of Chr.
Biography, i. 37 ff. In English we have Malan's trans-
1
See Smith and Sayce, Chaldaean Genesis, p. 88 Delitzsch, Wo lag ;
lation of the Ethiopic Book of Adam
(1882), and Issaverden's
das Parodies ? p. 90; Babel and Bible, Eng. trans., p. 56, with note translation of another Book of Adam
from the Armenian (Venice,
on pp. 114-118; Zimmern, Die Keilinschr. und das A.T., ed. 3, 1901). In German, see Fuchs's translations in Kautzsch's Die
p. 529 Jeremias, Das Alte Test, im Lichte d. Allen Orient, pp. 104-106.
; Apokryphen, ii. 506 ff. For full bibliography see Schurer, Gesch.
 ADAM 171
des jiid. Volkes, ed. 3, iii. 288 f.
"
On Jewish and Mahommedan transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given
iegends, see Jewish Cyclopaedia, Adam." On the belief in the in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited
Fall, see Tennant, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall, and Original
Sin (1903). . (T. K. C.)
as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject. The
ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and re-
born in
Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition)
mained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old
before 1043- He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists of dialogue varied
on the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year by refrains already current in popular song. The melodies to
of the latter's episcopate (io43?-io72); in 1069 he appears as which these are set have the character of folk-music, and are
a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral school. more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music
Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, Sweyn of his songs and motets. A modern adaptation, by Julien
Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 1072, he Tiersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opera
began the Historia Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae, which he finished Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1896 in honour of Adam
about 1075. He died on the I2th of October of a year unknown, de le Hale. His other play, Lejeu Adan or Lejeu de la Feuillee
(c. 1262), is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself,
perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia known also as Gesta Hamma-
his father and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities.
burgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium praesulum Historia,
and Historia ecclesiasticais a primary authority, not only for His works include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of
the great diocese of Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North Arras, and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles of
German and Baltic lands (down to 1072), and for the Scandi- Anjou, Le roi de Sidle, begun in 1282; another short piece, Le
navian colonies as far as America. Here occurs the earliest jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him.
mention of Vinland, and here are also references of great interest
The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is the
La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
to Russia and Kiev, to the heathen Prussians, the Wends and
dating from the latter half of the I3th century. Many of his pieces
other Slav races of the South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule are also contained in Douce MS. 308, in the Bodleian Library,
or Iceland, Greenland and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada Oxford. His CEuvres 'completes (1872) were edited by E. de Cousse-
had attempted to explore in Adam's maker. See also an article by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire
and the nobles of Frisia
de la France (vol. xx. pp. 638-675) G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets
own day (before 1066). Adam's account of North European
;

franfais des XII' el XIII' siecles (1882); Canchons el Partures des

trade at this time, and especially of the great markets of Jumne . . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900), a critical edition by Rudolf
at the mouth of the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard Berger; an edition of Adam's twojeux in Monmerque and Michel's
Theatre franfais au moyen Age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin
(Old Novgorod?) in Russia, is also of much value. His work,
et Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A. Guesnon,
which places him among the first and best of German annalists, La Satire a Arras au XIII' siecle (1900) and a full bibliography of
;

consists of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from works on the subject in No. 6 of the Bibliotheque de bibliographies
written records and partly from oral information, the latter critiques, by Henri Guy.
mainly gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman
Sweyn Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several, antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres,
such as Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman, in Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon
" and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding
bishop of Zealand," formerly chancellor of Canute the Great, diligence
and an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the many difficulties and privations. In 1757 he went to Edinburgh,
most important) book of Adam's History, variously entitled where he studied at the university. His reputation as a classical
Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam sunl scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's Hospital
regionum, Descriplio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has often been and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became private
considered, but wrongly, as a separate work. tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of Edinburgh, by
Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, Royal whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the rectorship of
Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of I2th to I3th cents.; the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, whose sub-
No. 718, of isth cent.; (3) Leyden University, Voss. Lat. 123, of
nth cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library, 2010; (5) Vienna, Hof- stitute hehad been for some time before. From this period he
u. Staatsbibliothek, 413, of I3th cent.; (6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office and to the
Library, Gud. 83, of 1 5th cent. preparation of his numerous works on classical literature. His
There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the first
popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated by
published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus or Descriptio the great increase in the number of his pupils, many of whom
Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615), the best at Hanover,
1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum reissued ;
subsequently became distinguished men, among them being Sir
by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris, 1884 (in Migne's Patrologia Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and Jeffrey. He succeeded in
Latina, cxlvi.). There are also three German versions, and one
introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of the school,
Danish; the best is by J. C. M. Laurent (and W. Wattenbach) in
1

Geschichtsschreiberd.deutsch, Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888). See notwithstanding the opposition of the university headed by
also J. Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg Principal Robertson. In 1780 the university of Edinburgh
770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris,
in Pertz, Archiv, vi, conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws.
1895); Beazley, Dawn
of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901). He died on the i8th of December 1809, after an illness of five
ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French trouvere, days, during which he occasionally imagined himself still at
was born at Arras. His patronymic is generally modernized "
work, his last words being, It grows dark, boys, you may go."
to La and he was commonly known to his contemporaries
Halle, Dr Adam's first publication was his Principles of Latin and
as Adam Adam le Bossu, sometimes simply as Le
d' Arras or
English Grammar (1772), which, being written in English in-
Bossu d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale, was a well-known stead of Latin, brought down a storm of abuse upon him. This
citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology and was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791), A Summary of
music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambrai. Father
Geography and History (1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of
and son had their share in the civil discords in Arras, and for a the Latin Tongue (1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin
short time took refuge in Douai. Adam had been destined for dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in the library
the church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain of the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities,
Marie, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and which has passed through a large number of editions and received
jeux-partis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II., the unusual compliment of a German translation.
count of Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, See An A ccount of the Life and Character of A A ., by A. Henderson
.

brother of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, (1810).

Syria, Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853), British general, was
became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin el Marion, the the son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair- Adam, lord-lieutenant
most famous of his works. He died between 1285 and 1288. of Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of four-
Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a teen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich. He became
 172 ADAM
captain in1 799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in
Egypt in Paris,but his chief works are the " Mausoleum of Cardinal
(1801). In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of de Fleury " and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine Opalinska,
promotion, he obtained command of the 2ist Foot, with which queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy.
regiment he served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 1813, A third brother, FRANCOIS GASPARD BALTHASAH ADAM (1710-
taking part in the battle of Maida in 1806. In 1813 he accom- 1761), born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the
panied the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he com- Great and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that
manded a brigade. He fought a gallant action at Biar (April monarch, and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin. His
12, 1813), and on the following day won further distinction at chief works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and
Castalla. In the action of Ordal, on the I2th of September, Potsdam.
Adam received two severe wounds. He returned to England to The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win
recover, and was made a major-general in 1814. At Waterloo, the approval of the school that immediately followed them, and
Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne (see SEATON, found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle.
LORD) formed part, shared with the Guards the honour of re- See Dussieux, Artistes frangais & I'etranger (Paris, 1855, 8vo);
pulsing the Old Guard. For his services he was made a K.C.B., Archives de I' art fran^ais, documents, vol. i.
pp. 117-180, chiefly for;
and received also Austrian and Russian orders. During the long works executed for the king of Prussia; Mariette, Abecedario;
Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, Dictionnaire general des
peace which followed, Sir Frederick Adam was successively artistes de I'ecole fran^aise (Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed;
employed at Malta, in the Ionian Islands as lord high commis- Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors of the iSth century
sioner (1824-1831) and from 1832 to 1837 as governor of Madras. (London, 410, 1900).
He became K.C.M.G. in 1820, G.C.M.G. four years later, lieu- ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer,
tenant-general in 1830, a privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in was born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the
1840, and full general in 1846. He died suddenly on the 1 7th of college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. In 1 598 he went
August 1853. to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments.
ADAM, JULIETTE (1836- ), French writer, known also He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of
by her maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie the i6th century, mostly theologians, which were published in
(Oise) on the 4th of October 1836. She has given an account Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 1615-1620). He dealt with
of her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her only twenty divines of other countries. All his divines are
parents, in Le roman de man enhance et de ma jeunesse (Eng. Protestants. His industry as a biographer is commended by
trans., London and New York, 1902). In 1852 she married a P. Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours;
doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her Idi.es and his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful.
antiproudhoniennes sur I' amour, lafemme et le mariage, in defence ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris
of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George Sand. On her on the 7th of December He was prosecuted for his first
1862.
husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine Edmond Adam novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted. He collaborated
(1816-1877), prefect of police in 1870, and subsequently life- with Jean Moreas in Le the chez Miranda (1886), and with Moreas
senator; and she established a salon which was frequented by and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symboliste, coming forward
Gambetta and the other republican leaders against the conserva- as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism. Among his numer-
tive reaction of the 'seventies. In the same interest she founded ous novels should be noted Le mystere des joules (2 vols., 1895),
in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, which she edited for the first eight a study in Boulangism, Lettres de Malaisie (1897), a fantastic
years, and in the administration of which she retained a pre- romance of imaginary future politics. In 1899 he began a novel-
ponderating influence until 1899. She wrote the notes on foreign sequence, giving the history of the Napoleonic campaigns, the
politics, and was unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in restoration and the government of Louis Philippe, comprising
her advocacy of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also La force (1899), L'enfant d'Austerlitz (1901), La ruse (1902), and
generally credited with the authorship of papers on various Ausoleil de Juillet (1903). In 1900 he wrote a Byzantine romance,
"
European capitals signed Paul Vasili," which were in reality Basile et Sophia.
the work of various writers. The most famous of her numerous ADAM, ROBERT (1728-1792), British architect, the second
novels is Pa'ienne (1883). Her reminiscences, Mes premieres son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most cele-
armes lilteraires et politiques (1904) and Mes sentiments et nos brated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William
idees avant 1870 (1905), contain much interesting gossip about Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1 7 28. For few famous men have
her distinguished contemporaries. we so little biographical material, and contemporary references
ADAH, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759), French sculptor, to him are sparse. He certainly studied at the university of
known as Adam I'aine, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in archi-
Adam, a sculptor of little repute. Adam was thirty-seven when, tecture from his father, who gave proofs of his own skill and
on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon the taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now demolished). His
model of the group of " Neptune and Amphitrite " for the centre mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, the first English
of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found much em- historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we find Robert Adam living
ployment in the decoration of the royal residences. Among with her in Edinburgh, and making one of the brilliant literary
" "
his more important works are Nymphs and Tritons," The coterie which adorned it at that period. Somewhere between
"
Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves," Hunter with Lion 1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, where he spent three years study-
"
in his Net," a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, The Seine ing the remains of Roman architecture. There he was struck
and the Marne " in stone for St Cloud, " Hunting " and " Fish- with the circumstance that practically nothing had survived of
"
ing," marble groups for Berlin, Mars embraced by Love " and the Greek and Roman masterpieces except public buildings, and
"
The enthusiasm of Poetry." Adam restored with much ability that the private palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so
the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the so-called Villa of highly, had practically vanished. One example of such work,
Marius at Rome, and was elected a member of the Academy of however, was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalato,
St Luke. Several of his most important works were executed in Dalmatia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him
for Frederick the Great in Prussia. the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clerisseau, and
His brother, also a sculptor, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN ADAM (1705- two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, after being
1778), known as Adam le jeune, born in Nancy, worked under arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to accumulate a
equal encouragement. His first work of importance was his sufficient number of measurements and careful plans and surveys
"
Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture," executed in to produce a restoration of the entire building in a fine work
" which he published in 1764, The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian,
plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his reception
"
piece when he was elected into the Academy. He produced the ffc. Considering the shortness of the time occupied and the
" "
reliefs of the Birth and " Agony of Christ " for the Oratory obstacles placed in his way by the Venetian governor and the
 ADAM
population of the place, the result was amazing. The influence plished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically unde-
of these studies was apparent and indirectly in much of
directly sirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it
his subsequent work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions.
upon them. His " compo " was used so successfully that the patent was in-
After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly fringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use.
to the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusi-
king and the Board of Works. Six years later he resigned this asm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of it with minute
office, in which he was succeeded by his brother James, who pains, while his practice showed his grasp of the subject by all
however, held the office jointly with another, and entered avoidance of bare imitation of the classic masters who first
parliament as member for the county of Kinross. In 1768 he brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but
and his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames, it was independently developed by himself. It would be im-
upon which the Adelphi now stands, for 1200 on a ninety-nine possible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he
years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of Lord executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-emi-
Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the teeth of nent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy
public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of buildings Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older
which is imperishably associated with their name, indicating its portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of houses in
joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the' Greek dSeX(oi, the the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord
Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decora-
hillled down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan tions and additions to many more.
was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches Robert Adam with, there is reason to suspect, some help from
and vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets his brother James has left as deep and enduring a mark upon
and stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time
of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but
was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French
raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted
terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his
after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attractive, mainly
terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution, by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt
the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire
remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense
described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with
years that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own
to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely
" "
in double tiers. In time these streets obtained a bad name successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most
as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his
enclosed and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers favourite decorative motives wreaths and paterae, the honey-
issued a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the suckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly.
designs for many of their most important works, which included Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From
several great public buildings and numberless large private facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the carpets, every-
houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remain- thing originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an
ing years of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room is
extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful
when he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey than in mantelpieces and doors. The former, by reason of their
almost as a matter of course. " "
simplicity and the readiness with which the compo orna-
The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and ments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms
prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it. in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in
As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian in- a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent
fluences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native. to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear
But this does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding
our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art litera-
triumph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt ture that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published.
classical models as to create a new manner of the highest charm John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in
and distinction. Out of simple curvilinear forms, of which he Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was
principally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extra- closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to
ordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.)
of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839), British lawyer and politician,
with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well as eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and
with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigor- nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of
ously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and
too small and unimportant for him summer-houses and dog- Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon after-
kennels came as readily to him as the vast fagades of a terrace wards he removed to England, where he entered parliament
in town or a great country house. But he never permitted in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He
minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design. withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806
Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and
of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place;
Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till
it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made 1811. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox.
a distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of imparting At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice.
the unity of a single imposing structure to a number of private He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince
houses grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren
of modern town building, and though at times he failed in the
Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord
breadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of
scale, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accom- office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and
174 ADAMANT ADAMS
was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinross- pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state
shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, of original innocency. They accordingly rejected the form of
and was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin,
for the trial of civil causes, from 1815 to 1830, when it was merged and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they
in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the
the iyth of February 1839. middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not
ADAMANT (from Gr. aBatias, untameable), the modern itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and
diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance. Sisters of the Free Spirit.
The Greek word used by Homer as a personal epithet, and
is ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704), Irish saint and
by Hesiod hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus
for the historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the
applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or lona, being
with the Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a
to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686,
"
was displaced by " diamond it has had only a figurative and he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for
poetical use. celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to lona he
ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He
between 6 and 11 N., and 11 and 15 E., about midway died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of
between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of
between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the great interest and value. The best editions are those published
chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This by W. Reeves (1857, new edit. Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T.
region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger, Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work,
and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Yedseram, De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymilana
flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the saeculi,ui.-viii., &c., 1898; vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script. Ecc.
country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received
sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy
of 1600 ft., and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was enter-
mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations, tained for a time at lona. This was first published at Ingolstadt
towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of in 1619 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance
these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft. of Arculf's narrative against Casaubon. An English translation
thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land,
hill. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of Yola, was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889).
rises from the an isolated granite mass, to the height of
plain,
For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Repert. des sources
The historiques (1903), p. 40.
6000 ft. country, which is very fertile and is covered with
luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable popu- ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist
and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Ban-
lation. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal
chory, Aberdeen, was born on the 2ist of March 1827, and was
products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are
educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army
numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the
Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his oppor-
country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with
tunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in
crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing
some resemblance to the seal. Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the
fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give
Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early
special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an ac-
years of the igth century conquered the country. To the Hausa
and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South- knowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873
he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science,
land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the
Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's
Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all
College, Cork, a post which he held until the close of his life. He
fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some
died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882.
of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among PUBLICATIONS. Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley andMalta
them in the early years of the 2oth century. The Fula (?..), (London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British
who first into the country about the isth century as nomad
came Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc.), (London. 1877-1881).
herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplo-
holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country matist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John
numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and Adams, was born in Boston on the i8th of August 1807. His
Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lord- father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in
ship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa, 1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity
but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (c. 1900), has with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years
consisted of a number of small states under the control of the spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin
British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benue, 65 m. east of School for four years, and in '1825 graduated at Harvard. He
Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during
region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a
is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph.
the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study,
Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to and wrote for the North American Review. He also undertook
penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively
has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives
Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893-1894). for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he
An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled,
given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An Appeal from the
(new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in
S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also CAMEROON and New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts
NIGERIA, and the bibliographies there given.) general court from 1840 to 1845, sitting for three years in the
ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished in House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate;
North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Basing itself prob- and in 1846-1848 he edited a party journal, the Boston Whig.
ably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a " Conscience Whig,"
 ADAMS
presiding over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free to New EnglandFederalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert
Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president and Gallalin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder
himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters oj
the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the sth of Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest
December 1859, and during the second session, from the 3rd of Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876).
December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861, he represented Massa- His elder brother, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
(1833-1894), a
chusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Demo-
time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selec- cratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general
tion by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to court. In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the
present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley.
by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able Another brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Jr. (1835- ),

speech of the 3ist of January 1861 in the House, served to make born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard
him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War,
with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular
concession; and, while he was criticized severely and charged army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from
with inconsistency in view of his record as a "Conscience Whig," 1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an
he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to con- authority on the management of railways. In 1900-1901 he
cede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly was president of the American Historical Association. Among
understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He his writings are Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878);
:

believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892) a biography
;

show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900) Lee at Appomattox
;

was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result and Other Papers (1902) Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles
;

the holding of the border slave states with the North until the Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs (1906) and Three Phi Beta Kappa
;

4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the Addresses (1907). .

government at Washington. With the incoming of the new Another brother, BROOKS ADAMS (1848- ), born in Quincy,

administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appoint- Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard
ment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was in 1870, and until 1881 practised law. His writings include :

shown in England for the South that his path was beset with The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) The Law of Civiliza-
;

difficulties but his mission was to prevent the interference of

;
tion and Decay (1895) ; America's Economic Supremacy (1900) ;

Great Britain in the struggle; and while the work of Lincoln, and The New Empire (1902).
Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852- ), American economist,
to this end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding, was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 3ist of December 1852.
and knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity. He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University,
He laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880-1882). He was
the "Alabama"; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became
urged upon the British government its responsibility for the professor of political economy and finance in the university of
destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Com-
his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior merce Committee and was in charge of the transportation
were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain department in the 1900 census. His principal works are The
which he underwent during the .Civil War made itself felt in later State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the
years. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell United 1787 to 1816 (1884) Public Debts (1887)
States, ; The ;

to stop the "Alexandra," and it was his industry and pertinacity Science of Finance (1888) Economics and Jurisprudence (1897).
;

in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was
the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams in- born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858.
tended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in Eng- He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of
land untilMay 1868. His last important work was as a member, Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in
in 1871-1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which dis- 1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1890-
posed of the "Alabama" claims. His knowledge of the subject 1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute,
and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president
the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experi-
at Boston on the 2ist of November 1886. mented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted
He edited Adams (10 vols., 1850-1856), and the
the works of John marbles, notably in the "Rabbi's Daughter" and a portrait of
Memoirs oj John Quincy Adams (lavols., 1874-1877). See the excellent Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress and he is at his best in his
;

biography (Boston, 1900), the "American Statesmen Series,"

in portrait busts of women, the best example being the study,
by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.)
completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards
ADAMS, HENRY (1838- ), American historian, son of married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitch-
Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was
Charles Francis burg, Massachusetts (1888) a number of works for the Con-
;

born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the i6th of February 1838. gressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors
He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was ("Writing ") begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor
private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was Joseph Henry memorial tablets for the Boston State House
; ;

assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876 a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.;
was editor of the North American Review. He is considered to statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia,
have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902) and the ;

work in the United States. His great work is his History of the Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church,
United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889-1891), which is incom- New York.
parably the best work yet published dealing with the administra- ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American his-
tions of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly torian and was born at Shutesbury (near
educationalist,
notable for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United Amherst), Massachusetts, on the i6th of April 1850. He
States during this period, and for its essential impartiality.
graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872 and ;

Adams also published Life of Albert Gallalin (1879), John

:
between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and
Randolph (1882) in the "American Statesmen Series," and economics at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, re-
Historical Essays (1891) besides editing Documents Relating
; ceiving the degree of Ph.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest
 ADAMS
honours (summa cum laude). From 1876 almost until his death moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics,
he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr.,
Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878- defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the "Boston
1883), an associate professor (1883-1891) and after 1891 pro- Massacre," charged with causing the death of four persons, in-
fessor of American and institutional history. In addition he habitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the
was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massa- officerwho commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers;
chusetts, in 1878-1881, and for many years took an active part but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These
in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and
the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking the
"
until 1900. In 1882 he founded the Johns Hopkins University unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the follow-
Studies in Historical and Political Science," and at the time of his ing year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House
death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship. of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118.
After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Educa- John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from
"
tion the series of monographs entitled Contributions to Ameri- 1774 to 1778. In June 1775, withaview to promoting the union
can Educational History," he himself preparing the College of of the colonies, lie seconded the nomination of Washington as
William and Mary ( 1887) and Thomas Jefferson and the University
,
commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was
of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a
rendered his most valuable services, and many American his- separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7th of
torical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by
their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts, Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that " these colonies are, and of a right
on the 3<Dth of July 1901. ought to be, free and independent states," and no man
In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) so
published: Maryland's in Founding a National
Influence eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of
Commonwealth (1877); Methods, of Historical Study (1884); June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin,
Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence;
(1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols., and although that document was by the request of the committee
Boston, 1893), his most important work. written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied
See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902), the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this
extra volume (xxiii.) of "Studies in Historical and Political Science." question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of
ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many
States of America, was born on the 3Oth of October 1735 in what other important committees.
is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer, In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas
also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from Deane in the American commission there. But just as he em-
Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to barked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance,
Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of com-
Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 17 55, missioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he
and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention
office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar. which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the
From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and
of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the
report of the argument of James Otis in the- superior court of first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came

Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance. from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed
This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for he was again sent to Europe, having ben chosen on the 27th of
the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an September 1779 as minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a
old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain.
of this scene; it is instructive to compare the two accounts. Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the
John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice,
which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin, inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable
Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subse-
influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense quently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and
and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams.
whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took
pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious little part in the negotiations. This left the management of
handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted the
particularly manifested at a later period as, for example, during good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin,
his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt they decided to break their instructions, which required them
'
and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs to make the most candid confidential communications on all
during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765. subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France;
In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce
town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to
legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in draw- govern yourself by their advice and opinion "; and, instead,
ing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without con-
contributed anonymously four notable articles to the Boston sulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations
Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Disser- Adams was especially determined that the right of the United
tation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he argued that States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be
the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment,
the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British
ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able
to
authority; and in December 1765 he delivered^, speech before
the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty
Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without was signed on the 3oth of November 1782. Before these
representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768 negotiations began, Adams had spent some time in the Nether-
he removed to Boston. Two years later, with that degree of lands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the
 ADAMS 177
duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856) John and Abigail Adams, Familiar
;

Letters during the Revolution (Boston, 1875); J. T. Morse, John

was eminently successful, securing there recognition of the Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 1899), in the " American States-
United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782), men Series"; and Mcllen Chamberlain, John Adams, the States-
and negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of man of the Revolution; with other Essays and Addresses (Boston,
amity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the 1898). (E. CH.)
United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778 ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1819-1892), British astronomer, was
with France. born at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June
In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line 1819. His father, Thomas Adams, was a tenant farmer; his
of able and distinguished American ministers to the court of mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at Bad-
St James's. When he was presented to his former sovereign, harlick. From the village school at Laneast he went, at the age
George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack of of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, the Rev.
confidence in the French government. Replying, Mr Adams ad- John Couch Grylls, kept a private school. His promise as a
"
mitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: I must avow mathematician induced his parents to send him to the university
to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered as a sizar at St
"
country a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's John's College. He graduated B.A. in 1843 as the senior wrangler
sensibilities. While in London Adams published a work entitled and first Smith's prizeman of his year. While still an under-
A Defence of the Constitution of Government of the United States graduate he happened to read of certain unexplained irregularities
(1787). In this work he ably combated the views of Turgot in the motion of the planet Uranus, and determined to investi-
and other European writers as to the viciousness of the frame- gate them as soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether
work of the state governments. Unfortunately, in so doing, they might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered
he used phrases savouring of aristocracy which offended 'many of planet. Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once proceeded
his countrymen, as in the sentence in which he suggested that to attack the novel problem. It was this: from the observed
" "
the rich, the well-born and the able should be set apart from perturbations of a known planet to deduce by calculation, assum-
other men in a senate. Partly for this reason, while Washing- ing only Newton's law of gravitation, the mass and orbit of an
ton had the vote of every elector in the first presidential unknown disturbing body. By September 1845 ne obtained his
election of 1789, Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty- firstsolution, and handed to Professor Challis, the director of
nine. As this was the second largest number he was declared the Cambridge Observatory, a paper giving the elements of what
vice-president, but he began his eight years in that office (1780- he described as " the new planet."
1797) with a sense of grievance and of suspicion of .many of the On the 2ist of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory,
leading men. Differences of opinion with regard to the policies for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer-royal, a
to be pursued by the new government gradually led to the forma- similar document, still preserved among the archives. A fort-
tion of two well-defined political groups the Federalists and night afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point
the Democratic-Republicans and Adams became recognized in the solution. Adams, who thought the query unessential, did
as one of the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the not reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify
former. by telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's
In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another investigation. Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the loth of November
election,Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jeffer- 1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus,
son; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had showing that the existing theory failed to account for its motion.
asked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams arid Thomas Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, and on
Pinckney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order the ist of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the position, but
that Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body whose existence
altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should was presumed. The longitude he assigned differed by only i
in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance from that predicted by Adams in the document which Airy
with the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he possessed. The latter was struck by the coincidence, and men-
was intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket. tioned it to the Board of Visitors of the Observatory, James
Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797-1801) were marked Challis and Sir John Herschel being present. Herschel, at the
by a succession of intrigues which embittered all his later life; ensuing meeting of the British Association early in September,
they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the ventured accordingly to predict that a new planet would shortly
Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federal- be discovered. Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis
ist party. Moreover, factional strife broke out within the party that the planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equa-
itself; Adams and Hamilton became alienated, and members torial. The search was begun by a laborious method at the end
of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked to Hamilton rather of the month. On the 4th and i2th of August, as afterwards
than to the president as their political chief. The United States appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to the
was, at this time, drawn into the vortex of European complica- want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as planet-
tions, and Adams, instead of taking advantage of the militant ary. Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, presented
spirit which was aroused, patriotically devoted himself to on the 3ist of August 1846 a third memoir, giving for the first
securing peace with France, much against the wishes of Hamilton time the mass and orbit of the new body. He communicated
and of Hamilton's adherents in the cabinet. In 1800, Adams his results by letter to Dr Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, who
was again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the at once examined the suggested region of the heavens. On the
distrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the 23rd of September he detected near the predicted place a small
Alien and Sedition Acts and the popularity of his opponent, star unrecorded in the map, and next evening found that it had
" "
Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat. He then re- a proper motion. No doubt remained that Leverrier's planet
tired into private life. On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth had been discovered. On the announcement of the fact, Herschel
anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and Challis made known that Adams had already calculated
he died at Quincy. Jefferson died on the same day. In 1764 the planet's elements and position. Airy then at length published
Adams had married Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the an account of the circumstances, and Adams's memoir was
daughter of a Congregational minister at Weymouth, Massa- printed as an appendix to the Nautical Almanac. A keen contro-
chusetts. She was a woman of much ability, and her letters, versy arose in France and England as to the merits of the two
written in an excellent English style, are of great value to astronomers. In the latter country much surprise was expressed
students of the period in which she lived. President John at the apathy of Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown
Quincy Adams was their eldest son. Englishman were resented as detracting from the credit due to
AUTHORITIES. C. F. Adams, The Works of John Adams, with Leverrier's achievement. As the indisputable facts became
i
78 ADAMS
known, the world recognized that the two astronomers had in- to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the account
dependently solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 1888.
equal glory. The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. Arago, The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he
received by general consent the neutral name of Neptune. Its preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research
mathematical prediction was not only an unsurpassed intellectual in Cambridge. He was British delegate to the International
feat; it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Airy Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884, when he
had almost called in question, prevailed even to the utmost also attended the meetings of the British Association at Montreal
bounds of the solar system. and of the American Association at Philadelphia. Five years
The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen gave way, and after a long illness he died at the
later his health
Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a subsequent Cambridge Observatory on the 2ist of January 1892, and was
occasion, his modesty led him to decline it. The Royal Society buried in St Giles's cemetery, near his home. He married in
awarded him its Copley medal in 1848. In the same year the 1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, of Dublin, who survived him. An inter-
members of St John's College commemorated his success by national committee was formed for the purpose of erecting a
founding in the university an Adams prize, to be given biennially monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey; and there,
for the best treatise on a mathematical subject. In 1851 he in May 1895, a portrait medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was
became president of the Royal Astronomical Society. His lay placed near the grave of Newton, and adjoining the memorials
fellowship at St John's College came to an end in 1852, and the of Darwin and of Joule. His bust, by the same sculptor, stands
existing statutes did not permit of his re-election. But Pembroke opposite that of Sir John Herschel in the hall of St John's College,
College, which possessed greater freedom, elected him in the Cambridge. Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and
following year to a lay fellowship,and this he held for the rest Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St
of his life. In 1858 he became professor of mathematics John's. Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to the Royal
at St Andrews, but lectured only for a session, when he Astronomical Society. A memorial tablet, with an inscriplion
vacated the chair for the Lowndean professorship of astronomy by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the Cathedral at Truro;
and geometry at Cambridge. Two years later he succeeded and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public institute in his
Challis as director of the Observatory, where he resided until honour at Launceston, near his birthplace.
his death. The Papers of John Couch Adams, 4to, vol. i. (1896), and
Scientific
Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which vol. ii.
by William Grylls Adams and Ralph Allen
(1900), edited
attracted widest notice, the work he subsequently performed Sampson, with a memoir by Dr J. W. L. Glaisher, were published
in relation to gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism by the Cambridge University Press. The first volume contains his
previously published writings; the second those left in manuscript,
was not less remarkable. Several of his most striking contribu- including the substance of his lectures on the Lunar Theory. A col-
tions to knowledge originated .in the discovery of errors or lection, virtually complete, of Adams's papers regarding the dis-
fallacies in the workof his great predecessors in astronomy. covery of Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of
St John's College. A description of them by Professor Sampson
Thus in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's
was inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society
parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied (vol. liv. p. 143). Consult: Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc., liii.
corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A. 184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 565, xlv. 301; Astr.
Plana and P. G. D. de Pontecoulant. In the following year his Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, p. 168;
memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72.

partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which had ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848), eldest son of President
held itsplace unchallenged for sixty years. At first, Leverrier, John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born on
Plana and other foreign astronomers controverted Adams's the nth of July 1767, in tnat part of Braintree that is now
result; but its soundness was ultimately established, and its Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy (1689-
fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory has 1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many years a
only developed further with time. For these researches the prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1778,
Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 1866. and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his father to
The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention to the Europe; studying in Paris in 1778-1779 and at the university of
Leonids, whose probable path and period had already been Leiden in 1780. In 1780, also, he began to keep that diary
discussed by Professor H. A. Newton. Using a powerful and which forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself
elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of and his contemporaries. In 1781, at the age of fourteen, he
meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elon- accompanied Francis Dana (1743-1811), American envoy to
gated ellipse in 335 years, and is subject to definite perturbations Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana was not received
from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams joined his father
" "
results were published in 1867. Ten years later, when Mr. G. W. at Paris, where he acted as additional secretary to the
Hill of Washington expounded a new and beautiful method for American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace
dealing with the problem of the lunar motions, Adams briefly which concluded the War of American Independence. Instead
announced his own unpublished work in the same field, which, of accompanying his father to London, he, of his own choice,
following a parallel course had confirmed and supplemented returned to Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard College in
Hill's. In 1874-1876 he was president of the Royal Astronomical 1787, three years later was admitted to practise at the bar and
Society for the second time, when it fell to him to present the at once opened an office in Boston. A series of papers written
gold medal of the year to Leverrier. The determination of the by him in which he controverted some of Thomas Paine's doc-
constants in Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied trines in the Rights of Man, and later another series in which
him at intervals for over forty years. The calculations involved he ably supported the neutral policy of the administration
great labour, and were not published during his lifetime. They toward France and England, led to his appointment by Wash-
were edited by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and ington as minister to the Netherlands in May 1794. There was
appear in the second volume of the collected Scientific Papers. little for him to do at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister

Numerical computation of this kind might almost be described at London, he transacted certain public business with the
as his pastime. The value of the constant known as Euler's, English foreign secretary. In 1796 Washington appointed him
and the Bernoullian numbers up to the 6and, he worked out to minister to Portugal, but before his departure thither his father
an unimagined degree of accuracy. For Newton and his writings John Adams became president and changed his destination to
he had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed, Berlin (1797). While there, he negotiated (1799) a treaty of
bear the cast of Newton's thought. He laboured for many years amity and commerce with Prussia. On Thomas Jefferson's
at the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection of election to the presidency in 1800, the elder Adams recalled his
Newton's unpublished mathematical writings, presented in 1872 son, who returned home in 1801. The next year, he was elected
 ADAMS 179
to the Massachusetts senate, and in 1803 was sent to Washington was nominated for the vice-presidency. Of the other four,
as a member of the Senate of the United States. Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41,
Up to this time, John Quincy Adams was regarded as belong- and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made
ing to the Federalist party, but he now found its general policy by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its
displeasing to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his father, choice to the three candidates who had received the largest
by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found himself number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Repre-
nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular sentatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude
minority. He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby
party man. On the first important question that came before secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams
him in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted.
the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own section. The wholly unjust and baseless charge of " bargain and corrup-
"
In December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's suggestion tion followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and
of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, saying: Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States.
" The
president has recommended the measure on his high Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly
responsibility. would not consider, I would not deliberate;
I successful, but his presidency (1825-1829) was in most respects
I would act!"Within five hours the Senate had passed the a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of the Jacksonians;
Embargo Bill and sent it to the House. The support of a measure in 1828 Jackson was elected president over Adams. It was
so unpopular in New England caused him to be hated by the during his administration that irreconcilable differences devel-
Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his suc- oped between the followers of Adams and the followers of Jack-
cessor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months before son, the former becoming known as the National Republicans,
the usual time of filling the vacancy, and five days later Adams who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors of the Whigs.
resigned. In the same year he attended the Republican con- In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the town of Quincy;
gressional caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency, but only for a brief period, for in 1830, largely by Anti-Masonic
and thus definitely joined the Republicans. From 1806 to 1809 votes, he was elected a member of the national House of Repre-
Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. sentatives. On
its being suggested to him that his acceptance
In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent would degrade an ex-president, Adams replied
of this position
He arrived at St Petersburg at the psycho-
the United States. that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a
logicalmoment when the tsar had made up his mind to break representative in congress or, he added, as a selectman of his
with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable recep- town. His service in congress from 1831 until his death is, in
tion and a disposition to further the interests of American com- some respects, the most noteworthy part of his career. Through-
merce in every possible way. On the outbreak of the war out he was conspicuous as an opponent of the extension of slavery,
between the United States and England in 1812, he was still at though he was never technically an abolitionist, and in particular
St Petersburg. In September of that year, the Russian govern- he was the champion in the House of Representatives of the
ment suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator right of petition at a time when, through the influence of the
between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that
"
this proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to body. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called Gag
act as commissioners with Mr Adams; but England would have Laws " is one of the most dramatic contests in the history of
nothing to do with it. In August 1814, however, these gentle- congress. The agitation for the abolition of slavery, which really
men, with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations began in earnest with the establishment of the Liberator by
with English commissioners which resulted in the signature of William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led to the sending of
the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that year. After innumerable petitions to congress for the abolition of slavery
this Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of in the District of Columbia, over which the Federal government
Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, with had jurisdiction, and for other action by congress with respect
"
Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) a Con- to that institution. These petitions were generally sent to
vention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon after- Adams for presentation. They aroused the anger of the pro-
wards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his father slavery members of congress, who, in 1836, brought about the
"
had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams, passage of the first Gag Rule," the Pinckney Resolution,
was after him. After accomplishing little in London, he presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South Carolina. It pro-
returned to the United States in the summer of 1817 to become vided that all petitions relating to slavery should be laid on the
secretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe. table without being referred to committee or printed; and, in
As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in two substance, this resolution was re-adopted at the beginning of
most important episodes, the acquisition of Florida and the each of the immediately succeeding sessions of congress, the
promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. Ever since the acquisi- Patton Resolution being adopted in 1837, the Atherton Resolu-
"
tion of Louisiana successive administrations had sought to tion, or Atherton Gag," in 1838, and the Twenty-first Rule in
include a part at least of Florida in that purchase. In 1819, 1840 and subsequently until repealed. Adams contended that
after long negotiations, Adams succeeded in bringing the Spanish
" "
these Gag Rules were a direct violation of the First Amend-
minister to the point of signing a treaty in which the Spaniards ment to the Federal Constitution, and refused to be silenced on
abandoned all claims to territory east of the Mississippi, and the the question, fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in
United States relinquished all claim to what is now known as spite of the bitter denunciation of his opponents. Each year
Texas. Before the Spanish government ratified the treaty in the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented by
1820, Mexico, including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the him increased; perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams
mother country, and the United States had occupied Florida by presented a petition from twenty-two slaves, and, when threat-
force of arms. The Monroe Doctrine (q.v.) rightly bears the name ened by his opponents with censure, defended himself with
of the president who assumed the responsibility for its
in 1823 remarkable keenness and ability. At each session, also, the
promulgation; but was primarily the work of John Quincy
it
majority against him decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal
Adams. The eight years of Monroe's presidency (1817-1825) the Twenty-first Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his
are known as the " Era of Good Feeling." As his second term battle was won. On the 2ist of February 1848, after having
drew to a close, there was a great lack of good feeling among his suffered a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on
official advisers, three of whom Adams, secretary of state, the floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later
Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the died. Few men in American public life have possessed more
treasury aspired to succeed him in his high office. In addition, intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit and more
Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun ability than Adams, but throughout his political career he was
 i8o ADAMS
handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity and cool- and documentary authorities and more on " natural right."
ness of manner, and by his consequent inability to appeal to the Although he lacked oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like
imaginations and affections of the people as a whole. He had, his writings, were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways

indeed, few intimate political or personal friends, and few men helped to make him extremely popular with the common people,
in American history have, during their lifetime, been regarded in whom he had much greater faith than his cousin John had;
with so much hostility and attacked with so much rancour by and, above all, he was an eminently successful manager of men.
their political opponents. Shrewd, wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts
AUTHORITIES. 1. T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1883; of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any
new 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John
edition, other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War
Quincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John
of Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his
Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 1795 to 1848
(12 vols., Philadelphia, 1874-1877). (E. CH.) community.
ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803), American statesman, was The intense excitement which followed the "Boston Massacre"
born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1722. Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers from
He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams. His father, the town to a fort in the harbour. He it was, also, who managed
whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a wealthy and the proceedings of the "Boston Tea Party," and later he was
prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active part in moderator of the convention of Massachusetts towns called to
the politics of the town, and was a member of the Caucus (or protest against the Boston Port Bill. One of the objects of the
Caulker's) Club, with which the political term "caucus" is expedition sent by Governor Thomas Gage to Lexington (q.v.)
said to have originated; his mother was Mary Fifield. Young and Concord on April 18-19, 1775, was the capture of Adams and
Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1740, and three years John Hancock, temporarily staying in Lexington, and when
later,on attaining the degree of A.M., chose for his thesis, Gage issued his proclamation of pardon on June 1 2 he excepted
"Whether it be Lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the these two, whose offences, he said, were "of too flagitious a
Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." Which side he Nature to admit of any other Consideration than that of condign
took, and how the argument proceeded, is not known, but the Punishment."
subject was one which well forecasted his career. He began the As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 1781,
study of law in response to his father's advice; he discontinued Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to
it in response to his mother's disapproval. He repeatedly failed the British government; strove for harmony among the several
in business, notably as manager of a malt-house, largely because colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees,
of his incessant attention to politics; but in the Boston town- among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and signed
meeting he became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of the Declaration of Independence. But he was rather a de-
that institution for training in statecraft. He has, indeed, been structive than a constructive statesman, and his most important
called the "Man of the Town Meeting." About 1748 he began service was in organizing the forces of revolution before 1775.
to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and became In 1779 he was a member of the convention which framed the
a leader in the debates of a political club which he was largely constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 1780, and is
instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly publication, still, with some amendments, the organic law of the commonwealth
the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous articles. From and one of the oldest fundamental laws in existence. He was
1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's tax-collectors, but in this one of the three members of the sub-committee which actually
office he was unsuccessful, his easy business methods resulting drafted that instrument; and although John Adams is generally
in heavy arrears. credited with having performed the principal part of that task,
Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the begin- Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of the bill of
ning of the Stamp Act episode, in 1 764, when as author of Boston's rights. In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the Massa-
instructions to its representatives in the general court of Massa- chusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of 'the United
chusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of States. When he first read that instrument he was very much
parliament. The next year he was for the first time elected to opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but
the lower house of the general court, in which he served until was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed at
1774, after 1766 as clerk. As James Otis's vigour and influence a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or "tradesmen" his own
declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the firmest supporters and by the suggestion that its ratification
revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis and should be accompanied by a recommendation of amendments
Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation in designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of rights. With-
parliament was out of the question and advised against any form out his aid it is probable that the constitution would not have
of compromise. Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary docu- been ratified by Massachusetts. From 1789 to 1794 Adams was
ments, including the famous "Massachusetts Resolves" and the lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1794 to 1797 was
circular letter to the legislatures of the other colonies, are from governor. After the formation of parties he became allied with
his pen; but owing to the fact that he usually acted as clerk to the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the Federalists.
the House of Representatives and to the several committees He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston.
of which he was a member, documents were written by him AUTHORITIES. Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 vols.,
which expressed the ideas of the committee as a whole. There Boston, 1865), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson a valuable
can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams was one of biography, containing a mass of information, but noticeably biassed ;

I, K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), an excellent short

the first, if not the first, of American political leaders to deny
biography in the "American Statesmen Series"; M. C. Tyler's
the legislative power of parliament and to desire and advocate Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897)
;

separation from the mother country. and H. A. Gushing (ed.), The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols.,
To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-im- New York, 1904-1908). (E. CH.)

portation, instituted the Boston committees of correspondence, ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612,
urged that a Continental Congress be called, sought out and "a preacher of the gospel at Wellington," in Bedfordshire, where
introduced into public service such allies as John Hancock, he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth
Joseph Warren and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet and other works. In 1614-1615
articles for the newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and
a multitude of signatures. He was, in fact, one of the most published a number of works in quick succession; in 1618 he held
voluminous and influential political writers of his time. His the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and
style is vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are
clear, was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henry Montague, the lord
characterized by strength of logic, and, like those of other chief justice of England. These bare facts we gather from
patriots, are, as the dispute advances, based less on precedent epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages.
 ADAMS ADAMSON 181
These epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms highest point in the state. The valley portion is level and con-
with some of the 'foremost men in state and church, though his tains several settlement centres, the largest of which, a busy
ardent protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment. industrial village (manufactures of cotton and paper), bears the
" " same name as the township, and is on a branch of the Boston
His occasionally printed sermons, when collected in 1629,
placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of and Albany railroad. The village is the nearest station to Grey-
England, and had something to do with shaping John lock,which can be easily ascended, and affords fine views of the
Bunyan. He
equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies,
"
and Hoosac and Housatonic valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the
Thomas Fuller in wit. Robert Southey calls him the prose Green Mountains; the mountain has been a state timber reser-
Shakespeare of Puritan theologians." His numerous works dis- vation since 1898. The township's principal industry is the manu-
play great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in facture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261)
their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns. was 84-1% of the value of the township's total factory pro-
His works were edited in J. P. Nichol's Puritan Divines, by ducts; in 1905 no other place in the United States showed so
J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862). high a degree of specialization in this industry. The township
ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born at (originally "East Hoosuck") was surveyed and defined in 1749.
Gillingham, near Chatham, England. When twelve years old Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, was de-
he was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards entering stroyed in 1746 by the French. An old Indian trail between the
the British navy, and later serving the company of Barbary Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the township, and
merchants for a number of years as master and pilot. Attracted was once a leading outlet of the Berkshire country. Adams was
by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped as pilot major with incorporated in 1778, and was named in honour of Samuel Adams,
a little fleet of five ships despatched from the Texel in 1598 by a the revolutionary leader. Part of Adams was included in the
company of Rotterdam merchants. The vessels, boats ranging new township of Cheshire in 1793, and North Adams was set off
from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the as a separate township in 1878.
coast of Guinea, where the adventurers attacked the island of ADAM'S APPLE, the movable projection, more prominent
Annabon for supplies, and finally reached the straits of Magellan. in males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by
"
Scattered by stress of weather the following spring the Charity," the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The name was given from a
"
with Adams on board, and the Hope," met at length off the legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's' throat.
coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost their lives The "Adam's apple" is one of the particular points of attack

in an encounter with the Indians. In fear of the Spaniards, the in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu.
remaining crews determined to sail across the Pacific. On this ADAM'S BRIDGE, or RAMA'S BRIDGE, a chain of sandbanks
" " "
voyage the Hope was lost, but in April 1600 the Charity," extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of
with a crew of sick and dying men, was brought to anchor off the Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, and
island of Kiushiu, Japan. Adams was summoned to Osaka and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. and Palk Strait
there examined by lyeyasu, the guardian of the young son of on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers a serious
Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just died, His knowledge of ships impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry;
and shipbuilding, and his nautical smattering of mathematics, and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 ft. at
raised him in the estimation of the shogun, and he was subse- high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels which
quently presented with an estate at Hemi near Yokosuka; but have recently been dredged to a sufficient depth to admit the
was refused permission to return to England. In 1611 news passage of vessels, so as to obviate the long journey round the
came to him of an English settlement in Bantam, and he wrote island of Ceylon which was previously necessary. Geological
asking for In 1613 Captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in evidence shows that this gap was once bridged by a continuous
" help. "
the ship Clove with the object of establishing a trading factory isthmus which according to the temple records was breached
for the East India Company, and after obtaining the necessary by a violent storm in 1480. Operations for removing the ob-
concessions from the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home stacles in the channel and for deepening and widening it were
(permission for which had now been given him) in order to take begun as long ago as 1838. A service of the British India Steam
a leading part, under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this Navigation Company's steamers has been established between
new English settlement. He had already married a Japanese Negapatam and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow
woman, by whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life passage.
was spent in the service of the English trading company, for ADAM SCOTUS (fl. 1180), theological writer, sometimes called
whom he undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of
Cochin China in 1617 and 1618. He died on the. i6th of May Scotland in the first half of the iath century. About 1150 he
1620, some three years before the dissolution of the English was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some
factory. His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory twenty years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn)
was preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot in Galloway. He gained a European reputation for his writings,
Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour. which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account of the
See England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. W. Hillary Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival sermons, and
(1905) Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by
; a Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, formerly attributed to his
N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters
reprinted from contemporary, Adam of St Victor.
Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt
Society, 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Mura-
ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537-1592), Scottish divine, arch-
kami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883); R. bishop of St Andrews, was born at Perth. He studied philo-
Hildreth's Japan (1855) J. Harris's Navigantium atque Ilinerantium
;
sophy, and took the degree of M.A. at St Andrews. After being
BMiotheca (1764), i. 856; Voyage of John Saris, ed. by Sir E. M.
minister of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 1566 he set out for
Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900) Asiatic Society of Japan Trans-
;

actions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four more hitherto
Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the clerk-
unpublished letters of Adams are' given Collection of State Papers;
; general. In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem on
East Indies, Cltina and Japan. The MS. of his logs writtqfh during the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as
his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford.
serenissimus princeps of France and England. The French court
ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire county, was offended, and he was confined for six months. He was
N.W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 23 sq. m. Pop. released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of Scotland
(1880) 5591; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were and some of the principal nobility, and retired with his pupil to
foreign-born; (1910, census) 13,026. It includes a portion Bourges. .He was in this city at the time of the massacre of St
of the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed for seven months in
Range on the E., and on the W. to Mt. Williams (3040 ft.), and a public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his
^reylock Mountain (3535 ft.), partly in Williamstown, and the charity to a heretic, was thrown from the roof. While in this*

f
 182 ADAMSON ADANA
" and he was remarkable for impartiality. It was
Sepulchre," he wrote his Latin poetical version of the book in his writings
of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same language. In 1572 his peculiar virtue that he could quote his opponents without
or 1573 he returned to Scotland, and became minister of Paisley. warping their meaning. From this point of view he would have
In 1575 he was appointed by the General Assembly one of the been perhaps the first historian of philosophy of his time, had his
commissioners to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church; professional labours been less exacting. Except during the first
and the following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to few years at Manchester, he delivered his lectures without manu-
report their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent. In scripts. In 1903, under the title The Development of Modern
1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise Philosophy and Other Essays, his more important lectures were
to a protracted conflict with the Presbyterian party in the published with a short biographical introduction by Prof. W. R.
Assembly. He had previously published a catechism in Latin Sorley of Cambridge University (see Mind, xiii. 1904, p. 73 foil.).
verse dedicated to the-king, a work highly approved even by his Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the note-book of
opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish Confession one of his students. Under the same editorship there appeared,
of Faith. In 1 578 he submitted himself to the General Assembly, three years later, his Development of Greek Philosophy. In
which procured him peace for a little time, but next year fresh addition to his professional work, he did much administrative
accusations were brought against him. He took refuge in St work for Victoria University and the university of Glasgow. In
Andrews Castle, where " a wise woman," Alison Pearson, who the organization of Victoria University he took a foremost part,
was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him of a serious and, as chairman of the Board of Studies at Owens College,
illness. In 1 583 he went as James's ambassador to the court of he presided over the general academical board of the Victoria
Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather badly. On his University. At Glasgow he was soon elected one of the repre-
return he took strong parliamentary measures against Presby- sentatives on the court, and to him were due in large measure
terians, and consequently, at a provincial synod held at St the extension of the academical session and the improved
Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of heresy and excom- equipment of the university.
municated, but at the next General Assembly the sentence was Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical and his-
remitted as illegal. In 1587 and 1588, however, fresh accusa-
torical method without formulating a constructive theory of his own.
He felt that any philosophical advance must be based on the Kantian
tions were brought against him, and he was again excommuni- methods. It was his habit to make straight for the ultimate issue,
cated, though afterwards on the inducement of his old opponent, disregarding half-truths and declining compromise. He left a hypo-
Andrew Melville, the sentence was again remitted. Meanwhile thesis to be worked out by others; this done, he would criticize with
all the rigour of logic, and with a profound distrust of imagina-
he had published the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the book
tion, metaphor and the attitude known as the will-to-believe. As
of Revelation in Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king, he grew older his metaphysical optimism waned. He felt that the
complaining of his hard usage. But James was unmoved by increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical science.
his application, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of But this empirical tendency as regards science never modified his
Lennox. For the rest of his life Adamson was supported by metaphysical outlook. He has been called Kan tian a nd Neo-Kantian ,

Realist and Idealist (by himself, for he held that appearance and
charity; he died in 1592. His recantation of Episcopacy (ispo)
reality are co-extensive and coincident). At the same time, in his
is probably spurious. Adamson was a man of many gifts, criticism of other views he was almost typical of Hegelian idealism.
learned and eloquent, but with grave defects of character. His All processes of reasoning or judgment (i.e. all units of thought) are
collected works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course (l)
analysable only by abstraction,
and (2) are compound of deduc-
" tion and induction, i.e. rational and empirical. An illustration of
of which it is said that he was a miracle of nature, and rather his empirical tendency is found in his attitude to the Absolute and
" "
seemed to be the immediate production of God Almighty than the Self. The Absolute doctrines he regarded as a mere disguise
born of a woman," were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas of failure, a dishonest attempt to clothe ignorance in the pretentious
garb of mystery. The Self as a primary, determiningentity, he would
Wilson, in 1619. not therefore admit. He represented an empiricism which, so far
ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1902), Scottish philosopher, was from refuting, was -actually based on, idealism, and yet was alert to
born inEdinburgh on the igih of January 1852. His father expose the fallacies of a particular idealist construction (see his
was a solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew essay in Ethical Democracy, edited by Dr Stanton Coit).
Buist, factor to Lord Haddington. In 1855 Mrs Adamson was ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from
left a widow with small means, and devoted herself entirely to Colombo, in N. lat. 6 55', E. long. 80 30'. It rises steeply to
the education of her six children. Of these, Robert was successful a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect.
from the first. At the end of his school career he entered the Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 74 ft. by
university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four years 24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human
later graduated with first-class honours in mental philosophy, foot, 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; and this has been consecrated
with prizes in every department of the faculty of Arts. He as the footprint of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint,
completed his university successes by winning the Tyndall- is ornamented with gems, and a wooden
canopy protects it
Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), the Ferguson from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the Sinhalese,
scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship (1873). After a short and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred spot, where a
residence at Heidelberg (1871), where he began his study of priest resides to receive their offerings and bless them on their
German philosophy, he returned to Edinburgh as assistant first departure. By the Mahommedans the impression is regarded
to Henry Calderwood and later to A. Campbell Fraser; he as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according to their tradition,
joined the staff of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (gth ed.) (1874) fulfilled a penance of one thousand years; while the Hindus
and studied widely in the Advocates' Library. In 1876 he came claim it as that of their
god Siva.
to England as successor to W. S. Jevons in the chair of logic and ADANA. A '

(i)vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which

philosophy, at Owens College, Manchester. In 1883 he received includes the ancient Cilicia. The mountain districts are rich in
the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1893 he went to Aberdeen, unexploited mineral wealth, and the fertile coast-plain, which
and finally in 1895 to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he produces cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, and affords
held till his death on the sth of February 1902. His wife, abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers that descend
Margaret Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was from the Taurus range. Imports and exports pass through
a woman of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy. Mersina (q.ii.). (2) The chief town of the vilayet, situated in the
It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active alluvial plain about 30 m. from the sea in N. lat. 37 r', E. long.
labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic pro- 35 18', on the right bank of the Seihan (Sihun, ant. Sarus),
duction. His writings consisted of short articles, of which many which is navigable by small craft as far as the town. Adana is
appeared in the Encyclopaedia Brilannica (gth ed.) and in Mind, connected with Tersus and Mersina by a railway built in 1887,
a volume on Kant and another on Fichte. At the time of his and has a magnificent stone bridge, which carries the road to
death he was writing a History of Psychology, and had promised Missis and the east, and dates in parts from the time of Justiniaji,
a work on Kant and the Modern Naturalists. Both in his life but was restored first in 743 A.D. and called Jisr al-Walid after
 ADANSON ADDAX
the Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 by the latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on him.
Caliph Mutasim. are, also, a ruined castle founded by
There Of this he was deprived in the dissolution of the Academy by
Harun al-Rashid in 782, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced to such
quays, cotton mills and an American mission with church and a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before the French
schools. Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to import- Institute when it invited him to take his place among its mem-
ance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, and bers. Afterwards he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve
was at one time a rival of Tarsus. The town was largely rebuilt his simple wants. He died at Paris after months of severe
by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries it often suffering, on the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only'
changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes. Its position, decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the
"
commanding the passage of the mountains to the north of Syria, fifty-eight families he had differentiated a touching though
"
rendered it important as a military station in the contest between transitory image," says Cuvier, of the more durable monument
the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the which he has erected to himself in his works." Besides the books
Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim Pasha, already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the
and though the firman announcing his appointment named him baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin of
only muhassil, or collector of the crown revenue, it continued to the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees.
be held by the Egyptians till the treaty of July 1840 restored ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to), a process of
it to the Porte. The chief productions of the province are fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering its
cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely exported. The form or original purpose. In literature there may be, e.g., an
population of the town is greatly mixed, and, having a large adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an arrangement
element of nomads in it, varies much from time to time. At its of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c. In biology, ac-
maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.) cording to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation plays a prominent
ADANSON, MICHEL French naturalist, of
(1727-1806), part as the process by which an organism or species of organisms
Scottish descent, was born on the 7th
of April 1727, at Aix, in becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change
Provence. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in Paris, he in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life
was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external
de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. At the end of relations. Every living organism reacts to its environment;
1748 he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, which if the reaction is unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate
from the unhealthiness of its climate was a terra incognita to extinction is the result. If the reaction is favourable, its result
naturalists. His ardour remained unabated during the five years is called an adaptation. How far such adaptations are produced
of his residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater afresh in each generation, whether or no their effects are trans-
or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; col- mitted to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what
lected specimens of every object of commerce; delineated maps extent adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have
of the country; made systematic meteorological and astrono- come about by selection of individuals capable, in each genera-
mical observations; and prepared grammars and dictionaries tion, of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of
of the languages spoken on the banks of the Senegal. After his individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how
return to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the far, possiblyby the inheritance of the responses to the environ-
materials he had collected in his Histoire naturelle du Senegal ment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved.
(Paris, 1757). This work has a special interest from the essay ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of North Italy. Its true source
op shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele glen, but its

universal method, a system of classification distinct from those volume is increased by the union with several smaller streams,
of Buffon and Linnaeus. He founded his classification of all near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian Alps. Thence it flows
organized beings on the consideration of each individual organ. first S.W., then due W., through the fertile Valtellina (q.v.),
As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a passing Tirano, where the Poschiavino falls in on the right, and
corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings Sondrio, where is the junction with the Malero, right. It falls
possessing the greatest number of similar organs were referred into the Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that
to one great division, and the relationship was considered more lake. On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it crosses
remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. In 1763 he the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course of about
published his Families naturelles des plantes. In this work he 150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona. The lower course of
developed the principle of arrangement above mentioned, which, the Adda was formerly the boundary between the territories of
in its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on the Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several important battles
system of J. P. Tournefort, and had been anticipated to some have been fought, notably that of Lodi, where Napoleon defeated
extent nearly a century before by John Ray. The success of the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.)
this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms, ADDAMS, JANE (1860- ), American sociologist, was born
which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular sexual at Cedarville, Illinois, on the 6th of September 1860. After
system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the way for the graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now Rock-
establishment, by means principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera ford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the study of
Planlarum (1789), of the natural method of the classification of economic and sociological questions in both Europe and America,
plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established in Chicago,
Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all known Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull House, of which she
beings and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of became the head-worker. The success of this settlement, which
manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations of all became a great factor for good in the city, was principally due to
these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more, Miss Addams's rare executive skill and practical common-sense
occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000 species;
.
methods. Her personal participation in the life of the community
a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations; isexemplified in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets
and a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000 and alleys under the municipal government. She became widely
specimens of the three kingdoms of nature. The committee to known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published
which the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace
recommended Adanson to separate and publish all that was (1907), Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (1909).
and The
peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation. ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. nasomacu-
He obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at latus) from North Africa and Arabia. It is a little over 3 ft.
which he continued to labour, was never published. He had been high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane and a
elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1750, and he fringe of the same hue on the throat. Both sexes carry horns,
1 84 ADDER ADDISON
which are ringed and form an open spiral. The addax is a desert of skill and genius. There is good reason for believing that
antelope,and in habits probably resembles the gemsbuck. It is his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have
hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test the speed of their suffered, was in great part written while he lived in France, that
horses and greyhounds; it is during these hunting parties that is, when lie was about twenty-eight years of age. In the winter
the young are captured for menagerie purposes. of 1701, amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across
ADDER, a name for the common viper ( Viper a cevus), ranging Mt. Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter
from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness to the north from Italy to Charles Montagu. This contains some fine touches
of Spain. The puff-adder (Bitis s. Echidna arietans) of nearly of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical
the whole of Africa, and the death-adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) enthusiasm. While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues nn
from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very poisonous (see Medals, which, however, were not published till after his death.
VIPER). The word was in Old Eng. natdre, later nadder or These have much liveliness of style and something of the gay
" "
naddre; in the i4th century a nadder was, like" a napron," humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more
"
wrongly divided into an adder." It appears with the generic strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning
" " or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between passages
meaning of serpent in the older forms of many Teutonic
languages, cf. Old High Ger. natra; Goth, nadrs. It is cf the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear in ancient
thus used in the Old Eng. version of the Scriptures for the sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of inquiry which
" " was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, with the appa-
devil, the serpent of Genesis.
ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1710), English essayist, poet and ratus of spirited metrical translations from the classics, gave the
man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of work a likeness to his account of his travels. This account,
Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, entitled Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, &c. (1705), he sent
on the ist of May 1672. After having passed through several home for publication before his own return. It wants altogether
schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he went to the interest of personal narrative: the author hardly ever
Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first appears. The task in which he chiefly busies himself is that of
entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two years was exhibiting the illustrations which the writings of the Latin poets,
elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having been recom- and the antiquities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and re-
mended by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's ceive. Christian antiquities and the monuments of later Italian
degree in 1693, and subsequently obtained a fellowship which historyhad no interest for him.
he held until 1711. His first literary efforts were poetical, and, With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life,
after the fashion of his day, in Latin. Many of these are pre- which extends to the summer of 1710, when his age was thirty-
served in the Musae Anglicanae (1691-1699), and obtained aca- eight. This was the first term of his official career; and though
demic commendation from academic sources. But it was a poem very barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from
in the third volume of Dryden's Miscellanies, followed in the indigence, but settled definitely his position as a public man.
next series by a translation of the fourth Georgic, which brought His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, he had
about his introduction to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists and
through Tonson) to Lord Somers and Charles Montagu. To both men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled in the
of these distinguished persons he contrived to commend himself Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into communica-
by An Account of the Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to tion with the gentry of the Whig party. Although all accounts
King William (1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled agree in representing him as a shy man, he was at least saved
Pax Gulielmi (1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result from all risk of making himself disagreeable in society, by his
that in 1699 he obtained a pension of 300 a year, to enable unassuming manners, his extreme caution and that sedulous
him (as he afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown) desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a
" In the His knowledge and ability were esteemed so
to travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty." positive fault.
summer of 1699 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the highly as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of
purpose of learning the language, he remained till the end of his usefulness in public business;and the literary fame he had
1700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland, already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommending
on his way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was him to public employment. Though the Whigs were out of
to attend the army under Prince Eugene, then engaged in the office, the administration which succeeded them was, in all its
war in Italy, as secretary from the king. But his Whig friends earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncertain that
were already tottering in their places; and in March 1702 the the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost. Not long
death of King William at once drove them from power and put after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, it is said that
an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord Halifax a
received but one year's payment of it, and that all the other desire to have the great duke's fame extended by a poetical
expenses of his travels were defrayed by himself. He was able, tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recommending
however, to visit a great part of -Germany, and did not reach AddisoVi as the fittest man for the duty; stipulating, we are told,
Holland till the spring of 1703. His prospects were now suffi- that tne service should not be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfy-
ciently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an ing the minister that his protege possessed other qualifications
engagement as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in for office besides dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Cam-
one of these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom- paign (December 1704), the poem thus written to order, was
mended him as the best person to attend in this character Lord received with extraordinary applause;and it is probably as
Hertford, the son of the duke of Somerset, commonly called good as any that ever was prompted by no more worthy in-
"
The Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp, spiration. It has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Dryden
was economical in questions of education. He wished Addison threw into occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish
to name the salary he expected; this being declined, he an- that would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make
nounced, with great dignity, that in addition to travelling such uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing;
expenses he would give a hundred guineas a year; Addison and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several
accepted the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could others, there is even something of force and imagination.
not find his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was
future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated that faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of another
he would look out for some one else. In the autumn of 1703 celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one
Addison returned to England. of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise. The duties of the
place must have been as light for him as they had been
The works which belong to his residence on the continent for his

were the earliest that showed him to have attained maturity predecessor, for he continued to hold it with all the appointments
 ADDISON 185
he subsequently received from the same ministry. But there Soon Whig Examiner
after the fall of the ministry, he started the
is no reason for believing that he was more careless than other in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then conducted by Prior,
public servants in his time; and the charge
of incompetency and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invectives
as a man of business, which has been brought so positively against the party he had once belonged to. These are certainly
against him, cannot easily be true as to this first period of his the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but they are neither
official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively lively nor vigorous, and the paper died after five numbers (i4th
to the last years of his. life; and, if he had not really shown September to i2th October 1710). There is more spirit in his
practical ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to allegorical pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff.
see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or fashion- But from the autumn of 1710 till the end of 1714 his principal
able liveliness and of family interest, could have been promoted, employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical
for several years, from office to office, as he was, till the fall of essays. The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions,
the administration to which he was attached. In 1 706 he became as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, belongs
one of the under-secretaries of state, serving first under Sir to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of Addison at the
Charles Hedges, who belonged to the Tory section of the govern- Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate terms with him after-
ment, and afterwards under Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's wards and attached himself with his characteristic ardour to
son-in-law, and a zealous follower of Addison's early patron, the same political party. When, in April 1709, Steele published
Soraers. The work of this office, however, like that of the the first number of the Taller, Addison was in Dublin, and knew
commissionership, must often have admitted of performance nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his friend's
by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs having become stronger, authorship only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical
Lord Halifax was sent on a mission to the elector of Hanover ; remark which he remembered having himself communicated to
and, besides taking Vanbrugh the dramatist with him as king- Steele. Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and sugges-
at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 Addison tions, assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly. Accord-
entered parliament, sitting at first for -Lostwithiel, but after- ing to Mr Aitken (Life of Sleele, i. 248), he contributed 42 out
wards for Malmesbury, which he represented from 1710 till his of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 more.
death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he may The Taller exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms of being
have taken in the details of business we are not informed; but an experiment. For some time the projector, imitating the news-
he was always a silent member, unless it be true that he once sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in each number, news
attempted to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1708 Lord in addition to the essay; and there was a want, both of unity
Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, having been named and of correct finishing, in the putting together of the literary
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison became his secretary, re- materials. Addison's contributions, in particular, are in many
ceiving also an appointment as keeper of records. This event places as lively as anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its
happened only about a year and a half before the dismissal of more familiar moods at least, had been fully formed before he
the ministry. returned from the continent. But, as compared with his later
But there are letters showing that Addison made himself pieces, these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches
acceptable to some of the best and most distinguished persons are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of them.
in Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with In his invention of incidents and characters, one thought after
Swift, his acquaintance with whom had begun some time before. another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as if he were putting
In his literary history those years of official service are almost his own powers to the test or trying the effect of various kinds of
a blank, we approach their close. Besides furnishing a pro-
till objects on his readers; his most ambitious flights, in the shape of
logue to Steele's comedy of The Tender Husband (1705), he allegories and the like, are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite
admittedly gave him some assistance in its composition; he field of literary criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he
defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The still wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public.
Present State of the War (1707); he united compliments to the The Taller was dropped in January 1711, but only to be
all-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the ist day of
poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and during the last few March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December
months of his tenure of office he contributed largely to the Taller. 1712. It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected
His entrance on this new field nearly coincides with the beginning in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 to
of a new period in his life. Even the coalition-ministry of Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from the
Godolphin was too Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole space
the Tories, the favourites of the court, gained, both in parlia- to the essays. They relied, with a confidence which the extra-
mentary power and in popularity out of doors, by a combination ordinary popularity of the work fully justified, on their power of
of lucky accidents, dexterous management and divisions and exciting the interest of a wide audience by pictures and reflexions
double-dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the drawn from a field which embraced the whole compass of ordi-
prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the nary life and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes
ruin of the Whigs; and in August 1710 an entire revolution in being positively excluded except such as were political, and all
the ministry had been completed. The Tory administration literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed possible
which succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 1714, to command attention from persons of average taste and infor-
and Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years of his mation. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and
life, from his thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, to occupations curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors,
less lucrative than those in which his time had by the happy invention of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele
recently been
frittered away, but much more conducive to the extension of made the first sketch. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, how-
his own fame and to the benefit of English literature. Although ever, the best even in the opening group, is the only one that was
our information as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of
are entitled to believe that he was now most of the papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so
independent of literary
labour. He speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost) admirably delineated. Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir
property in the West Indies; and he is understood to have Roger's love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting
inherited something from a younger brother, who had been party.
governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for 10,000, the To Addison
the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant,
estate of Bilton, near Rugby the place which afterwards be- if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human
came the residence of Mr Apperley, better known by his assumed character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires
name of " Nimrod." on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in
During those four years he produced a few political writings. public taste; these topics, however, making up a department
 i86 ADDISON
in which Steele was on a level with his more famous co-
fairly must be ascribed to the fact that it was written in accordance
adjutor. But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical with the rules of French classical drama.
acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching the series with The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed
such literary disquisitions as those which Addison insinuated so soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August
often into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave 1714, when he had lately completed his 42nd year. His own
an elaborate specimen in his criticism on Paradise Lost. Still life extended only five years longer; and in this closing
portion
farther beyond the powers of Steele were those speculations on of it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but
the theory of literature and of the processes of thought analogous a few happy inventions interspersed in political pamphlets,
"
to it, which, in the essays On the Pleasures of the Imagination," and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of
Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical George I.

depth, but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall Thelord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the
undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's
was to be found in any critical views previously propounded in demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They
England. To Addison,
further, belong those essays which (most appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held, for
frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of a very short time, his former office under the Irish lord-lieu-
Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious meditation, tenant; and, late in 1716. he was made one of the lords of trade.
and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful as to allure In the course of the previous year had occurred the first of the
the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as in the " Walk only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent, good-
through Westminster Abbey," enlivening solemn thought by tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been betrayed.
gentle sportiveness; sometimes flowing on with an uninterrupted His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a few years
sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes shrouding before, had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness,
"
sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as in the Vision Addison 's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism (Spectator,
of Mirza." While, in short, the Spectator, if Addison had not No. 253); but who, though still very young, was already very
taken part in it, would probably have been as lively and humor- famous, and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies
ous as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have and his personal and party hatreds. Several little misunder-
wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of posterity, standings had paved the way for a breach, when, at the same
by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less abundant in time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there appeared a
literary knowledge and much less vigorous and expanded in translation of the first book of the poem bearing the name of
thinking. In point of style, again, the two friends resemble each Thomas Tickell. Tickell, in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry
other so closely as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are with Pope, and declared that he wished only to bespeak favour-
dealing with familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising able attention for his contemplated version of the Odyssey. But
above that of conversation. But in the higher tones of thought the simultaneous publication was awkward; and Tickell, though
and composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising not so good a versifier as Pope, was a dangerous rival, as being
him very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his con- a good Greek scholar. Further, he was Addison's under-secre-
temporaries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any tary and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he
age of English literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's trans-
colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an accom- lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger could
plished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which he de-
expression nobly and eloquently dignified. scribes Addison under the name of Atticus; and although it
On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the Guar- seems doubtful whether he really sent a copy to Addison himself,
dian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end in October, he afterwards went so far as to profess a belief that the rival
with its 1 7 5th number. To this series Addison gave 53 papers, translation was really Addison's own. Addison, it is pleasant
being a very frequent writer during the latter half of its progress. to observe, was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty
None of his essays here aim so high as the best of those in the approbation of the Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after
Spectator; but he often exhibits both his cheerful and well- Addison's death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant
balanced humour and his earnest desire to inculcate sound verses in the" Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot." In 1716 there was acted,
principles of literary judgment. In the last six months of the with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or the

year 1714, the Spectator received its eighth and last volume; Haunted House. It contributes very little to his fame. From
for which Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison September 1715 to June 1716 he defended the Hanoverian
to have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, in succession, and the proceedings of the government in regard
the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of their manner, to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, which he
a contrast to the majority of his essays in the earlier volumes; wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th number. It is
but several of them, both in this vein and in one less lofty, are much better tempered, not less spirited and much more able in
among the best known, if not the finest, of all his essays. Such thinking than his Examiner. The finical man of taste does
"
are the Mountain of Miseries " the antediluvian novel of
;
indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of discussing con-
"
Shalum and Hilpa"; the " Reflections by Moonlight on the stitutional questions; but be aims many enlivening thrusts at
Divine Perfections." weak points of social life and manners; and the character of
In April 1713 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly, the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative
as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of Cato. of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force that
Its success was dazzling; but this issue was we
mainly owing to the regret not being allowed to see more of him.
concern which the politicians took in the exhibition. The Whigs In August 1716, when he had completed his 44th year, Addison
hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of constitutional free- married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of
dom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show themselves fifteen years' standing. She seems to have forfeited her jointure
enemies of despotism, and professed to find in Julius Caesar a by the marriage, and to have brought her husband nothing but
parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even with such ex- the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington. The assertion
trinsic aids, and the advantage derived from the established that the courtship was a long one is probably as erroneous as
fame of the author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good the contemporary rumour that the marriage was. unhappy.
dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the contrary.
insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its poetical What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes, among which
elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of its it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was one, Addison's
moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable smooth- health was shattered before he took the last, and certainly the
ness of its diction. That it obtained the applause of Voltaire most unwise, step in his ascent to political power.
 ADDISON'S DISEASE 187
For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the ministry; cognition for these observations in England, and Brown-Sequard
and these came to a April 1717, when those who had
crisis in in France was stimulated by this paper to investigate the
been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the opposition. physiology of these glands. Dr Trousseau, many years later,
Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated dismissal first called the condition by Addison's name. Dr Headlam
by resignation. There was now formed, under the leadership Greenhow worked at the subject for many years and embodied
f General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an administration his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 1875. But from
ich, as resting on court-influence, was nicknamed the "German this time on no further work was undertaken until the discovery
nistry." Sunderland, Addison's former superior, became one of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid extract, and the
the two principal secretaries of state; and Addison him- consequent researches into the physiology of the ductless glands.
f was appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post This stimulated renewed interest in the subject, and work was
,d been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre- carried on in many countries. But it remained for Schafer and
inted, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on Oliver of University College, London, to demonstrate the in-
e authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only ternal secretion of the suprarenals, and its importance in normal
the influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there metabolism, thereby confirming Addison's original view that
obably is not, for the allegation of Addison's
inefficiency in the disease was due to loss of function of these glands. They
details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such demonstrated that these glands contain a very powerful extract
ircumstances was undeniable and glaring. It was impossible which produces toxic effects when administered to animals, and
" "
that a government, whose secretary of state could not open that an active principle adrenalin can be separated, which
his lips in debate, should long face an opposition headed by excites contraction of the small blood vessels and thus raises
Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison's health, too, was going blood pressure. The latest views of this disease thus stand: (i)
on rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by that it is entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the
anxiety, if no worse causes were at work. Ill-health was the result of a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else
reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which of a perversion of their secretion; or (2) that it is of nervous
he laid before the king in March 1718, eleven months after his origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large
a,ipointment. He received a pension of 1500 a year. sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a
Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation.
im from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, introduced in
hir The morbid anatomy shows (i) that in over 80% of the
February 1719, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, in a cases the changes in the suprarenals are those due to tuber-
weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by Steele. Addison culosis, usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more
answered the attack in the Old Whig, and this bellum plusquam or less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually
civile as Johnson calls it was continued, with increased secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of the
.crimony, through two or three numbers. How Addison, who spinal column. In the remaining cases (2) simple atrophy has
s dying, felt after this painful controversy we are not told been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation which would
I rectly; but the Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous lead to atrophy: and finally (4) an apparently normal condition
collection of his works (1721-1726) for which his executor Tickell of the glands, but the neighbouring sympathetic ganglia diseased
had received from him authority and directions. It is said that or involved in a mass of fibrous tissue. Other morbid conditions
the quarrel in politics rested on an estrangement which had been of the suprarenals do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's
growing for some years. According to a rather nebulous story, Disease.
for which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but
lawyer, put an execution for 100 in Steele's house by way of increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the
reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance. This well-meant patient. There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart
interference seems to have been pardoned by Steele, but his resulting in attacks of syncope which may prove fatal. Blood
letters show that he resented the favour shown to Tickell pressure is extremely low. From time to time there may be
by
Addison and his own neglect by the Whigs. severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea. The best
The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease
been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement from has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing pig-
office, and was now accompanied by dropsy. His deathbed was mentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to brown
placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes or even occasionally black. This pigmentation shows itself (i)
which he had so often suggested to others, and the value of over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever pigment
which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to have appears normally, as in the axillae and round the nipples; (3)
now inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son. He died wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; and (4) occa-
at Holland House on the i7th of June 1719, six weeks after
sionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth.
having completed his 47th year. His body, after lying in state, The patient's temperature is usually somewhat subnormal.
was interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. The disease is found in males far more commonly than in females,
Addison's was written in 1843 by LucyAikin. This was reviewed
life and among the lower classes more than the upper. But this
by Macaulay July of the same year. A more modern study is that
in is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic
latter fact
m the Men of Letters " series by W. J. Courthope (1884).
"
There
is a convenient one- volume edition of the
conditions rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to
Spectator, by Henry Morley
(Routledge, 1868), and another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory tuberculosis.
Smith. Of the Taller there is an edition by G. A. Aitkeri in 8 vols. The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, and
(1898). A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon Kurd) often in the later, is by no means easy. Pigmentation of the skin
is included in Bohn's British Classics. (W. S. A. D.)
;
occurs in many conditions as in normal pregnancy, uterine
ADDISON'S DISEASE, a constitutional affection manifesting fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart disease,
itself in an exaggeration of the normal
pigment of the skin, exophthalmic goitre, &c., and after the prolonged use of certain
asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and weakness drugs as arsenic and silver. But the presence of a low blood
and irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms being
pressure with weakness and irritability of the heart and some
due to loss of function of the suprarenal glands. It is important of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis fairly certain.
to note, however, that Addison's Disease
may occur without The latest researches on the subject tend to indicate a more
pigmentation, and pigmentation without Addison's Disease. certain diagnosis in the effect on the blood pressure of adminis-
The condition was first recognized by Dr Thomas Addison of
tering suprarenal extract, the blood pressure of the normal
Guy's Hospital, who in 1855 published an important work on subject being unaffected thereby, that of the man suffering from
The Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of the
Suprarenal suprarenal inadequacy being markedly raised. The disease is
Capsules. Sir Samuel Wilks worked zealously in obtaining re- treated by promoting the general health in every possible way ;
 ADDRESS ADELAIDE
by diet; by tonics, especially arsenic and strychnine; by atten- Canossa with Atto, count of Modena-Reggio (d. 981). Mean-
tion to the hygienic conditions; and always by the adminis- while Otto I., the German king, whose English wife Edgitha
tration of one of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland had died in 946, had formed the design of marrying her and
extract. claiming the Italian kingdom in her right, as a step towards the
"ADDRESS, THE," an English parliamentary term for the revival of the empire of Charlemagne. In September 951,
reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the House accordingly, he appeared in Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted
of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the opening his invitation to meet him at Pavia and at the close of the
of a new parliament or session. There are certain formalities year the fateful union was celebrated. From the first her part
which distinguish parliamentary proceedings. The
this stage of in German affairs was important. To her are ascribed the in-
" " fluences which led in 953 to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by
king's speech divided into three sections: the first,
itself is
" his first marriage, the crushing of which in the following year
addressed to My Lords and Gentlemen," touches on foreign
" established Adelaide's power. On the 2nd of February 962 she
affairs; the second, to the Gentlemen of the House of Com-
"
mons," has reference to the estimates; the third, to My was crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately
Lords and Gentlemen," outlines the proposed legislation for after her husband, and she accompanied Otto in 966 on his third
the session. Should the sovereign in person open parliament, expedition to Italy, where she remained with him for six years.
he does so in the House of Lords in full state, and the speaker After Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some

and members of the House of Commons are summoned there years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor,
into the royal presence. The sovereign then reads his speech. Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are ob-
If the sovereign is not present in person, the speech is read by scure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish expenditure
commission. The Commons then return to their House, and an in charity and church building, which endeared her to ecclesiastics
address in answer is moved in both Houses. The government but was a serious drain on the imperial finances. In 978 she left
of theday selects two of its supporters in each House to move the court and lived partly in Italy, partly with her brother
and second the address, and when carrying out this honourable Conrad, king of Burgundy, by whose mediation she was ulti-
task they appear in levee dress. Previous to the session of 1890- mately reconciled to her son. In 983, shortly before his death,
1891, the royal speech was answered paragraph by paragraph, but she was appointed his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in
" " concert with the empress Theophano, widow of Otto II., and
the address is now moved in the form of a single resolution,

thanking the sovereign for his most gracious speech. The debate Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant
on the address is used as a means of ranging over the whole grandson, Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions
government policy, amendments being introduced by the opposi- of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In June 984 the
tion. A defeat on an amendment to the address is generally infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two
regarded by the government as a vote of no-confidence. After empresses; but the masterful will of Theophano soon obtained
the address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, on the
The thanks of the sovereign for the address are then 1 5th of June 991, Adelaide had no voice in German affairs. She
sovereign.
conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household and now assumed the regency, in concert with ishop Willigis and a
to the Commons by the comptroller of the household. council of princes of the Empire, and held it until in 995 Otto
"
ADELAER, or ADELER (Norwegian for eagle "), the surname was declared of age. In 996 the young king went to Italy to
of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivertsen (1622- receive the imperial crown; and from this date Adelaide ceased
1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander. He to concern herself with worldly affairs, but devoted herself to
was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen pious exercises, to intimate correspondence with the abbots
became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, and the foundation of churches
few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which and religious houses. She died on the 1 7th of December 999, and
was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he was buried in the convent of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite
had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various foundation, at Salz in Alsace. She was proclaimed a saint by
victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most the grateful German clergy; but her name has never found a
brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the I3th of May 1654. place in the Roman calendar. Like her daughter-in-law Theo-
when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line of phano and other exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed
Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, causing considerable literary attainments (liter atissima craf), and her
a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. The following day he entered knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I., who only learned the
Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the Turks. language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar.
On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, and became the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II.
By
admiral-lieutenant in 1660. Numerous tempting offers were (d. 983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 999), Adelheid
made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice (Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who married
to return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 955.
the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the Adelaide's life (Vita or Epiiaphium Adalheidae imperatricis) was
command of the Danish fleet from Frederick III. Under written
by St Odilo
of Cluny. It is valuable only for the latter

Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish years of the empress, after she had retired from any active share in
the world's affairs. The rest of her life is merely outlined, though
fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of November
her adventures in escaping from Berengar are treated in more detail.
1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When in the The best edition is in Duchesne, Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, pp. 353-
Venetian service, Adelaer was known by the name of Curzio 362. See Giov. Batt. Semeria, Vita politico-religiosa di s. Adeleida,
" &c. (Turin, 1842); Jul. Bentzingcr, Das Leben der Kaiserin Adelheid
Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for naval cadet ").
. wahrend der Regierung Ottos III., Inaug. Dissertation (Breslau,
.
ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999), queen of Italy and
.

1883); J. J. Dey, Hist, de s. Adelaide, fife. (Geneva, 1862); F. P

empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy and of Wimmer, Kaiserin Adelheid, Gemahlin Ottos I. des Grossen (Regensb.
Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia. On the death of 1889); Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart and
Further references in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources
Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to whose Berlin, 1904).
son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed. She was historiques (Paris, 1903).

married to him in 947; but after an unhappy union of three ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. It is situated in
years Lothair died (November 22, 950). The young widow, re- the county to which it gives name, on the banks of the river
markable for her character and beauty, was seized by Lothair's Torrens, 7 m. from its mouth. Its site is a level plain, near the
successor, Berengar II., margrave of Ivrea, who, angered probably foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself
at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert and thus secure his title reaches 2334 ft. The broad streets of the city intersect at right
to the Italian kingdom, kept her in close confinement at Como. angles. It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, and
After four months (August 951), she escaped, and took refuge at South Adelaide, the business quarter. A broad strip of park
 ADELARD ADELSBERG 189
lands between them, through which runs the river Torrens,
lies in 1901; of the city and suburbs within a lo-miles radius,
crossed by five bridges and greatly improved by a dam on the 162,261.
west of the city. The banks are beautifully laid out. Broad, ADELARD (or AETHELARD) of Bath (i2th century), English
belts of park lands surround both North and South Adelaide, scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of
and as the greater portion of these lands is planted with fine medieval England. He studied in France at Laon and Tours,
shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of the most and travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and
attractive cities in Australasia. South Adelaide is bounded by Asia Minor, during a period of seven years. At a time when
four broad terraces facing north, south, east and west. The Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intel-
main thoroughfare, King William Street, runs north and south, lectual eminence, he gained so high a reputation that he was
passing through Victoria Square, a small park in the centre of described by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosophus Anglomm.
the city. Handsome public buildings are numerous. Govern- He lived for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned
ment House stands grounds on the north side of North Ter-
in to England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31
race, official buildings in the vicinity; but
with several other Henry I. 1130) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant
the majority are in King William Street. Here are the town of money from the revenues of Wiltshire. The great interest of
hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the general post office, Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that he made
with the Victoria Tower which, with the old and new Govern- a special study of Arabian philosophy during his travels, and,
ment offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Francis Xavier on his return to England, brought his knowledge to bear on the
and the court houses, surround Victoria Square. On North current scholasticism of the time. He has been credited with a
Terrace are the houses of parliament, and the institute, containing knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his translation of Euclid's
a public library and museum. Here is also Adelaide University, Elements was made from the original Greek. It is probable,
established by an act of 1874, and opened in 1876. The existing however, from the nature of the text, that his authority was an
buildings were opened in 1882. Munificent gifts have from time Arabic version. This important work was published first at
to time assisted in the extension of its scope, as for example that Venice in 1482 under the name of Campanus of Novara, but the
of Sir Thomas Elder (d. 1897), who took a leading part in the work is always attributed to Adelard. Campanus may be re-
foundation of the university. This gift, among other provisions, sponsible for some of the notes. It became at once the text-book
enabled the Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established, of the chief mathematical schools of Europe, though its critical
the building for which was opened in 1000. In 1903 a building notes were of little value. His Arabic studies he collected under
for the schools of engineering and science was opened. The total the title Perdifficiles Quaestiones Nalurales, printed after 1472.
number of students in the university approaches 1000. To the It is in the' form of a dialogue between himself and his favourite
east of the university is the building in which the exhibition was nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop of Bayeux from
held in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 1887. 1113 to 1133. He wrote also treatises on the astrolabe (a copy
This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural and Horti- of this is in the British Museum), on the abacus (three copies
cultural Society, a technical museum, &c. The school of mines exist in the Vatican library, the library of Leiden University
and industries (1903) stands east of this again. The buildings and the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris), translations of the
of the numerous important commercial, social and charitable Kharismian Tables and an Arabic Introduction to Astronomy.
institutionsadd to the dignity of the city. The Anglican cathe- His great contribution to philosophy proper was the De Eodem
dral of St Peter (1878) is in North Adelaide. The Botanical et Diver so (On Identity and
Difference), which is in the form of
Park, which has an area of 84 acres, lies on the south bank of letters addressed to his nephew. In this work philosophy and
the Torrens, on the east of the city. It includes the Zoological the world are personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia in
Garden, beautifully laid out
is and forms one of the most conflict for the soul of man. Philosophia is accompanied by the
attractive features of Adelaide. The city has a number of liberal arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world
good statues, chief among which are copies of the Farnese by Power, Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune. The work
Hercules (Victoria Square) and of Canova's Venus (North deals with the current difficulties between nominalism and
Terrace), statues of Queen Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas realism, the relation between the individual and the genus or
Elder's statue at the university, and a memorial (1905) over the species. Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent,
grave of Colonel Light, founder of the colony, in Light Square. and yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus
Adelaide is governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by and the species. He was either the founder or the formulator
the whole body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus and
in which the mayor is so elected. The chief industries are the species retain their identity in the individual apart altogether
manufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing, from particular idiosyncrasies. For the relative importance
starch-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling. Adelaide is also of this doctrine see article SCHOLASTICISM.
the central sharemarket of Australia, for West Australian gold- See Jourdain, Recherches sur les tradtictions d'Aristote (2nd ed.,
mines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, and for the copper- 1843); Haureau, Philosophic scolastique (2nd ed., 1872), and works
mines at Wallaroo, Burra Burra and Moonta; while Port appended to art. SCHOLASTICISM.
Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent Gulf, ranks ADELSBERG (Slovene Postojina), a market-town in Carniola,
as the third in the Commonwealth. Adelaide is the terminus Austria, 30 m. S.S.W. of Laibach by rail. Pop. (1900) 3636,
of an extensive railway system, the main line of which runs mostly Slovene. About a mile from the town is the entrance
through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to Rockhampton. In to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and
summer the climate is often oppressively hot under the influence most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four
of winds blowing from the interior, but the
proximity of the sea grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the dis-
on the one side and of the mountains on the other allows the tance of about a mile and a half from the entrance. The river
inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; at other seasons, Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is heard
however, the climate is mild and pleasant; with a mean annual murmuring in its recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the
rainfall of20-4 ins. The vice-regal summer residence is at third of the chain, a great ball is annually held on Whit- Monday,
Marble on the Mount Lofty range. Adelaide was founded
Hill, when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz-Joseph-
in 1836 and incorporated in It received its name at the Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest from
1843.
desire of King William I V. in honour of Queen Adelaide.
, Round the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft. in breadth and more
the city are many pleasant suburbs, connected with it than 100 ft. high. Besides the imposing proportions of its
by rail
and tramways; the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont, chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the variegated beauty
Unley, Mitcham, Goodwood, Plymton, Hindmarsh, Prospect, of its stalactite formations, some resembling transparent drapery,
St Peters, Norwood and others waterfalls, trees, animals or human beings, the more
Kensington. Glenelg is a favourite
watering-place. The population of the city proper was 39,240 grotesque being called by various fanciful appellations. These
 ADELUNG ADENES
subterranean wonders were known as far back as 1213, but the and along the coast, most of the Arab 'chiefs are under the
cavern remained undiscovered in modern times until 1816, and political control of the British government, which pays them
it is only in still more recent times that its vast extent has been regular allowances. The area of the peninsula is only 15 sq. m.,
fully ascertained and explored. The total length of the passages is but the total area of British territory is returned at 80 sq. m.,
now estimated at over sJ m. The connexion with the Ottokar including Perim (5 sq. m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate
grotto was established in 1890. The Magdalene grotto, about an is about 9000 sq. m. The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified.
hour's walk to the north, is celebrated for the extraordinary Modern science has converted " Steamer Point " into a seem-
subterranean amphibian, the proteus dnguinus, first discovered " "
ingly impregnable position, the peninsula which the Point
there. It is about a foot in length, lives on snails and worms forms to the whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which
and is provided with both lungs and gills. runs from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs.
ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732-1806), German The administration is conducted by a political resident, who is
grammarian and philologist, was born at Spantekow, in Pomer- also the military commandant. All food requires to be imported,
ania, on the 8th of August 1732, and educated at the public and the water-supply is largely derived from condensation. A
schools of Anklam and Klosterbergen, and the university of littlewater is obtained from wells, and some from an aqueduct
Halle. In 1759 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium of 7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of 30,000, besides an
Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years later and went irregular supply from the old reservoirs.
to reside in a private capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted him- From its admirable commercial and military position, Aden
self to philological researches. In 1787 he received the appoint- early became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and
ment of principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, Asia. It is the 'Apa/Sia tvdalfjiuv of the Periplus. It was known
where he continued to reside until his death on the loth of to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Attanae, and was captured
September 1806. by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. In 1513 it was unsuccess-
The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there is not fully attacked by the Portuguese under Albuquerque, but sub-
one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some proofs of the sequently it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1538. In the
genius, industry and erudition of the author. By means of his following century the Turks themselves relinquished their con-
excellent grammars, dictionary and various works on German quests in Yemen, and the sultan of Sana established a supremacy
style, he contributed greatly towards rectifying the ortho- over Aden, which was maintained until the year 1735, when
graphy, refining the idiom and fixing the standard of his native the sheikh of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line
tongue. His German dictionary Grammalisch-kritisches Worter- of independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours
buch der hochdeutschen Mundarl (1774-1786) bears witness to was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously
tha patient spirit of investigation which Adelung possessed in so maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of the outrage being
remarkable a degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history demanded by the Bombay government, the sultan undertook to
of the different dialects on which modern German is based. No make compensation for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed
man before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of to sell his town and port to the English. Captain Haines of the
Germany. Shortly before his death he issued Mithridates, oder Indian navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the
allgemcine S prachenkunde (1806). The hint of this work appears sultan's son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had
to have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub- made. A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon
lished by Konrad von Gesner (1516-1565) in 1555; but the plan despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to British
of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately he did not India on the i6th of January 1839. The withdrawal of the
live to finish what he had undertaken. The first volume, which trade between Europe and the East, caused by the discovery of
contains the Asiatic languages, was published immediately after the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovern-
his death; the other two were issued under the superintendence ment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state
of Johann Severin Vater (1771-1826). Of the very numerous of comparative insignificance; but about the time of its capture
works by Adelung the following may be noted: Directorium by the British the Red Sea route to India was reopened, and
diplomaticum (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche Sprachlehre fiir Schulen commerce soon began to flow in its former channel. Aden was
(Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, Magazin fur die deutsche made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling stations
Sprache (Leipzig, 1782-1784). of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Its im-
ADEMPTION (Lat. ademptio, from adimere, a taking away), portance as a port of call for steamers and a coaling station has
in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see LEGACY). grown immensely since the opening of the Suez Canal. It also
ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically part of conducts a considerable trade with the interior of Arabia, and
British India, under the governor of Bombay. The seaport is with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Red
situated in 12 45' N. lat., and 45 4' E. long., on a peninsula Sea. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company
near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 m. E. of the strait of here diverge on the one hand to India, the Far East and
Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape.
mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles In 1839 the population was less than 1000, but in 1901 it had
from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras grown to 43, 974. The gross revenue(i9Oi-i9O2) was Rs. 37,25,915.
Sanailah or Cape Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected There are three printing-presses, of which one is in the gaol and
with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet the other two belong to a European and a Parsee firm of mer-
high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft. chants. The port is visited yearly by some 1300 steamers with a
above the level of the sea. The town is built on the eastern tonnage of 25 million tons. The principal articles of import are
coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and coffee, cotton-piece goods, &c., grain, hides, coal, opium, cotton-
is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable twist and yarn. The exports are, in the main, a repetition of
natural defence. There are two harbours, an outer, facing the the imports. Of the total imports nearly one-third come from
town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially choked the east coast of Africa, and another third from Arabia. Of the
with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, by the total exports, nearly one- third again go to the east coast of
Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the peninsula, Africa. The Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps
which at all periods of the year admits vessels drawing less of India.
than 20 ft. On the whole, Aden is a healthy place, although ADENES (ADENEZ or ADANS), surnamed LE ROI, French
it suffers considerably from the want of good water, and the heat trouvere, was born in Brabant about 1240. He owed his educa-
is often very intense. From time to time additional land on the tion to the kindness of Henry III., duke of Brabant, and he re-
mainland has been acquired by cession or purchase, and the mained in favour at court for some time after the death (1261) of
adjoining island of Perim, lying in the actual mouth of the his patron. In 1 269 he entered the service of Guy de Dampierre,
strait, was permanently occupied in 1857. Farther inland, afterwards count of Flanders, probably as roi des menestrels,
 ADENINE ADHEMAR 191
and followed him in the next year on the abortive crusade in connected. In the unenlightened days many children must have
Tunis in which Louis IX. lost his life. The expedition returned got well of adenoids without operation, and even at the present
by way of Sicily and Italy, and Adenes has left in his poems time it by no means follows that because a child has these post-
some very exact descriptions of the places through which he nasal vegetations he must forthwith be operated on. The con-
passed. The purity of his French and the absence of provincial- dition is very similar to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time,
isms point to a long residence in France, and it has been suggested patience and attention to general measures, operation is often
that Adenes may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on rendered unnecessary. But if the child continues to breathe
her marriage with Philip the Bold. He seems, however, to have with his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf
remained in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent and dull, and is troubled with a chronic " cold in his head," the
visits to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx and of
of St Denis. The poems written by Adenes are four: the a surgical operation should most certainly be considered. In
Enfances Ogier, an enfeebled version of the Chevalerie Ogicr de recent years the comparatively simple operation for their re-
Danemarche written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning of moval has been very frequently performed, and, as a rule, with
the century; Berte aus granspies, the history of the mother of marked benefit, but this treatment should always be followed
Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which are also by a course of instruction in respiratory exercises; the child
preservedin the anonymous Chronique de France, and in the must be taught regularly to fill his lungs and make the tidal air
Chronique rimee of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de Comarchis, pass through the nostrils. These respiratory exercises may be
belongingto the cycle of romance gathered round the history of resorted to before operation is proposed, and in some cases they
Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long roman d'aventures, Cleomades, may render operative treatment unnecessary. Operations should
borrowed from Spanish and Moorish traditions brought into not be performed in cold weather or in piercing east winds,
France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who after the death and it is advisable to keep the child indoors for a day or two
of her Spanish husband returned to the French court. Adenes subsequent to its performance. To expose a child just after
ibably died before the end of the 1 3th century. operating on his throat to the risks of a journey by train or
The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academic Imperiale omnibus is highly inadvisable. Although the operation is not
Royale of Brussels by A. Scheler and A. van Hasselt in 1874; a very painful one, it ought not to be performed upon a child
Berte was rendered into modern French by G. Hecq (1897) and by
R. Perie(i9Oo) Cleomades, by Le Chevalier de Chatelain except .under the influence of chloroform or some other general
;
(1859). See anaesthetic.
also the edition of Berte by Paulin Paris (1832); an article by the (E.O.*)
same writer in the Hist, litt. de la France, vol. xx. pp. 679-718; ADEPT used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as
(if
Leon Gautier, Les epopees Jrangaises, vol. iii., &c. an adjective adept; from Lat. odeptus, one who has attained),
ADENINE, or 6-AniNO-PURiN, CsHsNs, in chemistry, a basic completely and fully acquainted with one's subject, an expert.
substance which has been obtained as a decomposition product The word implies more than acquired proficiency, a natural
of nuclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of oxen. It has inborn aptitude. In olden times an adept was one who was
been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1897, 30, p. 2238) by versed in magic, an alchemist, one who had attained the great
heating 2.6.8-trichlorpurin with 10 times its weight of ammonia secrets of the unknown.
for six hours at 100 C.; by this means 6-amino-2.8-dichlor- ADERNO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 22 m.
purin is obtained, which on reduction by means of hydriodic N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1901) 25,859. It occupies
acid and phosphonium iodide is converted into adenine. In the site of the ancient Adranon, which took its name from
1898 E. Fischer also obtained it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman times
(Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104). It crystallizes in long needles; forms identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated here,
salts C6 H6 N 5 -2HI and (CsHiNs^-ftSO^^O, and is converted and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps
by nitrous acid into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin. On heating some substructures of this building still extant outside the town.
with hydrochloric acid at 180-200 C. it is decomposed; the The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius I.; very
products of the reaction being glycocol), ammonia, formic acid fine remains of its walls are preserved. For a time it was the
and carbon dioxide. Various methyl derivatives of adenine have headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town taken by the
been described by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104) and Romans Punic War (263 B.C.). In the centre of the
in the First
by M. Kruger fur physiol. Chemie, 1894, 18, p. 434). For
(Zeit. modern town the castle, built by Roger I.; in the chapel
rises
the constitution of adenine see PURIN. are frescoes representing his granddaughter, Adelasia, who
ADENOIDS, or ADENOID GROWTHS (from Gr. d5ec oaSijs, glandu- founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157, taking the veil. The
lar), masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose columns in the principal church are of black lava.
and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the See P. Russo, Illustrazione storica di Adernb (Aderno, 1897).
air- way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Miiller to imply the
proper development of the chest. The growths are apt to keep denial of gods (Sans, deva), on the analogy of Atheism, the
up a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating tubes denial of God. Max Miiller used it particularly in connexion
which pass from the throat to the ear, and so render the child with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative of ignorance or
dull of hearing or even deaf. They also give rise to asthma, and nescience (Gifford lectures, 1892, c. ix.).
like enlarged tonsils with which they are often associated ADHEMAR DE CHABANNES (c. 9 88-c. 1030), medieval his-
they impart to the child a vacant, stupid expression, and hinder torian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in the French
his physical and intellectual development. They cause his department of Haute-Vienne. Educated at the monastery of
"
voice to be stuffy," thick, and unmusical. Though, except in St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as a monk, either at this
the case of a cleft palate, they cannot be seen with the naked place or at the monastery of St Cybard at Angouleme. He died
eye, they are often accompanied by a visible and suggestive about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, whither he had gone
granular condition of the wall at the back of the throat. Their on a pilgrimage. Adhemar's life was mainly spent in writing
presence may easily be determined by the medical attendant and transcribing chronicles, and his principal work is a his-
gently hooking the end of the index-finger round the back of tory entitled Chronicon Aquitanicum el Francicum or Historia
the soft palate. If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to post- Francorum. This is in three books and deals with Prankish
pone this digital examination of the throat until the child is history from the fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks,
under the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the to A.D. 1028. The two earlier books are scarcely more than a
tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at the copy of the Gesta regum Francorum, but the third book, which
same time that the tonsils are dealt with. Though the disease deals with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable his-
isa comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer in its treatment This Monumcnla
torical importance. is published in the Ger-
being Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably existed as long as maniae historica. Scriplores. Band
(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-
iv.
tuberculosis itself, with which affection it is somewhat distantly 1892). He also wrote Commemoratio abbatum Lemovicensium
192 ADHEMAR ADIRONDACKS
basilicae S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) and Epistola ad easterly, it falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles
Jordanum Lemovicensem episcopum et alias de
aposlolatu S. north of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on
Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne in the itsbanks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol,
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844-1855). and Verona and Legnago, in Italy. It is a very rapid river,
See F. Arbellot, ittude historiaue et litteraire sur Ademar de Cha- and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause
bannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne, Dissertation sur le lieu
great damage to the surrounding country. It is navigable from
de naissance et sur la famille du chroniqueur Ademar, moine de
the heart of Tirol to the sea. In Lombardy it has a breadth
I'abbaye de St Cybard d'Angouttme (Angoulgme, 1850).
ADHEMAR DE MONTEIL of 200 yds.,and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength of the
(ADEMAR, AIMAR, AELARZ) (d.
current renders its navigation very difficult, and lessens its
1098), one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was
value as a means of transit between Germany and Italy. The
bishop of Puy en Velay from before 1087. At the council of
Clermont in 1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and hav- Adige has a course of about 220 m., and, after the Po, is the
most important river in Italy. In Roman times it flowed, in its
ing been named apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied
lower course, much farther north than at present, along the
Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, to the east. He negotiated
with Alexis Comnenus at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea base of the Euganean hills, and entered the sea at Brondolo.
some discipline among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch In A.D. 587 the river broke its banks, and the main stream took
to be raised and died in that city of the plague on the ist of
its present course, but new streams opened repeatedly to the
south, until now the Adige and the Po form conjointly one
August 1098.
See the article by C. Kohler in La Grande Encyclopedic; Biblio- delta. (W. A. B. C.)
graphic du Velay (1902), 640-650. ADIPOCERE (from the Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a
ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere), the process of substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted,
adhering or clinging to anything. In a figurative sense, adhesion and so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both
(like "adherent") is used of any attachment to a party or move- fat and wax. When the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris was
ment; but the word is also employed technically in psychology, removed in 1786-1787, great masses of this substance were found
pathology and botany. In psychology Bain and others use it of where the coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed
association of ideas and action; in pathology an adhesion is an very closely together. The whole body had been converted
abnormal union of surfaces; and in botany "adhesion" is used of into this fatty matter, except the bones, which remained, but
dissimilar parts, e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to "cohesion," were extremely brittle. Chemically, adipocere consists princi-
which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl. pally of a mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent. Saponi-
ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. d&d<opos, indifferent) . The Adiaphorist ficationwith potash liberates a little ammonia (about i%),
controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional and gives a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margaric
scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a and oxymargaric acids. The insoluble residue consists of lime,
general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the diet &c., derived from the tissues. The artificial formation of adipo-
of Augsburg, 1 5th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg cere has been studied; it appears that it is not formed from
Interim. Catholics nor Protestants.
It satisfied neither As albuminous matter, but from the various fats in the body
head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of collecting together and undergoing decomposition.
Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig, ADIRONDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern
on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the New York, U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton
Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points neither counties, often included by geographers in the Appalachian
enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture. This sanctioned jurisdic- system, but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands
tion of Catholic bishops, and observance of certain rites, while of Canada. They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain,
all were to accept justification by faith (relegating sola to the which separates them from the Green Mountains. Unlike the
adiaphora). This modification was known as the Leipzig In- Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected range,
terim; its advocates were stigmatized as Adiaphorists. Pas- but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, arranged
sionate opposition was led by Melanchthon's colleague, Matth. with little appearance of system. There are about one hundred
Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial power was not the peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; the highest peak,
judge of adiaphora, and that the measure was a trick to bring Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or "cloud-splitter"),
back popery. From Wittenberg he
fled, April 1549, to Magde- is near the eastern part of the group and attains an elevation of

burg, making the headquarters of rigid Lutheranism.

it Practi- 5344 ft. Other noted peaks are M'Intyre (5210 ft.), Haystack
cally the controversy was concluded by the religious peace (4918), Dix (4916) and Whiteface (4871). These mountains,
ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which left princes a free consisting of various sorts of gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro,
choice between the rival confessions, with the right to impose have been formed partly by faulting but mainly by erosion, the
either on their subjects; but much bitter internal strife was lines of which have been determined by the presence of faults
kept up by Protestants on the theoretical question of adiaphora; or the presence of relatively soft rocks. Lower Palaeozoic strata
to appease this was one object of the Formula Concordiae, 1577. lap up on to the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain
Another Adiaphorist controversy between Pietists and their group. The region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though
opponents, respecting the lawfulness of amusements, arose in mined for many years are not yet fully developed. Other
1681, when Anton Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as mineral products are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite
antichristian. and zinc ore. The mountains form the water-parting between the
See arts, by J. Gottschick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1896) ; Hudson and the St Lawrence rivers. On the south and south-
by Fritz in I. Goschler's Diet. Encyelop. de la Theol. Calk. (1858);
west the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises
other authorities in I. C. L. Gieseler, Ch. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868,
in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the Mohawk.
vol. iv.) monograph by Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich
;

und historisch untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view. On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence by way
ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Alhesis), a considerable river in North of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they flow directly
Italy.The true source of the Adige is in some small lakes on into that stream or reach it through Lake Ontario. The most
the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and it is important streams within the area are the Hudson, Black,
swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, where the roads Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausable rivers.
over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall in. It thence flows east The region was once covered, with the exception of the higher
to Meran, and then south-east to Botzen, where it receives the summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, while perhaps
Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes navigable. It then turns south-west, having little effect on the larger features of the country, has
and, after receiving the Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and ponds, whose
Tirol, and enters Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto. After number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many falls and rapids
traversing North Italy, in a direction first southerly and then in the streams. Among the larger lakes are the Upper and Lower
 ADIS ABABA ADJUTANT '93
Saranac, Big and Little Tupper, Schroon, Placid, Long, Raquette dom in succession to Entotto, a deserted settlement some ten
and Blue Mountain. The region known as the Adirondack or twelve miles north of Adis Ababa.
Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces between 5000 ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectivus, added), a word used
and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and forest, which chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the noun
for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in any other part of the to which it refers. Formerly grammarians used not to separate
United States. The mountain peaks are usually rounded and a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of them to-
easily scaled, and as roads have been constructed over their gether as a noun-adjective. In the art of dyeing, certain colours
slopes and in every direction through the forests, all points of are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing with
interest may be easily reached by stage. Railways penetrate some basis to render them permanent. " Adjective law " is that
the heart of the region, and small steamboats ply upon the which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to " sub-
larger lakes. The surface of most of the lakes lies at an elevation stantive law," the rules of right administered by a court.
of over 1500 ft. above the sea; their shores are usually rocky ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat.
and irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day) the act
,

made them very attractive to the tourist. The mountains are of postponing a meeting of any private or public body, par-

easily reached from Plattsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone ticularly of parliament, or any business, until another time, or
and Saratoga Springs. Every year thousands spend the summer indefinitely (in which case it is an adjournment sine die). The
months in the wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas word applies also to the period during which the meeting or
and hotels are numerous. The resorts most frequented are in business stands adjourned.
the vicinity of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake ADJUDICATION (Lat. adjudicatio; adjudicare, to award),
Placid. In the Adirondacks are some of the best hunting and generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise of
fishing grounds in the eastern United States. Owing to the judicial power; a judgment. In a more technical sense, in
restricted period allowed for hunting, deer and small game are English and American law, an adjudication is an order of the
abundant, and the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt and
stocked with trout and black bass. At the head of Lake Placid his property vested in a trustee. It usually proceeds from a
stands Whiteface Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest resolution of the creditors or where no composition or scheme of
views of the Adirondacks may be obtained. Two miles south- arrangement has been proposed by the debtor. It may be said
east of this lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then does a debtor's

John Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented property actually vest in a trustee for division among the
by visitors. Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy till adjudica-
river, which for a part of its course flows through a rocky chasm tion it is protected by a receiving order. As to the effect which
from 100 to 175 ft. deep and rarely over 30 ft. wide. At the adjudication has on the bankrupt, see under BANKRUPTCY.
head of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, where the The same process in Scots law is called sequestration. In Scots
stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft. Another impressive law the term " adjudication " has quite a different meaning,
feature of the Adirondacks is Indian Pass, a gorge about eleven being the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the
miles long, between Mt. M'Intyre and Wallface Mountain. heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir,
The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically from the pass to in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security
a height of 1300 ft. Keene Valley, in the centre of Essex county, of his debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of the
is another picturesque region, presenting a pleasing combination same nature by which the holder of a heritable right, labouring
of peaceful valley and rugged hills. Though the climate during under any defect in point of form, gets that defect supplied by
the winter months is very severe the temperature sometimes decree of a court.
falling as low as -42 F. it is beneficial to persons suffering ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, zndjungere, to join), that which
from pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it

been established. The region is heavily forested with spruce, in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies
and broad-leaved trees. Lumbering is an important it. Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they
pine "
industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of a qualify. Learning, says Shakespeare, is an adjunct to our-
"
state forest preserve, containing in 1907, 1,401,482 acres, and self (Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314). Twelve members of
by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and recreation the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris are called " adjuncts."
grounds by private clubs. The so-called Adirondack Park, ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxtare, derived from juxla,
containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the state near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from
preserve and large areas held in private ownership. Justus, right), regulating, adapting or settling; in commercial
For a description of the Adirondacks, see S. R. Stoddard, The law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods.
Adirondacks Illustrated (24th ed., Glen Falls, 1894); and E. R. The calculation of the amounts to be made good to and paid by
Wallace, Descriptive Guide to the Adirondacks (Syracuse, 1894). For the several interests is a complicated matter. It involves much
geology
and mineral resources consult the Reports of the New York detail and arithmetic, and requires a full and accurate knowledge
State Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York State Museum.
of the principles of the subject. Such adjustments are made by
ADIS ABABA ("the new flower"), the capital of Abyssinia men called adjusters, who make the subject their profession. In
and kingdom of Shoa, in 9 i' N., 38 56' E., 220 m. W. by
of the Great Britain they are for the most part members of the Average
S. of Harrar, and about 450 m. S.W. of Jibuti on the Gulf of
Adjusters' Association (1870), a body which has done much
Aden. Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes of the Entotto careful work with a view to making and keeping the practice
range, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on bare, grassy undulations, uniform and in accord with right principles. This association
watered by small streams flowing S.S.E. to the Hawash. It is has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body of
a large straggling encampment rather than a town, with few practical rules which the individual members undertake to
buildings of any architectural merit. The Gebi or royal enclosure observe. (SeeAVERAGE and INSURANCE, Marine.)
completely covers a small hill overlooking the whole neighbour- ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join on; an
"
hood, while around it are the enclosures of the abuna and principal older English form was adjustage "), a mouthpiece or nozzle,
nobles, and the residences of the foreign ministers. The principal so formed as to facilitate the outflow of liquids from a vessel or
traders are Armenians and Hindus. About a mile north-east of pipe. (See HYDRAULICS.)
the palace is the
military camp. On the hills some five miles to ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjulare, to aid), a helper or junior
the north, 1 500 ft. above the in command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer
camp, are the ruins of an old fortress,
and the churches of St Raguel and St Mariam. The town is in who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of
telegraphic communication with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. troops. In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held
It was founded by Menelek II. in 1892 as the capital of his king- by a captain or lieutenant. The adjutant acts as staff officer to
* 7 5
194 ADJUTANT-GENERALADMIRAL
the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the work (see WILL OR TESTAMENT). It is also used generally for " govern-
" "
of the orderlyroom and the general administration of the corps, ment," and specifically for the government or the executive
and responsible for musketry duties and the training of recruits.
is ministry, and in such connexions as theadmmistration(administer-
Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all units of the ing or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c.
auxiliary forces. On the European continent the word is not Letters of Administration. Upon the death of a person intestate
restricted to the lower units of organization; for example, in or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, or when
" "
Germany the Adjutantur includes all routine as distinct from the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the
" "
general staff officers in the higher units, and the aides-de- Probate Division of the High Court is obliged to appoint an
camp of royal persons and of the higher commanders are also administrator who performs the duties of an executor. This is
styled adjutant-generals, fliigel-adjutanten, &c. For the so-called done by the court granting letters of administration to the
adjutant bird see JABIRU. person entitled. Grants of administration may be either general
ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as or limited. A general grant is made where the deceased has
indicated by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuvare) died intestate. The order in which general grants of letters will
staff-officer to a general in command, but now a distinct high be made by the court is as follows: (i) The husband, or widow,
functionary at the head of a special office in the British and as the case may be; (2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a
American war departments. In England the second military creditor; (5) a stranger. Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the
member of the Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the administrator is the real as well as the personal representative
forces. He is a general officer and at the head of his department of the deceased, and consequently when the estate to be ad-
of the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to ministered consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will
personnel. The adjutant-general of the United States army is grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of
one of the principal officers in the war department, the head of kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin the crown is
the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to the reality
records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual Ameri- by escheat. If a creditor claims and obtains a grant he is com-
can states also have their own adjutant-general, with cognate pelled by the court to enter into a bond with two sureties
duties regarding the state militia. In many countries, such as that he will not prefer his own debt to those of other creditors.
Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original meaning The more important Cases of grants of special letters of ad-
of an officer on the personal staff, and is the designation of per- ministration are the following:
sonal aides-de-camp to the sovereign. Administration cum testamenlo annexo, where the deceased
By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of provinces, has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor
in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials under the superin- appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will
tendence of and auxiliary to the general, are sometimes called make the grant to the person (usually the residuary legatee)
adjutants-general. with the largest beneficial interest in the estate.
ADLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs in two
born at Alzey, Germany, on the I3th of August 1851. His cases (a) where the executor dies intestate after probate with-
father, a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857, out having completely administered the estate; (b) where an
and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870. After administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administra-
completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in tion cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general
1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted
University. In 1876 he established in New York City the Society Administration durante minore aetate, when the executor or
for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension of which the person entitled to the general grant is under age.
he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and before which he Administration durante absentia, when the executor or ad-
delivered a regular Sunday lecture. In 1902 he became professor ministrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year.
of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He also Administration pendenle lite, where there is a dispute as to the
acted as one of the editors of the International Journal of Ethics. person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court
Under his direction the Society for Ethical Culture became an appoints an administrator till the question has been decided.
important factor in educational reform in New York City, ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the
exercising through its technical training school and kinder- Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the
garten (established in January 1878) a wide influence. Dr Adler ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the sover-
also took a prominent part in philanthropic and social reform eign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the goods of a
movements, such as the establishment of a system of district person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad-
nursing, the erection of model tenement houses, and tenement ministrators is derived from the civil law. Their establishment
house reform. He published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral in England is owing to a statute made in the 3ist year of Edward
Instruction of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1903), Marriage I- ( r 33)- Till then no office of this kind was known besides
and Divorce (1905), and The Religion of Duty (1905). that of executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the
ADHETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c. (See also EXECUTORS,
Thessaly. By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave and, for intestate estates, INTESTACY.) ^
either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of ADMINISTRATOR, in Scots law, is a person legally empowered
affection for his mortal master he won the hand of Alcestis, to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for
the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of lolcus. himself, as a father for a pupil child.

When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a
lead to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates) fleet, or subdivision of a fleet. The origin of the word is un-
to prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his doubtedly Arabic. In the 1 2th century the Mediterranean states
place. His parents refused, but Alcestis consented. She is which had close relations with the Moslem powers on the shores
said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles, or in the islands of that sea, found the title amir or emir
who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later in combination with other words used to describe men in au-

story represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill. thority; the amir-al-mumenin prince of the faithful or amir-
Homer, Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9; Euripides, Alcestis;
al-bahr commander of the sea. They took the substantive
" " " " " "
Plutarch, Amatorius, Der Mythus von Admetos und amir and the article al to form one word, amiral or
17; Dissel,
Brandenburg, 1882. " made mirama-
Alkestis, progr. "ammiral" or almirante." The Spaniards
"
ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the perform- molin, out of amiral-mumenin, in the same way. Amiral,"
ance or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for the name of an eastern ruler, became familiar to the northern
the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person nations during the crusades. Layamon, writing in the early
 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
" command
of the ammiral of Babilon," of the sea, the fleet is the means by which the empire
years of the I3th century, speaks
and the word was for long employed in this sense. As a naval is guarded and has become a true imperial bond. It is natural
title it was taken by the French from the Genoese during
first for British admiralty administration to be taken here as the

the crusade of 1 By the end of the I3th century it had come

249. type of an efficient system.
to be used in England as the name of the officer who commanded British naval administration is conducted by the Board of
the Cinque Port ships. The English form " admiral " arose from Admiralty, and the function of that board is the maintenance
popular confusion
with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy
"
naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle of the government, and the supplying of it with trained
B ara of
ages. In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of officers and men; its distribution throughout the Admiralty.
laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for the world; and its preservation in readiness and efficiency
" "
Spanish form almirante by its supposed derivation from in all material and personal respects. The character of the
" "
the Latin admirari, since the admiral is to be admired for Admiralty Board is peculiar to the British constitution, and it
the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and because he is the possesses certain features which distinguish it from other depart-
chief of those who
see the wonders of the Lord in the deep ments of the state. The business it conducts is very great and
mirabilia ejus Domini) in profundo. Both in Spanish and in
(sc. complex, and the machinery by which its work is done has grown
Elizabethan English the word has been applied to the flagship with the expansion of that business. The whole system of naval
of an officer commanding a fleet or part of one. The Spanish administration has been developed historically, and is not the
almiranta is the ship of the second in command, and the capilana product of the organizing skill of one or a few individuals, but
of the first. In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the an organic growth possessing marked and special characteristics.
narratives of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so The Admiralty Board derives its character from the fact that it
"
used by Milton in Paradise Lost the mast of some tall represents the lord high admiral, and that its powers and opera-
ammiral." tion depend much more upon usage than upon those instruments
As the title of an office it was borne by the great military, which actually give it authority, and which, it may be remarked,
judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand are not in harmony among themselves. The executive operations
amiral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirante are conducted by a series of civil departments which have under-
mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally gone many changes before reaching their present constitution
absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided and relation to the Board. The salient characteristic of the
among judicial and administrative officials (see NAVY, History; admiralty is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION). works. Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of depart-
The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour by the ments. Subject to the necessary and constitutional supremacy
descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in Spain. It is of the cabinet minister at their head, they are jointly and co-
"
a purely honorific distinction representing the admiralship of equally commissioners for executing the office of high admiral
the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the discoverer by the of the United Kingdom, and of the territories thereunto belong-
Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. ing, and of high admiral of the colonies and other dominions."
In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to the The members of the Board are in direct and constant communi-
general officers in the army. Where, as in Russia, the grand cation with the first lord and with one another, as also with the
admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank is that of civil departments which work under their control. It was en-
lieutenant admiral general. In Great Britain there is the rank joined by James I. that the principal officers and commissioners
of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to field-marshal. It is, of the navy should be in constant communication among them-
however, little more than an honorary distinction. The three selves, consultingand advising " by common council and argu-
active ranks are those of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral, ment of most voices," and should live as near together as could
corresponding to general, lieutenant-general and major-general conveniently be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice
in the army. They are found in all navies under very slightly a week. This system of intercommunication still exists in a
varied forms. The only difference which is not one of mere manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be
spelling is in the equivalent for rear-admiral, which is centre remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, that a
amiral in French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a
" "
involves some slight variation of the word centre (first used secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there. Such an
at the time of the French Revolution). The vice- and rear- emergency board was actually constituted some years ago on
admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, without the board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant with
active functions, conferred in compliment on senior naval officers. an event which had just occurred in the fleet. At the same time
" "
Admiral is also the name given to the chief of it must be remarked that, in practice, the first lord being person-
fishery fleets.
On the banks of Newfoundland it was given to officials who had ally responsible under the orders in council, the operations of
powers conferred by the state. In the case of an ordinary fishing- the Board are dependent upon his direction.
fleet in European waters, it is of private origin, and is of merely The present system of administering the navy dates from
customary use. the time of Henry VIII. The naval business of the country had
AUTHORITIES. Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy; so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the
History,
La Ronciere, Histoire de la marine fran$ aise ; Yonge, Geschiedenis Admiralty and Navy Board reorganized or established;
van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; C. Fernandez Duro, Historia de
la' Armada de Castilea.
and it is worthy of remark that there existed at the time an
(D. H.)
ordnance branch, the navy not yet being dependent in that
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION, i. The Administrative matter upon the War Department. 1 The Navy Board adminis-
System. That the navy (q.v.)the only real defence of the
is
tered the civil departments under the admiralty, the directive
British islands has been recognized by English people ever since
and executive duties of the lord high admiral remaining with
the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his successors
the admiralty office. A little later the civil administration was
the admirable lesson that " he who would be secure on land must
vested in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord
be supreme at sea." The truth of the lesson thus learnt is sanc-
high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil
tioned by all the experience of English history, and parliament
The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the navy,
1
has repeatedly enforced the fact. The navy is the only force that but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment of the navy
can sa f e S uar d the British islands from hostile descents; the only navy of any nation that has not full authority over its
British
Empire. it is the only force that can protect their vast sea-borne own ordnance. In 1653, according to Oppenheim, it was, owing to
commerce and food supplies; by giving safety to the its inefficiency, placed under the admiralty. In 1632 it appears to
"
home country it sets British troops free for operations abroad, have been independent, but still retained that evil pre-eminence
in sloth and incapacity it had already earned and has never since
and makes their passage secure; and thus, as also
by giving lost."
196 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
"
while Sir James Graham said that
"
administration being conducted under the navy and victualling opinion ; the Board of
boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself. This Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might be,
was a system which continued during the time of all the great unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise constantly
wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James Graham, supreme and controlling authority." It is not, therefore, sur-

by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided control. prising to find that there has been undoubtedly direct govern-
Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, it sufficed ment without a Board. Thus, in the operations conducted
to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest achievements, against the French channel ports in 1803-1 804, Lord Melville, then
and through all the wars which were waged with the Spaniards, first lord, took steps of great importance without the knowledge
the Dutch and the French. The original authority for the of his colleagues, though he afterwards bowed to their views,
present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found in a which did not coincide with his own. Again, when Lord Gambier
declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1690), in which it is enacted was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he was instructed to obey all
"
that all and singular authorities, jurisdictions and powers orders from the king, through the principal secretary of state for
which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been lawfully war, and in this way received orders to attack Copenhagen,
" in which were unknown to all but the first lord. In a similar way
vested the lord high admiral of England had always apper-
tained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners for the secretary of the admiralty was despatched to Paris in 1815
"
executing the office for the time being to all intents and pur- with instructions to issue orders as if from the Board of Admiralty
poses as if the said commissioners were lord high admiral of when directed to do so by the foreign secretary who accompanied
England." The admiralty commission was dissolved in 1701, him, and these orders resulted in Napoleon's capture. These
and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of Denmark, instances were cited, except the first of them, by Sir James
lord high admiral in 1709. From that time forward, save for a Graham before the select committee of the House of Commons
short period in 1827-1828, when the duke of Clarence was lord in 1 86 1, in order to illustrate the elastic powers under the patent

high admiral, the office has remained in commission. which enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters
A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation that concerned the public safety. It is not surprising that this
of the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in peculiar feature of admiralty administration should have at-
1832 (see NAVY, History), but the general principle remains the tracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds to regard
"
same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil the Board as a fiction not worth keeping up."
departments is described below. The Board consists of the Between 1860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased to
first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in theory have the effective character they had once possessed. During
are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet sometimes the administration of Mr Childers, 1 first lord from 1868 to 1871
daily, but at all times frequently; and the system developed in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system was introduced by

provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for the co-ordi- which the free intercommunication of the members of the Board
nated exertion of effort. The system has worked well in practice, was hampered, and its sittings were quite discontinued. The
" "
and has certainly won the approval and the admiration of many case of the Captain led, however, to a return to the older
The " " was a low freeboard masted turret
statesmen. Lord George Hamilton said, before the Royal practice. Captain
"
Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, that It has this ship, designedby Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, R.N. Competent
advantage, that you have all departments represented round a she would be unsafe, and said so before she
critics believed that

table, and that if it is necessary to take quick action, you can was built; but the admiralty of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866
do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under gave their consent to her construction. She was commissioned
another system to do "; and the report of the Royal Commis- early in 1870, and capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of
"
sion of 1889 remarked that The constitution of the Board of September of that year. Mr Childers, who was nominally re-
Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be placed under sponsible for allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame
present regulations on a satisfactory footing." right and left, largely upon men who had not approved of the
The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have ship at all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsi-
been described are accompanied by a very peculiar and note- bility for allowing her to be built. The disaster was justly held
worthy feature, which is not without relation to the to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the advan-
Powers
untrammelled and undefined operations of the ad- tage of constant communication with his professional advisers.
miralty. This feature arises from the discrepancy between the When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in March 1871,
admiralty patent and the orders in council, for the admiralty his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), reverted to the
is not administered according to the terms of the patent which original system. It cannot be said, however, that the question
invests it with authority, and its operations raise a singular point of ultimate responsibility is well defined. The duke of Somerset,
in constitutional law. Sir James Graham and Sir Charles Wood, afterwards Lord
The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord and Halifax, held the view that the first lord was singly and person-
the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure. Under the patent ally responsible for the sufficiency of the fleet. Sir Arthur
"
the full power and authority are conferred upon any two or Hood expressed before the House of Commons committee in
" 1888 the view that the Board collectively were responsible;
more of the commissioners, though, in the patent of Queen
"
Anne, the grant was to any three or more of you." It was whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins assigned the responsibility to the
under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords received the first lord alone with certain qualifications, which is a just and

necessary authority to legalize any action of the Board; but reasonable view.
already, under an act of 1822, two lords had been empowered 2. Admiralty Organization. Under the organization which
to sign so long as the Board consisted of six members. We now exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord,
therefore find that the legal authority of the Board under the the first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and
patent is vested in the Board; but in the order in council of the controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord, who are
1 4th January 1869 the sole responsibility of the first lord was
of commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, and
down, and in the order in council of the igth of
officially laid with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and
March 1872 the first lord was made " responsible to your Majesty the permanent secretary. As has been explained, the first lord
and to parliament for all the business of the admiralty. " As a is responsible under the orders in council to the crown and to

matter of fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his parliament for all admiralty business. In the hands of the
colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient Admiral Sir Cooper Key, when director of naval ordnance
1

times. Before a select committee of the House of Commons in during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer that no
first lord of the admiralty knew so little of the working of the ad-
1 86 1the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the first
miralty as Mr Childers, because, owing to the discontinuance of
had always " acted under that impres-
lord responsible, that he board meetings, he lost the great advantage of hearing the dis-
"
sion," and that he believed all former first lords were of this cussion. (R. v. H.)
 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 197
other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully denned, is the mobilization of the personnel, including the coastguard
and they direct the civil departments which are the machinery and the royal naval reserve. Necessarily, the first and second
of naval administration. The first naval lord, the second naval naval lords work together, and upon occasion can replace each
lord and the junior naval lord are responsible to the first lord other. 1
in relation to so much of the business concerning the personnel Most important are the duties that fall to the additional naval
of the navy and the movements and condition of the fleet as is lord and controller. He has charge of everything that concerns
confided to them, and the additional naval lord or controller is the material of the fleet, and his operations are the complement
responsible in the same way for the material of the navy; while of the work of the first naval lord. A great number of civil
the parliamentary secretary has charge of finance and some other departments are directed by the controller, and his survey and
business, and the civil lord of all shore works i.e. docks, build- supervision extend to the dockyards and building establishments
ings, &c. and the permanent secretary of special duties. The of the fleet. He submits plans to the Board for new ships, and is
firstlord of the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom responsible for carrying into effect its decisions in regard to all
the navy receives its political direction in accordance with im- matters of construction and equipment. The building operations
perial policy. He is the representative of the navy in parliament, both in the dockyards and in private yards are therefore under
which looks to him for everything concerned with naval affairs. his supervision. In regard to all these matters the director of
The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their advice naval construction and the engineer-in-chief are the heads of
is not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or resigna- the civil departments that carry on the work. Again, the con-
tion. It cannot be denied that the responsibility of the members regard to armament both gunnery and
troller is responsible in
of the Board, if their advice should be disregarded, must cease, torpedo and it is the work of his department to see to all
and it is sufficiently obvious that the remedy of resignation will gunnery and torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms
not always commend itself to those whose position and advance- and electric apparatus. The officer in immediate charge of
ment depend upon the favour -of the government. Something this branch of the controller's work, under his direction, is the
will be said a little later concerning the working of the system director of naval ordnance. In regard to work at the dockyards
and the relation of the first lord to the Board in regard to the (q.v.) the controller is aided by the director of dockyards. He
navy estimates. In addition to general direction and supervision, supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done
the first lord has special charge of promotions and removals from in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and its
the service, and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as appropriation to particular work in accordance wrth the pro-
well as the appointments of flag officers, captains and other gramme. Other officers who conduct great operations under
officers of the higher ranks. With him rests also the nomination the authority and responsibility of the controller are the director
for the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships. of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of coal and

Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most stores at home and abroad, and examines the store accounts of
important officer of the Board of Admiralty. It seems to be ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who has
unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure and seeing that
"
the senior naval lord as his first naval adviser." Theoretically, outlay is charged as directed. In regard to the navy estimates,
the first naval lord is responsible for the personnel of the fleet; the controller, through his subordinates, is responsible for the
but in practice he is necessarily concerned with the material preparation and administration of the votes for shipbuilding and
also as soon as it is put into commission, and with the actual naval armaments, except in regard to some sub-headings of the
commissioning of it. It is correct to say that he is chiefly con- former, and thus in recent years for the expenditure of some-
cerned with the employment of the fleet, though his advice has thing like 15,000,000 or over.
weight in regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important
sought in relation to the shipbuilding programme. Broadly duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and
speaking, the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, the
fighting efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other duties
and upon the controller the naval business of the country largely that conduce to the practical efficiency of the navy. He also
falls. He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent appoints chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers (except in
of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the special cases) and officers of the accountant branch. A vast
director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo business in regard to the internal economy of ships greatly occu-
training establishments are concerned, and the naval intelligence pies the junior lord. He has charge, for example, of uniforms,
department, and he has charge of all matters relating to dis- prize-money, bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to
cipline. The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard to personnel seamen and marines and the widows of naval and marine
and material, also falls to him, and among a mass of other busi- officers. The work of the junior naval lord places under his
ness in his department are necessary preparations for the pro- direction the director of transports, the director-general of the
tection of trade and the fisheries. It will thus be seen that the medical department, the director of victualling, and, in regard
first naval lord is the chief officer of the Board of Admiralty, to particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant-
and that the operations of the other members of the Board all general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence Depart-
have relation to his work, is no other than preparation
which ment, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned.
for war. It that it appears most necessary
may here be remarked The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, the
to change the naval lords frequently, so that there may always be Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and
in the Board some one who possesses recent touch with the works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of
service afloat. building stores and land. He is also responsible for the civil
The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to certain
the naval lord, with whose operations his duties are very
first officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich Hospital,
closely related, though, like every other member of the Board, compassionate allowances, charitable funds, and business of like
he is subordinate only to the first lord. The duties of the second character. The
accountant-general, in regard to these matters,
naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel of the fleet, is directed by him, and the
director of Greenwich Hospital is
the manning of the navy and mobilization. In his hands rests under his authority.
the direction of naval education, training and the affairs of the The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for
royal marine forces. The training establishments and colleges the finance of the department, the navy estimates and matters
are in his hands. He appoints navigating officers and lieutenants of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard to all matters
to ships (unless they be to command), sub-lieutenants, midship- involving reference to the treasury. His position in regard to
men and cadets, engineer officers, gunners and boatswains, 1
The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by
and supervises the management of the reserve. In his province throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work.
198 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
estimates and expenditure is very important, and the accountant- suggest a practical limitation of responsibility, so far as the
general is his officer, while he has financial control over the several lords of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be
director of contracts. The financial secretary also examines presumed to be their duty individually or collectively to place
proposals for new expenditure. their views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton
A
most important official of the Board is the permanent told the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should
" "
secretary, whose office has been described as the nerve-centre represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable
of the admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize that all
for the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication financial considerations should be put on one side. The commis-
of departments and for the correspondence of the Board. The sioners reported that this was the only common-sense view of the
tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the perma- matter, and that it was difficult to see on what other footing
nent secretary, and it is most important that he should be the control of navy expenditure, consistently with responsibility
chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in as to parliament, could be placed.
many of them as possible, in order that he may possess a thorough Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuild-
knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty system. ing programme the carrying forward of the work in hand and
In addition to the secretarial duties of the permanent secretary's the new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary
department, the permanent secretary has charge of the military, that proper provision should be made for the employment and
naval and legal branches, each under a principal clerk, the civil distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase of
branch and the record office. The various branches deal with necessary materials. Through the director of naval construction
matters concerning the commissioning of ships and the distribu- and the director of dockyards, the controller is kept informed as
tion of the fleet, and the manning and discipline of the navy, to the progress of work and the amount of labour required, as
with other associated matters, being the channels for the opera- also in regard to the building facilities of the yards. These
tions of the naval lords. It is a highly important function of matters, in a general way, must form a subject of discussion
the department of the permanent secretary to preserve the between the first naval lord and the controller, who will report
inter-related working of the various departments, and to keep on the subject to the first lord. The accountant-general, as the
unbroken the thread of administration when a new Board is financial officer of the Board, will be called upon to place the
constituted. proposed estimates upon a financial basis, and when the views
3. Business and Responsibility. The manner in which the of the cabinet are known as to the amount of money available, the
Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its charge several departments charged with the duty of preparing the
has been indicated. It would be impossible here to describe various votes will proceed with that work. The financial basis
itin detail, though something concerning the civil departments, alluded to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous
which are the machinery of naval administration, will be found year, modified by the new conditions that arise. There has been
below. It will, however, indicate the character of admiralty in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding pro-
administration if we explain to some extent the conditions grammes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence Act of
which surround the preparation of the estimates and the ship- 1889, which looked ahead and was not content with hand-to-
building programme, the more so because this matter has been mouth provision, a better state of things has grown up, and,
the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the admiralty. with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy characterized by
It has already been pointed out that the naval lords, if they something of continuity has been developed. Certainly the
dissent from the estimates that are presented, have no remedy largest factor in the better state of things has been the growth
but that of protest or resignation. Into the controversies that of a strong body of public opinion as to the supreme value of the
have arisen as to the responsibility of the several lords it is navy for national and imperial welfare.
unnecessary to enter here. The Admiralty Board possesses, in Another important and related matter that comes before the
fact, the character of a council, and its members can only be Board of Admiralty is the character and design of ships. The
held responsible for their advice. It has even been contended naval members of the Board indicate the classes and qualities
that, in the circumstances, it should not be incumbent upon desired, and it is the practice that the sketch-design, presented
them to sign the navy estimates, and there have been instances in accordance with the instructions, is fully discussed by the first
in which the estimates have been presented to parliament naval lord and the controller, and afterwards by the Board. The
without the signature of certain naval lords. It is in any case design then takes further shape, and when it has received the final
obvious, as has been explained above, that the ultimate responsi- sanction of the Board it cannot be altered without the sanction
bility must always rest with the first lord and the cabinet, by of the same authority. A similar procedure is found in the other
whom the policy of the country is shaped and directed. In the business of the Admiralty Board, such as shore-works, docks and
report of the Hartington Commission in 1890 (the chairman of the preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare the
which became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the last being a very important matter that falls into the operations
civil and professional administration of the Naval and Military of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been described,
Departments, and the relation of these departments to each though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly in no large sense,
"
other and to the treasury, the following recommendation as the brain of the navy." That department is under the
occurs: "On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility direction of the first naval lord.
of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval re- Theshipbuilding programme may be described as the corner-
quirements of the empire, and the existence of a council should stone of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it
be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility." depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes relat-
Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the ing to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But if the
strength of the navy. They are, the foreign policy of the cabinet, Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord for the
and, on the ground of practical expediency, the amount of money preparation of the estimates, it is also charged with the business
available. "The estimates and strength of the navy," said of supervising expenditure. In this matter the financial secretary
Rear-Admiral Hotham before the select committee on the navy plays a' large part, and is directed to assist the spending depart-
"
estimates, 1888, are matters for the cabinet to determine." ment of the admiralty in their duty of watching the progress of
" "
Expense," said Sir Anthony Hoskins, governs everything." their liabilities and disbursements. Some notes on admiralty
The needs of the empire and financial considerations, as it is finance will be found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes
scarcely necessary to remark, may prove to be antithetical set the larger machinery of the admiralty in motion. The execu-
conditions governing the same problem, and in practice it follows tive departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery
that the Admiralty Board directs its operations in accordance of ships and the special requirements of the director of works,
with the views of the government, but limited by the public do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the
funds which are known to be available. Such considerations director of navy contracts. Most of the important executive and
 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 199
spending branches are in the department of the controller, and has, however, no concern with stores that belong to the Depart-
it will be well, while we are dealing with the material side of the ment of Works. The business of the director of stores is also to
navy, to describe briefly their character and duties. The civil receive and issue the stores for ships of all classes in commission
branches of the navy tributary to the controller are those of the and reserve, and he deals with a vast array of objects and
director of naval construction, the engineer-in-chief, the directors materials necessary for the fleet, and with coals and coaling.
of naval ordnance, of dockyards and of stores, and the inspector He frames the estimates for his department, but his purchases
of dockyard expense accounts. The first duty of the controller are made through the director of navy contracts. In practice
is,as has been explained, in relation to the design and construc- the main business of the Stores Department is to see to the pro-
tion of ships and their machinery, and the executive officials who vision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply of these
have charge of that work are the director of naval construction at all the establishments, and for this purpose its officials direct
and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely inter- the movements of storeships, and arrange for the despatch of
related. A vast administrative stride has been made in this colliers, the director being charged to be " careful to provide
particular branch of the admiralty. The work of design and con- for His Majesty's ships on foreign stations, and for the necessary
struction now go forward together, and the admiralty designers supplies to foreign yards." Another important business of the
are in close touch with the work in hand at the dockyards. This director of stores is the examination of the store accounts of
has been largely brought about by the institution, in 1883, of the ships as well as some other accounts. Although the director of
royal corps of naval constructors, whose members interchange stores is really in the department of the controller, he is super-
their duties between the designing of ships at the admiralty vised in regard to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord.
and practical work at the dockyards. It is through the director The inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded
of naval construction that many of the spending departments to. He
is the officer charged with keeping a record of expendi-

are set in motion, since he is responsible both for the design of ture at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts.
'

ships and for their construction. It deserves to be noticed, how- It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the
ever, that a certain obscurity exists in regard to the relative money. Within the controller's department, as has been ex-
duties of the director of naval construction and the director of plained, are centred the more important spending
dockyards touching constructive works in the yards. The former branches of the admiralty. While the work of design- tun."'
officer has also charge of all the work given out to contract, ing ships and preparing plans is in progress, the director
though it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that of stores, the director of dockyards and other officials of that
the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled. In all this department concerned are making preparation for the work.
work the director of naval construction collaborates with the The necessary stores, comprising almost every imaginable class
engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a sub- of materials, are brought together, and the director of stores is
ordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely specially charged to obtain accurate information in regard to re-
resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships. quirements. He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work
The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the Con- being undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is con-
troller's Department whose operations are very closely related cerned with the whole business of supply, except in regard to
to the duties of the director 6f naval construction, and the rela- hulls and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special
tion is both intimate and sustained, for in the Ordnance Depart- requirements of the director of works. At the same time, the
ment everything that relates to guns, gun-mountings, magazines, civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible for the

torpedo apparatus, electrical fittings for guns, and other elec- administration of the votes they compile, it is their duty to watch
trical fittings is centred. A singular feature of this branch of the outlay of money, and to see that it is well expended, the ac-
administration that the navy long since lost direct control of
is countant-general being directed to assist them in this work. The
ordnance matters, through the duties connected with naval system is closely jointed and well administered, but it possesses
gunnery, formerly in the hands of the master-general of the a very centralized character, which interferes to some extent
ordnance, and those of the Board of Ordnance a department with flexible working, and with the progress of necessary repairs,
common to the sea and land services being vested in 1835 in especially in foreign yards. In so far as ships given out to con-
the secretary of state for war. A more satisfactory state of things tract are concerned (and the same is the case in regard to pro-
has grown up through the appointment of the director of naval pelling machinery built by contract), the director of navy con-
ordnance, taking the place of the naval officer who formerly tracts plays no part, the professional business being conducted
advised the director of artillery at the War Office. Expenditure through the controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the
on ordnance has also been transferred from the army to the navy director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief. The
estimates, and a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been work conducted in private establishments is closely watched by
created. It cannot be said that the condition is yet satisfactory, the admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis
nor can be until the navy has control of and responsibility for
it mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is practi-
its ownordnance. The assistant-director of torpedoes is an cally the same as that which prevails in the dockyards.
officer instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his 4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General's Department.
duty is to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo The subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of
matters. vast importance. The. large sums of money with which the
The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards admiralty deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure,
in 1885, at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense amounting recently to about 30,000,000 annually, implies the
accounts was instituted. It is upon the director of dockyards existence of the great organization which is found in the depart-
(g.v.) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in regard ment of the accountant-general of the navy. Under the authority
to the management of dockyards and naval establishments at of the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is
home and abroad, and to the performance of work in these estab- responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and for
lishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the pur-
refits. In this department the programme for work in the dock- chases, and for all matters which concern the relations of the
yards is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates. admiralty to the treasury and to other departments of the
We now come to the Stores Department, with the director of government; and in all the practical and advisory work the
stores as its chief. This officer, about the year 1869, took over accountant-general is his officer, acting as his assistant, with the
the storekeeping duties previously vested in the storekeeper- director of naval contracts who, under the several lords, is con-
general. The Naval Store Department is charged with the cus- cerned with the business of purchase.
tody and issue of naval, as distinguished from victualling and The organization of the accountant-general's department has
ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards and establish- undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the out-
ments for the building, fitting and repairing of warships. It come of various modifications which have had for their purpose
200 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION
to give to this officer a measure of financial control. There the accountant-general himself vice-president. The duties of
have been various views as to what the duties of the accountant- the department are precisely defined as consisting in the criticism
general should be. After the reorganization of the admiralty of the annual estimates as to their sufficiency before they are

by Sir James Graham in 1832, the accountant-general was re- passed, and in advising the financial and parliamentary secre-
garded as a recording and accounting officer, wholly concerned tary as to their satisfying the ordinary conditions of economy.
with receipt and expenditure. His duties were limited to the The accountant-general also reviews the progress of liabilities
auditing of accounts,payments and expenditure generally. and expenditure, and in relation to dockyard expenditure he
Owing to changes effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary considers the proposed programme of construction as it affects
secretary, assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the labour, material and machinery. He further reviews current
admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments expenditure, or the employment of labour and material, as dis-
into his charge, the accountant-general was invested with the tinguished from cash payments of the yard, as well as proposals
power of criticizing these accounts financially, though he did not for the spending of money on new work or repairs of any kind for
as yet possess any financial control, and the position was little which estimates are currently proposed. The accountant-general's
changed by fresh rules made in 1876. It was not until 1880 that department has three principal divisions: the estimates division,
the powers of the accountant-general were enlarged in this direc- the navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division. In
tion. It was then ordered that he should be consulted before the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the work of
any expenditure which the estimates had not provided for was accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of votes, and with
incurred, and before any money voted was applied to other pur- preparing the navy appropriation account, as well as the esti-
poses than those for which it was provided. The effect of this mates and liabilities branch, in which the navy estimates are
order was not happy, for the accountant-general could not under- largely prepared after having been proposed and worked out in
take these duties without setting up friction with the departments the executive departments of the admiralty. There are also
whose accounts he criticized. It was contemplated by the ships' establishments and salaries branches. The navy pay
admiralty in 1885 to make the accountant-general the assistant division includes the full and half-pay branch and a registry
of the financial secretary, and to raise him to the position of a section. There is also the seamen's pay branch, which audits
permanent officer of finance instead of being an officer of account ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge of all matters concerning
invested with imperfect authority in the direction of control. the wages of seamen. The victualling audit is also in this branch,
A select committee of the House of Commons reported that the and is concerned with payments for savings in lieu of victual-

accountant-general possessed no financial control over the de- ling and some other matters. Further, the navy pay division
partments, and that there was an urgent need for establishing examines ships' ledgers, and is concerned with the service, char-
such a control. At the time the position of that officer did not acters, ages, &c., of men as well as with allotments and pensions.
enable him to exercise any sufficient general supervision over The third division of the accountant-general's department,
expenditure, and there was no permanent high official expressly known as that of invoices and claims, conducts a vast amount
charged with finance. Accordingly, after being submitted to of clerical work through many branches, and is concerned with
a departmental committee, a fresh arrangement was made in the management of naval savings banks and matters touching
November 1885, whereby the accountant-general, under the prize-money and bounties.
authority of the financial secretary, was given a direct share in the The importance of this great department of the admiralty
preparation of the estimates. His written concurrence was re- cannot be overrated. It is, in the first place, of supreme im-
quired before the final approval of the votes, and each vote was portance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a sound
referred to him for his approval or observations, and he was to financial basis; and in practice the Board requires the concur-
exercise a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was rence of the accountant-general to the votes before they are
"
properly accounted for. He became, in fact, the officer to be approved, and thus in greater or less degree this officer is con-
consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of naval cerned in the preparation of every one of the votes. He does not
funds." It was believed that economical administration would concern himself with matters of larger policy outside the domain
result; but much opposition was raised to the principle that was of finance, and it must be confessed that there appears to be
" "
involved of submitting the proposals of responsible departments something anomalous in his review of naval expenditure.
to the inexpert criticism of a financial authority. Mr Main, assist- It is, however, a mark of the flexibility or elasticity of the ad-
ant accountant-general, stated before the Royal Commission on miralty system that in practice the operations of the accountant-
Civil Establishments, 1887, that the effect had been to develop general's department work easily, and that admiralty finance is
a tendency to withhold information or to afford only partial recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient
information, as well as to cause friction when questions were basis. There are important financial officers outside the ac-
raised affecting expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in countant-general's department concerned with assisting the
those cases in which these questions were manifestly of a legiti- controller. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who
mate character. The was discouraging, and in the opinion
result isentirely in the controller's department, enables him to exercise
of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to careful supervision over expenditure and the distribution of
defeat the purpose of the order. It is unnecessary to detail the funds to special purposes. This work, however, though highly
various changes that have been made by the institution of dock- important, is merely one part of the system of financial control.
yard expense accounts in the department of the controller, and Within recent years the bonds have been considerably tightened,
by various other alterations introduced. The treasury instituted and the work is untainted by corruption. It is true that in
an independent audit of store accounts which greatly affected exercising rigid supervision over expenditure the work has
the position of the accountant-general, and the Royal Commission become more centralized than is desirable, and it is a mark of
on Civil Establishments reported that the Board of Admiralty change within recent years that local officers have been in larger
were of opinion that they could dispense with the accountant- measure deprived of independent powers. This, indeed, is a
general's review altogether. The commission was, however, of necessary condition of financial control, or at least a condition
opinion that the accountant-general should be the permanent which it is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary.
assistant and adviser, on all matters involving the outlay of 5. Mobilization of the Fleet. By the mobilization of the fleet
public money, of the financial secretary. is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, in

The operations of the accountant-general are now conducted readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile opera-
in accordance with the order in council of the i8th of November tions. A complete mobilization for purposes of practice in peace
1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly afterwards. time would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which would be
He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the parliamentary and justifiable only by actual war. Thus no country in peace
financial secretary, and works with a finance committee within manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes use of the
the admiralty, of which the financial secretary is president and auxiliary cruisers merchant ships for which a subvention is
 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 201
paid, and which are constructed with a view to use in warfare. tain specific duties, including general supervision of the marine
Experience has shown that when vessels are commissioned they corps, naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental
are liable to numerous small breakdowns of their machinery if limits of the United States. The details of administration are
they are manned by crews who have no familiarity with them. supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are eight.
Many accidents of this kind had occurred in the British navy at They are appointed by the president from the navy list for a
manoeuvres, though it could not be shown that the vessel was period of four years, and have the rank of rear-admiral while
defective, or that the crew was either untrained or negligent. serving in this capacity. They have direct control of the business
These experiments led the admiralty to adopt a new system in and correspondence pertaining to their respective bureaus;
1904, designed to obviate the risk that vessels would be crippled and orders emanating from them have the same force as though
at a critical moment by want of acquaintance on the part of issued by the secretary.
the crew with their machinery. Under this system all vessels The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau,
which are considered to be available for war are divided into two and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulations
classes: first, those in full commission which constitute the prescribed by the it has general direction of the
secretary;
different squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the per-
which form the reserve and are kept in partial commission or sonnel. It also controls the movements of ships, including the
rather partially manned though in commission. These are kept authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target practice.
at the home ports Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth in re- The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical appliances,
serve squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all that relates to
war. Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those articles that come
proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating and naturally under the cognizance of other bureaus. It has charge
torpedo officers. Two-fifths of her full complement of crew are of the naval observatory, where the Ephemeris is prepared annu-
always on board, and they include the most skilled men needed ally, and of the hydrographic office, where charts, sailing direc-
for the proper management of the machinery of all kinds more tions, notices to mariners, &c., are issued. The bureau of ord-
especially that of the torpedoes and guns. These vessels go to nance has charge of the gun factory, proving ground, and torpedo
sea for periodical practice. When therefore the fleet must be station, and all naval magazines; all the details that pertain
mobilized for war it will only be necessary to fill up the number to the manufacture, tests, installation or storage of all offensive
of trained men by the less skilled hands from the naval barracks and defensive apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists,
occupied by the sailors not belonging to any particular ship, or ammunition rooms, &c., though much of the actual installation
from the naval reserve. All ranks of the navy are placed on a is performed by the bureau of construction after consultation

roster by which they successively serve in ships in full commission, with the bureau of ordnance. The bureau of construction and
are quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to repair has charge of the designing, building and repairing of
the ships of the reserve, from which they return to the sea-going hulls of ships, including turrets, spars and many other acces-

ships. It is calculated that there are always men enough in the sories. It builds all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels
barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for emer- and the care of ships in reserve. The chief of this bureau is
gency service without disturbing the regular routine of the peace usually a naval constructor. The bureau of steam engineering
establishment. The British admiralty may claim that though has charge of all that relates to the designing, building and
the machinery at its command in the past was not perfect it repairing of steam machinery, and of all the steam connexions
has commonly been able to send a squadron to sea more rapidly on board ship. The bureau of supplies and accounts procures
than any other power in Europe. Much depends on the arrange- and distributes provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay
ment of the stores as well as the disposition of the men. The department afloat, and acts as the purchasing agent for all
introduction at the end of the i8th century of the businesslike materials used at naval stations, except for the medical depart-
practice of keeping the fittings of each ship together by them- ment and marine corps. It also has charge of the disbursement
selves, did much to facilitate the rapid mobilization of a portion of money and keeping of accounts. The chief of this bureau is
of the British fleet in 1790 which impressed all Europe. The a pay officer. The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of
prompt manning of a special service squadron in 1895 i n conse- all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, and of all

quence of the troubles then arising in connexion with the former that pertains to the care of sick afloat and ashore. The chief of
South African Republic, showed that even before its plans for thisbureau is a medical officer. The bureau of yards and docks
mobilization were completed the admiralty had its resources has charge of construction and maintenance of wet and dry
well in hand. (R .V. H.) docks, buildings, railways, cranes, and generally all permanent
As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain, constructions at naval stations. The chief of this bureau is often
their government is in the hands of ministers or departments a civil engineer.
variously constituted. The Russian admiralty is a Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office of
countries, highly organized bureau, divided into departments, and the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the president
under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually a from the navy list for a term of four years, with the rank of
grand duke of the Imperial House. The German admiralty was, captain while so serving. He is legal adviser to the department,
till 1872, a branch of the War Office, though governed by a vice- and reviews the records of all courts and statutory boards.
admiral under a naval prince of the reigning family. In 1872 it Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's office is the
was severed from the War Office, though remaining an appanage office of naval intelligence, which collates information on naval

thereof, and a general of the army was placed at its head. The matters obtainable at home and abroad. The staff is composed
French minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls of naval officers on shore duty, the senior in charge being usually
the navy of France on a highly centralized system of adminis- a captain, and known as chief intelligence officer. Several
tration; but the departments are well organized, and work well. boards are employed under the various bureaus, or directly as
The Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the advisers to the secretary. Some are permanent in character,
French, but with a large admixture of the English representative while others are composed of officers employed on other duty,
element. The American system is worth describing in more detail. and are convoked periodically or when required. The naval
The president of the United States is commander-in-chief of policy board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once
the navy a constitutional prerogative which he seldom asserts. a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in
united The Navy Department is administered by a civilian armies. The board of construction consists of the chiefs of
states secretary of the navy a cabinet officer appointed by bureaus of ordnance, equipment, construction and repair,
iavyDe- tjj e president who exercises general supervision. steam engineering, and the chief intelligence officer. Its duty
Next in authority is the assistant-secretary, also a is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the con-
civilian nominee, who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, cer- struction policy in detail. The general construction policy is
202 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION *

suggested by the naval policy board. The board of inspection Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, sailmakers,
and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who in- warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the
spect vessels soon after commission and on return from a cruise, secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy
and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency of its per- who have shown marked ability for the positions. They must
sonnel; it also conducts the official trials of new vessels. The be between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an
boards for the examination of officers for promotion are com- examination. After serving satisfactorily for one year under an
posed of officers of the corps to which the candidate belongs acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the
and of medical officers. Every officer is examined professionally, permanency of their office. Ten years after appointment,
morally and physically at each promotion. The Navy Depart- boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible for
ment is located at Washington, D.C., and occupies a building examination for a commission as chief-boatswain, &c., and as
together with the State and War Departments (the latter being such they rank with, but next after, ensigns. Mates are rated
charged solely with army affairs). by the secretary from seamen or ordinary seamen. They have
The personnel (see also under NAVY) is limited in number by no relative rank, but take precedence of all petty officers. Their
law. Theengineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then en- duties approximate to those of boatswains, though they seldom
gineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective relative serve on large cruising vessels. Clerks to pay officers are ap-
grades. Line officers are the military and executive branch, pointed by the secretary on the nominations of the pay officers.
and are required besides to perform engineer duties. They are They have no rank and are not promoted or retired. Their
graduates of the Naval Academy. Vacancies occurring in the appointments are revoked when their services are no longer
construction corps are filled from the graduates of the Naval needed.
Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, who are Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good char-
given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, on being acter, who can read and write and pass the physical examination,
graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed assistant may enlist for the term of their minority. They enlist as third-
naval constructors. All other staff officers are appointed class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a
directly from civil life by the president, from candidates passing training station, and thence go to sea in apprentice training
prescribed examinations. Each representative and delegate in vessels. When proficient they are transferred to regular cruising
Congress has authority to nominate a candidate for naval cadet vessels as second class, and when further qualified are rated first
whenever his congressional district has no representative in class. All other enlistments are for four years. Recruits must
the Naval Academy. The candidate must be a resident of the speak English. Landsmen are usually sent to sea on special
district which the congressman represents, between fifteen and training-ships until proficient, and are then sent into general
twenty years old, and must pass prescribed mental and physical service. Raw may enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers
recruits
examinations. The president is allowed ten representatives or mess attendants. Ordinary seamen must have served two
"
at the Academy at all times, appointed at large," and one years, and seamen four years before the mast, prior to first
appointed from the District of Columbia. enlistment as such; and before enlistment in any other rating
The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, each allowed on first enlistment, applicants must prove their ability
comprising eight months' study, three months' practice cruise, to hold such rating. Landsmen, coal-passers, &c., as soon as
and one month's furlough. At the expiration of four years, they become proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if
cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' further instruc- American citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking
tion, and are then commissioned ensigns. After three years' with army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments.
further sea service, ensigns are promoted to lieutenants (junior In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is estab-
grade). After this, promotion is dependent upon seniority lished, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an acting
alone, the senior officer in any grade being promoted to the lowest appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. Permanent
number in the next higher grade when a vacancy occurs in the appointments are not revokable except by sentence of court-
higher grade, and not before. All officers are retired on three- martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which he held a
fourths sea pay at the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of permanent appointment in his previous enlistment. All persons
medical officers certifies that an officer is not physically qualified re-enlisting within four months after expiration of previous
to perform all duties of his grade. A few officers are allowed to enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four months' pay,
retire voluntarily in certain circumstances, tostimulate promotion. and in addition receive a " continuous service certificate,"
Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by the secretary which entitles them to higher pay and to other special considera-
to such duty as he may be able to perform: this is a legal pro- tions. The same is true for each re-enlistment. When an en-
vision to provide for emergencies. Promotion in the staff corps listed man completes thirty years' service and is over fifty years
is dependent upott seniority, though relative rank in the lower of age he may retire on three-fourths pay.
grades in some corps somewhat depends upon promotion of line The Marine corps (see MARINES) is a wholly separate military
officers of the same length of service, and accounts for the exist- body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department.
ence of staff officers in the same grade having different ranks. United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at private yards
All sea-going officers, after commission, are required to spend under contracts awarded after competition. The government
three years at sea, and are then usually employed on shore-duty is not committed to any fixed policy or building programme.
for a time, according to the needs of the service short terms of Each year the secretary recommends certain new construction.
shore-duty thereafter alternating with three-year cruises. This The final action rests with Congress, which must appropriate
rule is adhered to as strictly as circumstances will permit.
money for the new ships before the construction can be com-
Shore-duty includes executive or distinctly professional duties menced. Repairing and reconstruction are usually done at
in the Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards government navy yards.
and stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c., Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (i)
under construction by private firms; duty on numerous tempo- the North Atlantic, i.e. the Atlantic coast of the United States,
rary or permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy; Central America, and South America as far as the Amazon, also
recruiting duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; in- the West Indies; (2) the South Atlantic, i.e. the remainder of the
spection duty in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical Atlantic coast of South America and both coasts of South Africa;
schools; as attach6s with United States legations; and many (3) the European, comprising the coast of Europe, including
others. Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and pro- the inland seas, and the North Atlantic coast of Africa; (4) the
mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty
fessors of Asiatic station, comprising the coast of Asia, including the
connected with their professions, the Naval Observatory, islands north of the equator, also the east coast of North Africa;
Nautical Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of (5) the Pacific station, comprising the Pacific coast of North and
the last. South America, and Australia and the adjacent islands lying
 ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF 203
south of the equator. Each station is commanded by a flag 1536 states the objection to this application of the civil law to
"
officer, and the number of ships under the command varies the trial of criminal cases with much force: After the course
according to circumstances. Ships in commission on special of the civil laws, the nature whereof is that before any judgment
service, such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c., are of death can be given against the offenders, either they must
not attached to stations. The shore stations of the navy are plainly confess their offences (which they will never do without
enumerated in the article on DOCKYARDS. (W. T. S.) torture or pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly
ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF. The High Court of Ad- proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences com-
"
miralty of England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant mitted, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times.
of the admiral. It is supposed in the Black Book of the Admiralty The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as
An "
to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would follows: act of 1389 (13 Ric. II. c. 5) provided that the
appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that it was admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from
established as a civil court by Edward III. in the year 1360; the henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only
power of the admiral to determine matters of discipline in the of a thing done upon the sea, as it hath been used in
fleet, of piracy and prize, being somewhat
and possibly questions the time of the noble prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord
the king that now is.
"
earlier. Even then
the court as such took no formal shape; but Theactof 1391 (15 Ric. II. c. 3) provided
"
the various admirals began to receive in their patents express that of all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other
grants of jurisdiction with powers to appoint lieutenants or de- things rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as
puties. At first there were separate admirals or rear-admirals of by water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court
the north, south and west, each with deputies and courts. A list shall have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction;
of them was collected by Sir H. Spelman. These were merged in but all such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other
or absorbed by one high court early in the isth century. Sir things rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land as by
Thomas Beaufort, afterwards earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be tried, deter-
(appointed admiral of the fleet 1407, and admiral of England, mined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the land, and not
Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, which latter office he held till his before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in any wise. Never-
death in 1426), certainly had a court, with a marshal and other theless, of the death of a man, and of a maihem done in great
officers, and forms of legal process mandates, warrants, citations, ships, being and hovering in the main stream of great rivers, only
compulsories, proxies, Complaints of encroachment of
&c. beneath the [bridges] of the same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in
jurisdiction by the Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts, none other places of the same rivers, the admiral shall have
13 Ric. II. c. 5 (1389), 15 Ric. II. c. 3 (1391) and 2 Hen. IV. c. n cognizance, and also to arrest ships in the great flotes for the
(1400). great voyages of the king and of the realm; saving always to
The original object of the institution of the courts or court seems the king all manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming;
to have been to prevent or punish piracy and other crimes upon and he shall have also jurisdiction upon the said flotes, during
the narrow seas and to deal with questions of prize; the said voyages only; saving always to the lords, cities, and
"
U a but civil jurisdiction soon followed. The jurisdiction boroughs, their liberties and franchises. The act of 1400 (2
in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences Hen. IV. c. u) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction,
at Sea Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments,
or four other substantial persons appointed by the lord chan- providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the court,
cellor, who were to proceed according to the course of the common and those officials of the court who improperly assert juris-
law. By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of diction. It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 1861.
crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty was The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the second,
given to the central criminal court. By an act of 1844 it has been were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879.
also given to the justices of assize; and crimes done within the The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete.
jurisdiction of the admiralty are now tried as crimes committed In the reign of James I. the chronic controversies between the
within the body of a county. See also the Criminal Law Con- courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the limits
solidation Acts of 1861. of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute stage. We find
From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting the the records of it in the second volume of Marsden's Select Pleas
civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till the time of in the Court of Admiralty, and in Lord Coke's writings: Reports,
Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, enabling the part xiii. 51; Institutes, part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage
admiral or his lieutenant to decide on certain complaints of Lord Coke records how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted
freighters against shipmasters for delay in sailing, and one of to have been made in 1575 between the justices of the King's
1562, giving the lord high admiral of England, the lord warden Bench and the judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common
of the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants and judges, co-ordinate law courts successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits
power with other judges to enforce forfeitures under that act in admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens,
a very curious and miscellaneous statute called " An Act for the or creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body of
Maintenance of the Navy. " any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for torts
In an act of 1534, with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from committed within the body of a county, whether on land or
the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided that the water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas. It is
"
appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, and that upon every due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to say that,
such appeal a commission shall be directed under the great seal at any rate as regards contracts made in partibus transmarinis,
to such persons as shall be named by the king's highness, his heirs the same rule appears to have been applied at least as early as
or successors, like as in cases of appeal from the Admiralty "
1544, the judges then holding that for actions transitory abroad
" The " " "
Court. appeal to these persons, called delegates, con- action may lie at common law.
tinued until it was transferred first to the privy council and then All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty judge
to the judicial committee of the privy council by acts of 1832 purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction than the
and 1833. jealousy of the other courts would concede to him.
The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been exer- Judge's
The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert patent.
cised very much under the same procedure as that used by the Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867,
courts of common law. Juries are mentioned, sometimes of the "
styles him Lieut. Off Princ and Commissary Gen and Special
11 1
. . ,

county and sometimes of the county and merchants. But the in our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge
"
connexion with foreign parts led to the gradual introduction of of the same, and gives to him power to take cognizance of " all
a procedure resembling that coming into use on the continent causes, civil and maritime, also all contracts, complaints, offences
and based on the Roman civil law. The Offences at Sea Act or suspected offences, crimes, pleas, debts, exchanges, accounts,
 204 ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF
policies of assurance, loading of ships, and all other matters and Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical courts
contracts which relate to freight due for the use of ships, trans- and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary courts.
portation, money or bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime Advocates took the place of barristers, and proctors
between merchants or between proprietors
vessels for matters in, upon, or
of ships
by the sea, or public streams, or
and other of solicitors. The place of the attorney-general was ^^
taken by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and the court.
/

fresh-water ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever that of the treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's
within the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or procurator or proctor. There were also an admiralty advocate
upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the first and an admiralty proctor. The king's advocate also repre-
bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland and the sented the crown in the ecclesiastical courts, and was its
dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas." Power is also standing adviser in matters of international and foreign law.
given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also "to arrest . . . The king's advocate led the bar of his courts, and before the
according to the civil laws and ancient customs of our high court privy council took precedence of the attorney-general. The
. .all ships, persons, things, goods, wares and merchandise";
.
admiralty advocate or advocate to his majesty in his office of
"
also to enquire by the oaths of honest and lawful men admiralty represented specially the lords of the admiralty. In
. .of all
.
things which
. . .
ought to be enquired after,
. . . the Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate.
and to mulct, arrest, punish, chastise and reform "; also " to In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open to barristers
preserve the public streams of our admiralty as well for the pre- and to attorneys and solicitors.
servation of our royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open,
kingdom . as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers"
. .
;
the crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advo-
"
also to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and cate after the attorney- and solicitor-general. There were two
instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes "; also to take holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. Phillimore
"
cognizance of the wreck of the sea ... and of the death, and Sir Travers Twiss. The office was not filled up after the
drowning and view of dead bodies," and the conservation of the resignation of the latter. The admiralty had, when the courts
statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office of coroner were thrown open, a standing counsel for the ordinary courts
"
[1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and the cognizance of and a solicitor. Questions soon arose as to the respective claims
"
mayhem within the ebb and flow of the tide; all in as ample of the admiralty advocate and the counsel to the admiralty,
manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr David Lewis and their acuteness was increased when the courts were fused
[judge from 155810 1584], Sir Julius Caesar, and the other judges into one High Court of Justice. Upon the resignation of Sir
in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert Phillimore. This form of James Parker Deane the office of admiralty advocate was not
patent differs in but few respects from the earlier Latin patents filled up. In like manner the proctor to the admiralty has
tempore Henry VIII. except that they have a clause non disappeared. The office of king's or queen's proctor has been
obstantibus statutis. kept alive but amalgamated with that of the solicitor for the
As has been said, however, the contention of the common law treasury. That officer uses the title of king's proctor when he
judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for a tem- appears in certain matrimonial causes.
porary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the ad-
Modern
progress insignificance during the lyth century. The great miralty was Alexander Staveley Hill, K.C.,M.P. Since his death
maritime wars of the i8th century gave scope to the the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate and the
exercise of its prize jurisdiction; and its international import- admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the ordinary
ance as a prize court in the latter half of the i8th and the first law officers of the crown with the assistance of a junior counsel
part of the ipth centuries is a matter of common historical to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the attorney-general)
knowledge. There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each year perform the duties of all these offices.
between 1803 and 1811, in some years upwards of 2000. The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister whose
There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, after- function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters connected
wards Lord Stowell, is the most famous. Before his time there with courts-martial. Though section 61 of the Naval judge
were no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his Advocate
the
prize decisions. But from his time onwards there has been a presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays J,
continuous stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find attend, but is represented by his deputy or by an
important cases decided on the instance as well as on the officiating deputy judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the
prize side. admiralty, the commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron
In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840 and who convenes the court-martial, or, if no such appointment
1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the is made, by the president of the court-martial. But though the
court. The manner in which these statutes were administered judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the courts-
by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose tenure martial very responsible duties are imposed upon him. By a
of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign till the minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still in force) all
creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable assistance proceedings of courts-martial on officers and men of the royal
rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity House, the navy, excepting those where the prisoner pleads guilty and no
great increase of shipping, especially of steam shipping, and the evidence is taken, are to be referred to him, with a view to the
number and gravity of cases of collision, salvage and damage consideration of (a) the charge, (b) the evidence on which the
to cargo, restored the activity of the court and made it one of finding is based, and (c) the legality of the sentence, and he writes
the most important tribunals of the country. In 1875, by the a minute on each case for the information of the lords commis-
operation of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, the High sioners of the admiralty with regard to these points. He has no
Court of Admiralty was with the other great courts of England power to modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the
formed into the High Court of Justice. The principal officers admiralty by 53 (i) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except
of the court in subordination to the judge were the registrar (an in the case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by
office which always points to a connexion with canon or civil the crown. All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are
law), and the marshal, who acted as the maritime sheriff, having examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any reason
for his baton of office a silver oar. The assistance of the Trinity to think that there has been any informality or that the prisoner
Masters, which has been already mentioned, was provided for has not understood the effect of his plea, such case is submitted
in the charter of incorporation of the
Trinity House. These to the judge advocate of the fleet for his opinion. The judge
officers and their assistance have been preserved in the High advocate of the fleet receives no fees but is remunerated by a
Court of Justice. salary of 500 per annum.
Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court of The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by
 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 205
the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, but Admiralty in criminal matters. The local vice-admiralty courts
no such officer had been appointed up to 1908. in England had ceased to do much work when they were abol-
In accordance with the provisions of 61 of the Naval Disci- ished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the High Court
pline Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet became, with the other superior courts, a component part of
and his deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for the High Court of Justice by virtue of the Judicature Acts
each court-martial. His duties are described in detail by the 1873 and 1875. And the Irish court has in like manner become
king's regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of a part of the High Court of Justice in Ireland by virtue of the
seeing that the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities Judicature Act passed in 1877.
or defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, seeing As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired
that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is summoned, colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiralty courts
keeping the minutes of the proceedings, advising on matters of were established. The earliest known was that in
law which arise at any time after the warrant for the court- Jamaica, established in the year 1662. Some vice- ^^J/ra
y
martial is drawing up the findings and sentence, and
issued, admiralty courts which were created for prize purposes courts.
forwarding the minutes when completed to the admiralty. The in the last century were suffered to expire after 1815.

officiating judge advocate is usually the secretary of the flag- In the year 1863, when the act regulating the vice-admiralty
officer convening the court-martial or some other officer of the courts was passed, there were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua,
accountancy branch. He is remunerated for his services by a Bahamas, Barbadoes, Bermuda, British Columbia, British
fixed fee for each day the court sits. Guiana, British Honduras, Cape of Good Hope,Ceylon,Dominica,
Ireland. The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being Falkland Islands, Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada,
formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat Hong Kong, Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise
in the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal Quebec), Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New
and a king's or queen's advocate. In peace time and war time Brunswick, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand,
alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction, though in 1793 Nova Scotia (otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queens-
it claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see ADMIRALTY JURIS- land, St Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra
DICTION). No prize commission ever issued to it. By the Irish Leone, South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Van-
Judicature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should be amalga- couver's Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and
mated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the next Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only)
vacancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took place. Aden. By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was
There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland. added. These courts have been regulated from time to time by
Scotland. At the Union, while the national functions of the the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 51, 26 and 27 Viet,
lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was pro- c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already cited, and 30

vided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in Scot- and 31 Viet. c. 45 (Vice- Admiralty Courts Act Amendment Act
"
land should be continued for determination of all maritime 1867) and by the slave trade acts, of which the last and consoli-
;

cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the dating act was that of 1873.
jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court." This court continued till In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that,
1831 ,
when jurisdiction was given to the Court of Session
its civil except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St
and the Courts (see ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION).
Sheriffs' Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be
See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Book of the Admiralty, Rolls series; abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of ad-
R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, published miralty. There is power, however, reserved to the crown to
by the Selden Society; Godolphin, View of the Admiral Juris- erect through the admiralty in any British possession any vice-
diction. (W. G. F. P.)
admiralty court, except in India or any British possession having
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying a representative legislature. No vice-admiralty court so estab-
north of New Guinea, between i and 3 S., and 146 and 148 lished can exercise any jurisdiction except for some purpose
E., within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany. relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave trade, foreign enlist-
The largest, Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest ment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and questions relating to
point is about 3000 ft. above the sea; the others are very small, treaties or conventions on international law. Vice-admiralty
and rise little above sea-level. Most
are of coral formation, but courts exercised all usual admiralty jurisdiction, and in addition
the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct volcanoes. The a certain revenue jurisdiction, and jurisdiction over matters of
islands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, and visited in slave trade and prize and under the Pacific Islanders' Protection
1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems to have been Act. The appeal from vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the
effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until the arrival of the High Court of Admiralty of England, but has been transferred
" "
Challenger in 1875. The natives are of the Papuan type, but to the king in council.
show signs of mixed origin. They are cannibals, and many By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890, already referred
murders of whites have taken place. to, every court of law in a British possession which
ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far is declared by its legislature to be such, or if there
Co ^"ot
as we know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first be no such declaration, which has original unlimited Admiralty.
exercised were the following. In and throughout England the be a court of admiralty.
civil jurisdiction, shall
courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High There used at one time to be vice-admiralty courts for
Court of Admiralty (see ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF) Within .
Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; but by the India High
the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty of the Courts Act 1861, 9, the admiralty jurisdiction is given
Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction. In certain to theHigh Courts of these places.
towns and places there were local courts of vice-admiralty. In Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan
Scotland there existed the Scottish High Court of Admiralty, in have had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and
Ireland the Irish High Court of Admiralty. Of these courts 12 of the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any
coasui m
by courts.
that of the Cinque Ports alone remains untouched. The Scot- court established by H.M. for the exercise of jurisdic-
tish court was abolished, and its civil jurisdiction given to the tion in any place outside H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty
Court of Session and to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of jurisdiction granted to it.
Session Act 1830 not, however, till a decision given by it and By the Commonwealthof Australia Constitution Act 1900
the appeal therefrom to the House of Lords had established a a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of Australia.
remarkable rule of admiralty law in cases of collision (Hay v. le Australians created,and the parliament of the Common-
Neve, 1824, 2 Shaw, Sc. App. Cas. 395). The act states that the wealth may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the
Court of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction with the Court of High Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction.
206 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which the which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be either in
water-bailiff is judge. He is also styled admiral. It is personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest of the ship, and, in
Man said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other mari- cases of salvage and bottomry, the cargo. Whenever, also, the
time matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore. ship can be arrested, any freight due can also be attached, by
Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City arrest of the cargo to the extent only of the freight which it has
of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts to pay. For the purpose of ascertaining whether or not process
in the following matters Salvage, where the value
: in rem would lie, there have been distinctions as nice, and the
of the salved property does not exceed 1000, or the line of admiralty jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in
Courts. claim for reward 300 towage, necessaries and wages,
; the cases of the admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the
"
where the claim does not exceed 150; claims for "Thela," 1894, Prob. 280; the Gas Float Whilton," 1897, App.
damage to cargo, or by collision, up to 300 (and for sums above Cas. 33 7) There have been similar questions raised in the United
.

these prescribed limits by agreement between the parties); States, from De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Ramsay
and claims arising out of breaches of charter parties and other v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 611), down to the quite modern
contracts for carriage of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect cases which will be found quoted in the arguments and judg-
thereof, up to 300. This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects ments in the "Gas Float Whitton."
over which jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exercised by the
Admiralty at the time when the first of these acts was passed, Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant vessels,
except as regards the last branch of it (the "Aline," 1880, 5 Ex. may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the last
remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for a p
l
Div. 227 R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, i Q.B. 272).
;

In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction created flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the "Minerva,"
^
in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has been given hi 1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more effectively provided
Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs and the chairmen against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In time of war,
of certain quarter sessions and in salvage cases, where a county
; however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the Ad-
court in England would have jurisdiction, magistrates, recorders miralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable by
and chairmen of quarter sessions may have jurisdiction as official the High Court of Justice (see Prize below). It was, perhaps,
arbitrators (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, 547). In Scotland, in consequence of its ancient disciplinary jurisdiction that the
admiralty suits in cases no exceeding the value of 25 are Admiralty Court was made the court to enforce certain portions
exclusively tried in the sheriff's court while over that limit the
;
of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870.
sheriff's court and the Court of Session have concurrent juris- Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under
diction. The sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction, the Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certifi-
but only as to crimes which he would be competent to try if cates of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the
committed on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, 21 and 22). Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of
By an act of 1821 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage Justice.
was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports. The admiraltyjurisdiction in criminal matters extends over
The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in tidal
High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court waters, even though such tidal waters be well within
Criminal
of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. In foreign territory (R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. i C.C.R.
Appeals. cases.
cases arising within the Cinque Ports there is an optional 161), but not over crimes committed on board foreign
appeal to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports. The appeal vessels upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, i Denison C.C.
from the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters, 104). Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign
as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence to the ships within territorial waters of the United Kingdom, and
House of Lords. But it is specially provided by the Judicature whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United
Act 1891, as it was by the Prize Act 1864, that the appeal in Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the great
prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council. questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the "Franconia," L.R. 2 Ex.
The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to the Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the majority of the
jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in admiralty judges, rightly, as the writer of this article respectfully thinks.
equity and common law cases, make the distinction between Since, then, however, the legislature has brought these waters
cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other civil within the jurisdiction of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters
"
cases of practical moment in those courts. Arguments full of Jurisdiction Act 1878. Section 2 runs as follows : An offence
learning and research have been addressed to the courts, and committed by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject,
weighty decisions have been given, upon questions which would on the open sea within the territorial waters of British dominions,
never have arisen if the county courts had not a larger money is an offence within the jurisdiction of the admiral, although
area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they have it may have been committed on board or by means of a foreign
*'
diction. m
other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London Court, ship, and the person who committed such offence may be ar-
"
1892, i Q.B. 273; the "Zeta," 1893, App. Cas. 468). rested, tried and punished accordingly." By 7 the juris-
But as regards the high courts, whether in England, Scotland or " "
diction of the admiral is denned as including the jurisdiction
Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish their civil admiralty of the admiralty of England or Ireland, or either of such juris-
jurisdiction from their ordinary civil jurisdiction, except for the dictions as used in any act of parliament and for the purpose of
;

purpose of seeing whether there can or cannot be process in arresting any person charged with an offence declared by this
rem. Not that every admiralty action can of right be brought act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial
in rem, but that no process in rem lies at the suit of a subject waters adjacent to the United Kingdom, or any other part of
unless it be for a matter of admiralty jurisdiction one, for her majesty's dominions, shall be deemed to be within the
instance, that could in England have been tried in the High Court jurisdiction of any judge, magistrate or officer." And " terri-
Now these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with " "
of Admiralty. torial waters of her majesty's dominions are defined as in
process in rem range themselves under four primary and four reference to the sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to
supplementary heads. The four primary are damage, salvage, the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other
bottomry, wages; and the four supplementary are extensions part of her majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international
due to one or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court) law to be within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and
and 1861 (Admiralty Court Act). They are damage to cargo for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within
carried in a ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, mortgage of ship, the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within
and master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water mark,
ship. In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process of shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of
 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 207
her majesty's dominions." As to those portions of the sea and jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts of ad-
tidal waters which, by reason of their partially land-locked miralty for the colonies and plantations in North America.
positions, are deemed to be in the body of a county, there is not It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction

admiralty jurisdiction, but crimes are tried as if they were com- of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers given
mitted on land within the same county. by the general patent of the judge, in which no express mention
Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 1360 of it is made, or whether it required a special commission. Upon
onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject to the this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield in Undo v. Rodney
admiralty jurisdiction. The criminal jurisdiction of the ad- (1782, Dougl. 612), the judgment of Mr Justice Story in De
miralty was first exercised by the High Court of Admiralty; Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas
and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1536, transferred of the Court of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted.
to commissioners appointed under the great seal, among whom But the settled practice now and for a long time past has been
were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their deputies. Ad- for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this pur-
miralty sessions were held for this purpose till 1834. Admiralty pose. In connexion with this it is observable that in 1793 the
criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue of the series of statutes, Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction
the Offences at Sea Act 1799, the Central Criminal Court Act under its general patent; and it is said to have been the opinion
1834, Offences at Sea Act 1844, and the criminal law consolida- of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty Court of Scotland had a
tion acts passed in 1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court similar right (Brown, Civil Law of Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212).
and by the ordinary courts of assize. Special provision for trial Any jurisdiction of the Scottish court over prize of war was
in the colonies of. offences committed at sea has been made transferred to the English court by the Court of Session Act 1825,
by an act of William III. (1698-1699), the Offences at Sea Act 57. As to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was pro-
1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849. vided that there should remain in Ireland an instance court of
The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize admiralty for the determination of causes civil and maritime
from very early times; and although since the middle of the only.
17th century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, which
of the court, has been kept distinct from the prize had until then been prescribed by occasional acts passed for
jurisdiction, they were originally both administered and regarded each war as it arose, were for the first time made permanent by
as being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high admiral. the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court of Admiralty
The early records of the admiralty show that the origin of the and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court
prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power given to the court exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the
"
of the admiral to try cases of piracy and spoil," i.e. captures time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made
of foreign ships by English ships. The earliest recorded case of prize courts. The High Court of Admiralty was given jurisdic-
spoil tried before the admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a tion throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such,
Portuguese subject, taken at sea by Englishmen from a French power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and
i ship which had previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals
by the admiral as good prize to the English captors and
;
this power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty
Edward III. in a letter to the king of Portugal answering a com- prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the
plaint on the subject gives the admiral's decision as a reason sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in
for refusing their restoration. During the i6th century a very cases of captures made in a land expedition or an expedition
large part of the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil made conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize
and and the privy council often directed the judge of
piracy, salvage on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of
the court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which procedure was prescribed. The High Court was also given ex-
foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships made clusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom
petition for redress to the admiral or the council. The spoil and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters
suit at this time (causa spolii) was a civil proceeding resulting of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy.
in a decree absolutoria, dismissing the defendant, or condemna- By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages
toria,ordering restoration to be made by him. In 1 585 the patent to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer
of Howard, the lord high admiral, authorized him to issue in charge of the convoy was also given to the High Court. Under
letters of reprisal against Spain; and an order in council regu- other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war
lating the conduct of those to whom such letters were issued when referred to it by the crown, in the same way as prize
provided by an additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be causes, and claims of king's ships for salvage on recaptures from
brought in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, sub-
Admiralty Court. The court was also resorted to at this time ject to the owner's right to receive them on paying one-eighth of
by captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by
England, such as the king of France and the Dutch. About the belligerents in vfolation of British neutrality, or by a ship equipped
middle of the i7th century separate sittings of the court for in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality.
instance and prize business began, perhaps because of the con- All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since
flicting claims to droits of Charles II. and the duke of York as lord passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court
high admiral; and privateering under royal commission took under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the Admiralty
the place of the former irregular "spoiling." The account Court in that respect; and all prize causes and matters within
which Lord Mansfield gave of the records of the Admiralty Court, the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to
that there were no prize act books earlier than 1641, or prize the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division; and an appeal
sentences earlier than 1648, and that before 1690 the records from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature
were in confusion, must be qualified by the correction that Acts 1873 and 1891).
there are in existence prize sentences (on paper, not parchment) By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the consti-
as early as 1589. tution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission,
Although the courts of common law
hardly ever seem to have warrant or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may
interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, its be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue,
exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but long subject to instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the
previously royal ordinances (1512, 1602) and statutes (1661, possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary
giving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given of state that war has broken out between Great Britain and a
the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over prize. foreign state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the
The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or
208 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION
warrant may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lau Ov> Bew, 141 U.S. Rep.
of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty 587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, 607). Formerly the
court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from the district court to the
time. The court
authorized to act as a prize court during the
is circuit court, and thence to the Supreme Court. But the act of the

war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as such, and 3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) abolished this and created the circuit
finally dispose of all matters and things arising during the war, court of appeals, making it the final appellate court in admiralty,
including all penalties and forfeitures incurred therein. Rules except as above stated. In any case where the district judge
of court may also be made by order in council for regulating, is unable to perform his duties or is disqualified by reason of

subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure and practice of interest or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the
prize courts under that act, the duties and conduct of their parties to the action, it may be removed to the circuit court in
officers and practitioners, and the fees and costs therein (Prize that district (U.S. Rev. Stats. 587, 589 and 601). These are
Courts Act 1894, 2, 3). This latter power has been exercised; now the only cases in which admiralty suits can come before the
and prize rules for the High Court of Justice and the vice- circuit court (Benedict's Adm. 321).
admiralty prize courts were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and The subject matter in cases of contract determines the juris-
Orders, 1898). diction (the "General Smith," 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 438), and
AUTHORITIES. Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty, not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, current, nor that
Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, Jurisdiction of the the water be an inland basin or land-locked, or a river, nor by
Admiralty of England asserted', Robinson, Collectanea Maritima; its being a harbour, or a port within the body of the county, nor
Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; Phillimore, International
that a remedy exists at common law. The admiralty courts have
Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi.; Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit.
Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.) jurisdiction over all matters that concern owners and proprietors
UNITED STATES of ships as such; possessory actions and petitory actions to
The source of admiralty jurisdiction in the United States try title of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dock-
is Article 3, 2 of the United States Constitution: "The age, lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter
judicial power shall extend to all cases of admiralty and mari- parties, rights of passengers assuch (the "Moses Taylor," 71
time jurisdiction." The United States Supreme Court has U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and loans,
declared that by virtue of these words the admiralty jurisdiction bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and cargo,
extends not only to the high seas but to the great lakes and the marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, collisions, con-
rivers connecting them, and to all public navigable waters in sortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, salvage, seizures
"
the United States (the Genesee Chief" v. Fits-Hugh, 12 Howards under the laws of impost navigation or trade, cases of prize,
U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals (Ex. p. Boyer, ransom, condemnation, restitution and damages; assaults,
109 U.S. Rep. 629, the "Robert W. Parsons" [1903] 191 U.S. batteries, damages and trespasses on the high seas and navigable
1 7) and is not confined to tide waters.
,
The American colonies waters of the United States; but not suits in rem for duties
had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty jurisdiction equal to (Benedict's Adm. 3O3a).
the largest claimed by the English admiralty courts even under The U.S. Supreme Court has held
in Peoples Ferry Co.
Edward III. When they became states they delegated to the v. Beers, 20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subse-
"
federal government their several admiralty and maritime quent cases that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime
jurisdiction," using these words in the sense understood in every contract (the "Robert W. Parsons "). Contracts to furnish cargo
country in Europe, England excepted, and in the sense in which for shipsand to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime
they had then been used in the colonies for a long time, and contracts (Graham v. Oregon R. 6* N. Co., [1905] 135 Fed. Rep.
without reference to the very narrow jurisdiction of the English 608).
admiralty courts then existing (Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by
U.S. Rep. 441). state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced
"
It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction not by suit in rem in admiralty in the federal courts (the General
" "
that it is co-equal with that of the original English, or that of Smith"; the Lotlaivanna," 21 Wallace Rep. 558, Benedict's
continental European admiralty, but is rather that defined by Adm. 270). In all suits by material men for supplies and
the statutes of Richard II., under the construction given to them repairs or other necessaries for a foreign ship, the libellant may
by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts of admir- proceed against the ship and freight in rem or against the master
"
alty (2 Parsons Adm. 176), and that it embraced all maritime or owner in personam (i2th Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm.
"
contracts, torts, injuries or offences (De Lovio v. Boil, 2 Galli- 268; the General Smith "). Actions in rem and in personam
sons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441), and may be joined in the same libel (Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace
"
that it has never been restricted by the action of the common 257; the Normandie," 40 Fed. Rep. 590). But a contract to
law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 Parsons Adm. furnish fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal
1 66 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Boif}. effects for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court
"
Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the May
1789 (U.S. Rev. Stats. 563) granted to the United States dis- F. Chisholm," 1904; 129 Fed. Rep. 814). The state courts
trict courts exclusively, except that concurrent original juris- have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract or tort
diction was given to United States circuit courts over seizures
"
(the Lottawanna," the "Belfast," 7 Wallace Rep. 624). Ad-
for slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons miralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; it must have
in insurrection 629; ( 5309), and in the coolie trade ( 2159), occurred on the high seas or other navigable waters within
and by the act of the 3rd of March 1901 the supreme court of the
; admiralty cognizance (2 Parsons Adm. 347; the "Plymouth,"
District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction as the district 3 Wallace Rep. 20; the "Genesee Chief" v. Fitz-Hugh, the
"
and circuit courts. The Supreme Court of the United States has Blackheath," [1903] 122 Fed. Rep. 112).
"
no original jurisdiction in admiralty. All suits are brought in The U.S. Supreme Court in the Harrisburg " (119 U.S. 199)
" "
the instance in the district court. Appeals lie, both on the
first and the Alaska (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of opinion,
law and on the facts, from a final decree of that court to the held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction under the
circuit court of appeals only, except in cases involving the juris- general admiralty law to try an action for damages for negli-
diction of the court, the constitutionality of a law of any state gence on the high seas, causing death of a human being, while
or of the United States, or the validity or construction of any there was no act of Congress and no statute of the state to which
treaty of the United States, and except cases of prize and capital the vessel belonged giving such right of action (Benedict's Adm.
or infamous crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the 2 7 S-309a), nor where such statute is that of a foreign country

supreme court. In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme (Rundell v. Compagnie Gtnirale, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366).
Court may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court of Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and piracy,
 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 209
collisionand proceedings by owners to limit their liability under Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary civil
U.S. Rev. Stats. 4281-9. tribunals, with the same
right of appeal.
"
The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdic- By the maritime law of nations universally and immemori-
tion in matters of prize (The Prize Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 635). ally received there is an established method of determination
The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction (except whether the capture be or be not lawful prize. Before
that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize is taken the ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor
from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court of the there must be a regular judicial proceeding wherein diction.
Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction (U.S. v.
District of both parties may be heard and condemnation there-
Sampson, 1902, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct to the upon as prize in a court of admiralty judging by the law of

Supreme Court. Special commissioners are appointed on the nations and treaties. ... If the sentence of the court of ad-
breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of the district miralty is thought to be erroneous, there is in every maritime
courts (U.S. Rev. Stats. 4621, Prize Rule 9; Benedict's Adm. country a superior court of review. ..." (duke of Newcastle's
509; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 233). These commis- letter to M. Michell, secretary to the embassy of the king of
sioners take the depositions of witnesses and report to the court Prussia, 1753). "So far as belligerent states do not make a
the evidence upon which it adjudicates. Proceedings in prize practice of giving up the taking of booty at sea they are
. . .

cases must be in conformity with admiralty proceedings, where required by international law to establish prize tribunals and
the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. v. U.S., 6 Wallace thus give to their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial
759; 2 Parsons Adm. 174). The district courts have all the character" (v. Holtzendorff, Rechlslexikon, tit. "Prisengerichte").
powers of a court of admiralty whether as instance or prize courts In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1632
"
(Glass v. sloop Betsy," 3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral. The duke
of prize is one of the ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to
Adm. 509). Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death
The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one
offencescommitted upon vessels belonging to citizens of the of grand master of navigation established in lieu. This new
United States on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any office was held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till
first

waters within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the 1695. The grand master took the admiral's place in matters of
United States (U.S. Rev. Stats. 5339). High seas include the prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state and
great lakes (U.S. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 249). (j. A. BA.) masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand master
and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil there was an
OTHER COUNTRIES appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. When the office of admiral was
In France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece restored in 1695 he exercised lu's jurisdiction in prize matters
countries which have adopted codes based on the Code Napo- with the assistance of the Conseil des Prises. The appeal was
Fraace,
^ on t 'le c i y il> or as it would have been formerly
,
then given to the Conseil Royal des Finances. The Ordonnance
called in England, the
"
ana instance," jurisdiction of sur la marine of August 1681 regulated the procedure. This
countries the admiralty is exercised by the ordinary tribunals, system continued till the Revolution. The last Conseil des
France"*
an^ there are no separate courts of admiralty for Prises was appointed in 1778. A law of the I4th of February
this purpose. France and some other countries 1793 abolished the Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of
have special commercial tribunals, which deal with shipping prize matters "provisionally" to the tribunals of commerce.
matters, but also with ordinary commercial cases. France On the 8th of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdic-
has also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux (Code disciplinaire et tion was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the
penal de la marine marchande du 24 mars 1852, loi du n
mars Conseil Exfcutif. Later it was given to the Comite de Salut
1891) to deal with maritime offences. Austria adopts the Public. On the 25th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, an IV.) the
French law in commercial matters. Italy had tribunals of com- jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of commerce. This
merce, but has given them up. She has, however, by Art. 14 was again altered on the 27th of March 1800 (6 Germinal, an
of her Merchant Shipping Code, given jurisdiction to captains VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, consisting of
of ports to decide collision cases when the sum in dispute does nine councillors of state, a commissary of the government and
not exceed 200 lire. a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul.
In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty On the nth of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil
matters. Kammern fur Handelssachen, commercial courts, have d'Etat. It was disputed among French jurists whether the
been established in Berlin and some of the principal Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated only
Germany.
seaports. These deal with shipping matters, but also by political considerations or one exercising what the French
with all other commercial suits. term an " administrative jurisdiction "; which is, as nearly as a
In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code parallel to it can be found in England, administration of justice
which came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1892, between individuals and the state.
and in Norway in 1893. This was intended to be one As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had been
navian coc^ e ^ or tne three countries; but each country as it dealt with, an ordinance of the gth of January 1815 suppressed
nations. finally adopted the code made some modifications of its the Conseil des Prises and directed the Comili du conlentieux of
own. Under this code there are in Norway permanent the Conseil d'Etat to prepare the remaining prize matters for
maritime courts for each town presided over by the judge decision by the Conseil d'Etat. Such prize matters (probably
of the inferior local civil court (civile
underdommer) or if there , including captures for trading in slaves) as required to be dealt
be more than one such judge then by the president, with two with till 1854, appear to have been dealt with by this body;
assessors chosen out of a list. Temporary local courts, con- an ordinance of the gth of September 1831 directing that the pro-
sisting of the same judge with two other members of nautical ceedings before the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to
skill and knowledge, can be constituted in districts where there show that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative.
are no permanent courts. Appeals lie to the supreme court An Imperial decree, however, of the i8th of July 1854 restored
(Hoiesleref). In Denmark maritime cases are brought before the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Etat. This
the local courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes was for the war with Russia. A similar decree was published
(So-og-Handelsret). In Sweden maritime cases are brought on the gth of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy.
before local courts of first instance consisting of a judge and On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that
assessors. There is an intermediate appeal to courts of second the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was kept in
instance, and then to the supreme court, which finally decides being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil has decided on
upon all causes civil and commercial. prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and Germany and in Cochin
210 ADMISSION ADOLESCENCE
China. It consists of seven judges and a commissary of the Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure
government. An appeal to the government in the Conseil d'fital seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns.
can be brought within three months. It is then decided by AUTHORITIES. Clunet, Journal du droit international prive,
cited shortly as Clunet; v. Holzendorff, Rechtslexikpn, Leipzig, 1881 ;
I'Assemble du Conseil d'tat. De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises maritime!, Paris, 1855,
Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports, vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii.
commissions colonials and commissions consulaires, established part xi. Autran, Code international de I'abordage, de V assistance, et
;

du sauvetage maritime!, Paris, 1902; Raikes, The Maritime Codes

mainly to collect materials for the Conseil des Prises, but
of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and Belgium (1898), of Italy
sometimes, v/hcu the ship and cargo were clearly those of the (1900), London. (W. G. F. P.)
enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation. ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box
In Prussia Regulations of the 2oth of June 1864 established a
by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, or by
prize council consisting of a president and six associates with a some person whose statements are binding on that party against
law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council the interest of that party.
" (See EVIDENCE.)
(v. Holtzendorff, Rechtskxikon, tit. Prisengerichte ") ADO archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged
(d. 874),
By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the
to a famous Prankish house, and spent much of his middle life
legality of prizes>made during war has to be decided by prize in Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 850 till his death
courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine on the 1 6th of December 874. Several of his letters are extant
the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and and reveal their writer as 'an energetic man of wide sympathies
their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize courts
and considerable influence. Ado's principal works are a Martyro-
were established under this law on the occasion of the East
logium (printed inter al. in Migne, Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181-
African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.).
420; append, pp. 419-436), anoT chronicle, Chronicon sive Brevia-
In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides that rium chronicorum de sex mundi aetatibus de Adamo usque ad ann.
prize matters shall be tried by a special commission established 869 (in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 20-138, and Pertz, Monumenta Germ.
by royal decree. On the occasion of the war with Austria such ii. pp. 315-323, &c.). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede,
a special commission was established by royal decree of the zoth with which he combines extracts from the ordinary sources,
of June 1866. For the war with Abyssinia a fresh commission
forming the whole into a consecutive narrative founded on the
was established by royal decree of the i6th of August 1896. The
conception of the unity of the Roman empire, which he traces
composition of this commission, which was slightly different in in the succession of the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs
character from that established in 1866, was as follows: (a) a " "
following immediately after Constantine and Irene. It is,
first president of a court of appeal or a retired one, or a president "
says Wattenbach, history from the point of view of authority
of a section of the council of state or of cassation; (b) two general
" " and preconceived opinion, which exclude any independent
officers of thenavy; (c) a member of the contentious part of judgment of events.
"
Ado wrote also a book on the miracles
the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of appeal;
(Miracula) of St Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (gth century),
(e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the government
published in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum; a life or Mar-
and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no appeal;
tyrium of St Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about
but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court of Cassation
870 and published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of
at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without jurisdiction
St Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon,
or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved.
Ada Sanct. i. pp. 678-681,- Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and re-
By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the vised in Bollandist Ada Sanct. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843.
whole matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, vol. i. (Stutt-
first instance were contemplated port tribunals and fleet gart and Berlin, 1904).
tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the fleet, ADOBE (pronounced a-d6-be; also corrupted to dobie; from
and are to be composed of some of the principal officers of the the Span, adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an
"
fleet. The former are to have presidents named by the emperor Egyptian hieroglyph meaning brick "), a Spanish- American
"
from among those qui font partie de r administration maritime word for the sun-dried clay used by the Indians for building in
judiciaire"; the other members are to be appointed by the some of the south-western states of the American Union, this
ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs. The court of method having been imported in the i6th century by Spaniards
appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty with the addition from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction is made between the
" "
of two members of the senate and a nominee of the minister of smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked
" "
foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p, 271). bricks, and the larger adobines, some of which are as much as
On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals from one to two yards long.
were established under the authority of this ordinance by the ADOLESCENCE from adolescere, to grow
(Lat. adolescentia,
lord high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the I3th of
"
up, past part, adultus, grown up, Eng. adult "), the term
March 1904, at Sebastopol Port Alexander III., Port Arthur now commonly adopted for the period between childhood and
and Vladivostock (Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd maturity, during which the characteristics mental, physical and
March 1904). Many cases were heard before these tribunals moral that are to make or mar the individual disclose them-
and on appeal. selves,and then mature, in some cases by leaps and bounds, in
The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain is others by more gradual evolution. The annual rate of growth,
described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), Tratado in height, weight and strength, increases to a marked extent
juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz, 1746). On the and may even be doubled. The development in the man takes
occasion of the war with the United States the Spanish govern- place in the direction of a greater strength, in the woman towards
ment published a proclamation stating the circumstances in a fitter form for maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of
which captures were to be made and prizes taken; but infor- nature and religion, and an overmastering curiosity both in-
mation is lacking as to the particular constitution of the prize dividual and general. This period of life, so fraught with its
court or courts. power for good and ill, is accordingly the most important and
In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried by the by far the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal
ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal of Athens, with The chief points for attention may be briefly
efficiently.
1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826). indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, or
Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the individual,
court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these and environment. In an ideal system of training these two
courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877. factors will be so fitted in and adapted to one another, that
Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize what is weak or unprovided for in the first will be amply com-
courts at Sasebo and Yokosco with a court of appeal at Tokyo. pensated for in the second.
 ADOLPH OF NASSAU ADOLPHUS FREDERICK 211
In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the Walram, count of Nassau. He appears to have received a good
country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden
adults may live where they like within very wide limits and take in 1276. He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many
no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, are of the feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen
continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic catarrh, German king, in succession to Rudolph I., an election due rather
tonsilitis,bronchitis,and even the far graver pneumonia. Removed to the political conditions of the time than to his
personal
to healthier conditions in the country their ailments tend to qualities. He made large promises to his supporters, and was
disappear, and normal physical development supervenes. The crowned on the ist of July at Aix-la-Chapelle. Princes and
residence should be on a well-drained soil, preferably near the sea towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, and the
in the case of a delicate child, on higher ground for those of more allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert I., duke of
robust constitution. The child should be lightly clad in woollen Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely nominal.
garments all the year round, their thickness being slightly greater Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, he claimed
in winter than in summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 1294 allied himself
food in sufficient variety, ample time at table, where an atmo- with EdwardI., king of England, against France. Edward
sphere of light gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from granted him
a subsidy, but owing to a variety of reasons
restraint both before and after meals, should be considered Adolph did not take the field against France, but turned his
fundamental essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of arms against Thuringia, which he had purchased from the
food milk and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat landgrave Albert II. This bargain was resisted by the sons of
once a day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be Albert, and from 1294 to 1296 Adolph was campaigning in
three days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase Meissen and Thuringia. Meissen was conquered, but he was not
the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good equally successful in Thuringia, and his relations with Albert of
foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms. Austria were becoming more strained. He had been unable to
The exercise of the body must be duly attended to. Nowa- fulfil the promises made at his election, and the
princes began to
days this is provided for in the shape of games, some being look with suspicion upon his designs. Wenceslaus II., king of
optional, others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swim- Bohemia, fell away from and his deposition was
his allegiance,
ming, fencing, &c. But severe exercise should only be allowed decided on, and was carried out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May
under adequate medical control, and should be increased very 1298, when Albert of Austria was elected his successor. The
gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and climb forces of the rival kings met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July
with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of life. But 1 298, where Adolph was killed, it is said by the hand of Albert.

as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress and strain He was buried at Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were
dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately modified. removed to Spires.
Rest should be enforced during the menstrual periods of these See F. W. E. Roth, Geschichte des Romischen Konigs Adolf I. von
earlier years, and milder, more graduated exercise taken at other
Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879); V. Domeier, Die Absetzung Adolfs von
Nassau (Berlin, 1889); L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs Adolf von
times. In the same way all mental strain should be diminished. Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des Grafen Adolj
Instead of pressure being put on a girl's intellectual education von Nassau zum Romischen Kdnig; B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der
at about this time, as is too often the case, the time devoted to deutschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901).
school and books should be diminished. Education should be ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862), English lawyer
on broader, more fundamental lines, and much time should be and author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768-1845), a well-
passed in the open air. With regard to the mental training of known London barrister who wrote a History of England to
both sexes two points must be borne in mind. First, that an 1783 (1802), a History of France from if go (1803) and other
ample number of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to works. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at
ten years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years not St. John's College, Oxford. In 1821 he published Letters to
less than nine. Secondly, that the time devoted to "book- Richard. Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of the
work " should be broken up into a number of short periods, very then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter
carefully graduated to the individual child. Scott. This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the
In every case where there is a family tendency towards any novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged
certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine the by Scott. Scott thought at first that the letters were written
whole circumstances of the child's life. That diathesis which is by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, and the
most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous excitable discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm friend-
one, is by far the most important and the most difficult to deal ship. Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his Circuiteers,
with. Every effort should be made to avoid the conditions in an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of his colleagues on
which the hereditary predisposition would be aroused into the northern circuit. He became judge of the Marylebone
mischievous action, and to encourage development on simple County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner Temple.
unexciting lines. The child should be confined to the school- He was the author of Letters from Spain in 1856 and 1857 (1858),
room but little and receive most of his training in wood and field. and was completing his father's History of England at the time
Other diatheses the tuberculous, rheumatic, &c. must be dealt of his death on the 24th of December 1862.
with in appropriate ways. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was
The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral per- born at Gottorp on the I4th of May 1710. His father was
versions. The emotions are extremely unstable, and any stress Christian Augustus (1673-1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein-
put on them may lead to undesirable results. Warm climates, Gottorp, bishop of Ltibeck, and administrator, during the war
tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft mattresses, or in- of 1700-1721, of the duchies of Holstein-Gottorp for his nephew

dulgences of any kind, and also mental over-stimulation, are Charles Frederick; his mother was Albertina Frederica of Baden-
especially to be guarded against. The day should be filled with Durlach. From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of Lubeck, and
interests of an objective in contradistinction to subjective administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke
kind, and the child should retire to bed at night healthily fatigued Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia. In 1743
in mind and body. Let there be confidence between mother and he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the " Hat "
daughter, father and son, and, as the years bring the bodily faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of
changes, those in whom the children trust can choose the fitting peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the
moments for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning house of Holstein was notorious (see SWEDEN, History). During
against abuses of the natural functions. his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more
For bibliography see CHILD. than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the
ADOLPH OF NASSAU (c. 1255-1298), German king, son of hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party
212 ADONI ADOPTIANISM
strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the intoler- propitious in the coming year. This festival, like that at Athens,
able tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1755 was held late in summer; at Byblus, where the mourning
when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrica, sister ceremony preceded, it took place in spring.
of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain a portion of the attenu- It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit,
ated prerogative, and nearly lost his throne in consequence. whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature in
On the second occasion, under the guidance of his eldest son, winter and its revival in spring. He is born from the myrrh-
the crown prince Gustavus, afterwards Gustavus III., he suc- tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is connected
" A
ceeded in overthrowing the tyrannous "Cap senate, but was with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess.
"
unable to make any use of his victory. He died of surfeit at special feature of the Athenian festival was the Adonis gar-
Stockholm on the i2th of February 1771. dens," small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, which
See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, vol. i. rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote any
(London, 1895). (R. N. B.) transitory pleasure). The dispute between Aphrodite and Perse-
ADONI, a town of British India, in the Bellary district of phone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the agreement
Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail. It has manufactures of that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year in the lower world
carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning (the seed at first underground and then reappearing above it),
and pressing cotton. The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz and Ishtar (see APHRO-
important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is DITE). The ceremony of the Adonia was intended as a charm
frequently mentioned in the wars of the i8th century. Pop. to promote the growth of vegetation, the throwing of the gardens
(1901) 30,416. and images into the water being supposed to procure a supply of
"
ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyahoi Adoniyyahu, Yah is Lord "), rain (for European parallels see Mannhardt). It is suggested
a name borne by several persons in the Old Testament, the (Frazer) that Adonis is not a god of vegetation generally, but
most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son of David. He specially a corn-spirit, and that the lamentation is not for the
was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; i Ch. iii. 2). decay of vegetation in winter, but for the cruel treatment of
The natural heir to the throne, on the death of Absalom, he the corn by the reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John
sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize his birth- Barleycorn).
right, and made arrangements for his coronation (i Kings i. 5 ff.). An important element in the story is the connexion of Adonis
Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the help of Nathan the with the boar, which (according to one version) brings him into
prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently with the consent of the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of the tree into
David, had ascended the throne, he fled for safety to the horns which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills him. It is probable
of the altar. Solomon spared him on this occasion (i Kings i. that Adonis himself was looked upon as incarnate in the swine,
50 ff.), but later commanded Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 ff.), him by way of expiation on special occa-
so that the sacrifice to
because with the approval of Bathsheba he wished to marry an animal which otherwise was specially sacred, and its
sions of
Abishag, formerly David's concubine, and thus seemed to have consumption by its worshippers, was a sacramental act. Other
designs on the throne. instances of a god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy
ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable are the sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the
beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite. According to the story in bear to Artemis. The swine would be sacrificed as having
Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king Theias caused the death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphro-
by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired by dite for that animal. It has been observed that whenever swine-
Aphrodite with unnatural love. When Theias discovered the sacrifices occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to
truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity Adonis. In any case, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god
changed her into a tree of the same name. After ten months does not contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn
the tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis. Aphro- spirit, which in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a
dite, charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed boar or sow.
him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to AUTHORITIES. H. Brugsch, Die Adonifklage und das Linoslied
give him up. On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that (Berlin, 1852); Greve, De Adonide (Leipzig, 1877) ;W. H. Engel,
Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a Kypros, ii. (1841), still valuable; W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feld-
kulte, ii. M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig, 1906);
(1905);
third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own dis- articles in Roscher's Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklopddie;
posal. Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by Artemis. J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. (2nd ed.), p. 115,' and Adonis,
There are many variations in the later forms of the story (notably Attis and Osiris (1906) L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek Stales, ii.
;

in Ovid, Metam. x. 298). The name is generally supposed to p. 646; W. Robertson Smith(Religion of the Semites, new ed., 1894,
" pp. 191, 290, 411), who, regarding Adonis as the swine-god, char-
be of Phoenician origin (from adon lord "), Adonis himself acterizes the Adonia as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), "in
being identified with-Tammuz (but see F. Diimmler in Pauly- which the sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and
Wissowa's Real-encyklopddie, who does not admit a Semitic dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, not
The name Abobas, by which forming part of the state religion, was limited."
origin for either name or cult).
he was known at Perga in Pamphylia, certainly seems connected ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order
with abub (a Semitic word for " flute "; cf.
"
ambubaiarum Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the names of pheasant's
"
collegia in Horace, Satires, i. 2. i). (See also ATTIS.) eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial herbs with
Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in his honour at much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. Adonis autum-
Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places. Although there nalis has become naturalized in some parts of England; the petals
were variations in the ceremony itself and in its date, the central are scarlet with a dark spot at the base. An early flowering
idea was the death and resurrection of Adonis. A vivid descrip- species, Adonis vernalis, with large bright yellow flowers, is well
tion of the festival at Alexandria (for which Bion probably worthy of cultivation. It prefers a deep light soil. The name
wrote his Dirge of Adonis) is given by Theocritus in his fifteenth is also given to the butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue (Polyom-

idyll, the Adoniazusae. On the first day, which celebrated the matus Adonis).
union of Adonis and Aphrodite, their images were placed side by ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos
side on a silver couch, around them all the fruits of the season, which bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the
" " znd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became
Adonis gardens in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh,
cakes of meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things acute. The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism
that creep and things that fly. On the day following the image led to a tenaciou? insistence on the divine unity, and the task
of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the sea was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus Christ. Some
"
by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts. At the same thinkers back on the " modalistic
fell solution which regards
time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated to be "Father" and "Son" as two aspects qf the same subject:
 ADOPTION 213
but a simpler and more popular method was the " adoptianist " gravitated towards a Nestorian position. The great opponent
or humanitarian. Basing their views on the synoptic Gospels, of their Christology, which was known as
Nihilianism, was the
and tracing descent from the obscure sect of the Alogi, the German scholar Gerhoch, who, for his bold assertion of the
Adoptianists under Theodotus of Byzantium tried to found a perfect interpenetration of deity and humanity in Christ, was
school at Rome c. 185, asserting that Jesus was a man, filled accused of Eutychianism. The proposition Deus non
factus esl
with the Holy Spirit's inspiration from his baptism, and so aliquid secundum quod esl homo was condemned by a synod of
attaining such a perfection of holiness that he was adopted by Tours in 1163 and again by the Lateran synod of
1179, but
God and exalted to divine dignity. Theodotus was excommuni- Adoptianism continued all through the middle ages to be a source
cated by the bishop of Rome, Victor, c. 195, but his followers of theological dispute.
lived on under a younger teacher of the same name and under See A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. v. pp.
279-292 R. Ottley,
;

Artemon, while in the East similar views were expounded by The Doctrine of the Incarnation, vol. i. p. 228 ff., vol. ii.
" pp. 151-161;

Beryllus of Bostra and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk,, art. Adoptianismus." (A. J. G.)
influenced Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Arius ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoplare, to
and, later, Nestorius. choose for oneself), the act by which the relations of paternity and
There is thus a traceable historical connexion between the filiation are recognized as legally
existing between persons not so
early adoptian controversy and the struggle in Spain at the end related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among
of the 8th century, to which that name is usually given. It was the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly
very
indeed only a renewal, under new conditions, of the conflict strictly regulated in their laws. In Athens the power of adoption
between two types of thought, the rational and the mystical, was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who
the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The writings of possessed no male offspring of their own, and it could be exercised
Theodore of Mopsuestia had become well known in the West, either during lifetime or by testament. The person adopted,
" " who required to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family
especially since the strife over the three chapters (544-553),
and the opposition of Islam also partly determined the form and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he did
of men's views on the doctrine of Christ's person. We must not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of kin, whose
further remember the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned rights were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that
at the council of Chalcedon. About 780 Elipandus (b. 718), the registration should be attended with certain formalities, and
archbishop of Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the that it should take place at a fixed time the festival of the
expression Christus Filius Dei adoptivus, and was aided by his Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were almost
much more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella. They held identical with those of natural offspring, and could not be re-
that the duality of natures implied a distinction between two nounced except in the case of one who had begotten children
modes of sonship in Christ the natural or proper, and the to take his place in the family of his adoptive father. Adopted
adoptive. In support of their views they appealed to scripture into another family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred
and to the Western Fathers, who had used the term " adoption " or inheritance through their natural father, though any rights
" "
as synonymous with assumption in the orthodox sense; they might have through their mother were not similarly affected.
and especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians the Among the Romans the existence of the patria potestas gave a
brother of God's adopted sons. Christ, the firstborn among peculiar significance to the custom of adoption. The motive to
many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a the act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification of
spiritual birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and agnate rights
resurrection. .Thus they did not teach a dual personality, nor which were founded on the patria potestas. Itwas necessary,
the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was however, that the adopter should have no children of his own,
due to his sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old and that he should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable
disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision expectation of any being born to him. Another limitation as to
had left it the relation of Christ's one personality to his two age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam, which
natures. required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen years older
Felix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which than the adopted children. According to the same maxim
belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget
to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before children for themselves. Adoption was of two kinds according
which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new to the state of the person adopted, who might be either still under
doctrine. Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed his the patria potestas (alieni juris), or his own master (sui juris). In
renunciation by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the the former case the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter
synod sent him. The recantation was probably insincere, for case it was styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also

on returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as before. used in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption
Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, by which the new proper the natural father publicly sold his child to the adoptive
doctrine was again formally condemned, though neither Felix father, and the sale being thrice repeated, the maxim of the
nor any of his followers appeared. Twelve Tables took effect, Si paler filium ter venunduit, filius
In this synod Alcuin of York took part. A friendly letter a patre liber eslo. The process was ratified and completed by a
from Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix re- fictitiousaction of recovery brought by the adoptive father
plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions of against the natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and
clergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy. Arch- which was therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation
bishop Leidrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commis- could be accomplished originally only by the authority of the
sions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la- people assembled in the Comitia, but from the time of Diocletian
Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin, it was effected by an imperial rescript. Females could not be
he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his life was spent under adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they
the supervision of the archbishop at Lyons, where he died in could not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The
816. Elipandus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will be found in
from the adoptian views, which, however, were almost univer- Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. 11.
sally abandoned after the two leaders died. In Hindu law, as in nearly every ancient system, wills were
In the scholastic discussions of the izth century the question formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See
came to the front again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin INDIAN LAW.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of Eng-
was not universally accepted. Thus both Abelard and Peter land, Scotland or the Netherlands, though there are legal means
Lombard, in the interest of the immutability of the divine by which one may be enabled to assume the name and arms and
substance (holding that God could not " become " anything), to inherit the property of a stranger. (See NAME.)
 214 ADORATION ADRA
In France and Germany, countries which may be said to have St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused by the kisses of
embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is re- pilgrims. In theRoman Church a distinction is made between
gulated according to the principles of Justinian, though with Latria, a worship due to God alone, and Dulia or Hyperdulia,
several more or less important modifications, rendered necessary the adoration paid to the Virgin, saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c.
by the usages of these countries respectively. Under French law (See further HOMAGE.)
the rights of adoption can be exercised only by those who are ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
over fifty years of age, and who, at the time of adoption, have 3 m. from the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft.
neither children nor legitimate descendants. They must also be above the sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of rail-
fifteen years older than the person adopted. In German law the way. Pop. 5000. It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries,
person adopting must either be fifty years of age, or at least and manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there
is a convalescent home for the poor of the
eighteen years older than the adopted, unless a special dispen- city of Leipzig.
sation is obtained. If the person adopted is a legitimate child ADOUR (anc. Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, water),
the consent of his parents must be obtained; if illegitimate, the a river of south-west France, rising in the department of Hautes
consent of the mother. Both in Germany and France the Pyren6es, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of Biscay. It
adopted child remains a member of his original family, and ac- is formed of several streams having their origin in the
massifs
quires no rights in the family of the adopter other than that of of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, but during
succession to the person adopting. the first half of its course remains an inconsiderable river. In
In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes of traversing the beautiful valley of Campan it is artificially aug-
the several states. Adoption of minors is permitted by statute mented in summer by the waters of the Lac Bleu, which are
in many of the states. These statutes generally require some drawn off by means of a siphon, and flow down the valley of
public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, and an order Lesponne. After passing Bagneres de Bigorre the Adour enters
of approval after a hearing before some public authority. The the plain of Tarbes, and for the remainder of its course in the
consequence commonly is that the person adopted becomes, in department of Hautes Pyrenees is of much less importance as
the eyes of the law, the child of the person adopting, for all pur- a waterway than as a means of feeding the numerous irrigation
poses. Such an adoption, if consummated according to the law canals which cover the plains on each side. Of these the oldest
of the domicile, is equally effectual in any other state into which and most important is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the
the parties may remove. The relative status thus newly ac- right bank for 36 m. Entering the department of Gers, the
quired isubiquitous. (See Whitmore, Laws of Adoption; Ross Adour receives the Arros on the right bank and begins to de-
v. Ross, 129 Massachusetts Reports, 243.) scribe the large westward curve which takes it through the
The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the consti- department of Landes to the sea. In the last-named depart-
tution of primitive society and the civilization of the race is so ment it soon becomes navigable, namely, at St Sever, after pass-
important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient Law, ex- ing which it is joined on the left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts
presses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primitive and Luy, and on the right by the Midouze, which is formed by
groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on terms of the union of the Douze and the Midour, and is navigable for
absolute superiority on the one side and absolute subjection on 27 m.; now taking a south-westerly course it receives on the
the other. With the institution of adoption, however, one people left the Gave de Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the

might feign itself as descended from the same stock as the people Adour itself, and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through
to whose sacra gentilicia it was admitted; and amicable relations a dangerous estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total
were thus established between stocks which, but for this ex- course of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable. The mouth of
pedient, must have submitted to the arbitrament of the sword the Adour has repeatedly shifted, its old bed being represented
with all its consequences. by the series of Hangs and lagoons extending northward as far
"
ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e.carrying to as the village of Vieux Boucau, 22^ m. north of Bayonne, where
mouth "), primarily an act of homage or
one's worship, which, it found a new entrance into the sea at the end of the I4th cen-

among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the tury. Its previous mouth had been 10 m. south of Vieux
mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction of the Boucau. The present channel was constructed by the engineer
adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and after Louis de Foix in 1579. There is a depth over the bar at the
the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he entrance of loj to 16 ft. at high tide. The area of the basin of
kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves, the Adour is 6565 sq. m.
and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head bare. By ADOWA (properly ADUA), the capital of Tigr6, northern
a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings Abyssinia, 145 m. N.E. of Gondar and 17 m. E. by N. of Axum,
alone, came to be paid to monarchs. Thus the Greek and Roman the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Adowa is built on the slope
emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft., in the midst of a rich agri-
imperial robe, and presently withdrawing the hand and pressing cultural district. Being on the high road from Massawa to
it to the lips, or by putting the royal robe itself to the lips. In central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from Arabia
Eastern countries adoration has ever been performed in an and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise with the
attitude still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by products of the country. During the wars between the Italians
Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the prince's and Abyssinia (1887-96) Adowa was on three or four occasions
feet, striking the earth with the forehead and kissing the ground. looted and burnt; but the churches escaped destruction. The
This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed church of the Holy Trinity, one of the largest in Abyssinia,
number of times, is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern contains numerous wall-paintings of native art. On a hill about
potentates to-day. The Jews kissed in homage. Thus in 2j m. north-west of Adowa are the ruins of Fremona, the
"
i Kings xix. 18, God is made to say, Yet I have left me seven headquarters of the Portuguese Jesuits who lived in Abys-
thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto sinia during the i6th and I7th centuries. On the ist of March
Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him." And in 1896, in the hills north of the town, was fought the battle of
Psalms ii. 12, " Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from Adowa, in which the Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat on
the way." (See also Hosea xiii. 2.) In England the ceremony the Italian forces (see ITALY, History, and ABYSSINIA, History).
of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts which are ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the
performed kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra,
Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the ceremony of and on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 11,188. Adra is
kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said to have been intro- the port of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m.
duced by the popes following the example of the emperor north-east; but its commercial development is retarded by the
Diocletian. The toe of the famous statue of the apostle in lack of a railway. Besides lead, the exports include grapes,
 ADRAR ADRIAN 215
sugar and esparto. Fuel is imported, chiefly from the United was famous in Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls. Even
Kingdom. at that period, however, the silt brought down by the rivers
ADRAR (Berber for "uplands"), the name of various dis- rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian
tricts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa. Adrar Suttuf Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the sea. This
is a hilly region forming the southern part of the Spanish pro- was still open in the imperial period, and the town, which was
tectorate of the Rio de Oro (?..). Adrar or Adrar el Jebli, a municipium, possessed its own but its import-
gild of sailors;
otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of Timbuktu. It is ance gradually decreased. Its from 10 to 20 ft. below
remains lie

the headquarters of the Awellimiden Tuareg (see TUAREG and the modern level. The Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection
SAHARA) Adrar n' Ahnet and Adrar Adhaf ar are smaller regions
. contain antiquities.
in the Ahnet country south of Insalah. Adrar Temur, the See R. Schone, Le antichitd del Museo Bocchi di Adria (Rome,
country usually referred to when Adrar is spoken of, is in the 1878). (T. As.)
western Sahara, 300 m. north of the Senegal and separated on the ADRIAN, HADRIAN (Lat. Hadrianus) the name of six popes.
or ,

north-west from Adrar Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes. ADRIAN pope from 772 to 795, was the son of Theodore, a
I.,
Adrar is within the French sphere of influence. In general Roman nobleman. Soon after his accession the territory that
barren, the country contains several oases, with a total popu- had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was invaded by
lation of about 10,000. In 1900 the oasis of Atar, on the western Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found it necessary
borders of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previ- to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a
ously known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia, took
Algeria. (Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1900, that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in France
a few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited by and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Prankish
Arab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched spot. possessions. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused,
The other centres of population are Shingeti, Wadan and Ujeft, had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of
Shingeti being the chief commercial centre, whence caravans Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis. In his contest
take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and dates. A con- with the Greek empire and the Lombard princes of Benevento,
siderable trade is also done in salt from the sebkha of'Ijil, in the Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, and the
north-west. Adrar occupies the most elevated part of a plateau friendly relations between pope and emperor were not disturbed
which ends westwards in a steep escarpment and falls to the east by the difference which arose between them on the question
in a succession of steps. of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne and the Gallican
Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views
settlement in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara. of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the council
ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating

Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon. the iconoclasts. It was in connexion with this controversy
Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini, to which
to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to
a time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. Notwith-
Eriphyle in marriage, and returned to Argos and occupied the standing this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 794, anew condemned
throne. In consequence of an oracle which had commanded the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's
him to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them death. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which
to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of he styles Adrian " father," is still to be seen at the door of the
these animals or carrying shields with their figures on them, Vatican basilica. Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of
who claimed his hospitality. He was the instigator of the famous Rome, and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand.
war against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law Polyneices, ADRIAN II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a noble
who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles. Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced age.
Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two sons-in- He maintained, but with less energy, the attitude of his prede-
law, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon cessor. Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, by the
and Parthenopaeus, marched against the city of Thebes, and on death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to mediate
his way is said to have founded the Nemean games. This is the between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring to the
"
expedition of the Seven against Thebes," which the poets have emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of Lorraine. Photius,
made nearly as famous as the siege of Troy. As Amphiaraus shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence
had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus, of deposition against Pope Nicholas, was driven from the patri-
who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion (Iliad, xxiii. 346) . archate by a new emperor,Basil the Macedonian, who favoured
Ten years later, at the instigation of Adrastus, the war was re- his rival Ignatius. An oecumenical council (called by the
newed by the sons of the chiefs who had fallen. This expedition Latins the Sth) was convoked at Constantinople to decide this
"
was called the war of the " Epigoni or descendants, and entied matter. At this council Adrian was represented by legates,
in the taking and destruction of Thebes. None of the followers who presided at the condemnation of Photius, but did not suc-
of Adrastus perished except his son Aegialeus, and this affected ceed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject
him so greatly that he died of grief at Megara, as he was leading of the jurisdiction over the Bulgarian converts. Like his prede-
back his victorious army. cessor Nicholas, Adrian II. was forced to submit, at least in
.Apollodorus 7 Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebas Euripides,
iii. 6, ; ; temporal affairs, to the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who
fhoenissae, Supplices; Statius, Thebais; Herodotus v. 67. placed him under the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta,
ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct: his confidential adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the
Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a town and librarian.Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and
episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Rovigo, ism. daughter were still living. They were carried off and assassin-
E. by rail from the town of Rovigo. It is situated between ated by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation,
the mouths of the Adige and the Po, about 135 m. from the sea however, suffered but a momentary eclipse. Adrian died in
and but 13 ft. above it. Pop. (1901) 15,678. The town occu- 872.
pies the site of the ancient Atria, which gave its name to the ADRIAN pope, was born at Rome. He succeeded Martin
III.,
Adriatic. Its origin is variously ascribed by ancient writers, II. in 884, in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*)
and died
but it was probably a Venetian, i.e. Illyrian, not an Etruscan, ADRIAN IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from 1154 to 1159,
foundation still less a foundation of Dionysius I. of Syracuse. the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, was
Imported vases of the second half of the sth century B.C. prove born before A.D. noo at Langley near St Albans in Hertford-
the existence of trade with Greece at that period; and the town shire. His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese of Bath,
2l6 ADRIAN
who entered a monastery and left the boy to his own resources. Charles V. He was sent to Spain in 151 5 on a very important
Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk of the cloister diplomatic errand Charles secured his succession to the see of
;

of St Rufus near Aries. He rose to be prior and in 1137 was Tortosa, and on the i4th of November 1516 commissioned him
unanimously elected abbot. His reforming zeal led to the inquisitor-general of Aragon. During the minority of Charles,
lodging of complaints against him at Rome; but these merely Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing
attracted to him the favourable attention of Eugenius III., Spain. After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on
who created him cardinal bishop of Albano. From 1152 to the i4th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions of
1 1 54 Nicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, organizing the affairs Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his departure
of the new Norwegian archbishopric of Trondhjem, and making from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522 he was, :

arrangements which resulted in the recognition of Upsala as however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which
seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 1164. As a compensation Jimenes had been able in some degree to check. When Charles
for territory thus withdrawn the Danish archbishop of Lund was left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent'of Spain :

made legate and perpetual vicar and given the title of primate as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt. In 1517
of Denmark and Sweden. On his return Nicholas was received Leo X. had created him cardinal priest SS. loannis et Pauli;
with great honour by Anastasius IV., and on the death of the on the gth Of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected
latter was elected pope on the 4th of December 1154. He at pope. Crowned
in St Peter's on the 3ist of August at the age
once endeavoured to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia, he entered upon the lonely path of the reformer.
of s'ixty-three,
the leader of anti-papal sentiment in Rome. Disorders ending His programme was to attack notorious abuses one by one but ;

with the murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm in his attempt to improve the system of granting indulgences
Sunday 1155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting he was hampered by his cardinals and reducing the number of
;

Rome under the interdict. The senate thereupon exiled Arnold, matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for the income had
and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of Frederick I. been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. The Italians
Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his execution. Adrian saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind to the beauty of
crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the i8th of June HSS> a classical antiquity, penuriously docking the stipends of great
ceremony which so incensed the Romans that the pope had to artists. As a peacemaker among Christian princes, whom he
leave the city promptly, not returning till November 1156. hoped to unite in a protective war against the Turk, he was a
With the aid of dissatisfied barons, Adrian brought William I. of failure: in August 1523 he was forced openly to ally himself
Sicily into dire straits ; but a change in the fortunes of war led with the Empire, England, Venice, &c., against France mean- ;

to a settlement (June 1156) not advantageous to the papacy while in 1522 the sultan Suleiman I. had conquered Rhodes. In
and displeasing to the emperor. At the diet of Besancon in dealing with the early stages of the Protestant revolt in Germany
October 1157, the legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from Adrian did not fully recognize the gravity of the situation. At
Adrian which alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the em- the diet which opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was
peror, and the German chancellor translated this beneficia in represented by Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank
the feudal sense. In the storm which ensued the legates were admission that the whole disorder of the church had perchance
glad to escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed proceeded from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should
with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium he begin. However, the former professor and inquisitor-general
meant merely bonum faclum. The breach subsequently became was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that
wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the emperor Luther be punished for heresy. The statement in one of his
when he died at Anagnia on the ist of September 1159. works that the pope could err in matters of faith (" haeresim per
A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by Henry II. suam determinationem aut Decrelalem asserendo ") has attracted
of England to Adrian in 1155. According to the elaborate attention ;
but as it is a private opinion, not an ex cathedra

investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as follows. pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice the dogma of papal
Henry asked for permission to invade and subjugate Ireland, in infallibility. On the I4th of September 1523 he died, after a
order to gain absolute ownership of that isle. Unwilling to grant pontificate too short to be effective.
a request counter to the papal claim (based on the forged Dona- Most of Adrian VI. 's official papers disappeared soon after hisdeath.
tion of Constantine) to dominion over the islands of the sea, He published Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa
Adrian made Henry a conciliatory proposal, namely, that the sacramenta (Paris, 1512, 1516, 1518, 1537; Rome, 1522), and Quaes-
tiones quodlibeticae XII. (1st ed., Louvain, 1515). See L. Pastor,
king should become hereditary feudal possessor of Ireland while in Geschichte der Pdpste, vol. iv. pt. ii. Adrian VI. und Klemens
;

recognizing the pope as overlord. This compromise did not VII. (Freiburg, 1907) also Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd
;
"
satisfy Henry, so the' matter [dropped; Henry's subsequent ed., and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., under Hadrian
title to Ireland rested on conquest, not on VI."; H. Hurter, Nomenclator lilerarius recentioris theologiae
papal concession, catholicae, torn. iv. (Innsbruck, 1899), 1027; The Cambridge Modern
and was therefore absolute. The much-discussed bull Lauda-
History, vol. ii. (1904), 19-21 H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition
;

biliter is,however, not genuine. of Spain, vol. i. (1906); Janus, The Pope and the Council, 2nd ed.
See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. (excellent biblio- (London, 1869), 376. Biographies: A. Lepitre, Adrien VI. (Paris,
graphy), and Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., under 1880); C. A. C. von Hofler, Papst Adrian VI. (Vienna, 1880); L.
"
Hadrian IV."; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies concerning Casartelli, The Dutch Pope," in Miscellaneous Essays (London,
Adrian IV. (The University of Chicago: Decennial Publications, 1906). (W. W. R.*)
1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, Pope Adrian IV.: An
Historical Sketch (London, 1849) and
; A.H.Tarleton,I,ifeo/A^zc/!o/ai ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor
Breakspear (London, 1896). Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity,
ADRIAN V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a was martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said
Genoese who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he
IV. In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his
III. and his barons. He was elected pope to succeed Innocent faith. He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were
V. on the nth of July 1276, but died at Viterbo on the i8th of struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in his
August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood. wife's, St Natalia's, arms. St Adrian's festival, with that of his
ADRIAN VI. (Adrian Dedel, not Boyens, probably not Roden- He is specially a patron
wife, is kept on the 8th of September.
burgh, 1450-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht of soldiers, and is much reverenced in Flanders, Germany and
in March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an
Life either at Zwolle or Deventer. At Louvain he pursued anvil in hishands or at his feet.
philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of theo- ADRIAN, a city and the county-seat of Lenawee county,
logy (1491), dean of St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the uni- Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river, near the S.E.
In 1507 he was appointed tutor to the
versity. seven-year-old corner of the state. Pop.(i89o) 8756 (1900) 9654, of whom
;
 ADRIANI ADRIANOPLE 217
1136 were foreign-born: (IQIO census) 10,763. It is served industry, however, began to revive about 1890, and dairy farm-
by five branches of the Lake Shore railway system, and by the ing is prosperous; but the condition of the vilayet is far less
Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit and unsettled than that of Macedonia, owing partly to the prepon-
Iron ton railways. Adrian is the seat of Adrian College (1859; derance of Moslems among the peasantry, and partly to the
co-educational), controlled by the Wesleyan Methodist Church nearness of Constantinople, with its Western influences. The
in 1859-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant Church, main railway from Belgrade to Constantinople skirts the Maritza
and having departments of literature, theology, music, fine arts, and Ergene valleys, and there is an important branch line down
commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; and of the Maritza valley to Dedeagatch, and thence coastwise to
St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and i m. north Salonica. After the city of Adrianople (pop. 1905, about 80,000),
of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls (1879), for the which is the capital, the principal towns are Rodosto (35,000),
reformation of juvenile offenders between the ages of ten and Gallipoli (25,000), Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000),
seventeen. Adrian has a public library. The city is situated in a Chorlu (11,500), Demotica (10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina
rich farming region; is an important shipping point for live- (8000) and Dedeagatch (3000).
stock, grain and other farm products; and is especially known ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh;
as a centre for the manufacture of wire-fences. Among the other Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of
Adrianople, Turkey
manufactories are flouring and grist mills, planing mills, foun- in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of
Constantinople. Pop.
dries,and factories for making agricultural implements, United (1905) about 80,000, of whom half are Turks, and half Jews,
States mail boxes, furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople ranks, after Con-
and electrical supplies. The value of the city's factory products stantinople and Salonica, third in size and importance among
increased from $2,124,923 in 1900 to $4,897,426 in 1904, or the cities of European Turkey. It is the see of a Greek arch-
130-5%; of the total value in 1904, $2,849,648 was the value bishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian bishops. It
of wire-work. The
place was laid out as a town in 1828, and isthe chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, being defended
according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman by a ring of powerful modern forts. It occupies both banks of
emperor Hadrian. It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was the river Tunja, at its confluence with the Maritza, which is
made the county-seat in 1838 and was chartered as a city in navigable to this point in spring and winter. The nearest sea-
1853- port by rail is Dedeagatch, west of the Maritza; Enos, at the
ADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1513-1579), Italian his- river-mouth, is the nearest by water. Adrianople is on the rail-
torian, of a patrician family of Florence, and was
was born way from Belgrade and Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica.
secretary to the republic of Florence. He was among the de- In appearance thoroughly Oriental a mass of mean, ir-
it is
fenders of the city during the siege of 1530, but subsequently regular wooden buildings, threaded by narrow tortuous streets,
joined the Medici party and was appointed professor of rhetoric with a few better buildings. Of these the most important are
at the university. At the instance of Cosimo I. he wrote a history the Idadieh school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish
of hisown times, from 1536 to 15 74, in Italian, which is generally, communal school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial
but according to Brunei erroneously, considered a continuation Ottoman Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre;
of Guicciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted palaces for the prefect of the city, the administrative staff of the
to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani second army corps and the defence works commission; a hand-
composed funeral orations in Latin on the emperor Charles V. some row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French
and 'other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter hospital. Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are the
on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third volume Eski Serai, an ancient and half-ruined palace of the sultans;
of Vasari. His Istoria del suoi tempi was published in Florence the bazaar of Ali Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque of the
in 1583; a new edition appeared also in Florence in 1872. sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture.
See G. M. Mazzucchelli, Gli Scrittori d' Italia, i. p. 151 (Brescia, Adrianople has five suburbs, of which Kiretchhane and
1753). Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, and Kirjik stands
ADRIANOPLE, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding on a hill overlooking the city. The two last named are exclur
with part of the ancient Thrace, and bounded on the N. by sively Greek, but a large proportion of the inhabitants of Kiretch-
Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet hane are Bulgarian. These three suburbs as well as the little
-

of Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean hamlet of Demirtash, containing about 300 houses all occupied
Sea and W. by Macedonia. Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area, by Bulgars are all built in the native fashion; but the^ fifth
15,000 sq. m. The surface of the vilayet is generally mountain- suburb, Karagatch, which is on the right bank of the Maritza,
ous, except in the central valley of the Maritza, and along the and occupies the region between the railway station and the city,
banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c. On the is Western in its design, consisting of detached residences in

west, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend as gardens, many of them handsome villas, and all of modern
far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 ft.
European type. In all the communities schools have multiplied,
in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and Kara- but the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type.
Balkan. Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja The only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys a govern-
Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the ment institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars.
entire south coast, which includes the promontory of Gallipoli Like the- Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has two
and the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course of
or mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and education in each language, the pupils following both courses.
of the Mesta, a western frontier stream. The climate is mild The several communities have each their own charitable institu-
and the soil fertile; but political disturbances and the conserva- tions, the Jews being specially well endowed in this respect.
tive character of the people tend to thwart the The Greeks have a literary society, and there is a well-organized
progress of
agriculture and other industries. The vilayet suffered severely club to which members of all the native communities, as well as
during the Russian occupation of 1878, when, apart from the many foreigners, belong.
natural dislocation of commerce, many of the Moslem culti- The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired
vators emigrated to Asia Minor, to be free from their alien
by the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery
rulers. Through the resultant scarcity of labour, much land when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by a
fellout of cultivation. This was partially remedied after the Customs cordon rendered the situation worse than ever. Adrian-
Bulgarian annexation of Eastern Rumelia, in 1885, had driven ople had previously been the commercial headquarters of all
the Moslems of that country to emigrate in like manner to Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between the Balkans
Adrianople; but the advantage was counterbalanced by the and the Danube, how Bulgaria. But the separation of Eastern
establishment of hostile Bulgarian tariffs. The important silk Rumelia isolated Adrianople, and transferred to Philippopolis at
2l8 ADRIATIC SEA ADULTERATION
least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, as regards sea-borne ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write),
"
merchandise, is carried on through the port of Burgas (q.v.). something written after, as opposed to subscript," which
"
The city manufactures silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen means written under. A labourer was called an adscript of the
"
and cotton, and has an active general trade. Besides fruits and soil (adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or transferred
agricultural produce, its exports include raw silk, cotton, opium, with it, as in feudal days,and as in Russia until 1861. Carlyle
rose-water, attar of roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts.
red. The surrounding country is extremely fertile, and its ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe of
wines are the best produced in Turkey. The city is supplied Judah, perhaps the modern "Aid-el-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of Beit-Jibrin.
" is
with fresh water by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over It was in the stronghold (" cave a scribal error) of this town
an extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the that David took refuge on two occasions (i Sam. xxii. i; 2 Sam.
Tunja. v. 17). The tradition that Adullam is in the great cave of
Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama Khareitun (St Chariton) is probably due to the crusaders.
"
or Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman From the description of Adullam as the resort of every one
" "
emperor Hadrian (117-138). In 378 the Romans were here that was in distress," or in debt," or discontented," it has
defeated by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the often been humorously alluded to, notably by Sir Walter Scott,
Turkish sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I., who puts the expression into the mouth of the Baron of Brad-
until 1453, when Constantinople fell. It was occupied by the wardine in Waverley, chap. Ivii., and also of Balfour of Burley in
"
Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS). Old Mortality. In modern political history the expression cave
" "
ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the of Adullam (hence Adullamites ") came into common use
Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian, (being first employed in a speech by John Bright on the i3th of
Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the March 1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert
Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal
ranges. The name, derived from the town of Adria, belonged supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866. But others
originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. President
127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but was Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), and the Tories
gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in import- in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined C. J. Fox in his
ance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only temporary secession. From the same usage is derived the
" "
extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion being shorter political term cave for any body of men who secede
called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however, from their party on some special subject.
inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulterare, to defile or falsify),
Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete and the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object of
Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 40 to passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine commodity
45 45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 m., and a mean for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an inferior article
breadth of about no m., but the Strait of Otranto, through for a superior one, to the detriment of the purchaser. Although
which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45 m. the term is mainly used in connexion with the falsification of
wide. Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern articles of food, drink or drugs, and is so dealt with in this article,

part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open the practice of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured
sea in this part to 90 m. The Italian shore is generally low, products and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and
merging, in the north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on (aswas once suggested by John Bright) is an almost inseparable
either hand of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment thoughnone the less reprehensible -phase of keen trade
of which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce itself, it
within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons has progressed with the growth of knowledge and of science,
opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has its and is, in its most modern developments, almost a branch
unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and rocky. and that not the least vigorous one of applied science. From
South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the Gulfs of the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a stone in a loaf of
Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, the island-fringe bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in a musk bag or in a piece
of the east coast extends as far south as Ra'gusa. The islands, of opium, it has developed into the use of aniline dyes, of anti-
which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the septic chemicals, of synthetic sweetening agents in foods, the
coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a manufacture of butter from cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed
few hundred feet, while on the mainland, notably in the magnifi- and of pepper from olive stones. Its growth and development
cent inlet of the Bocche di Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall has necessitated the employment of multitudes of scientific
directly to the sea. This coast, though beautiful, is somewhat officers charged with its detection and the passing of numerous

sombre, the prevalent colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey, laws for its repression and punishment. While for all common
contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of forms of fraud the common law is in most cases considered
the islands is luxuriant. The north part of the sea is very strong enough, special laws against the adulteration of food
shallow, and between the southern promontory of Istria and have been found necessary in all civilized countries. A vigorous
Rimini the depth rarely exceeds 25 fathoms. Between Sebenico branch of chemical literature deals with it; there exist scientific
and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable societies specially devoted to its study; laboratories are main-
area of which exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point be- tained by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for
tween Curzola and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes, but
there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to health.
few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea There are numerous references to adulteration in the classics.
lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of Dur- The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in Hiero's crown,
azzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and by the light specific gravity of the latter, is a well-known in-
upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below stance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration of minium with
800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 fathoms. lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other plant juices and
The bora (north-east wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white clay. Both in Rome
from this quarter or the south-east, are dangers to navigation in and in Athens wine was often adulterated with colours and
winter. Tidal movement is slight. (See also MEDITERRANEAN.) flavouring agents, and inspectors were charged with looking
For the " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more properly "of the after it.

sea," a ceremony formerly performed by the doges of Venice, In England, so far back as the reign of John (1203), a pro-
see the article BUCENTAUR. clamation was made throughout the kingdom, enforcing the
 ADULTERATION 219
legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall
"
reign the statute (51 Hen. III. Stat. 6) entitled the pillory and counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be
" counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate or manu-
tumbrel was framed for the express purpose of protecting the
public from the dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, facture tea with terra-japonica, or with any drug or drugs what-
butchers and others. This statute is the first in which the adul- soever; nor shall mix or cause or procure to be mixed with tea
teration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it any leaves other than the leaves of tea or other ingredients
seems to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting and losing the tea so counter-
time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the feited, adulterated, altered, fabricated, manufactured or mixed,
Liber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward I., and any other thing or things whatsoever added thereto, or
"
for it states that: If any default shall be found in the bread mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of 100." Six years
of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a afterwards, in 1730-1731, a further act was passed prescribing a
" "
hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house through the great penalty for sophisticating tea; it recites that several ill-dis-
street where there be most people assembled, and through the posed persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very
great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging great quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves
from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing of tea that have been before used, or the leaves of other trees,
the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix, colour,
the great street of Cheepe in the manner aforesaid to the pillory, stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with terra-japonica,
and let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other ingredients, and
hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be do sell and vend the same as true and real tea, to the prejudice
found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of the
the baker made to foreswear the trade in the city for ever." The revenue and to the ruin of the fair trader. This act provides
"
assize of 1634 provides that if there be any manner of person that for every pound of adulterated tea found in possession of
or persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell any any person, a sum of 10 shall be forfeited. It was followed by
meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it deceitfully one passed in 1 766-1 767, which increased the penalty to imprison-
or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may be to the hurte ment for not less than six nor more than twelve months. As
and infection of man's body, or use any false weight, or any de- regards coffee, an act of 1718 recited that "divers evil-disposed
ceitful wayes or meanes, and so deceive the subject, for the first persons have at the time or soon after the roasting of coffee
offence he shall be grievously punished, the second he shall made use of water, grease, butter or such-like materials, where-
loose his meale, for the third offence he shall suffer the judg- by the same is rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in
ment of the pillory and the fourth time he shall foreswere the weight," and a penalty of 20 is enacted. In 1803 an act refers
town wherein he dwelleth." Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers, to the addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or
regrators and others were subject to the like punishment for other grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of
dishonesty in their commercial dealings it being thought that coffee or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty for the
the pillory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more offence at 100, but subsequently permission was given to coffee
deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment. In the reign or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted corn, peas,
of Edward the Confessor a knavish brewer of the city of Chester beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or powdared,
was taken round the town in the cart in which the refuse of the under certain excise restrictions. An act passed in 1816 relating
privies had been collected. Ale-tasters had to look after the ale to beer and porter provides that no brewer of or dealer in or
"
and test it by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the retailer of beer shall receive or have in his possession, or make
"
wet place in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the resi- or mix with any worts or beer, any liquor, extract or other pre-
"
due obtained by evaporation affording the evidence of purity paration for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer,
or otherwise. If sugar had been added the taster adhered to the other than brown malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his
bench; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an adhesive possession or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses,
extract. In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered a jury of honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of
five or six vintners to rack and draw off the suspected wine of paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or
another vintner, and to ascertain what drugs or ingredients any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for
they found in the said wine or cask to sophisticate the same. malt or hops." Any person contravening was liable to a penalty
At another time eight pipes of wine were ordered to be destroyed of 200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or retail dealer
because, on racking off, bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match, any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined 500. It was
"
and " a kind of gravel mixture sticking to the casks had been only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to make for their own
found. use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening the colour of worts or
Similar records have come down from the continental European beer and to use it in brewing.
countries. In 1390 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced to be All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the
led out of the city with his hands bound and a rope round his interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left
neck; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise severely entirely in the hands of the revenue officers. It was but natural
"
punished; in 1435 were the taverner Christian Corper and that they should look primarily after the dutiable articles and
his wife put in a cask in which he sold false wine, and then ex- not after those that brought no revenue to the state. About
posed in the pillory. The punishment was adjudged because the middle of the igth century many articles, however, paid
they had roasted pears and put them into new sour wine, in import duty; butter, for instance, paid 53. per hundredweight;
order to sweeten the wine. Some pears were hung round their cheese from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.; [flour or meal of all kinds, 4$d.;
necks like unto a Paternoster." In Biebrich on the Rhine, in and so on. Sensational and doubtless
ginger, xos. ; isinglass, 55. ;

1482, a wine-falsifier was condemned to drink six quarts of his largely exaggerated statements were from time to time published
own wine; from this he died. In Frankfurt, casks in which false concerning the food supply of the nation. F. C. Accum (1760-
wine had been found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's 1838) by his Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary
"
cart, the jailer marched before, the rabble after, and when they Poisons (1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book
came to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, or
into the stream." In France successive ordonnances from 1330 Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which the blood-
to 1672 forbade the mixing of two wines together under the empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of wines, spirits,
penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine. beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices, cheesemongery, pastry, con-
Modern British Legislation. In modern times the English fectionery, medicines, &c. 6*c., are laid
open to the public (1830),
parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food adul- In 1850 a physician, Dr. Arthur
roused the public attention.
"
teration. In 1725 it was provided that no dealer in tea or H. Hassall, had the happy idea of looking at ground coffee
220- ADULTERATION
through the microscope. Eminent chemists had previously of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present
found great difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical day, subject to amendments and additions made at J8J5
distinction between coffee, chicory and other adulterants of later dates. This act avoided the term "adulteration"
coffee; the microscope showed the structural
immediately altogether and endeavoured to give a clearer description of
difference of the however small. The results of
particles, punishable offences:
Hassall's examinations were embodied in a paper which was read Section 6. "No person shall sell to the purchaser any article
before the Botanical Society of London and was reported in of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and
The Times, 1850. A paper on the microscopic examination of quality of the article demanded by the purchaser under a penalty
sugar, showing the presence in that article of innumerable living not exceeding 20; provided that an offence shall not be deemed
mites, followed and attracted much attention. Hassall was in to be committed under this section in the following cases: (i)
consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1795-1862), where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been
the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other added to the food or drug because the same is required for the
articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports of production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce,
the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly pub- in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently
lished, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or
and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly given. conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the food or drug
The responsibility incurred was immense, but the assertions is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force
of the journal were so well founded upon fact that they were and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the

universally accepted as accurately representing the appalling patent; (3) where the food or drug is compounded as in the
state of the food supply. As instances may be cited, that of act mentioned; (4) where the food or drug is unavoidably
thirty-four samples of coffee only three were pure, chicory being mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection
present in thirty-one, roasted corn in twelve, beans and potato- or preparation."
"
flour each in one; of thirty-four samples of chicory, fourteen Section 8. No person shall be guilty of any such offence as
were adulterated with corn, beans or acorns; of forty-nine aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food or a drug
samples of bread, every one contained alum; of fifty-six samples mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health,
of cocoa, only eight were pure; of twenty-six milks, fourteen and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight or
were adulterated; of twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering
were genuine, thirteen containing red-lead and one vermilion; such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the
of upwards of one hundred samples of coloured sugar-confec- same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed
tionery, fifty-nine contained chromate.of lead, eleven gamboge, on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is
twelve red-lead, six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four mixed."
white-lead. The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon
In consequence of the Lancet's disclosures a parliamentary the city of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions and
committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted in town councils or boroughs having a separate police establish-
1860 in the Adulteration of FoodandDrink Act, the first ment. For the protection of the vendor, samples that had been
i860* act tnat dealt generally with the adulteration of food. purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be offered to be
The first section of this enacted " that every person divided into three parts, one to be submitted to the analyst,
who shall sell any article of food or drink with which, to the the second to be given to the vendor to be dealt with by him as
knowledge of such person, any ingredient or material injurious he might deem fit, and the third to be retained by the inspector,
to the health of persons eating or drinking soch article has and, at the discretion of the magistrate hearing any summons,
been mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadul- to be submitted, in case of dispute, to the commissioners of
terated any article of food or drink which is adulterated and inland revenue for analysis by the chemical laboratory at
not pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction, Somerset House. The public analyst had to give a certificate,
pay a penalty not exceeding 5 with costs." In the case of a couched in a prescribed form, to the person submitting any
second offence the name, place of abode and offence might be sample for analysis, which certificate was to be taken as evidence
published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. As the of the facts therein stated, in order to render the proceedings as
act, however, left it optional to the district authorities to appoint inexpensive as practicable. If the defendant in any prosecu-
analysts or not, and did not provide for the appointment of any tion could prove to the satisfaction of the court that he had
officer upon whom should rest the duty of obtaining samples or purchased the article under a warranty of genuineness, and
of prosecuting offenders, it virtually remained a dead letter till that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he was
1872 J 87 2 when the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act
,
to be discharged from the prosecution, but no provision was
came into force, prescribing a penalty not exceeding made that in that event the giver of the warranty should be
50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a second offence, im- proceeded against.
prisonment for six months with hard labour. Inspectors were Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of
empowered to make purchases of samples to be submitted for litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to pass
analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left optional. an amending act, making it clear that if a purchase 1S79
The definition of an adulterated article given in that act was was effected by an inspector with the intent to get the
" " " if
essentially that still accepted at the present time, namely, any purchased article analysed, he was as much prejudiced
article of food or drink or any drug mixed with any other sub- obtaining a sophisticated article as a private purchaser who
stances, with intent fraudulently to increase its weight or bulk, purchased for his own use and consumption. The amending act
without declaration of such admixture to any purchaser thereof also dealt in some small measure with a difficulty which immedi-
before delivering the same." The adoption of the act was ately after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining
sporadic, and, outside London and a few large towns, the number whether any article was " of the nature, substance and quality
of proceedings against offenders remained exceedingly small. demanded by the purchaser " "
in determining whether an
Nevertheless complaints soon arose that it inflicted considerable offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits not
injury and imposed heavy and undeserved penalties upon some adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, it shall
"
respectable tradesmen, mainly owing to the want of a clear be a good defence to prove that such admixture has not reduced
understanding of what does and does hot constitute adultera- the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under proof for brandy,
tion," and in some cases to conflicting decisions and the inex- whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof for gin." Almost
"
perience of analysts. insuperable difficulties as to the meaning of nature, substance
Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took and quality " subsequently arose as regards every conceivable
a mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale food material. As it was obviously impossible for parliament
 ADULTERATION 221
to define every article, to lay down limits of composition within tity, and was added for the purpose of fraudulently increasing
which might vary, to specify the substances or ingredients
it the bulk or weight. In another case, however (Otter v. Edgley,
that might enter into it, to limit the proportions of the unavoid- l8 93, 57 J-P- 457), where an inspector had asked for French
able impurities that might be contained in it, the duty to do all coffee and had been supplied with a mixture containing 60%
this was left to the individual analysts. An enormous number of the article being labelled as a mixture, the
chicory,
of substances had to be analysed until sufficient evidence had high court held that there was no evidence of fraud, and, in
been accumulated for the giving of correct opinions or certifi- the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as little as 30%
cates. Endless disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manu- of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label
stating it
facturers and traders, unfortunately also with the referees at to be a mixture, was held to have been legally sold (Jones
the inland revenue, who for many years were altogether out of v. Jones, 1894, 58 J.P. 653). In this case the label notifying
touch with the analysts. Conflicting decisions come to by the admixture was hidden by a sheet of opaque white paper,
various benches of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing nor had the purchaser's attention been called to it, but the price
of the legal sale of an article in one district which in another of the article was much lower than that of pure cocoa.
had been declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants It is seen from these few instances, taken at random out of
often unsatisfactory. It was not recognized by parliament scores, that this clause of the act was far from clear and was
until almost a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not very variously interpreted at the courts. The warranty clause
enough compel local authorities to get samples analysed,
to (clause 25) also gave rise to an immense amount of litigation.
but that it was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific In the earlier high court decisions a very narrow interpretation
and clear instructions that might enable the officers to do their was given to the term " written warranty," but in later years
work. This has only been very partially done even at the a wider view prevailed. A general contract to supply a pure
present time. article is not a sufficient warranty unless with every delivery
A curious condition of thing? arose out of the definition of there is something to identify the delivery as part of the contract.
" " "
food given in the act of 1875: The term food shall include An invoice containing merely a description of an article as
" " " "
Difficul- every article used for food or drink by man, other than lard or pepper is not a warranty; but if there be added
" "
ties of
drugs or water." It had been the practice of bakers the words guaranteed pure it is a sufficient warranty. A
t0 add alUm t0 thC fl Ur fr m
which bread WaS label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, but a label bear-
" " "
manufactured, in order to whiten the bread, and to ing the words pure or unadulterated," coupled with an
permit the use of damaged and discoloured flour. This practice invoice which could be identified with the label, together were
had been strongly condemned by chemists and physicians, held to form an effective warranty.
because it rendered the bread indigestible and injurious to As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by
health. Shortly after the passing of the Food Act this objec- inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been appointed
tionable practice was stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number of cases led
alumed bread now no longer occurs. A large trade, however, to disputes of law or fact, about seventy high court cases being
continued to be carried on in baking powders consisting of alum decided within eighteen years of the passing of the act. While
and sodium bicarbonate. It was naturally thought that, as these cases related to a variety of different articles and conditions,
baking powder is sold with the obvious intention that it may dairy produce, namely milk and butter, led to the greatest
enter into food, the vendors could also be proceeded against. amount of litigation. It may seem to be a simple matter to
The high court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not ascertain whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with
"
being an article of food, its sale could not be an offence under milk of the nature, substance and quality demanded," but
the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act. milk is subject to great variations in composition owing to a
Under section 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be con- large number of circumstances which will be considered below.
victed, even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the Not many years Food Act of 1875 the
after the passing of the
article he had sold was adulterated. In the repealed Adultera- sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and
" "
tion Act of 1872 the words to the knowledge of were inserted, so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, an
and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions. The general act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the Sale
rule of the law is is not criminally responsible
that the master of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many
for the acts of his servants they are done without his know-
if provisions of that act. It was called the Margarine Act 1887.
ledge or authority, but under the Food Act it was held (Brown It provided that every package of articles made in
" "
v. Fool, 1892, 66 L.T. 649) that a master was liable for the imitation of butter should be labelled margarine A ^'
watering of milk by one of his servants, although he had pub- in letters 15 inches square. The vendor, however,
lished a warning to them that they would be dismissed if found was protected if he could show a warranty or invoice, whereas
doing so. Milk might be adulterated during transit on the rail- in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act he was not protected by
"
way without the knowledge of the owner or receiver, and yet invoice merely. Inspectors might take samples of any butter
"
the vendor was liable to conviction. or substitute purporting to be butter without going through
When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that the the form of purchase. The maximum penalty was raised from
article sold to him is not of the nature, substance or quality he 20 as provided by the Food Act, to 50 in the case of a first
demanded, the sale is not to the prejudice of the purchaser. and 100 in the case of repeated conviction. The Margarine
to
The notice be given verbally or by a label supplied with
may Act the first statute that makes reference to and sanctions
is

the article. A common law notice may also be given. In the use of preservatives, concerning which a good deal will
Sandys v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican had displayed have to be said farther on.
a placard within the inn to the effect that the spirits sold in his In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food
establishment were watered. This was held, as it were, to con- Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the various
tract him out of the Food Act. Similarly, in the case of butters points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee was Select
that had been adulterated with milk, the vendors, by giving a appointed to inquire into the working of the various co'^u.
general notice in the shop, evaded punishment under the act. acts and to report whether any, and if so what, amend- tee, 1894.

A notice, is, however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the ments were desirable. During three sessions the com-
act, if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes. mittee sat and took voluminous evidence. They reported that
In Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J.P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked for where the acts had been well administered they had been most
coffee and received a packet with a label describing it as a beneficial in diminishing adulteration offences. Forms of
mixture of coffee and chicory. It was sold at the price of adulteration which were common prior to the passing of the
coffee. It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of 1875 act, such as the introduction of alum into bread and the
chicory. The high court held that this was an excessive quan- cplouring of confectionery with poisonous material, had almost
222 ADULTERATION
entirely disappeared. A
close connexion had been shown to four food acts run parallel and are together in force, rendering the
exist between the extent of adulteration and the number of subject from a legal point of view one of extreme complexity.
articles submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion In this act the growing influence of the Board of Agri-
of adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number culture and the desire to assist farmers and dairymen
of samples taken relatively to the population increased. Thus, more decisively than previously are clearly apparent.
in 1890, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every Section i empowersthe customs to take samples of consignments
the percentage of adulterated samples in those taken of importedarticles of food and enjoins them to communicate
379 persons,
for analysis being as low as 3-6; in Gloucestershire one to 770 to theBoard of Agriculture the names of the importers of adulter-
persons with 6-2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire one to 821 with ated goods, any article of food to be considered adulterated or
7-1; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17-1 %, and in Oxford impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance
one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less than 41-7 % (other than preservative or colouring matter, of such a nature
of adulterated samples. The number of samples of articles and such a quantity as not to render the article injurious to
annually submitted to analysis, according to the returns obtained health), or if any part of it has been abstracted to the detriment
by the Local Government Board, steadily increased from the com- of the article. Margarine or cheese containing margarine has
mencement onward. Whereas in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in to be conspicuously marked as such; condensed, separated or

1883, 19,648 samples were analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was skim milk has to be clearly labelled
"
machine-skimmed milk "
"
no less than 84,678, or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants or skimmed milk," as the case may be. The next sections give
for the whole country. In the five years 1877-1881 the pro- to the Local Government Board and the Board of Agriculture
portion found adulterated was 16-2 %; in the following five a roving commission to see that the acts are properly enforced
years ending with 1886, the percentage was 13-9; in the five years throughout the kingdom so as to apply the acts more equally
ending 1891, the percentage was 11-7; and in the year 1904 throughout the country than heretofore, and in default of local
the percentage was only 8-5. The select committee found that authorities carrying out their duties empower the government
wide local differences in the administration of the acts existed, departments mentioned to execute and enforce the acts at the
and that in many parts of the country the local authorities expense of the local authorities. The importance of a regular
had failedto exercise their powers. In one metropolitan district, and conscientious control of the public food supply by the local
eight members of the local authority had been convicted of authorities was thus for the first time, after forty years of ex-
offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own perimental legislation, fully acknowledged. In recognition of
inspector. The result was that the duties of the inspector of the the great difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in
acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that local their endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and
authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions should other milk constituents, and their inability to do so without
"
be undertaken, and the administration of the acts was little statutory powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorized by
"
better than a farce." No power existed to compel local au- section 4 to make regulations for determining what deficiency
thorities to carry out the acts. The committee came to the con- in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter
clusion that in many cases the responsibility for the adulteration or cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion
"
of articles of food did not rest with the retailer but with the whole- of water in any of these materials shall raise a presump-
sale dealer or manufacturer; that the law punished petty offences tion, until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not
and leftgreat ones untouched; that it fined a small retailer and genuine. In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agricul-
left the wholesale offender scot free. As regards warranty, they ture did in 1901 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially
thought that the precedent created by the Margarine Act should the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the sale
be followed generally, and that invoices and equivalent docu- of butter regulations, which fixed 16 %
as the maximum of
ments should have the force of warranties. They found that water that might be contained in butter. It is important to
a considerable proportion of the food imports were adulterated, note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of the standard
out of 890 samples of butter taken by the customs in 1895 no is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, [but it justifies the
less than 106 being impure, and they recommended that in ad- institution of proceedings and casts the onus of proving that
dition to tea, which by section 30 of the act of 1875 was to be the sample is genuine upon the defendant. The Margarine Act
systematically analysed by the customs, prior to being passed of 1887 was extended to margarine cheese, the obligatory
for distribution, samples of all food imports should be taken and labelling of margarine packages was more precisely regulated,
examined by the customs. The committee further found that margarine manufacturers and dealers in that article were com-
the penalties imposed under the acts had for the most part been pelled to keep a register open to inspection by the Board of
trifling and quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits Agriculture, showing the quantity and designation of each con-
derived from the sale of adulterated articles being out of pro- signment, and power was given to officers of the board to enter
portion great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recom- at all reasonable times manufactories of margarine and margarine
mended that for the second offence the penalty of 5 should be cheese. The amount of butter-fat that might be present in
the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent margarine was limited to 10 %, while under the Margarine
offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be in- Act of 1887 an unlimited admixture might have been made,
flicted. The important question of food standards was considered provided that the mixture, no matter how large the percentage
at great length. The absence of legal standards or definitions of butter, was sold as margarine. As is further explained below,
of articles of food had occasioned great difficulty in numerous the difficulty of distinguishing without chemical aid between
cases, but as no authority was provided by the existing acts that pure butter and margarine containing a considerable percentage
might fix such standards, they recommended the formation of of butter is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be
a scientific authority or court of reference composed of repre- common after the passing of the Margarine Act. The labelling
sentatives of the laboratory of the Inland Revenue, of the Local section of the Food Act 1875 ( 8), which had been systematic-
Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the General ally circumvented, was modified, a label being no longer recog-
Medical Council, the Institute of Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical nized as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is so
Society, of other scientific men and of the trading and manu- written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the label
facturing community, who should have the duty of fixing stand- is not obscured
by other matter on the label, though labels that
ards of quality and purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary had been continuously in use for at least seven years before the
of state. commencement of the act were not interfered with. In conse-
The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted quence of the admitted unfairness of asking for a portion of the
in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act This unfortunately contents of a properly labelled tin or package and then instituting
1899.
was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, but proceedings because no declaration of admixture had been
was an additional and amending one, so that at the present time made, it was enacted that no person shall be required to sell any
 ADULTERATION 223
exposed for sale in an unopened tin or packet, except in
article When the coal is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of the
the unopened tin or packet in which it is contained. This re- arsenic condenses and deposits. Malt dried in English malt
moved a grievance which had long been felt both by retailers kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there
and manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past
with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in factories. been thus contaminated. At the present time coal virtually
The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, had given rise free from arsenic is selected for malting, or Newlands' process,
to much litigation, were more clearly defined. A notice that a consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which renders
defendant would rely for his defence upon a warranty had to be the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free from all but
given within seven days of the' service of the summons or the the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured. Part of the
defence would not be available, and the warrantor was em- arsenic remains in the coal-ashes and wherever these deposit
powered to appear at the hearing and to give evidence so that arsenic can be traced. Sir Edward Frankland had, many years
no man's name could, as sometimes previously happened, be previously, detected arsenic in the London atmosphere. Chicory
dragged into a case without due notice to him. A warranty or roasted with coal, steaks and chops grilled over an open fire,
invoice given by a person resident outside the United Kingdom thus obtain a minute arsenical dosing. In sugar refineries
was no longer recognized as a defence, unless the defendant carbonic acid gas is, at one stage of the process, passed through
could prove that he had taken reasonable steps to ascertain the liquor for the purpose of precipitating lime or strontia.
and did in fact believe in the accuracy of the statement con- When this carbonic acid is derived from coal the sugar often
tained in the warranty. This prevented collusion between a shows traces of arsenic. When arsenical malt or sugar infusion
and an importer; and, lastly, the definition of
foreign shipper is fermented, as in brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a
"food v was widened (in view of the baking-powder decision) considerable proportion of the impurity, thus partly cleaning
"
so that the term food shall include every article used for food the beer, but all preparations made from yeast yeast-extracts
or drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article resemble to some extent meat extracts, with which they are some-
which ordinarily enters into or is used in the composition or times fraudulently mixed are thus exposed to arsenical con-
preparation of human food, and shall also include flavoring tamination. On the continent of Europe malt is not dried in
matters and condiments." kilns with direct access of combustion gases but on floors heated
The act of 1899 embodies, with one exception, the most from beneath, and continental beers therefore have not been
important recommendations of the Food Products Committee, found arsenical. The second class of causes of contamination
the exception being the omission of instituting a board of refer- consists of chemicals. The most important chemical product is
ence that might deal with difficulties as they arose, guide analysts sulphuric acid. This used to be made from brimstone or native
and public authorities in fixing limits for articles other than milk volcanic sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic. But since
and butter, and take up the important questions of preservatives about 1860 sulphuric acid has been more largely made from
and colouring matters and such like. An occurrence which iron or copper pyrites. Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, but can,
almost immediately followed the passing of the act showed in by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that impurity. For
the strongest manner the necessity of such guiding board many purposes acid that has not been purified is employed. In
namely, the outbreak of arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step is the conver-
the latter part of 1900. sion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric acid. The hydro-
In the month of June 1900 there occurred, mainly in the chloric acid which is formed carries with it most of the arsenic
Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an out- of the sulphuric acid. Wherever such hydrochloric acid is used
break of an illness variously described as "alcoholism," it introduces arsenic; thus, in the separation of glycerin from
" "
iiTfoods. peripheral neuritis or "multiple neuritis." This soap lyes, the alkali of the latter is neutralized with hydrochloric
affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70 acid and glycerin is in consequence frequently highly arsenical.
deaths. Itwas soon ascertained that the sufferers were all beer So is the soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one
drinkers, and several of them were employees of a local brewery, of the numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive
the majority of whom had suffered, |for some months past. its share. All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric acid,
Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some considerable time such as phosphoric, tartaric, citric, boracic, may be, and some-
elapsed before Dr E. S. Reynolds of Manchester discovered times are, thus contaminated. All superphosphates, made by
arsenic in dangerous proportions in the beer. Steps were im- the action of crude sulphuric acid upon bones or other phosphatic
mediately taken by brewers and sanitary authorities to ensure materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made from gas-liquor and
that this arsenical beer was withdrawn from sale, and, as a acid, that is to say, two of the most important manurial materials,
result, the epidemic came speedily to an end. In all instances are arsenical, and the poison is thus spread far and wide over
where this epidemic of sickness had been traced to particular meadows and fields, and can be traced in the soil wherever
breweries, the latter had been users of brewing sugars glucose artificialmanures have been applied. The crops sometimes take
and invert sugar supplied by a single firm. The quantity of up arsenic to a slight extent, but happily the plant is more
arsenic detected in specimens of these brewing sugars was in selective than man, and no serious amount of poison absorption
some cases very large, amounting to upward of four grains per appears to be possible. The risk of contamination is, of course,
pound. The implicated brewing sugars were found to have much greater with substances which, like glucose, are not
become contaminated by arsenic in course of their manufacture further purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity
through the use of sulphuric acid, some specimens of which is introduced into them. Glucose is not only used in beer, in
contained as much as 2-6% of arsenic. The acid had been which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but is also
made from highly arsenical iron pyrites, and as the manufac- substituted for sugar in a number of food products, and is liable
turers of the glucose had not specifically contracted with the to carry into them its contamination. Sugar confectionery,
acid makers for pure acid, the latter, not knowing for what jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are often admixed
purpose the acid was to be used, had felt themselves justified in with glucose. It is difficult to say in the present state of the
supplying impure acid. A royal commission was appointed in law whether such admixture amounts to adulteration. It was
February 1901, with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into clearly made originally for fraudulent purposes, but usage
and
the matter, and an enormous amount of attention was naturally high court decisions have gradually given the practice an air of
given to it by chemists and medical men. It was soon found that respectability. Vinegar of sorts is also made from a glucose
liquor produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon maize
arsenic was very widely disseminated in two classes of food or

materials, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases other starchy material, and is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic
resulting from the combustion of coal, and such as had been contamination. There is hardly a chemical substance which
more or less chemically manufactured. All coal contains iron has directly or indirectly come in to -con tact with sulphuric acid
pyrites, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic. that is not at times arsenical. Thus, while artificial colours,
224 ADULTERATION
now so much usedfor the dyeing of food products, are no longer extract) if the substance contain one-hundredth of a grain of

prepared aswas rosaniline (the parent substance of so many arsenic or more to the pound. The board of reference, most
aniline dyes) at an early stage of its manufacture with arsenic urgently needed for the protection of the public and for the
acid, yet they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be created.
acid. Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the While from time immemorial certain articles of food have
smelting of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in par- been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the addition
ticular, as employed for pots and pans and implements, being of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the last

highly arsenical. From the iron the many chemical preparations quarter of the igth century the use of chemicals acting
which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives ex-
arsenicated. The general presence of arsenic from some of these tended enormously, particularly in England. A very
causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of arsenical large fraction of the British food supply being obtained
poisoning have been due to it at various times, but neglect, from abroad, a proportionately great difficulty exists in obtain-
forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the matter go into ing the food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition. While
oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite of all attention which refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in enab-
has been given to the subject, of the panic which was created ling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be imported,
by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of the shock and injury caused other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that are collected
to manufacturers of many kinds, and of the watchfulness from farmers and brought together at shipping ports, are neces-
aroused in officers of health and analysts, that as long as the sary to prevent decomposition prior to such goods coming into
production of food materials or substances that go into food cold store. Thus it is well-nigh impossible to collect butter
materials is not left to the care of nature, and as long as man from farms in Australia or New Zealand far distant from the
adds the products of his ingenuity to our food and drink, so long coast without the addition of some chemical preservative.
"
will accidents," like the Manchester poisoning, from time to Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the modern palate, and,
time recur. We now search for arsenic; some other time it is with the progress of specialized labour, the inhabitants, especi-
lead, or antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief. Man ally of great towns, have become accustomed to resort to manu-
does what he can according to his light, but he sees but a little factured provisions instead of the home-made and home-cooked
patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal food. Manufacturers of many articles of preserved food gradu-
building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance ally adopted the use of chemical preservatives, and at the present
to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it. Strictly time the practice has become so general that it may be said that
speaking,' arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of practically every person in the United Kingdom who has passed
adulteration. It is not due to wilfulmess but to stupidity, but the suckling stage consumes daily more or less food containing
it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to heart, chemical preservatives. The Food Act allows of the addition
that mankind, by relying too much upon " science " in feeding, of any ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for
is on a path that is fraught with considerable danger. the production or preparation of the food, or as an article of
To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the royal commerce, in a state fit for carriage. The legality or otherwise
commission made important recommendations concerning of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, hinges upon their
amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted innocuousness. Upon theoretical considerations it is clear that
and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for the a substance which is capable of acting as an antiseptic must act
purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and other injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or yeasts, and as the human
"
deleterious substances in food. As a rule public analysts body is, generally speaking, less resistant to poisons than the low
receive samples in order that they may pronounce upon their organisms in question, it would seem to follow that antiseptics
genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the local circum- are bound to affect it injuriously. It is, of course, a question
stances which led to their being taken, of their origin or the of dose and proportion. It has further been said that all anti-
reasons for sending them. The term genuine ' in this sense
'

septics possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valu-

means that the analyst has not detected such objectionable able they may be in disease when administered under the control
substances as he has considered it necessary to look for in the of a competent physician, they have no business to be given in-
sample submitted to him. Obviously, the value of the state- discriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of food.
ment that the sample is genuine depends upon the extent to
' '
The result of a general desire on the part of importers and manu-
which the analyst has means of knowing what are the objection- facturers of food materials, of the officers under the Food Act,
able substances which it is liable to contain. In present circum- of the medical profession and of the public, resulted after many
stances he has not sufficient information on this point." It years of agitation and complaint and after numerous conflicting
was also pointed out that the application of the Food Acts to magisterial decisions, in the appointment in 1899, by the presi-
prevention of contamination of foods by deleterious substances dent of the Local Government Board, of a departmental com-
was materially hindered by want of an official authority with mittee to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring
the duty of dealing with the various medical, chemical and matters in food, with the reference to report: first, whether the
technical questions involved, and that the absence of official use of such materials or any of them, in certain quantities, is
standards militated against the efficiency of the existing acts. injurious to health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use
The commission advised that a special officer be appointed by become injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what
the Local Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various amounts are they used at the present time. After the examina-
sources, such information as would enable the board to direct tion of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in 1901.
the work of local authorities in securing greater purity of food; Perhaps the most important conclusion was that the instances
and they further recommended that the board or court of refer- of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred from the
ence, which had been advised by the Committee on Food Pro- consumption of articles of food and drink chemically preserved
ducts Adulteration, should be established. Pending the estab- were few in number, and were not at all supported by conclusive
lishment of official standards in respect of arsenic under the evidence. During the period which has elapsed since chemically
Food Acts, they were of opinion that penalties should be imposed preserved food has been used, the mortality as a whole has
upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any declined, and while this naturally cannot be put to the credit
liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid be of the preservatives but is largely due to better feeding in conse-
shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain or quence of the introduction of cheaper foods, which are rendered
more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid food, no possible to some extent by the use of preservatives, it conclusively
matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or small establishes the fact that no obvious harm has been done to the
quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden syrup), or health of the community. The committee made certain recom-
mixed with water or other substances (like chicory or yeast mendations which are the most authoritative pronouncements
 ADULTERATION 225
upon the subject. They are as follows: That the use of form- during which the subjects of the experiment were kept under
aldehyde or formalin, or preparations thereof, in food or observation varied from .thirty to seventy days, periods of rest
drinks, be absolutely prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not being given during which they were permitted to eat moderately
used in a greater proportion than one grain per pint in liquid at tables other than the experimental one. There was a good
food and one grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases and ample diet. The observations were divided into three periods :

to be declared. That the use of any preservatives or colouring the fore period, the preservative period and the after period,
matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom during the whole of which time the rations of each member
be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act. were weighed or measured and the excreta collected. Before
" "
That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to use in the fore period was commenced a note was made of the
cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, and quantities of food voluntarily consumed by each of the candi-
in amount not exceeding 0-25% expressed as boric acid, dates, and from these the proper amount necessary in each case
the amount of such preservative to be notified by a label upon to maintain a comparatively constant body weight was calcu-
the vessel. That the only preservative permitted to be used in lated. When a suitable result was thus arrived at, the same
" "
butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid quantity of food was given daily during the preservative
and borax, to be used in proportions not exceeding 0-5 % and " after " periods. The preservative was given in the forms
expressed as boric acid. That in the case of all dietetic prepara- of borax and of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subse-
tions intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical pre- quently in gelatine capsules. This was found to be necessary
servatives of all kinds be prohibited. from the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the food
As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric and concealed in it some of the members of the table evinced
acid, free or in the formwhich is extensively employed
of borax, dislike of the food with which it was supposed to be incorporated;
in butter, cream,ham, sausages, potted meats, cured those who thought that the preservative was in the butter were
fish, and sometimes in -jams and preserved fruit, the disposed to find the butter unpalatable, and the same was true
arguments for and against its employment deserve more detailed with those who thought it might be in the milk or coffee, while,
attention. It cannot be looked upon in the light of common when the preservative was given openly, much less disturbance
adulteration because, in any case, the quantity used is but an was created. The preservative was given at first in small doses
inconsiderable fraction, and the cost of it is generally greater such as might be consumed in commercial food that had been
than that of the food itself. It is not used to hide any traces preserved with borax; gradually the quantities were increased
of decomposition that may have taken place or to efface its in order to reach the limit of toleration for each individual.
"
effects. Onthe other hand, it cannot be said to be required All food was weighed, measured and analysed, the same being
"
for the production or preparation of the articles with which the case with the excreta. The blood was examined periodically
it is mixed, since a fraction at leasfof similar articles are made as regards colouring matter and number of corpuscles. Every-
without preservative. It enables food to be kept from decom- thing was done to keep up the general health of the members
position, but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encour- and to do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to
ages neglect and slovenliness in factories. It has no taste, or the circumstances. During the time of the experiment analyses
only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to the were made of 2 5 50 and 1175 samples each of
'food samples
consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot urine and faeces. The
general results were as follows: there was
therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so. Its pre- no tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism
servative action, that is, its potency, is very slight in comparison was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly de-
with most other preservatives; its potential injuriousness to creased. As regards phosphorus the combined results of all
man must be proportionately small. It is practically without observations indicated that the preservative increased the
interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic digestion, unless excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97-3
" " " "
%
given in large quantities. Experiments made by F. W. Tunni- in the fore period, to 103-1 in the preservative period.
cliffe and R. Rosenheim upon children showed that neither boric The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was an increase
acid nor borax, administered in doses of from 15 to 23 grains of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease of those in the
per diem, exerted any influence upon proteid metabolism or urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the preservatives
upon the assimilation of phosphatized materials. The fat interfered with the process of digestion and absorption. No
assimilation was, if anything, improved, and the body weight influence was exerted on the corpuscles and the haemoglobin
increased, and the general health and well-being was in no way of the blood. The effect of boracic acid and borax on the
affected. On the other hand, evidence was adduced that in some general health varied with the amount administered, quantities
cases digestive disturbances, after continuous administration not exceeding half a gramme (7! grains) of boracic acid, or its
of from 15 to 40 grains, were observable, nausea and vomiting equivalent of borax, producing no immediate effects, but the
in some, and skin irritation, in one case resulting in complete long-continued administration of such small doses seemed to
baldness, in others. produce the same results as the use of large doses over a shorter
Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric period. There was a tendency to diminish the appetite and to
disturbance to any particular article of food or one of its in- produce a feeling of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and
gredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of disturbance, sometimes actual nausea, also one of fulness in the head mani-
a fairly good case has been made out by a number of medical fested as a dull headache which disappeared when the preserva-
practitioners against boracic acid, taken in an ordinary diet tive was dropped. The continued administration of large doses,
and not for experimental purposes. The most exhaustive in- 60 to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of appetite,
vestigation which has as yet been made was carried out by inability toperform work of any kind and general unfitness.
Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States department of In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken for some time,
agriculture. A large number of young men who had offered but gradually injurious effects were observed. In some cases 30
themselves as subjects for the investigations, were boarded as a and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause illness, but it is
"
special hygienic table," but otherwise continued their usual acknowledged that these persons may have been suffering from
vocations during the whole period of the experiment. They were influenza. The administration of 7-5 grains was declared by
placed upon their honour to observe the rules and regulations Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal man to receive regularly,
prepared by the department and to use no other food or drink although for a limited period there might be no danger to health.
than that provided, water excepted, and any water consumed Dr Wiley concludes his report: " It appears, therefore, that
away from the hygienic table was to be measured and reported. both boric acid and borax, when continuously administered in
They were to continue their regular habits and not to indulge small doses for a long period or when given in large quantities
in any excessive amount of labour or exercise. for a short period, create disturbance of appetite, of digestion
Weight, tempera-
ture and pulse rate were continuously recorded. The periods and of health."
1.8
220 ADULTERATION
Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O. quantities can be added to food or drink. About i part in
Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions 4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount. While, in larger
of the experiment and the documents relating to the investiga- quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity
tion. He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence that
"
number of persons under control so small that one case of self- they have ever caused injurious effects in alcoholic liquors.
deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into absolute The excise authorities have tacitly sanctioned their employment

uncertainty the solution of the whole question "; that no lasting in breweries, although the Customs and Inland Revenue Act

injury to health was found in spite of transient disturbances 1885 declares' that a brewer of beer shall not add any matter
attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and that all persons or thing thereto except finings or other matter or thing sanc-
declared themselves to be in better physical condition after tioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, and although
seven months than they had been before. On the whole the sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board of Inland Revenue
balance of evidence seems to be that while no acute injury is do neither sanction nor interfere. An antiseptic with a pro-
likely to result from boron compounds in food, they are liable to nounced taste is obviously a safer one in the hands of a non-
produce slighter digestive interferences. medical person than one virtually devoid of taste, like boric,
Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose of salicylic or benzoic acids or their salts.
preserving food materials may be treated more shortly. Form- Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic
aldehyde, coming into commerce in the form of a properties, but also at the same time clearly injurious to health
4 %solution under the name of formalin, was for a and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has
time largely used in milk. It certainly has very great been found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, pnserva-
antiseptic properties, as little as i part in 50,000 parts check- in quantities quite inadmissible in food under any tives.

ing the growth of organisms in milk for some hours, but as circumstances. A few other chemical preservatives
the substance combines with albuminous matters and hardens are occasionally used. Hydrogen peroxide has been found
them to an extraordinary degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine effective in milk sterilization, and if the substance is pure, no

perfectly insoluble in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on serious objection can be raised against it. Saccharine, and
the digestive ferments. It injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic other artificial sweetening agents, having antiseptic properties,
digestion. A set of five kittens fed with milk containing i part are taking the place of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer
in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly retarded and lemonade, but the substitution of a trace of a substance
in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control kittens fed that provides sweetness without at the same time giving the
on pure milk flourished. In even moderate doses formalin pro- substance and food value of sugar is strongly to be deprecated.
duces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused death. It is The employment of chemical preservative matters in articles
now generally recognized as a substance that is admirably intended for human consumption threatens to become a grave
adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, but quite improper and danger to health or well-being. Each dealer in food contributes
unsuitable for food preservation. but a little; each one claims that his particular article of food
Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic acid is either obtained cannot be brought into commerce without preservative, and
from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's each condemns the use of these substances by others. There is
process from phenol and carbonic acid. Artificial doubtless something to be said for the practice, but infinitely
SaWc^/fc
salicylic ac id generally contains impurities (creasotic more against it. It cheapens food by allowing its collection in
acids) which act very injuriously upon health. When districts far away, but the chief gainer is not the public as a

pure, salicylic acid employed as a food preservative has never whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale merchant. Our
produced decided injurious effects, although administered by body has by inheritance acquired habits and needs that are
itself in fairly strong solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach quite foreign to chemical interference. Some day, artificially
and kidneys, and sometimes causes skin eruptions. It is a prepared foods, containing liberal quantities of matters that are
powerful drug in larger doses and requires careful administra- not now food ingredients, may conceivably compare with natural
tion, especially as about 60 % of the persons to whom it is
"
food products, but that day is not yet, and meantime it ought
administered show symptoms known as salicylism," namely, to be clearly the duty of the state to see that the evil is checked.

deafness, headache, delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage The intention which has introduced this form of adulteration
or heart-failure. It is doubtful whether pure salicylic acid may be more or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly
produces these symptoms. When present in proportion of evij.
i to 1000 it inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts. In A similar criticism applies to the continually extending use of
jams 2 grains per pound and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon colouring matter in food. Civilized man requires his food not only
are considered by manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative to be healthy and tasty, but also attractive in appear-
"
purposes. It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing ance. It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that ma er 'ia

sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime and lemon please the eye. This is a difficult art, for the various toad.
juices, syrups, cider, British wines and imported lager. Its use colouring matters which are naturally present in
in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in which it was not in- meat and fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are
frequently met with formerly, is now quite exceptional. It has of a delicate and changeable nature and easily affected or de-
already been stated that the preservative committee recom- stroyed by cooking. Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook
mended its permissive use in small proportions. To some extent found that green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked
benzoic acid and benzoates have taken the place of salicylic in a copper pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more
acid and salicylates, partly because salicylic acid can readily brilliant colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware
be detected analytically, while benzoic acid is not quite easily or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas
discoverable. Its antiseptic potency is about equal to that of in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook

salicylic acid, and the arguments for or against its use are in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful addition of
similar to those relating to the latter. a substance known to be injurious to health, namely, sulphate
For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried of copper. The copper combines with the chlorophyll, forming
fruit,sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) and some of the sulphites copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason of its insolubility in
have long been employed. Sulphuring of hops and disinfection the gastric juice, is comparatively innocuous. Preserved peas
" "
of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an exceedingly old and beans have been for so many years coppered in this

practice. Burning sulphur is well known as a gaseous disin- manner that it is difficult to induce the public to accept these
fectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air containing i % vegetables when possessed of their natural colour only. Several
of the gas. As the taste and smell of sulphurous acid and countries endeavoured to abolish the objectionable practice,
of sulphites are very pronounced it follows that but small but the public pressure has been too great, and to-day th
 ADULTERATION 227
is almost universal. In England the amount of copper the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving them both
practice
corresponds to from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable their colour and their delicious aroma; with the introduction
calculated as crystallized copper sulphate. The opinion of of modern processes affording a much greater yield
the departmental committee was clearly expressed that the of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the

practice should be prohibited. No effect has been given to the result. The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar,
recommendation. had the colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin
Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour. compound upon the sugar. At the present time all Demerara
When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish one. sugar, with the exception of that portion that is dyed with
To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring matter used anih'ne dye, has had its colour artificially given it and conse-
to be added by London milkmen. Very gradually this practice, quently contains strong traces of tin. Soda-water, lemonade
which had its origin in fraud, has extended to all milk sold in and other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead con-
London. The consumer, mis-educated into believing milk to be tamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and
yellow, now requires it to be so. Large dairy companies have vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream of
endeavoured to wean the public of its error, without success. tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by their
"
From milk the practice extended to butter; natural butter is manufacturers in leaden pans. Almost all canned " goods
sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint fawn, and sometimes almost contain more or less tin as a contamination from the tin-plate.
white. In agricultural districts this is well known and taken as While animal foods do not attack the tin to any great extent,
a matter of course. In big towns, where the connexion of butter their acidity being small, almost all vegetable materials, especi-
and the cow is not well known, the consumer requires butter to ally fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode the tin covering
be of that colour which he imagines to be butter-colour. Anatto, of the plate, dissolving it and becoming impregnated with tin
turmeric, carrot-juice used formerly to be employed for colouring compounds. It is quite easy to obtain tin-reactions in abun-
milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, mostly dance from every grain of tinned peaches, apples or tomatoes.
quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable dyes just men- These tin compounds are by no means innocuous; yet poisoning
tioned, are largely being used. The same aniline dyes are also from tinned vegetable foods is of rare occurrence. On the whole,
employed in the manufacture of an imitation Demerara sugar tin-plate is a very unsuitable material for the storage and preser-
from white beet sugar crystals. Aniline dyes are very frequently vation of acid goods. Certain enamels, used for glazing earthen-
used by jam-makers; the natural colour of the fruit is apt to ware or for coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they
suffer in the boiling-pan, and unripe, discoloured or unsound yield to the food prepared in them. Food materials that have
fruit can be made brilliant and enticing by dye. The brilliant been in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contami-
colours of cheap sugar confectionery are almost invariably pro- nated with zinc. Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines.
duced by artificial tar-colours. Most members of this class of The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely
colouring matters are quite harmless, especially in the small beneficial. Not only has the percentage proportion of samples
quantities that are required for colouring, but there are a few found adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms
exceptions, picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck of adulteration which prevailed in the middle of the
brown and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous. iQth century have almost vanished. Plenty of fraud Food Acts.
On the whole, the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an still prevails, but poisoning by reckless admixture is

advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often of exceedingly rare occurrence. Whilst formerly milk was not
highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with so infrequently adulterated with an equal bulk of water, few
frequently in the middle of the igth century. Mineral colours, fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed an addition of 10
with very few exceptions, are no longer used in food. Oxide of or 15%. A bird's-eye view over the effect is obtained from
iron or ochre is still very often found in potted meats, fish sauces the following figures for England and Wales:
and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is admixed with cheap

chocolates. All commerce is dyed. Naturally

lump sugar of
Year.
it has a yellow tint. Ultramarine is added to it and counteracts
the yellowness. In the same way our linen is naturally yellow
and only made to look white by the use of the blue-bag.
The same idea underlies both practices, and indeed the use
of all colouring matters in manufactured articles, namely, to
make them look better than they would otherwise. Within
bounds, this is a reasonable and laudable desire, but it also covers
many sins poor materials, bad workmanship, faulty manu-
facturing and often fraud. Like sugar, flour and rice are some-
times blued to make them look white. All vinegar, most beers,
all stout, are artificially coloured with burnt sugar or caramel.

The line dividing the legitimate and laudable from the fraudu-
lent and punishable is so thin and difficult to draw that neither
the law nor its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a
matter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the
state. Practices which, when new, admit of regulation are
almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed
"
of vested rights." Recognizing this, the departmental com-
ittee, like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, recom-
"
lended that means be provided, either by the establishment
of a separate court of reference, or by the imposition of more
direct obligation on the Local Government Board, to exercise
supervision over the use of preservatives and colouring matters
in foods and to prepare schedules of such as may be considered
inimical to the public health."
In close connexion with this subject is the occasional occur-
rence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials. Tin
chloride is used in the West Indies to produce the yellow colour of
Demerara sugar. The old processes of sugar-boiling left some of
228 ADULTERATION
however, can protect themselves from prosecution when they
sell goods in original unbroken packages by procuring a written

guarantee, signed by the person from whom they received the

goods, such guarantee stating that the goods are not adulterated
within the meaning of the National Law. The guarantee must
also contain the name and address of the wholesale vendor,
but unless the parties signing the guarantee are residents of
the United States the guarantee is void. The law affects all
foods shipped from one state or district into another and also
all foods intended for export to a foreign country. It also
affects all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any

Table showing working of British Food Acts, 1904.

 ADULTERATION 229
greater than 60. Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained by the
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and
kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and 5 days
after calving. Standard milk is milk containing not less than
1 2 % of total solids and not less than 85 %
of solids not fat, nor
less than 35 %of milk-fat. Standard skim-milk is skim-milk
containing not less than 95 %
of milk-solids. Standard con-
densed milk and standard sweetened condensed milk are con-
densed milk and sweetened condensed milk respectively, con-
taining no less than 28 %
of milk-solids, of which not less than
one-fourth is milk-fat. Standard milk-fat or butter-fat has a
Reichert-Meissl number not less than 24 and a specific gravity
at 40 C. not less than 0-905. Standard butter is butter contain-
ing not less than 82-5 % of butter-fat. Standard whole-milk
cheese is cheese containing in the water-free substance not less
than 50 % of butter-fat. Standard sugar contains at least 99-5 %
of sucrose. Standard chocolate is chocolate containing not
more than 3 %of ash insoluble in water, 3-5 %
of crude fibre,
and 9 %of starch, nor less than 45 %
of cocoa-fat."
Numerous other standards with details too technical for
reproduction here have also been fixed.
German Empire. The law of the i4th of May 1879, largely
based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates
the trade in food. Each town or district appoints a public
analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly under
the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory functions.
The ministry, under the advice of this department, issues from
time to time regulations concerning the sale of or details specify-
ing the mode of analysis of various products of food or drink.
Both in the United States and in Germany, therefore, the execu-
tive officers (public analysts) have some authoritative official
department for guidance and information.

PARTICULAR ARTICLES ADULTERATED

We will now proceed
to consider adulteration as practised
during recent years in the more important articles of food.
Milk. Milk adulteration means in modern times either
addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition of
chemical preservative. The old stories of the use of chalk or of
sheep's brains are fables. Owing to the wide variation to which
milk is naturally subjected in composition, it is exceedingly
difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any given sample
is in the state in which it came from the cow or has been im-
poverished. The composition of cow's milk varies with many
conditions, (i)The race of the animal: the large cows of the
plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, the smaller cows
from hilly districts less amount of rich milk. Hence, milk from
Dutch cows compares very unfavourably with that of Jerseys
or short-horns. Watery and acid foods like mangolds and
brewers' grains produce a more aqueous milk than do albuminous
and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (2) Sudden change of food, of
weather and of temperature. (3) Nervous disturbances to which
even a cow is subject, as, for instance, at shows, may greatly
influence the composition of the milk. The portion obtained
at the beginning of a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded
towards the end. Morning milk is as a rule poorer in fat than
evening milk. Soon 'after calving the animal gives a richer
product than at later periods, both the quantity and the com-
position declining towards the end of the lactation. The varia-
tions due to these different circumstances may be very great,
as is seen from the following analyses, fairly representing the
maximum, minimum and mean composition of the milk of single
cows:
230 ADULTERATION
to normal milk (about 0-71 to 0-73%), the determination of the be done by churning, by which operation the milk-globules are
ash affords valuable assistance to the analyst. When the amount caused more or less to adhere to each other without losing their
of ash is higher than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda individual existence. Owing to this subdivision of the fat, and
or other mineral matters that are often added as preservatives perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter is a more
or acid neutralizers. Borax is easily tested for by dissolving digestible fatty article of food than lard or oil. It is not possible
the milk ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moisten- by mechanical means to remove the whole of the water and curd
" "
ing a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying of the milk from the butter; indeed overworking the butter
it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of borax, with the object of removing the water as completely as possible
the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will be changed ruins the structure to such an extent as to make the product
into a brilliant red-brown. Formaldehyde (which in 40% water unmerchantable. In well-made butter there are contained about
solution forms the formalin of commerce) in milk affords a bright 85% of pure milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of
purple colour when the milk containing it is mixed with sulphuric curd and albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation
acid containing a trace of an iron salt. lactic acid, and phosphates and other milk-salts. In some kinds
Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under re- of butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather
duced pressure with or without the addition of sugar. Generally less. Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, at
one part of condensed milk corresponds to three parts of the higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained. The curd
original milk. There is no case on record of adulteration of must be got rid of as completely as practicable if the product
unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened milk has in the past is to have reasonable keeping properties. To prevent rapid
been frequently prepared either from machine-skimmed or partly decomposition salt in various quantities is added. Considering
skimmed milk and sold as whole-milk. As sweetened condensed that 100 Ib (10 gallons) of milk yield only from 3! to 4 Ib of
milk is largely used by the poorer part of the population for the properly made butter, it is obvious that a great inducement
feeding of infants, and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its exists to increase the yield either by leaving an undue propor-
most valuable constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly tion of water or curd, or by adding an excessive quantity of salt.
mischievous one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899 In some parts of Ireland the butter is worked up with warm
of a special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing brine into so-called pickle butter, whereby it becomes both
condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous watered and salted in one operation. Until lately, when the
label showing the nature of the contents. As the bulk of con- English Board of Agriculture fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage
densed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad, of water that may legitimately be present in butter, this kind
the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over of debasement could not easily be dealt with, but even now,
the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed where a legal water-limit exists, the addition of water either as
milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat. The average compo- such, or in the shape of milk or of condensed milk, is very com-
sition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight monly practised, more or less care being taken not to exceed the
variations, to be: water 24-6%, fat 11-4%, casein and albumen legalized limit. It is obvious that there is an ample margin of
10%, milk-sugar 11-7%, cane-sugar 40-3%, mineral matters profit for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing
2-0%. 10% of water and works
it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to
Cream. There are not any regulations nor official standards 16%, allthe other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and
" "
relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its salt, thus introduced counting as butter in the eyes of the
contents in fat. Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal law. A very considerable number of butter-factors in London
skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and consider
dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand, this a legitimate operation so long as they keep within the legal
milk that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as water-limit. Nay, they may even exceed this, if only they give
cream. Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated to their adulterated article a euphonious name, which, while
minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that legally notifying the admixture, raises in the mind of the ignor-
cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but ant purchaser the belief that he is purchasing something particu-
varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is "
larly choice and excellent. Milk-blended butter," with as
obtained and the food on which they are fed. Therefore, as re- much as 24 or more per cent of water and as little as 68 % of fat,
gards the most important portion of cream, the amount of fat, is still largely sold to purchasers who think that they are obtain-
adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution for the ing extra value for their money; several attempts to deal with
milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of this descrip- the scandal by legislature having led to no result. The intro-
tion are exceedingly rare. On the other hand, such additions of duction of water into butter is also practised on a large scale in
" "
foreign materials, like starch paste or gelatine, which have for the United States, where a branch of trade in renovated
object the giving of an appearance of richness to a naturally butter has sprung up. In the States a considerable quantity of
poor and dilute article, are not uncommon. While formerly the butter is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product
sale of cream was entirely in the hands of milkmen, there has been comes into the market the addition of chemical preservatives
of late a tendency to regard cream as an article coming within to prevent decomposition not being permitted the butter has
the range of grocery goods. To enable this perishable article to so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low price.
be kept in a grocery store it has to receive an addition of preser- It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and washed, then
vative, as a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount. The again worked up with water and salt, care being generally taken
purchaser may take it that all cream sold by others than milk- to leave about 16% of water in the product, which finds a ready
men, and much of that even, is thus preserved and should be sale in England. It may here be pointed out that England
shunned. The limit of boric preservative that might be per- imports an enormous quantity of butter from the continent
mitted, but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of of Europe, the colonies, Siberia and America, the imports, less
i%. exports, averaging during 1903-1906 no less than 203,300 tons
Butter. Of all articles of food butter has most fully received annually, and the total consumption (home produce plus imports)
the attention of the sophisticator, because it is the most costly 366,441 tons, the consumption per head of population being
of the ordinary articles of diet, and because its 19-2 Ib per annum. In butter, as in most other articles of food,
composition is
so intricate and variable that its analysis presents extraordinary adulteration with water is the most common, most profitable,
difficulties andnature exceptional and various opportunities
its and least risky form of fraud. Great fortunes are thus made out
for admixture with foreign substances. It is the intention of of water.
the producer of butter to separate the fatty portion of the milk There is an altogether different class of butter adulteratior
as completely as is practicable from the other constituents of which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty matter
the milk without destroying the fat-globules. This can only for the whole or part of the really valuable portion of the butter-
 ADULTERATION 231
fat. Margarine is the legalized and therefore legitimate butter- which contains "volatile fatty acids," namely, cocoa-nut oil.
surrogate, prepared by churning any suitable fat with milk into a Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong
cream, solidifying the latter by injection into cold water and cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the adul-
working the lumps together, precisely as is done in the case of teration of butter, and margarine containing cocoa-nut oil and
the churned cream of milk. The substitution of margarine for other fatty substances has freely been manufactured and sold
butter is frequent, in spite of all legal enactments directed against specially for butter adulteration. The seat of this class of fraud
this fraud, the semblance between butter and margarine being is mainly in Holland. Analysts happily found means to detect
so great that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the this oil when present above 10%, and numerous prosecutions
two articles. Much more frequent and much more difficult to made mixers more careful. Abundant evidence, however, exists
deal with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine. In showing that the simultaneous addition of water or milk so as
order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, it will be to keep the water limit below 16% and thatjof margarine entirely

necessary to consider the chemical nature of butter-fat, and to composed of animal fats below 10% leaves a large margin of
compare it with other fats that may enter into the composition profit with a very small chance of detection. For the moment
of margarine. Butter-fat is butter freed from water, curd and at least analysis has had the worst of it in the battle between
"
salt and extraneous matter. Like the greater number of natural honesty and business methods."
fats it consists of a mixture of triglycerides, that is, combinations Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when
of glycerin with substances of the nature of acids. These acids, sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently adulter-
in the case of fats other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic ated. As regards the fats used in its manufacture there does
and stearic acids. Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains not exist any legal restriction, and as long as the fat is in a state
other acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority fit for human consumption the manufacturer can make whatever

of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from those mixture he pleases. In general there is no reason to think that
substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, by the any bad or disgusting fats are finding their way into the factories,
circumstance that a considerable proportion of its acids, when which in most countries are under proper supervision the old
;

separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are readily stories about recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite
soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either alone or in a without foundation. But a considerable percentage of solid
current of steam, whereas the acids separated from the foreign paraffin has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of
fats are practically both insoluble and non- volatile. This funda- margarine. As the fatty portion of the article is the only one
mental principle serves at once to distinguish, for example, of value, some manufacturers make great efforts to produce
between butter and margarine, and has been made use of by margarine with as small a percentage of fatty matter as possible,
analysts not only for this purpose but also with a view to deter- eitherby incorporating excessive amounts of water or of milk
mine the relative amounts of butter and margarine in a mixture margarines with over 30% of water being met with or by intro-
of these substances. Thus butter-fat contains about 88%, more ducing sugar, glucose, starch, gelatinous matter, in fact any-
" The English law imposes a
or less, of insoluble fatty acids," while margarine contains thing that is cheaper than fat.
about 95.5%; 5 grammes of butter-fat when chemically decom- limitation upon the percentage of butter-fat that may be con-
posed yield an amount of volatile fatty acids which requires tained in margarine, but at present at least the tendency of
about 26 cubic centimetres (more or less) of deci-normal alkali manufacturers is all for having as little butter or other valuable
solution for neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less fat in margarine as is practicable, and not to err on the other
than i cubic centimetre (Wollny or Reichert-Meissl method). side. For the purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine
There are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the when has been fraudulently added to butter, some countries
it

specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most other (Germany, Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to
"
fats; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; the iodine 10% of sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientate or 5.
"
absorption of butter-fat is smaller than that of many other indicum, belonging to the family of Bignoniaceae) in the manu-
fatty matters, and so on. But the composition of perfectly facture of such margarine as is to be consumed within the
genuine butter-fat varies within somewhat wide limits. The milk countries in question. This oil yields a characteristic red colour
from a cow fed on good and ample food in warm weather yields when it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydro-
a fat that is rich in characteristic butter-constituents, while a chloric solution of either sugar or furfurol, and is intended to
poorly fed animal, kept in the open till late in the autumn, serve as an "ear-marking" substance. The addition of a little
when the nights are cold, gives milk exceptionally poor in starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the
" "
fat, the differences expressed as insoluble fatty acids microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence
lying between 86 and 91%, and in volatile acids, expressed as of any international agreement these ear-marking additions
"Wollny" numbers, between 18 and 36. Generally, therefore, are of little practical use. It is, however, interesting to point
summer butter is rich and autumn butter poor in volatile acids, out that, while complying with the regulations of the govern-
or, geographically, Australian butter is more frequently high, ments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named have
Siberian often exceedingly low in these acids. The food of the found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite nugatory:
animal also may, under certain conditions, yield a notable pro- they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which itself produces
portion of its fatty matter to the butter; cows that have, for a red colour with acid and quite obscures tl>e red colour obtained
instance, been fed upon large quantities of cotton-seed cake by the official test for sesame oil. \

yield butter in which the cotton-seed oil may be traced, and Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that has
the same holds good with other fatty foods. All these, and other been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that has been
circumstances, combine to render the detection of small quan- more or less skimmed. It varies consequently very widely in
tities of foreign fats that have been fraudulently added to butter composition, so-called cream cheese containing not less than
almost a matter of impossibility. This is perfectly well known 60% of fat; Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar about 30%;
to unscrupulous butter dealers, and an enormous amount of Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less than 20%.
adulteration is known to be practised. Even small amounts of The amount of water varies with the kind and age of the cheese
adulteration could, nevertheless, often be discovered while and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. Under these
argarine manufacturers employed considerable proportions circumstances it is impracticable to lay down any hard-and-fast
of vegetable products, some of these oils furnishing
oils in their rules as to the composition of cheese. When, however, cheese is
characteristic chemical reactions allowing of their discovery. made from skimmed milk and the fat is replaced by margarine,
Here some firms of margarine manufacturers came to the aid of as is the case in so-called
" "
filled or margarine cheeses, the sale
the butter-mixer and produced margarine containing nothing of these amounts to an adulteration, unless the presence of the
but animal fat, so-called " neutral " margarine being freely foreign substance is declared. It may at first sight appear
offered for fraudulent purposes. There is one fat besides butter strange that the person who robs milk of its most valuable
232 ADULTERATION
portion, the cream, may prepare a legitimate article of food from flour,have disappeared. The only admixture which has been
the remainder, while he who to that remainder adds something met with during recent years is maize-meal in American produce.
to replace the fat does an illegitimate a"ct, but it must be taken This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal.
into consideration that the replacement is frequently made Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject
with fraudulent intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes. One
by taste or smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial
article, while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 1880
cheese. and 1005 in England, some crushed marble having been found
Lard. Between the years 1880 and 1890 a gigantic fraudulent in a consignment of German sugar in a large British establish-
trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United States. ment. There have, however, been numerous prosecutions for
A great proportion of the American lard imported into England a fraud of another class, namely, the substitution of dyed beetroot
was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real lard with sugar for Demerara sugar. Formerly the sugar produced by the
cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine. Cotton-seed oil is one of the old imperfect and wasteful methods of manufacture was more
cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, beef-stearine or less yellow or brown from adhering molasses. Sugar, as now
the hard residue obtained in the manufacture of oleo-margarine obtained, be it from cane or beet, is white; yet the public is so
after the more fluid fat has been pressed from the beef fat. wedded to its customs that white sugar except as lump or castor
These mixtures were made so skilfully by large Chicago manu- sugar does not find a ready sale. The manufacturer is obliged
facturers that for some years they escaped detection. A bill to colour his product yellow by artificial means, that is to say,
introduced in 1888 into- the American Senate to stop this im- either by the addition of a little aniline dye, harmless in itself,
posture directed general attention to the subject, and energetic or, as in the West Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity
" "
measures, taken both in America and in England, quickly put of chloride of tin, so-called bloomer. European refined beet-
an end to it. From the memorial presented in the United States sugar coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara
"
cane sugar is sold under the name of yellow crystals.
"
Senate in support of the bill, it appeared that in about 1887 These,
the annual production of lard in the States was estimated at although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the
600 million pounds, of which more than 35% was adulterated. delicious aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and
Compounds were made containing "
only a small quantity of lard
"
are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara.
or none at all, yet were sold as choice refined lard or under Marmalade and Jams. In the preparation of marmalade and
other eulogistic names. Many lard substitutes, chiefly made jams, which articles were for a long time made from fruit and
from cotton-seed oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15 %, is often now
legitimate manner. From the germ of maize which must be replaced by starch glucose. This material, consisting mainly
separated from the starchy portion of the seed before the latter of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is of much less sweetening
can be manufactured into glucose the oil (maize-oil) is ex- power than ordinary sugar and mostly cheaper. It is said to
pressed, and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection prevent the crystallization which frequently used to occur in
being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil. some jams. The use of glucose has been declared by the High
Oils. For very many years all oils were considered to be com- Court (Smith Wisden, 1901) to be legitimate, the court holding
v.

posed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of oleic acid, with that as there was no recognized standard
for the composition of
small quantities of impurities; chemists, therefore, to distin- marmalade the addition of saccharine material not injurious
guish oils of various origin, confined themselves to tests for to. health could not constitute an offence. Artificial colouring
these impurities, employing so-called colour reactions based matters and chemical preservatives are almost constant in-
upon the change of colour of the oil by various reagents such as gredients of jams. To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar,
sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric acids. These reactions were do not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) an addi-
exceedingly indefinite and unsatisfactory and oil adulteration tion of apple juice is frequently made in the manufacture of jam,
was prevalent and almost undiscoverable. It has been found, without much objection; the pulp of the apple, however, is
however, that th& old ideas concerning the believed uniformity sometimes bodily added as an adulterant.
in the nature and constitution of oils were erroneous. Some Tea. In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food
oils, indeed, do consist of olein, almond oil being a type, others Act of 1875 tna t tea was to be examined by the Customs on
contain a glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other
acid by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England,
acid. To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils. Others the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed. Great
again include a glyceride of an acid containing still less hydrogen, numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs,
linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying oils), and lastly the and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned
liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen. These various acids or because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for the
the oils contained in them combine with various percentages of manufacture of theine being permitted, only sound and genuine
iodine, oleic acid absorbing the smallest proportion (about 80 %). tea coming to the British public. The practice, very common
For each oil the iodine absorption is a fairly constant quantity; a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green with a
this number, together with the determination of the amount mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite vanished
of caustic alkali needed for complete saponification, the thermal with the decline of the consumption of green tea.
rise with strong sulphuric acid or with bromine, the refraction of Coffee. A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee berries,
light and the specific gravity, now enable the analyst to form a made from and chicory, have been observed, but it would
flour
fair idea of the nature of any sample under examination, and, not be speak of a practice of adulteration regarding coffee
fair to
in consequence of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of berries. Not infrequently coffee is roasted with the addition
oils has much declined. The most common adulterant of the of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, to give to the roasted
more valuable oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil. The oils coffee a glossy appearance. These additions as a rule are small
expressed from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil) in amount. Ground coffee is often sold adulterated with chicory,
are also frequently admixed with olive oil. Almond oil is sugar or caramel. Other adulterations, reference to which is
adulterated with the closely allied oils from the peach-kernel found in literature relating to the second half of the I9th century,
or the pine-seed. Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter do not seem now to occur.
sometimes as adulterants into edible oils. There is, however, Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent or
a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally. questionable additions. In the cheaper qualities of cocoa-powder
Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably sugar and starch the latter in the form of sago flour or arrow-
genuine. The old forms of adulteration^ such as the use of alum root are admixed in very large proportions, and, in order to
for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from bad give to such mixtures something like the appearance of genuine
 ADULTERATION 233
cocoa, red oxide of iron is added. This almost invariably is more scription of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which on analysis
or less arsenical. Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more than 2%
of
"
mixed in a very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner proof spirit. That is to say, beer is legally anything that is sold
kind. Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so- as beer provided that it has 2% of proof spirit. There is not any
called chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery restriction upon the materials that are employed provided that
coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of the they are not positively poisonous. For Inland Revenue purposes,
fat of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter that however, a prohibition has been made against the admixture of
is obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is no longer anything to beer after it has been manufactured, and excise
sufficient to cover the demand. Substitutes of cocoa-butter prosecutions of publicans for watering beer are not infrequent.
prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured on a large scale, Formerly there was a restriction on the amount of salt that
and all enter without acknowledgment into chocolates or choco- might be present in beer; this no longer exists. On the other
late creams. As there are not any regulations touching the hand it cannot be said that any injurious materials are being
composition of chocolate, sugar or starch or both are used in used by brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking,
chocolate manufacture, and especially in that of chocolate most efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically
powders in often excessive quantities. In the Dutch mode of trained men. The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which
manufacture of cocoa-powders an addition of from 3% to 4%of is almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration

an alkaline salt is made for the purpose of rendering the cocoa in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The thin beer which
" " has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation
soluble, or, more strictly, for putting it into such a physical
condition that it does not settle in the cup. This addition does contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities,
not, as is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could be sold
made with any fraudulent object; .several countries, however, without the addition of some sort of preservative.
have passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition TV on- Alcoholic Drinks. The same remark applies to a good
which may thus legitimately be made. Most of the cocoa- many of so-called temperance beverages. Of these again it is
powders sold in England are prepared in accordance with the hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration. So-called soda-
Dutch method. water is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated water,
Wine. If under this term a beverage is understood which but the term " soda-water " is a survival from the times when
consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great propor- this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed
tion of the wine consumed in England is not genuine wine. All to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia. Potash
port and sherry comes into commerce after having received an and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only mere
addition of spirit, generally made from potatoes; port and traces of the substances from which they derive their names.
sherry would not be what they are and as they have been for The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no longer
generations unless they were thus fortified. The practice can due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine (the toluol
now hardly be classed among adulterations. A well-fermented derivative), which is possessed of sweetness but not of nourish-
wine made from the juice of properly matured grapes does not ment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect the digestion,
require any added alcohol in order that it should keep; im- its use in these beverages is to be deprecated.
perfectly made wine is liable to turn sour; the addition of Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive
alcohol prevents this. French wines, both red and white, are alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor. When
hardly subject to adulteration. In wine-growing countries like this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed -with other grain
France wine is so cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult the vinegar is called a malt vinegar. Often, however, acid
to manufacture an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine liquors pass under that name which have been made by the
wine. In Germany the conditions are different, the districts action of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize
from which those wines that are exported are nominally derived or tapioca, with or without the addition of beet sugar. Dilute
being small and insufficient to cover the world's demands. The acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as a*
addition of sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within adulterant of vinegar. When properly purified such acid is
limits by German law, which not even requires that notification unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell it as
to the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious vinegar. Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other acids,
that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name of formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare.
"
hock " and some of that coming from the Moselle are thus Spirits. By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act,
diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, adulterated. whisky, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic
Wines from the Palatinate which under their own names would strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol
not sell out of Germany are often passed off as hocks. As there by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol). For many
is but little German red wine tKe law also years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts
permits this to be
lengthened by the addition of white wine. For the removal of related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of spirits
part of the acid from sour wine produced in bad vintages the with water being, of course, a profitable form of fraud. No ad-
addition of precipitated chalk is also permitted. Attention has dition of any injurious matters to commercial spirits has been
been drawn in England to the very serious fact that German observed. It was, however, well known that a very considerable
wines sometimes contain salts of zinc in small quantities. These proportion of so-called brandies was not the product of the grape,
are introduced by a fining agent protected by a German patent, but that spirits of other origin were frequently admixed with
consisting of solutions of sulphate of zinc and potassium ferro- grape brandy. A report which appeared in 1902 in the Lancet
"
cyanide, which, when added together in suitable proportions," on " Brandy, its production at Cognac and the supply of genuine
"
produce a precipitate of zinc-ferrocyanide which carries down brandy to this country, served as a stimulus to public analysts
all turbidity in the wine and is to analyse commercial brandies, and convictions of retailers for
supposed to leave neither zinc
nor ferrocyanide behind in solution. As a matter of fact, one or selling so-called brandy followed. It was shown that genuine
other of these highly objectionable substances is almost invari- brandy made in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills con-
ably left behind. The use of artificial colouring matters in wines tained a considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol
does not appear now to occur. to which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among
Beer cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well these flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic
known that materials often very different from these which the acids with alcohols (chemically described as " esters ") pre-
general public believe to be the proper raw materials for the dominate. For the present a brandy is not considered genuine
manufacture of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely unless it contains in 100,000 parts (calculated free from water)
" :>
used. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec. 4, at least 60 parts of esters. As a consequence a trade has
beer is defined as any liquor " which is made or sold as a de- sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold for the purpose of
 234 ADULTERY AD VALOREM
adding them to any spirit to fraudulently convert it into a liquor of the state in which the divorce was granted; marriage being
" "
passing as brandy. The inquiries into the nature of brandy a contract which, if valid where executed, is generally treated
led to investigations into whisky. Formerly whisky was made as valid everywhere. Adultery gives a cause of action for
from grain only and obtained by pot-still distillation, that form damages to the wronged husband. It is in some states a criminal
" "
of still yielding a product containing a comparatively large offence on the part of each party to the act, for which imprison-
proportion of volatile matters other than alcohol. For many ment in the penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may
years past, however, improved stills so-called patent stills be awarded.
have been adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the marriage
and far stronger product, saving carriage and storage. Attempts could, until the creation of the Court of Probate and Divorce,
were made in England in 1005-1907 to restrict the term "whisky" be obtained only by an act of parliament. This procedure is
solely to the pot-still product. But the question was referred still pursued in the case of Irish divorces. In Scotland a complete
in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of Session,
restriction. A common form of adulteration of whisky is the as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commis-
addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from sioners. A person divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scot-
potatoes. This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid land, prohibited from intermarrying with the paramour. In
of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely France, Germany, Austria and other countries in Europe, as
attributed to it. The substitution of this a very cheap and well as in some of the states of the United States, adultery is
quite flavourless material for one which owes its value more a criminal offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See
to its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is clearly fraudulent. DIVORCE.)
"
Drugs. To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference AD VALOREM (Lat. for according to value"), the term
can here be made. It is satisfactory to record that but very given in commerce to a dutywhich is levied by customs authori-
few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias ties on goods or commodities in proportion to their value. An
are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few cases on ad valorem duty is the opposite of a specific duty, which is
record during recent years where real fraudulent adulteration chargeable on the measure or weight of goods. The United
was involved. The numerous preparations used by druggists States is' the one important country which has adopted in its
are mostly prepared in factories under competent and careful tariff an extensive system of ad valorem duties, though it has

supervision, and the standards laid down in the British Pharma- not altogether disregarded specific duties; in some cases, indeed,
copoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered to. The occur- the two are combined. Ad valorem duties, in the United States,
rence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that of arsenic in are levied according to the saleable value of the goods in the
sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, can hardly country of their origin, and it is usual to require at the port of
be included in the list of adulterations. In the making up of entry the production of an invoice with full particulars as to
prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity is displayed; thus, the place where, time when, and person from whom the goods
the Local Government Board report of the years 1904-1905 refers were purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges
to an instance of a quinine mixture containing 23 grains of on them. Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of the
quinine-sulphate instead of 240 grains. A certain latitude in country for which the goods are intended. On arrival at the
the making up of physicians' prescriptions must necessarily be port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the importer.
allowed, but much too frequently the reasonable limit of a 10% The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and if the valuation
error over or under the amount of drug prescribed is exceeded. of the appraiser exceeds that which appears on the invoice,
Certain perishable drugs, such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others double duty is levied, subject to appeal to a general appraiser
liable to contain from their mode of manufacture metallic and to boards of general appraisers.
impurities, form the subjects of frequent prosecutions. The It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is
element of intentional fraud which characterizes many forms preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper
of food adulteration is happily generally absent in the case proportion alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a
of drugs. (O. H.*) commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctu-
ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium), the sexual intercourse ates, the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new
of a married person with another than the offender's husband or value. In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great
wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative
law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender. value of two' commodities may remain apparently unchanged
The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery under an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the
was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus cost of production, or through the different proportions of
about 17 B.C. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paull. Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson, fixed and circulating capital employed in their manufacture,
Ad Leg. Jul. de Adult.) In Great Britain it was reckoned a an ad valorem tax will be felt much more severely by one com-
spiritual offence, that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only. modity than by another. Again, there is always a difficulty in
The common law took no further notice of it than to allow the obtaining a true valuation on the exported goods, for values
party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, however, from their very nature are variable; while specific duties remain
the action for " criminal conversation," as it was called, was steady, and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he
nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but will have to pay. The opening to fraud is also very great, for
by the 33rd section of the same act, the husband may claim where, as in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep
damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife out foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment will
in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial be looked upon with the utmost suspicion, while it will always
separation. In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is be a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation
still retained. In Scotland damages may be recovered against in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his tax,
an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the civil court, while the seller's market is increased. The staff of appraisers
and the latter may be found liable for the expenses of an action which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry considerably
of divorce if joined with the guilty spouse as a co-defender. raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance and delay
Adultery on the part of the_wife is, by the law of England, a caused both to importers and foreign shippers.
ground for divorce, but on the part of the husband must be either The term " ad valorem " is used also of stamp duties. By the
incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with cruelty or desertion for Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, awards,
e.g.
two or more years. In the United States adultery is everywhere bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c., must be

ground of divorce, and there is commonly no prohibition against stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that is,
marrying the paramour or other re-marriage by the guilty party. the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter
Even if there be such a prohibition, it would be unavailing out of the particular instruments or writings. (See STAMP DUTIES.)
 ADVANCEMENT ADVERTISEMENT 235
ADVANCEMENT, a term technically used in English law for to run through the fields and orchards armed with torches,
a sum of money or other benefit, given by a father during his setting fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is believed driving
lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by the out such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. In Italy
child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an intestacy among other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the
on pain of his being excluded from participating in such distri- last days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players,
bution. The principle is of ancient origin; as regards goods who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother. The Italian
and chattels it was part of the ancient customs of London and tradition isthat the shepherds played on these pipes when they
the province of York, and as regards land descending in copar- came to the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour.
cenary it has always been part of the common law of England ADVENTISTS, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose
under the name of hotch-pot (q.v.). The general rule was estab- distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical return of
lished by the Statutes of Distribution. The conditions under Jesus Christ. The first to bear the name were the followers of
which cases of advancement arise are as follows There must be
: William Miller, and adherents have always been more numerous
a complete intestacy; the intestate estate must be that of the in America than in Europe. There is a body of Seventh Day
father; and the advancement must have been made in the life- Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) rather than
time of the father. Land which belongs or would belong to a the Christian Sunday. They counsel abstemious habits, but
child as heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are spared the per-
to the common fund, even though such land was given during petual disappointments that overtake the ordinary adventist.
the father's life. The widow can gain no advantage from any They have some 400 ministers and 60,000 members.
advancement. No child can be forced to account for his or her ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad),
advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded from a a quality from outside, in no sense part of the substance or
share in the intestate's estate. As to what is an advancement circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition of life, his wealth
there has been much conflict of judicial opinion. According to or his poverty, are called by Carlyle "adventitious wrappages,"
one view, nothing is an advancement unless it be given "on as being extrinsic, superadded and not a natural part of him.
marriage or to establish the child in life." The other and prob- In botany the word means that which is not normal to the plant,
ably the correct view is that any considerable sum of money which appears irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots
paid to a child at that child's request is an advancement thus ;
out of place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the
payment of a son's debts of honour has been held to be an flower.
advancement. On the other hand, trivial gifts and presents to a ADVENTURE (from Lat. res advenlura, a thing about to
child are undoubtedly not advancements. happen), chance, and especially chance of danger so a hazard- ;
"
ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any ous enterprise or remarkable incident. Thus an adventurer,"
way. The Fr. mianl (before) shows the origin and meaning from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course of
of this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a person of
the spelling. It is often contracted to "vantage." In some no character. The word is also used in certain restricted legal
" "
games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term vantage is used technically connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, may be distinguished
in scoring ("deuce" and "vantage"; "vantage sets"). A from partnership (q.v.) A bill of adventure in maritime law (now
.

position which gives a better chance of success than its surround- apparently obsolete) is a writing signed by the shipmaster de-
"
ings is called a vantage ground." In an unfavourable sense claring that goods shipped in his name really belong to another,
" "
the word advantage is used to express a mean use made of to whom he is responsible. The bill of gross adventure in French
some favourable condition (e.g. to take advantage of another maritime law is an instrument making a loan on maritime
man's misfortunes). security.
ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of ADVERTISEMENT, or ADVERTISING (Fr. avertissement, warn-
the Saviour "), a holy season of the Christian church, the period ing, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly of
of preparation for the celebration of the nativity or Christmas. purchasing publicity. The business of advertising is of very
In the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's Day (nth of recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct to other phases
November), and in other churches from the Sunday nearest of commercial activity. In some rudimentary form the seller's
to StAndrew's Day (3oth of November) tilljChristmas. It is appeal to the buyer must, however, have accompanied the earliest
uncertain at what date the season began to be observed. A development of trade. Under conditions of primitive barter,
canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding the faithful communities were so small that every producer was in immediate
to be absent from church during the three weeks from the I7th personal contact with every consumer. As the primeval man's
of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an early reference wolfish antipathy to the stranger of another pack gradually
to Advent. The first authoritative mention of it is in the Synod diminished, and as intercourse spread the infection of larger
of Lerida (524), and since the 6th century it has been recognized desires, the trapper could no longer satisfy his more complicated
as the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of wants by the mere exchange of his pelts for his lowland neigh-
directing the thoughts of Christians to the first coming of Christ bour's corn and oil. A began to accept from B the commodity
as Saviour, and to his second coming as Judge, special lessons which he could in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's
are prescribed for the four Sundays in Advent. From the 6th product gave to A what D
had produced and bartered to C. The
century the season was kept as a period of fasting as strict as mere statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its
that of Lent; but in the Anglican and Lutheran churches the clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon simplified
rule is now relaxed. In the Roman Catholic church Advent is the original process of bare barter. It is reasonable to suppose
still kept as a season of
penitence. Dancing and festivities are that as soon as the introduction of currency marked the abandon-
forbidden, fasting enjoined and purple vestments are worn in ment of direct relations between purchaser and consumer an
the church services. informal system of advertisement in turn rose to meet the need
In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse of publicity. At first the offer of the producer must have been
popular observances, some of which even still survive. Thus in brought to the trader's attention, and the trader's offer to the
England, especially the northern counties, there was a custom notice of the consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented
"
(now extinct) for poor women to carry round the Advent by local rumour. The gradual growth of markets and their de-
images," two dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other velopment into periodical fairs, to which merchants from dis-
the Virgin Mary. A halfpenny was expected from every one to tant places resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the
whom these were exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace only means of extended advertisement. In England, during the
the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas 3rd century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as
Eve at the latest. well as from all parts of England, and it maybe conjectured that
In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of the Stour
236 ADVERTISEMENT
was the first form of advertisement which had any marked effect may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury on the East Side of
the Great Square, before the House of the Right Honourable the
upon English commerce. As the fairs of the middle ages, with Lord Treasurer, where there is care taken for the Receipt and
the tedious and hazardous journeys they involved, gradually Publication of such Advertisements.
gave place to a more convenient system of trade, the i5th century The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal
brought the invention of printing, and led the way to the modern notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either
development of advertising. The Americans, to whom the elab- books or quack remedies. The first trade advertisement, which
oration of newspaper advertising is primarily due, had but just does not fall within either of these categories, was curiously
founded the first English-speaking community in the western enough the first advertisement of a new commodity, tea. The
hemisphere when the first newspaper was published in England. following advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Polilicus,
But although the first periodical publication containing news No. 435, for September 1658
appeared in the month of May 1622, the first newspaper advert- That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, called
isement does not seem to have been published until April 1647. by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the
It formed a part of No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Daie Sultaness Head, a cophee-house in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal
Exchange, London.
journall in Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read
as follows: The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other
A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called The Divine curious incidents and episodes of English history during the i7th
Right of Church Government, Collected by sundry eminent Ministers and 1 8th centuries might be traced by examination of the anti-
in the Citie of London; Corrected and augmented in
many places, quated advertisements which writers upon such subjects have
with a briefe Reply to certain Queries against the Mimstery of
England; Is printed and published for Joseph Hunscot and George already collected. In order that space may be found for some
Caivert, and are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden consideration of the practical aspects of modern advertising, the
Fleece in the Old Change. discussion of its gradual development must be curtailed. Nor
Among the Mercuries, as the weekly newspapers of the day is it necessary to preface this consideration by any laboured
were called, was the Mercurius Elencticus, and in its 45th number, statement of the importance which advertising has assumed.
published on the 4th of October 1648, there appeared the fol- It is a matter of common knowledge that several business
lowing advertisement: houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a larger number
The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon, in the United States, who spend not less than 50,000 a year in
Entituled A Looking-Glasse for Levellers,
Preached at St. Peters, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648, advertising, while one patent medicine company, operating both
by Paul Knell, Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex in England and the United States, has probably spent not less
upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament. than 200,000 in Great Britain in one year, and an English cocoa
In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont manufacturer supposed to have spent
is 150,000 in Great
"
Nedham, who is described as perhaps both the ablest and the Britain. Some works of artists as distinguished as
of the best
readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper," there Sir John Millais, Sir H. von Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have
appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often been scattered broadcast by advertisers. The purchase of Sir
been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper advertise- " "
John Millais' picture Bubbles for 2200 by the proprietors
ments. It read as follows: of a well-known brand of soap is probably the most remarkable
Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory instance of the expenditure in this direction which an advertiser
panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his suc-
cesses in an exquisite manner. To be sold by John Holden, in the may find profitable. There are in London alone more than 350
New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 1652. advertising agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known
The article " On the Advertising System," published in the as men in a considerable way of business. The statements which
Edinburgh Review for February 1843, contains the fullest account from time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard
of early English advertising that has ever been given, and it has to the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising
been very freely drawn upon by all writers who have since dis- in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily no better
cussed the subject. But
it describes this advertisement in the than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are required in order
" to demonstrate what every reader can plainly see for himself,
Mercurius Politicus as the very first," and the discovery of the
two earlier instances above quoted was due to the researches of that advertising has definitely assumed its position as a serious
a contributor to Notes and Queries. field of commercial enterprise.
In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 2oth century,
Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on the may be divided into three general classes:
lack of advertising facilities at that period 1. Advertising in periodical publications.
It would be very expedient if each parish or village might have 2. Advertising by posters, signboards (other than those placed
some place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers upon premises where the advertised business is conducted),
posted up) the wants either of the buyer or tne seller, as such a
field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, to be had, &c. transparencies and similar devices.
There was a book published in London weekly about the year 3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of persons to
1657 which was called (as I remember) The Publick Advice. It gave whom the advertiser specially desired to address himself.
information in very many of these particulars. It may be noted at the outset that advertising in periodical
A year later the same diarist says publications exercises a reflex influence upon these publications.
There is an office near the Old Exchange in London called the The daily, weekly and monthly publications of the day are accus-
office of Publick Advice. From thence both printed and private
information of this useful nature are always to be had. But what tomed to look to advertisements for so large a part of their
they print is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal. I was in this revenue that the purchaser of a periodical publication receives
office. The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 1689. much greater value for his money than he could reasonably expect
In No. 62 of the London Gazette, published in June 1666, the from the publisher if the aggregate advertising receipts did not
first advertisement supplement was announced constitute a perpetual subsidy to the publisher. It is not to be
An Advertisement Being daily prest to the Publication of
Books, Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a
supposed, however, that the receipts from the sale of a paper
cover all its expenses and that the advertising revenue is all clear
Paper of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once for all, that we will not
charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be matter of profit. The average newspaper reader would be amazed if he
State but that a Paper of Advertisements will be forthwith printed
:
knew at how great a cost the day's news is laid before him. A
apart, & recommended to the Publick by another hand.
dignified journal displays no inclination to cry from the house-
In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 1666,
tops the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an
there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great Fire
accident enables the public to obtain information in this con-
should avail themselves of this means of publicity
nexion. The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission
Such as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and
desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish the disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal
place of their present abode, or to give notice of Goods lost or found, upon foreign news alone amounted to more than 50,000
 ADVERTISEMENT 237
in the course of one year, and that a year not characterized The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity of rural
and river scenery, and promoting a regard for dignity and propriety
by any great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable
of aspect in towns with especial reference to the abuses of spec-
despatches. tacular advertising.
In the case of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it is not It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative bodies
less obvious that the costliness of news service renders advertising would be enabled to exercise control, by means of by-laws framed
with a view to enabling them, at any rate, to grant relief in cases of
revenue indispensable, for although these less important journals
flagrant and acknowledged abuse.
spend less money, the price at which they are supplied to the It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where local
news agents is very small in proportion to the cost of their pro- conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will be so
duction. If, however, this thought be pursued to its logical
con- apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, the enforce-
ment of a reasonable standard will gradually become common.
clusion, the advertiser must admit that he in turn receives, from The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon the varying
those among newspaper readers who purchase his wares, prices
requirements of different places and positions. No hard-and-fast
sufficiently high to cover the cost of his advertising. So that the rule is suggested no particular class of advertisement is proscribed
; ;

reader is in the curious position of directly paying a certain price certainly no general prohibition of posters on temporary hoardings
is contemplated. Within the metropolitan area sky signs have
for hisnewspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth more than
already been prohibited, and it is hoped that some corresponding
that price, while this price is supplemented by the indirect in- check will be placed on the multiplication of the field boards which
cidence of a sort of tax upon many of the commodities he con- so materially diminish the pleasure or comfort of railway journeys.
sumes. On the other hand, a great part of the advertisements The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate tax
or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed advertisements
in a daily newspaper have themselves an interest and utility not not coming within certain categories of obviously necessary notices.
less than that possessed by the news. The man who desires to The difficulty of inducing a chancellor of the exchequer to move in
hire a house turns to the classified lists which the newspaper a matter where revenue is not the primary consideration is not over-
publishes day after day, and servants and employers find one looked. But it is thought that any impost would materially reduce
the volume of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish
another by the same means. The theatrical announcements are
the most offensive and the most annoying class, i.e. the quack ad-
so much a part of the news that even if a journal were not paid vertisements by the road sides and the bills stuck by unauthorized
for their insertion they could not be altogether omitted without persons on trees, walls and palings.
inconvenience to the reader. In the main, however, it is the Members are recommended to make it known that there exists
advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks the
an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising disfigure-
ment, by giving preference, in private transactions, to makers and
advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are prepared, dealers who do not employ objectionable methods, and by avoid-
and the certainty with which the success or failure of a trader ing, as far as possible, the purchase of wares which, in their individual
may be traced to his skill or want of skill as an advertiser, show opinion, are offensively puffed. Action on these lines is advised
rather for its educational than for its immediately deterrent effect
that the proper use of advertising is one of the most indispensable ;

although, in the case of many of the more expensive commodities,

branches of commercial training. makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by the knowledge
Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising in that they would lose, rather than gain, custom.
periodical publications it may be well to complete, for the use The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate of
of the general reader, a brief survey of the whole
the conditions of the problem. It is believed that the present
Poster
Jicence causes
discomfort or loss of enjoyment to many, and that,
ana sign subject by examining the two other classes of advertise- in the absence of authoritative restriction, it must grow far beyond
advertise-
ment.The most enthusiastic partisan of advertising 'its present limits that beauty or propriety of aspect in town and
ments. ;

admit that posters and similar devices are very

will country forms as real a part of the national wealth as any material
generally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance. A product, and that to save these from impairment is a national
interest; that the recent developments of vexatiously obtrusive
bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper
advertising have not grown out of any necessities of honourable
advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's business, but are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation,
attention. In the French, and in some English newspapers, and partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the
where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of consumers and the trade as a whole lose that restriction as regards
;

the size and positions of advertising notices would not be a hardship

news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being to those who want publicity since all competitors would be treated
hoodwinked. He begins to read an account of a street accident, alike, each would have the same relative prominence that, as large
;

and finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for sums of public money are expended on institutions intended to
;

bruises. The best English and American journals have refused develop the finer taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must
be held inconsistent with established public policy to permit the
to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and hi no one of the
sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural effect
best journals printed in the English language will there be found to be destroyed at the discretion of a limited class.
an advertisement which is not so plainly differentiated from news
On The is to be seen in many of the
influence of this society
matter that the reader may avoid it if he sees fit to do so.
which have been imposed upon advertisers since its
restrictions
the whole, then, newspaper advertisements ask, but do not
work began. About a year after its foundation the London
compel attention. The whole theory of poster advertising is,
on the other hand, one of tyranny. The advertiser who pays County Council abolished (under statutory powers obtained
from Parliament) advertisements coming within the definition
for space upon a hoarding or wall, although he may encourage
of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 1894. These specifica-
a form of art, deliberately violates the wayfarer's mind. A
tions are as follows:
trade-mark or a catch-word presents itself when eye and thought
" "
are occupied with other subjects. Those who object to this class Sky sign means any word, letter, model, sign, device, or
of advertisement assert, with some show of reason, that an representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement,
or direction supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard,
advertisement has no more right to assault the eye in this fashion framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, or above
than to storm the ear by an inordinate din; and a man who any building or structure, which, or any part of which, sky sign
came up behind another man in the street, placed his mouth shall be visible against the sky from any point in any street or public

close to the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some way, and includes all and every part of any such" post, pole," standard,
framework, or other support. The expression sky sign shall also
brand of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable include any balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly
disturber of public peace and comfort. Yet if the owner of a or in part for the purposes of any advertisements or announcement
house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his exercise on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection of any kind,
or on or over any street or public way.
of the jealously guarded rights of private property may not

lightly be disturbed. For the most part, both law and public The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaffs,
opinion content themselves with restraining the worst excesses weathercocks and any solid signs not rising more than 3 feet
of the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to suffer. above the roof.
The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Adver- Another by-law of the London County Council, in great
tising (known as SCAPA), founded in 1803 in London, was organ- measure due to the observations made at coroners' inquests,
ized for purposes which it describes as follows: protects the public against the annoyances and the perils to
 238 ADVERTISEMENT
traffic occasioned by flashlight and searchlight advertisements. and the aitist are restrained, not only by their own sense of
This by-law reads as follows: propriety, but by fear of offending the sense of propriety in their
No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to be visible from any customers.
street and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public
or occupier of premises permit or suffer any flashlight to be so ex-
vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find the
hibited on such premises.
" " name of a station or the destination of a vehicle. In respect of
The
expression flashlight means and includes any light used
for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any word, all these abuses it is a regrettable fact that unpopularity cannot
letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an be expected to deter the advertiser. If a name has once been
advertisement, announcement, or direction which alters suddenly
fixed in the memory, it remains there long after the method of
either in intensity, colour, or direction.
No its impression has been forgotten, and the purpose of advertise-
person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible from
any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any ments of the class under discussion is really no more than the
owner or occupier of premises permit or suffer any searchlight to The average man or woman
fixing of a trade name in the mind.
be so exhibited on such premises.
The expression " searchlight " means and includes any light who goes into a shop to buy soap is more or less affected by
exceeding soo-candle power, whether in one lamp or lantern, or in .a vague sense of antagonism towards the seller. There is a
a series of lamps or lanterns used together and projected as one rudimentary feeling that even the most ordinary transaction of
concentrated light, and which alters either in intensity, colour, or
direction.
purchase brings into contact two minds actuated by diametrically
opposed interests. The purchaser, who is not asking for a soap
Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be he has used before, has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper
prohibited in 1853; the "sandwich-man" has in the City will try to sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article
of London and many towns been ousted from the pavement which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser
to the gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded
imagines that he in some measure secures himself against a bad
streets, and as the traffic problem in the great centres of bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for some
population becomes more urgent, he will probably be altogether specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks. If he has seen
suppressed. any one soap so persistently advertised that his memory retains
Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts its name, he will ask for it, not because he has any reason to
that new hoardings cannot, except under special conditions, believe it to be better or cheaper than others, but simply because
be erected exceeding 1 2 feet in height, and no existing hoardings he baffles the shopkeeper, and assumes an authoritative attitude
can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit. by exerting his own freedom of choice. This curious and obscure
The huge signs which some advertisers, both in England principle of action probably lies at the root of all poster advertis-
and the United States, have placed in such positions as to ing, for the poster does not set forth an argument as does the
mar the landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism newspaper advertisement. It hardly attempts to reason with
that there is reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not the reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory. It
increase. is possible, by lavish advertising, to go so far in this direction
In 1899 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer becomes synony-
all sorts of advertising in public places, and this achieve- mous with the name of a commodity, so that when the consumer
ment has been followed by no little agitation in favour of a' thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept inevitably couples
" "
Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away the maker's name with the word soap itself. In order that
with the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United the poster may leave any impression upon his mind, it must of
Kingdom. course first attract his attention. The assistance which the
In 1907 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act) advertiser receives from the artist in this connexion is discussed
of a permissive character purely, under which a local authority in the article POSTER.
is enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the The fact that the verb " to circularize " was first used in 1848,
Home Secretary, regulating (i) the erection of hoardings, &c., sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the practice of
exceeding 12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertise- plying possible purchasers with printed letters and
ments which might affect the " amenities " of a public place or pamphlets. The penny postage was not established
landscape. in England until 1840; the halfpenny post for circulars circular.
The English law with regard to posters has undergone very was not introduced until 1855. In the United States
little change. The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Viet, a uniform rate of postage at two cents was not established until
cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the In- 1883. In both countries cheap postage and cheap printing have
decent Advertisements Act of 1889 (3) penalized the public so greatly encouraged the use of circulars that the sort of people
exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an in- whom the advertiser desires to reach those who have the most
decent or obscene nature. But in general practice there is money to spend, and whose addresses, published in directories,
hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster advertise- indicate their prosperous condition are overwhelmed by trades-
ments, other than good taste and public opinion. On the other men's price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other
hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, and there suggestions for the spending of money. The addressing of en-
have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as to what public velopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry
opinion 'really was, when its legally authorized exponent was in in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United
a position to insist on its own arbitrary definition. Such an States. It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert advertisers
instance occurred some few years ago in the case of a large poster that what is called
" "
is unprofitable, and
general circularizing
issued by a well-known London music-hall. The Progressive that circulars should only be sent to persons who have peculiar
majority on the London County Council, led by Mr (afterwards reason to be interested by their specific subject-matter. It may
" "
Sir) J. M'Dougall, a well-known purity advocate, took be noted, as an instance of the assiduity with which specialized
exception to this poster, which represented a female gymnast in circularizing is pursued, that the announcement of a birth,
" "
tights posed in what was doubtless intended for an alluring marriage or death in the newspapers serves to call forth a
and attractive attitude; and, in spite of any argument, the fact grotesque variety of circulars supposed to be adapted to the
remained that the decision as to renewing the licence of this momentary needs of the recipient.
music-hall rested solely with the Council. In showing that it In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other
would have no hesitation in provoking even a charge of meddling than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add
prudery, the Council probably gave a salutary warning to people that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which
who were inclined to sail rather too near the wind. But in is known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming,
Great Britain and America, at all events (though a doubt may Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a tomb-
perhaps exist as to some Continental countries), the advertiser stone:
 ADVERTISEMENT 239
Sacred copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of
To the memory of view. The most striking difference between the periodical press
Nathaniel Godbold Esq.
of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the former country
Inventor & Proprietor
of that excellent medicine the magazines and reviews play but a secondary role, while in the
The Vegetable Balsam United States the three or four monthlies possessing the largest
For the Cure of Consumptions & Asthmas. circulation are of the very first importance as advertising
He departed this Life
The i;th. day of Deer. 1799 mediums. One reason for this is that the advertisements in an
Aged 69 years. American magazine are printed on as good paper, and printed
Hie Cineres, ubiqUe Fama. with as great care, as any other part of the contents. There are
The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press probably very few among American magazine readers who do
has within the last twenty years or so become so important a not habitually look through the advertising pages, with the cer-
AOver-
tas ^ t 'lat a 8 reat number of writers and artists many tainty that they will be entertained by the beauty of the adver-
Using in of the latter possessing considerable abilities gain a tiser's illustrations and the quaint curtness of his phrases.
periodical livelihood from this pursuit. The ingenuity displayed Another reason is that the American monthly magazine goes to
n mo ^ ern newspaper advertising is unquestionably
' all parts of the United States, while, owing to the time required
due to American initiative. The English newspaper for long journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily
advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the most paper can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United
part of the mere reiteration of a name. An advertiser who Kingdom. In comparison with points on the Pacific coast,
took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an inch, Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the excep-
and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the column. tion of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no
Such departures from this childlike method as were made were for New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in
the most part eccentric to the point of incoherence. It may, how- Chicago. The American advertiser would, therefore, have to
ever, be said in defence of English advertisers, that newspaper spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to
publishers for a long time sternly discountenanced any attempt reach as widespread a public as one successful magazine offers
to render advertisements attractive. So long as an advertiser him.
was rigidly confined to the ordinary single-column measure, and There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers
so long as he was forbidden to use anything but the smallest have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as
"
sort of type, there was very little opportunity for him to attract insets," consisting of separate cards or sheets printed at the
the reader's attention. The newspaper publisher must always advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at a specific
remember that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the charge for every thousand copies. This system of insetting has
news, not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the ad- the grave inconvenience that the advertiser finds himself com-
vertisements are relegated to a position and a scope, in respect pelled to print as many insets as the publisher asserts that he
of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, the adver- can use. The publisher, on the other hand, is somewhat at the
tiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of publication. mercy of too enthusiastic agents and employes, who estimate
Of late The Times, followed by almost all newspapers in the over-confidently the edition of the periodical which will probably
United Kingdom, has given the advertiser as great a degree of be printed for a certain month, and advertisers have had reason
liberty as he really needs, and many experienced advertisers in to fear that many of their insets were wasted. The added weight
America incline to the belief that the larger licence accorded to and bulk of the insets cause inconvenience and expense to the
American advertisers defeats its own ends. The truth would newsdealer, as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are
seem to be that the advertiser will always demand, and may equivalent to at least sixteen additional pages. Some news-
fairly expect, the right to make his space as fantastic in appear- dealers have further complicated the inset question by threaten-
ance as that allotted to the editor. When some American editors ing to remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them;
see fit to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, and and with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine
to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first page of a publishers have seriously considered the advisability of alto-
newspaper, continuing one on page 2, another on page 4, and gether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of confin-
another on page 6, to the bewilderment of the reader, it can ing their advertisements to the sheets they themselves print.
hardly be expected that the American advertiser should submit In connexion with this subject, it may be added that many
to any very strict code of decorum. The subject of the relation readers habitually shake loose bills out of a magazine before they
between a newspaper proprietor and his advertisers cannot be begin to turn the pages, and that railway stations, railway
dismissed without reference to the notable independence of carriages and even public streets are thus littered with trampled
advertisers' influence, which English and American newspaper and muddy advertisements. The old practice of distributing
proprietors authorize their editors to display. Whenever an in- handbills in the streets is dying a natural death, more or less
surance company or a bank goes wrong, the cry is raised that all hastened by local by-laws, and when the loose bills in magazines
the editors in Christendom had known for years that the directors and cheap novels have ceased to exist no one will be the loser.
were imbeciles and rogues, but had conspired to keep mute for Advertisements in the weekly press are on the whole more
the sake of an occasional advertisement. When the British successful in England than in America. A few American
public persisted, not long ago, in paying premium prices for the weeklies cope successfully with the increasing competition of
shares of over-capitalized companies, the crash had no sooner the huge Sunday editions of American daily papers. But even
come than the newspapers were accused of having puffed pro- the most successful among them a paper for boys has hardly
motions for the sake of the money received for publishing pros- attained the prosperity of some among its English contemporaries
pectuses. As a matter of fact, in the case of the best dailies in in the field of weekly journalism.
England and America, the editor does not stand at all in awe of The merchant who turns to these pages for practical sugges-
the advertiser, and time after time the Money Article has ruth- tions concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given
lessly attacked a promotion of which the prospectus appeared no better advice than to betake himself to an established adver-
in the very same issue. It is indeed to the interest of the ad- The
tising agent of good repute, and be guided by his counsels.
vertiser, as well as to the interest of the reader, that this inde- chief part that he can himself play with advantage is to note
pendence should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as from day to day whether the agent is obtaining advantageous
an advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bond fide positions for his announcements. Every advertiser will naturally
circulation among persons who believe it to be a serious and prefer a right-hand page to a left-hand page, and the right side
honestly conducted newspaper. All advertisers know that the of the page to the left side of the page; while the advertiser
minor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and are who most indefatigably urges his claims upon the agent will,
scattered broadcast among people who pay nothing for their in the long run, obtain the largest share of the favours to be
240 ADVERTISEMENT
distributed. To the merchant who inclines to consider adver- those of Augsburg and Liibeck, by which any advertisement that
tising in connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it would injure the StadtbUd or appearance of the town may be
may be suggested that a new channel of trade demands very prohibited and removed by the local authority (see G. Baldwin
"
serious attention. What is called England m
postal trade," Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1905). Full powers
"
and in America mail order business," is growing very rapidly. existunder the Imperial Criminal Code for the suppression of
Small dealers in both countries have complained very bitterly indecent or objectionable advertisements.
of the competition they suffer from the general dealers and Austria. Permission of the police is required for the exhibi-
from stores made up of departments which, under one roof, tion of printed notices in public places other than such as are of
offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of merchandise. purely local or industrial interest, such as notices of entertain-
This general trading, which, on the one hand, seriously threatens ment, leases, sales, &c., or theatre programmes, and these can
the small trader, and on the other hand offers greater possibilities only be shown in places approved by the local authorities (Press
of profit to the proportionately small number of persons who Law 1862). The presj-police act as advertisement censors and
can undertake business on so large ascale, becomes infinitely determine whether an advertisement can be allowed or not.
more formidable when the general dealer endeavours not only In Hungary there are no general laws or regulations, but the
to attract the trade of a town, but to make his place of business municipalities have power to issue ordinances dealing with the
a centre from which he distributes by post his goods to remote question.
parts of the country. In America, where the weight of parcels Italy. All control rests with the municipal and communal
carried by post is limited to 4 Ib, and where the private authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements
carrying companies are forced to charge a very much higher may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being
rate for carriage from New York to California than for shorter placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings.
distances, the centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but Switzerland. The Federal Government has no authority to
it isno secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in deal with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations,
those parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods

habitually avail themselves of the English parcel post, which by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police the
carries packages up to n
Ib, in order to procure a great power of censoring all advertisements. Many of the communal
part of their household supplies direct from general dealers in authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions
London. A trading company, which conducts its operations and regulations. In Zurich the police choose the advertising
upon such a scale as this, can afford to spend an almost un- stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of the
limited sum in advertising throughout the United Kingdom, right of erecting advertisements. The Society known as the
and even the trader who offers only one specific class of merchan- Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pittoresque or Schweitzeri-
dise is beginning to recognize the possibility of appealing to the scher Heimatschutz has for one of its objects the preservation of
whole country. scenery from disfiguring advertisements.
The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations United States. There is no federal legislation on the subject,
dealing with advertisements in public places in certain the matter being one for regulation by the states, which in most
^ t ^le coun tries of Continental Europe and in the cases have left it to the various municipalities and other local
regulation
United States of America, the chief authority for authorities. With regard to indecent and objectionable advert-
which is an official return issued by the British Home Office isements some states have special legislation on the matter,
in 1903. others are content with the ordinary criminal laws or police
France. The permission of the owner is alone required for powers or with the law of nuisance or of trespass. Thus control
the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but build- can be exercised over such advertisements as are dangerous to
ings, walls, &c., belonging to_the government or local authorities public safety, health or morals. The state of New York prohibits
are reserved exclusively for official notices, &c.; these alone advertisements of lotteries. It would be impossible to give in
can be printed on white paper, all others must be on coloured detail the different laws and regulations passed in the various
paper. Municipal authorities control the size, construction, &c., states or by municipalities. The following are some of the more
of hoardings used for advertising purposes, and the police have striking measures adopted in certain of the states. In Massa-
full powers over the exhibition of indecent or other objectionable chusetts no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public
advertisements. The Societe pour la protection des paysages, highways. Power has been granted to city and town authorities
founded in 1901, has for one of its objects the prevention of to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public parks.
advertisements which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise In the District of Columbia no advertisement is allowed which
objectionable. obstructs a highway, and all distribution of handbills, circulars,
Germany. By 43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance &c., in public streets, parks, &c., is prohibited. This prohibition
" "
permission to post any trade advertisement in a public street, against what are generally known as dodgers is very general

square, &c., must be first obtained from the local police. The in the local regulations throughout the states. In Illinois, city
police also control (by 55 of the Imperial Press Law 1874) councils are empowered on the incorporation of the city to regu-
advertisements which are not of a trade character, but this late and prevent the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds
regulation does not affect the right of the federal legislatures for signs, handbills and advertisements, &c., and also the exhibi-
to make regulations in regard to them (30). It would be tion of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks. Chicago
impossible to give in any detail the police regulations as to has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently have
advertisements which exist, e.g. in Prussia, but the following been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement board
rules in force in Berlin may be given: Public advertisements in more than 12 ft. square within 400 ft. of a public park or
public streets and places may be posted only on the appliances, boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones relating to
such as pillar posts, &c., provided for the purpose. Owners of the business carried on in the premises where the advertisement
property may post advertisements on their own property but is posted, or of sales, &c., are allowed in streets where three-
"
only such as concern their own interests. Advertisements on quarters of the houses are residences "only. Prohibition is
public conveyances are forbidden. In 1902 a Prussian law was also extended to the advertisements of those professing to cure
passed authorizing the police to forbid all advertisement hoard- diseases or giving notice of the sale of medicines. In Boston
ings, &c., which would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes there are regulations prohibiting projecting or overhanging
in rural districts. The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1902 prohibits signs in the streets, and special rules as to the height at which
the
placing
of any advertisements, posters, &c., on a monument street signs and advertisements must be placed. The distribu-
" "
officiallyprotected under the act, if it would be likely to injure tion of dodgers in the streets is prohibited. Advertisements
the appearance of the monument. As instances of the numerous for places of amusement must be approved by the committee OP
local provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited licences.
 ADVICE ADVOCATE 241
France, Belgium, Italy and certain of the cantons in Switzer- solicitor of the treasury (see SOLICITOR). His opinion was taken
land impose a tax on advertisements, as do certain of the United by the foreign office on international matters, and on high
States of America, where the form is usually that of a ecclesiastical matters he was also consulted; all orders in council
Taxation
licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies. were submitted to him for approval. The office may now be
In many cases in the United States this is imposed by the muni- said to be obsolete, for after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss,
cipalities. In every case both in Europe and America advertise- the. last holder, in 1872, it was not filled up. There was also a
ments in newspapers are not subject to any tax. second law officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the
With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition to the his- admiralty advocate. This office has long been vacant. Advo-
torical article in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, already cate is also the title still in use in some of the British colonies
mentioned, and that in the Quarterly Review for June 1855, the to denote the chief law officer of the crown there. For instance,
Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Advertising issue a jour- in Sierra Leone (until 1896), Lagos and Cyprus he is called the

nal, A Beautiful World. The Journal of the Society of Comparative king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius,
Legislation (N.S. xvi. 1906) contains an article by W.J.B. Byles on procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India
Foreign Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places. advocate-general. In France, the awcats, as a body, were re-
The advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising organized under the empire by a decree of the isth of December
agents, will also be found to contain practical information of 1810. There is, however, a distinction between awcats and
great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. WE.) avoues. The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators
ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed), or agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft
counsel given after consideration, or information from a distance and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and prepare
" "
giving particulars of something prospective ( e.g. advice of their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of the awcat, on
an imminent battle, or of a cargo due). In commerce it is a the other hand, consists in giving advice as to the law, and con-
common word for a formal notice from one person concerned in ducting the causes of his clients by written and oral pleadings.
a transaction to another. The number of awcats is not limited; every licentiate of law
ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from adwcare, to summon, being entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached
especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so to each court, and aftet presentation to the court, taking the oath
generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer authorized to of office and passing three years in attendance on some older
plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate.
technically in Scotland (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF) in a sense In Germany the adwcat no longer forms a distinct class of
virtually equivalent to the English term barrister, and a deriva- lawyer. Since 1879, when a sweeping judicature act (Deutsche
tive from the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries Justizgesetzgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, the adw-
of Europe where the civil law is in force. The word adwcatus is cat in his character of adviser, as distinguished from the pro-
not often useti among the earlier jurists, and appears not to curator, who formerly represented the client in the courts, has
have had a strict meaning. It is. not always associated with become merged in the Rechtsanwalt, who has the dual character
legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to a supporter of counsellor and pleader.
or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired object. When it came In the middle ages the word adwcatus (Fr. avoue, Ger. Vogt)
to be applied with a more specific limitation to legal services, was used on the continent as the title of the lay lord charged
the position of the adwcatus was still uncertain. It was different with the protection and representation in secular
from, and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who matters of an abbey. The office is traceable as early
advocatus
gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be as the beginning of the sth century in the Roman ecciesiae.
identified with the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor empire, the churches being allowed to choose defen-
is the merely professional advocate to be confounded with the sores from the body of advocates to represent them in the courts.
more distinguished orator, or patronus, who came forward in In the Prankish kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay
the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis- representatives of the churches appear as agentes, defensores
tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, when the and adwcati; and under the Carolingians it was made obli-
profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia, passed about gatory on bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials
two centuries B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance in every county where they held property. The office was not
of remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was pro- hereditary, the advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot alone,
hibited. This law, like all others of the kind, was evaded. The or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count. The
skilful debater was propitiated with a present; and though he same causes that led to the development of the feudal system
could not sue for the value of his services, it was ruled that any also affected the advocatus. In times of confusion churches and
honorarium so given could not be demanded back, even though abbeys needed not so much a legal representative as an armed
he died before the anticipated service was performed. The traces protector, while as feudal immunities were conceded to the
of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing practice of ecclesiastical foundations, these required a representative to
rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services. defend their rights and to fulfil their secular obligations to the
The term adwcatus came eventually to be the word employed state, e.g. to lead the ecclesiastical levies to war. A new class
when the bar had become a profession, and the qualifications, of adwcatus thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a
admission, numbers and fees of counsel had become a matter grant of land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, had
of state regulation, to designate the pleaders as a class of pro- by the beginning of the nth century become hereditary.
fessional men, each individual advocate, however, being still In France the adwcati (avougs) were of two classes (i) great
spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with whose interest barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or abbeys rather
he was entrusted. The advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified
an officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the for the protection they afforded by a domain and
r^ach
present day, was connected with the collection of the revenue. revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of avow.
The lawyers who practised in the English courts of common Normandy was advocatus of nearly all the abbeys in
law were never officially known as advocates, the word being the duchy; (2) petty seigneurs, who held their awueries as heredi-
reserved for those who practised in the courts of the civil and tary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. The avoue
canon law (see DOCTORS' COMMONS). There was formerly an of an abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a
important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, or more bishop. Their function was generally to represent the abbot in
shortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law officer his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in the
of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in the
Commons,
and in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. He discharged abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers of the
for these courts the duties which
correspond to those of the abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint.
242 ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF ADVOWSON
In England the word adwcatus was never used to denote an and at classes of civil law, public or international law, consti-

hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger tutional law and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other
abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions approved university. He has then to undergo the old academic
anc^ privileges were not dissimilar to those of the form of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the
England.
continental advocati. The word adwcatus, however, pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, has
was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an degenerated into a mere form. A large proportion of the candi-
ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance was date's entrance fees (amounting to 339) is devoted to the
an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for in- magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which literary
stitution. In thisthe hereditary right of presentation to a
way investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful.
" "
benefice came to be called in English an advowson (adwcatio). ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, devil's advocate, the name popularly
The adwcatus played a more important part in the feudal given to the promoter of the Faith (promoter fidei), and officer of
polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than in France, the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose duty is to
where his functions, confined to the protection of the interests prepare all possible arguments against the admission of any one
of religious houses, were superseded from the I3th century on- to the posthumous honours of beatification and canonization.
wards by the growth of the central power and the increasing This functionary is first formally mentioned under Leo X.(isi3-
efficiency of the royal administration. They had, indeed, long 1521) in the proceedings in connexion with the canonization of St
ceased to be effective for their original purpose; and from the Lorenzo Giustiniani. In 1631 Urban VIII. made his presence,
time when their office became a fief they had taken advantage of either in person or by deputy, necessary for the validity of any
their position to pillage and suppress those whom it was their act connected with the process of beatification or canonization
function to defend. The medieval records, not in France only, (see CANONIZATION). The phrase, " devil's advocate," has by an
are full of complaints by abbots of their usurpations, exactions easy transference come to be used of any one who puts himself
and acts of violence. up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, to argue a
In Germany the title of adwcatus (Vogt) was given not only case in which he does not necessarily believe.
to the advocati of churches and abbeys, but to the officials ADVOWSON, or ADVOWZEN (through O. Fr. adwuson, from
appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the Lat. adwcatio, a summons to), the right of presentation to
German emperor to administer their immediate domains, in a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because the patron
Vogt. contradistinction to the counts, who had become defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents.
hereditary princes of the Empire. The territory so At what period the right of advowson arose is uncertain; it
administered was known as Vogtland {terra adwcatorum) a ,
was probably the result of gradual growth. The earliest trace
name stillsometimes employed to designate the strip of of the practice is found in the decree of the council of Orange,
country which embraces the principalities of Reuss and adjacent A.D. 441, which allowed a bishop, who had built a church in the

portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria. These imperial diocese of another bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to
advocati tended in their turn to become hereditary. Sometimes consecrate the church. The 1 23rd Novel of Justinian, promul-
"
the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt of some particular gated about the end of the 5th century, decreed that if any
part of his immediate domain. In the Netherlands as well as man should erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto
in Germany advocati were often appointed in the cities, by the by himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his live-
overlord or by the emperor, sometimes to take the place of the lihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, they may
bailiff (Ger. Schultheiss, Dutch schout, Lat. scultetus), some- be ordained." The S7th Novel empowered the bishop to examine
times alongside this official. them and judge of their qualifications, and, where those were
sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk.
" In England, for quite
See Du Cange, Glossarium (ed. 1883, Niort), s. Advocati "; A.
Luchaire, Manuel des -institutions franfaises (Paris," 1892) Herzog-
; two centuries after its conversion, the clergy administered only
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. Advocatus ec- pro tempore in the parochial churches, receiving their maintenance
clesiae," where further references will be found. from the cathedral church, all the appointments within the dio-
ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which cese lying with the bishop. But in order to promote the building
what in England are called barristers are known in Scotland. and endowment of parochial churches those who had contributed
They professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh; to their erection either by a grant of land, by building or by
but they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior endowment, became entitled to present a clerk of their own
courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may choice to the bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived
act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some from such contribution. After the Norman Conquest, when the
of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is cus- boundaries between church and state were more clearly marked,
tomary for those who practise as barristers to pass as advocates it became usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without
in Scotland. This body has existed by immemorial custom. the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops.
Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded on no statute Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in gross.
or charter of incorporation. The body formed itself gradually, Originally the right of nominating or presenting was annexed
1

from time to time, on the model of the French corporations of to the person who built or endowed the church, but the right
awcats, appointing like them by a general vote, a dean or doyen, gradually became annexed to the manor in which it was built,
who is their principal officer. It also differs from the English for the endowment was considered parcel of the manor, the
and Irish societies in that there is no governing body similar to church being built for the use of the inhabitants, and the tithes
the benchers, nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate of the manor being attached to the church. Consequently
discipline and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of where the right of patronage (the right of the patron to present
court. No curriculum of study, residence or professional train- to the bishop the person whom he has nominated to become
ing was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but rector' or vicar of the parish to the benefice of which he claims
the faculty have always had the power, believed to be liable to the right of advowson) remains attached to the manor, it is called
control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for an advowson appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance
admission. The candidate undergoes two private examinations
The distinction between nomination to a living and presentation
1
the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, he is to be noted. Nomination is the power, by virtue of a manor or
may produce evidence of his having graduated as master of arts otherwise, to appoint a clerk to the patron of a benefice, to be by
in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent degree in an him presented to the ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron
in offering his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of
English or foreign university; and the other, at the interval of his gift. Nomination and presentation, though generally used in
a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law. He must, law for the same thing, must be so distinguished, for it is possible
before the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at that the rights of nomination may be in one person, and the rights
classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish university, of presentation in another.
 ADYE 243
or sale without any special conveyance. But where, as is often university of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the river
the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, and Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that river.
so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson in gross. Besides the qualifications required of a presentee by canon
An advowson may also be partly appendant, and partly in gross, law, such as being of the canonical age, and in priest's orders
e.g. if an owner granted to another every second presentment, before admission, sufficient learning and proper orthodoxy or
the advowson would be appendant for the grantor's turn and morals, the Benefices Act requires that a year shall have elapsed
in gross for the grantee's. since a transfer of the right of patronage, unless it can be shown
Advowsons are further distinguished into presentative and that such transfer was not made in view of a probable vacancy;
collative. In a presentative advowson, the patron presents a that the presentee has been a deacon for three years; and that
clergyman to the bishop, with the petition that he be instituted he is not unfit for the discharge of his duties by reason of physical
into the vacant living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find or mental infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrass-
the clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part ment, grave misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical
is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron office, evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his
or by presentee. In a collative advowson the bishop is himself moral character since his ordination, or being party to an illegal
the patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper agreement with regard to the presentation; that notice of the
patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised presentation has been given to the parish of the benefice. Except
within the statutory period of six months after the vacancy by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the incumbent of a seques-
occurred. No petition is necessary in this case, and the bishop tered benefice cannot be presented. The act also gives to both
is said to collate to the benefice. Before 1898 there were also patron and presentee an alternative mode of appeal against a
donative advowsons, but the Benefices Act 1898 made all dona- bishop's refusal to institute or admit, except on a ground of
tions with cure of souls presentative. In a donative advowson, doctrine or ritual, to a court composed of an archbishop of the
the sovereign, or any subject by special licence from the sover- province and a judge of the High Court nominated for that
eign, conferred a benefice by a simple letter of gift, without purpose by the lord chancellor, a course which, however, bars
any reference to the bishop, and without presentation and in- resort being had to the ordinary suits of duplex querela or action
stitution.The incumbent of such a living was to a great extent of quare impedit. In case of refusal of one presentee, a lay
freefrom the jurisdiction of the bishop, who could only reach patron may present another, and a clerical patron may do so
him through the action of an ecclesiastical court. after an unsuccessful appeal against the refusal.
The Benefices Act of 1898 did not make any substantial Upon institution the church is full against everybody except
change in the legal character of advowsons, which remain the crown, and after six months' peaceable possession the clerk
practically the same as before the act. Briefly, it prevents the is secured in possession of the benefice, even though he may

dealing with the right of presentation as a thing apart from the have been presented by a person who is not the proper patron.
advowson itself; increases the power of the bishops to refuse The true patron can, however, exercise his right to present at
the presentation of unfit persons, and removes several abuses the next vacancy, and can reserve the advowson from an usurper
which had arisen in the transfer of patronage. Under the pre- at any time within three successive incumbencies so created
"
viously existing law, simony, or the corrupt presentation of adversely to his right, or within sixty years. Collation, which
any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or otherwise corresponds to institution, does not make the church
reward," renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons full, and the true patron can dispossess the clerk at any time,
privy or party to it to penalties;, a presentation to a vacant unless he is a patron who collates. Possession of the benefice
benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can purchase is completed by induction, which makes the church full against
for himself a next presentation. An advowson may, however, any one, including the crown. If the proper patron fails to exer-
be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give the right cise his right within six calendar months from the vacancy, the
to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy an advowson right devolves or lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an
even though it be only an estate for life, and present himself on ordinary patron to the bishop, and if he makes similar default
the next vacancy. Under the Benefices Act, advowsons may to the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the crown.
not be sold by public auction except in conjunction with landed If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has accrued to it,

property adjacent to the benefice; transfers of patronage must it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a vacancy of a
be registered in the registry of the diocese, and no such transfers benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown presents. Until
can be made within twelve months after the last admission or the right of presentation so accruing to a bishop or archbishop
institution to the benefice. Restrictions had also been imposed is exercised, the patron can still effectually present but not if
on the transfer of patronage of churches built under the Church lapse has gone to the crown.
Building Acts and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices (See also BENEFICE; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR.)
in the gift of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to AUTHORITIES. Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines
augment others; but agreements may be made as to the patron- Ecclesiasticae, or, the Antiquities of the English Church; Mirehouse,
On Advowson; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law.
age of such churches in favour of persons who have contri-
buted to their building or enlargement without being void for ADYE, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1000), British general, son
of Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the
simony.
The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner ist of November 1819. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836,
whether he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners (who, was promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the
if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of age) or mort- Crimean War as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general
of artillery (C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel). In
gagee (who must present the nominee of the mortgagor), or a
the Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity.
bankrupt (who, although the advowson belongs to his creditors,
yet has the right to present to a vacancy). Certain owners of Promoted brevet-colonel in 1860, he was specially employed in
advowsons are temporarily or permanently disabled from exer- 1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy-
cising the right which devolves upon other persons; and the adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned
crown as patron paramount of all benefices can fill all churches home. From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and
not regularly filled by other patrons. It thus presents to all stores at the War Office. He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, and
vacancies caused by simoniacal presentations, or by the incum- was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor of
bent having been presented to a bishopric or in benefices belong- the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and surveyor-
ing to a bishopric when the see is vacant by the bishop's death, general of the ordnance in 1880. In 1882 he was chief of staff
translation or deprivation. Where a presentation belongs to and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, and served
a lunatic, the lord chancellor presents for him. Where it belongs throughout the campaign (G.C.B and thanks of parliament) He
. .

to a Roman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the held the government of Gibraltar from 1883 to 1886. Promoted
244 ADYTUM AEDUI
" "
lieutenant-general in 1879, general and colonel commandant of number, called plebeian aediles. They were created in the
the Royal Artillery in 1884, he retired in 1886. He unsuccess- same year as the tribunes of the people (494 B.C.), their persons
fully contested Bath in the Liberal interest in 1892. He died were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least after 471) they were
on the 26th of August 1900. He was author of A Review of elected at the Comitia Tributa out of the plebeians alone.
The Crimean War; The Defence of Cawnpore; A Frontier Cam- Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised
paign in Afghanistan; Recollections of a Military Life; and certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and
Indian Frontier Policy. managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to Livy
ADYTUM, the Latinized form of aSvTOv (not to be entered), (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations, an extra day
the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which was was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear
forbidden to all but the officiating priests. The most famous the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to
adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedile-
ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is un- ship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two
" "
known), a tool used for cutting and planing. It is somewhat curule aediles were appointed at first from the patricians
like an axe reversed, the edge of the blade curving inward and alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from
placed at right angles to the handle. This shape is most suitable either at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the
" "
for planing uneven timber, as inequalities are hooked off by consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting
the curved blade. (See TOOLS.) in a curule chairand wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They
ABACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeacidae, was the took over the management of the Roman and Megalesian games,
son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus. His the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing
mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, which edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the
was afterwards called by her name. The island having been curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their
depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon it into functions gradually approximated and became practically
human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called Myrmidones identical.

(/uip/iTj/ces
= ants) Aeacus ruled over his people with such justice
. Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three
and impartiality that after his death he was made judge of the heads: (i) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of
lower world together with Minos and Rhadamanthus. By his temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving;
wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated
successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates, buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths
Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina (Pau- and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of
sanias ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenios gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally,
and helped Poseidon and Apollo to build the walls of Troy. including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also
See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901. punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus,
AECLANUM, an ancient town of Samnium, Italy, ism. E.S.E. or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provi-
of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella). sions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and
It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn
become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 B.C. by setting for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the
on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and games: superintendence and organization of the public games,
new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals

Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often
ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphi- spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favour
theatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. with a. view to official advancement.
Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called Cereales,
Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under
Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juridical
Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia; functions and the care of the games being transferred to the
while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellini) praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the ap-
may also follow an ancient line. H. Nissen (Italische Landes- pointment of a praefectus urbi. In the 3rd century A. D. it
kunde, Berlin, 1902, ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he disappeared altogether.
believes to have been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum AUTHORITIES. Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) Hoff- ;

to Trevicum and thence to Ausculum; but Th. Mommsen mann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1842) Goll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum
;

Imperio (1860) Labatut, Les diles el les mceurs (1868) Marquardt-

;

(Corpus Inscrip. Lot., Berlin, 1883, ix. 602) is more likely to be

;

Mommsen, Handbuch der romischen Altertiimer, ii. (1888); Soltau,

right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly Die ursprungliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn,
from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though 1882).
the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that AEDUI, HAEDUI or HEDUI (Gr. AMouoi), a Gallic people of
the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of Gallia Lugdunensis, who
inhabited the country between the
later date. Arar (Sa6ne) and Liger (Loire). The statement in Strabo (ii. 3.
AEDESIUS Neoplatonist philosopher, was born
(d. A.D. 355), 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is
of a noble Cappadocian family. He migrated to Syria, attracted incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of
by the lectures of lamblichus, whose follower he became. Ac- the modern departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire, C6te d'Or and
cording to Eunapius, he differed from lamblichus on certain Nievre. According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedi-
points connected with magic. He taught at Pergamum, his tion of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century B.C. Before
chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus. He seems to have Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans,
modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine. and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of
See Ritter and Preller, 552; Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophic; the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on
T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (Cambridge, 1901). the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually
AEDICULA (diminutive of Lat. aedis or aedes, a temple or quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with
house), a small house or temple, a household shrine holding the assistance of a German chieftain named Ariovistus, the
small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates. Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the
AEDILE (Lat. aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival
certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar restored their independence. In spite
temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, where of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar
the plebeian archives were kept. They were originally two in (B.C. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia
 AEGADIAN ISLANDS AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 245
were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled ately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone
their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted and metal objects, were found and dated by the geologist
a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augusto- Fouque, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration
dunum (mod. Autun). During the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 21), of the superincumbent eruptive stratum. Meanwhile, in 1868,
they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, tombs at lalysus in Rhodes had yielded to M. A. Biliotti many
but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus, Ann. iii. finepainted vases of styles which were called later the third and
"
43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from fourth Mycenaean "; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and
the emperor Claudius the distinction oi the jus honorum. The presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than
oration of Eumenius (q.v.), in which he pleaded for the restora- they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric
tion of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows of uncertain date. Nor was a connexion immediately detected
that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb
" "
Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobrelus (according to at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut bee-hive grave near the
Mommsen, "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually, Argive Heraeum.
possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden go to Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad
beyond the frontier. Certain clienles, or small communities, (q.v.) did not excite surprise. But the " Burnt City " of his
were also dependent upon the Aedui. second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and
See A. E. Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule, ii. (1876-1893) T. R.
; vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the
Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899). discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which
AEGADIAN ISLANDS (Ital. I sole Egati; anc. Aegates In- was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle
sulae), a group of small mountainous islands off the western of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves
coast of Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric
of the Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C., period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both
which ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not
largest, pop. (1901) 6414, lies 10 m. S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved
(Phorbantia) 8m. W.; while Maritime, the ancient Upa crjoxis, by the identification of the Inselsteine and the lalysus vases with
1 5 m. W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier
They belonged to the Pallavicini family of Genoa until 1874, Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relation between objects
when they were bought by Signer Florio of Palermo. of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was
AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while
"
Mycenaean" because its existence
civilization, previously called certainly posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent
was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's of the Mycenaean. Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik
excavations at Mycenae in 1876. Subsequent discoveries, how- in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata,
" "
ever, have made it clear that MyCenae was not its chief centre but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his Lydian city
in its earlier stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly, of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed till
it is more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title. Dr W. Dorpfeld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after the
I. History of Discovery and Distribution of Remains. Mycenae first explorer's death (see TROAD). But by laying bare in 1884
and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns (<?..), Schlie-
prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical mann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric
Greeks. The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, domestic life which was amplified two years later by Chr.
its gate with heraldic lions, and the great " Treasury of Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work
"
Atreus had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as
time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one
at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, civiliza- he had exposed. From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean
tion. It was not till Schliemann exposed the contents of the sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the con-
graves which lay just inside the gate (see MYCENAE), that tinuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser
scholars recognized the advanced stage of art to which pre- graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's
historic dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained. There princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at
had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before Athens. In that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already
1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might rifled but retaining some of their furniture, at Arkina and Eleusis
have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the
graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The
certain tributaries, representede.g. in the XVIII th Dynasty tomb richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889,
of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths'
forms, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting,
habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which
while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the remained an enigma till the excavation of Cnossus. In 1890 and
Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were 1893 Stae's cleared out certain less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus
" "
lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut bee-hives or
sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina
of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken and Salamis, at the Heraeum (see ARGOS) and Nauplia in the
seriously. Both at Sevres and Neuchatel Aegean vases have Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian
been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in the Larissa. During the excavations on the Acropolis at Athens,
one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia. Ludwig terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style
Ross, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as
called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the
Insdsleine; but it was not till 1878 that C. T. Newton demon- temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean.
strated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded
primitive structures were discovered in the island of Therasia in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in
by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the Suez Canal works; the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its
and when this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neigh- neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation
bouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives of the French in the later Aegean periods. Prehistoric research had now begun
School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immedi- to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean
246 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
islands, Antiparos, los, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all (1) Structures. Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built
found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, Greek
period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching mainland and N.W. Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small
corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of
Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects, but one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro
not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and
School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all frescoes. From like sources and from inlay-work we have also
the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic. A map of Cyprus in representations of palace's and houses.
the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. (2) Structural Decoration. Architectural features, such as
Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration,
five-and-twenty settlements in and about the Mesaorea district such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay.
alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, (3) Furniture. (a) Domestic, such as vessels of all sorts and
has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found in many materials, from huge store-jars down to tiny unguent-
outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables,
like that of Hissarlik, in central Phrygia and at Pteria' (q.i).), and &c., these aU in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) Sacred,
the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these
north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic we have also numerous pictorial representations, (c) Funerary,
specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyn- e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta.
dacus, Sangarius and Halys. In Egypt in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie (4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory,
found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or
farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no modelled in clay, faience, paste, &c. Very little trace has yet
fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been been found of large free sculpture, but many examples exist of
recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble
and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay,
which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented
Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decora-
at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially tion. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent.
Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations Engraved objects in great number, e.g. ring-bezels and gems;
of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund. South-eastern Sicily, and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.
ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in (5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and bronze,
1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid.
in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body-
from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead,
has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae.

objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from (6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches (fibulae), pins, razors,
Saragossa. One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the tweezers, &c., often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the
Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages, Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived.
viz. Crete, so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as (7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in
the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, and probably for long Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin,
its political and social centre. The island first attracted the papyrus, &c.; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends
notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on
found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see
monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna; but the first CRETE).
undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto kind, in
(8)
extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use
1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or
S. plain (Messara) by F. Halbherr. W. J. StiUman and H. simple wrappings.
Schliemann both made unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and (9) Public works, such as paved and stepped roadways,
A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeed- bridges, systems of drainage, &c.
ing years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered B. There is also a certain amount of external evidence to be
evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things gathered from
would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him (1) Monuments and records of other contemporary civiliza-
to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not sus- tions, e.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes;
pected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897-98 opened imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non- Aegean lands;
the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or
for which see CRETE. Thus the " Aegean Area " has now come Babylonian records.
to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic (2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially
peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolia. Evidence the Hellenic, such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems,
is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Off- the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c. ; statements as to
shoots are' found in the W. Mediterranean, in Sicily, Italy, the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by
Sardinia and Spain, and in the E. in Syria and Egypt. About Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus
the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed. Siculus, &c.
II. General Nature of the Evidence. For details of monumental (3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, &c., in the Aegean
evidence the articles on CRETE, MYCENAE, TIRYNS, TROAD, area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which
CYPRUS, &c., must be consulted. The most representative site they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems.
explored up to now is Cnossus (see CRETE, sect. Archaeology), There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to
which has yielded not only the most various but the most be considered.
continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight III. General Features of Aegean Civilization. The leading
of classical civilization. importance come Hissarlik,
Next in features of Aegean civilization, as deduced from the evidence,
Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palai- must be stated very briefly.
kastro and Gournia. (i) Political Organization. The great Cretan palaces and
A. The internal evidence at present available comprises the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION PLATE I.

GRAPHIC ART

FIG. i FLYING FISH FRESCO, PHYLAKOPI. FIG. 2. BULL, WITH LEAPING BULL-FIGHTER TIRYNS.
Cf. J.H S. Suppl. Papers, iv. Cf. Schliemann, Tiryns, Plate XIII.

FIG. 4. MIDDLE MINOAN VASE,' CNOSSUS.

B.S A. ix. i2c, Fig. 75.

W
FIG. 3 LAMP-STAND, PHYLAKOPI. FIG. 5. MINIATURE FRESCOES. SHOW- FIG. 6. FILLER VASE. ZAKRO.
Cf J B.S. Suppl Papers, iv Plate XXII. ING SPECTATORS AT ATHLETIC J.H.S. vol. xxii. Plate XII
SPORTS, CNOSSUS.
From Photo by Dr. A. J. Evans.
I. 246. By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.
PLATE II. AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
PLASTIC ART
-

FIG.2. MARBLE IDOLS, AMORGOS; 6-n FIDDLE

AND MALLET TYPES, 12-14, DEVELOPED TYPES.
Man. 1901, 185, No. 146.
By permission of the Royal Anlhrojx lopicnl Instilute

JIG. i FAIENCE PLAQUE, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. ix. Plate III.

FIG. 3. COLOURED BAS-RELIEF IN GESSO FIG.4. MARBLE HEAD

DURO, REPRESENTING MALE TORSO FROM AMORGOS (ASH-
WITH FLEUR-DE-LIS COLLAR. MOLEAN MUSEUM). FIG. 5 BULL IN PAINTED PLASTER, CNOSSUS.
B.S.A. vii. 17. Fig. 6. Photo by Dr A. J. Evans.

FIGS. 6, 7. IVORY FIGURES AND HEADS OF ATHLETES, BULL-FIGHTERS OR ACROBATS, CNOSSUS.

B.S.A. viii. Plates II. and III., and p. 72 sq.

By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies

 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 247

Plena

Map showing the distribution of

AEGEAN SITES

containing little more than one great residence, and dominating large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary
lower towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all periods. conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply
Independent local developments of art before the middle of the of water and for drainage, attest this fact. Even the smaller
2nd millennium B.C. suggest the early existence of independent houses, after the Neolithic period, seem also to have been of
units in various parts, of which the strongest was the Cnossian. stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete
After that date the evidence goes strongly to show that one had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, win-
political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief dows, folding and sliding doors, &c. In this later period, the
periods, over almost all the area (see later). The great number distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been
of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus perhaps indicates that the held to indicate the seclusion of .women in harems, at least
centre of power was always there. among the ruling caste. Cnossian frescoes show women grouped
(2) Religion. The fact that shrines have so far been found apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and
within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and wine and
the kings kept religious power in their own hands; perhaps beer were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious
they were themselves high-priests. Religion in the area seems uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Artificers'
to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest implements of many kinds were in use, bronze succeeding
period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in dominant obsidian and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found
features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, &c.) and control- carefully shaped to the human person. There was evidently
ling fertility. This cult passed through an aniconic stage, from olive- and vine-culture on a large scale in Crete at any rate.
which fetishes survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars, Chariots were in use in the later period, as is proved by the
trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), &c. pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably,
When the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the the horse also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem
Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young impression. Main ways were paved. Sports, probably more
god, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands. The god was or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bull-fighting, dancing,
probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair boxing, armfd combats. 8 4 3 E
represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations (4) Commerce was practised to some extent
in very early
with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves, times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian over
as uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early Minoan

fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts art. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the
of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and Greek mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete.
human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with Egypt, and
simulacra, invocation, &c., were practised. The dead, who Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean
returned to the Great Mother, were objects of a sort of hero- (see below). Notraces of currency have come to light, unless
worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous certain axe-heads, too slight for practical use, had that char-
features of Hellenic religion, especially in the cults of Artemis acter; but standard weights have been found, and representa-
and Aphrodite. (See CRETE.) tions of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet
There is a possibility that features
(3) Social Organization. proved (by being found outside the area) epistolary correspond-
of a primeval matriarchate long survived; but there is no ence with other lands. Representations of ships are not common,
certain evidence. Of the organization of the people under the but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings
monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts.
of armed men that it seems doubtful if there. can have been Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine
any professional military class. Theatral structures found at motives in decoration.
Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts of the palaces, (5) Treatment of the Dead. The dead in the earlier period
were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal assize, were laid (so far as we know at present) within cists constructed
rather than for popular assemblies. The Cnossian remains of upright stones. These were sometimes inside caves. After
contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account- the burial the cist was covered in with earth. A little later, in
keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the
considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the
comfortable and even luxurious from early times. Fine stone bones at once (" scarification "), or left to rot in separate cists
palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments, awhile; afterwards the skeletons were collected and the cists
248 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
re-used. The coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the Anatolian (Pamphylian, Lycian and Carian) inscriptions. But
knees drawn up to the chin and are found in excavated chambers neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical
" "
or pits. In the later period a peculiar bee-hive tomb became aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means
common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as certain that there is parentage. The Aegean script may be,
" "
in the magnificent Mycenaean Treasuries ") constructed dome- and probably prior in origin to the
is, Asianic "; and it may
wise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the small
type, paralleled in the later Cnossian cemetery. The latest number of common characters being considered) be an entirely
type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a independent evolution from representations of natural objects
horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above. (see CRETE). (2) An Art, whose products cannot be confounded
At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned. with those of any other known art by a trained eye. Its obliga-
Weapons, food, water, unguents and various trinkets were laid tions to other contemporary arts are many and obvious, especi-
with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar ally in its later stages; but every borrowed form and motive
seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves undergoes an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean
were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted sarco- craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character.
phagus, found at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult The secret of this character lies evidently in a constant attempt
of the dead. to express an ideal in forms more and more closely approaching
(6) Artistic Production. Ceramic art reached a specially high to realities. We detect the dawn of that spirit which afterwards
standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle of the animated Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives,
3rd millennium B.C. in Crete. The products of that period com- reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have
pare favourably with any potters' work in the world. The supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression
same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the
work. Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone and ivory, Greek mainland (Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural
engraving on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of plans and decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces is
the 2nd millennium. After 2000 B.C. all these arts revived, and of two main types. First (and perhaps earliest in time), the
sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a chambers are grouped round a central court, being engaged one
small scale, carved stone vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater
bronze, advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally
vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the by Second, the main chamber is of what is known as
pillars.
iSth century B.C. than at any subsequent period before the 6th the megaron type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the

century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of faience plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side,
objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps
familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a hypaethral; there is no central court, and other apartments
strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this
and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of duality of type see CRETE. In spite of many comparisons made
later Hellenic art. Architectural ornament was also highly with Egyptian, Babylonian and " Hittite " plans, both these
developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns arrangements remain incongruous with any remains of prior or
" "
may be judged by those from the Treasury of Atreus now set contemporary structures elsewhere. Whether either plan suits
"
up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have examples the Homeric palace " does not affect the present question.
"
inMycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian paintings. (4) A type of tomb, the dome or bee-hive," of which the grandest
The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at " "
examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan larnax coffins,
Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to be mentioned. It should be also, have no parallels outside the Aegean. There are other
compared with stone work in Crete, especially the steatite vases infinite singularities of detail; but the above are more than
with found at Hagia Triada. On the whole, Aegean art,
reliefs sufficient to establish the point.
at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia B. Origin and Continuity. With the immense expansion of
respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts. the evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has
IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilization. The arisen how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration
evidence, summarized above, though very various and volumin- covers at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one
ous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the questions which may and continuous. Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now
be asked as to the origin, nature and history of this civilization, know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive Neo-
or to answer any but a few questions with absolute certainty. lithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, represented
We shall try to indicate the extent to which it can legitimately by a stratum which (on that site in particular) is in places nearly
be applied. 20 ft. thick, and contains stone implements and sherds of hand-
A. Distinctive Features. The fact that Aegean civilization is made and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive develop-
distinguished from others, prior or contemporary, not only
all ment in technique from bottom to top. This Cnossian stratum
by its geographical area, but by leading organic characteristics, seems to be throughout earlier than the lowest layer at Hissarlik.
has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied It closes with the introduction of incised, white-filled decoration
seriouslyand impartially. The truth was indeed obscured for on pottery, whose motives are presently found reproduced in
a time by persistent prejudices in favour of certain alien Medi- monochrome pigment. We are now in the beginning of the
terranean races long known to have been in relation with the Bronze Age, and the first of Evans's " Minoan " periods (see
Aegean area in prehistoric times, e.g. the Egyptians and especi- CRETE). Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification,
ally the Phoenicians. But their claims to be the principal eight more periods have been distinguished by the explorer of
authors of the Aegean remains grew fainter with every fresh Cnossus, each marked by some important development in the
Aegean discovery, and every new light thrown on their own universal and necessary products of the potter's art, the least
proper products; with the Cretan revelations they ceased destructibleand therefore most generally used archaeological
altogether to be considered except by a few Homeric enthusiasts. criterion. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose
Briefly, we now know that the Aegean. civilization developed close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean
these distinctive features, (i) An indigenous script expressed Age is conventionally held to end. Iron came into general Aegean
in characters ofwhich only a very small percentage are identical, use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a
or even obviously connected, with those of any other script. body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins
This is equally true both of the pictographic and the linear of the earlier dominion. The important point is this, that
" "
Aegean systems. Its nearest affinities are with the Asianic throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic
"
scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west Age (named by Evans, Minoan I. i, 2, 3; II. i, 2, 3; III. i.
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 249
"
2, 3 ;
see CRETE), there evidence of a perfectly orderly
is Homo Medilerraneus, whose probable origin lay in mid-eastern
and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From Africa a fact only valuable in the present connexion in so far
one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives of decoration as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source for Aegean civilization.
develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than Not enough evidence has been collected to affect the question
two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning of racial change during the Aegean period. From the skull-
can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent artistic intrusion forms studied, it would appear, as we should
expect, that the
can be detected. This fact, by itself, would go far to prove Aegean race was by no means pure even in the earlier Minoan
that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially periods. It only remains to be added that there is some ground
the same throughout. It is, moreover, supported by less abun- for supposing that the language spoken in Crete before the later
dant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for in- Doric was non-Hellenic, but Indo-European. This inference
stance, shows the same orderly development from at any rate rests on three inscriptions in Greek characters but non-Greek
Period II. 2 to the end. About institutions we have less certain language found in E. Crete. The language has some apparent
knowledge, there being but little evidence for the earlier periods; affinities with Phrygian. The inscriptions are post-Aegean by
but in the documents relating to religion, the most significant of many centuries, but they occur in the part of the island known
all, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change. to Homer as that inhabited by the Eteo-Cretans, or aborigines.
We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing through all Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets.
the normal stages down to theoanthropism in the latest period. C. History of Aegean Civilization. History of an inferential
There is no appearance of intrusive deities or cult-ideas. We and summary sort only can be derived from monuments in the
may take it then (and the fact is not disputed even by those absence of written records. The latter do, indeed, exist in the
who, like Dorpfeld, believe in one thorough racial change, at case of the Cretan civilization and in great numbers; but they
least, during the Bronze Age) that the Aegean civilization was are undeciphered and likely to remain so, except in the im-
indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essen- probable event of the discovery of a long bi-lingual text, partly
tially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area couched in some familiar script and language. Even in that
throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. This conclusion event, the information which would be derived from the Cnossian
can hardly entail less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass tablets would probably make but a small addition to history,
of those who possessed this civilization continued racially the since in very large part they are evidently mere inventories of
same. tribute and stores. The engraved gems probably record divine
There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods, or human names. (See CRETE.)
evidences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of (i) Chronology. The earliest chronological datum that we
small conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain Cretan
of the conquered people and became assimilated to the latter. hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. i and others
The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in Period II. discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred by him
i or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the description to the 1st Dynasty. He goes so far as to pronounce the latter
of palace-plans above. Before Period III. i it was largely re- to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms being unlike
built, and arguments have been brought forward by Dorpfeld anything Nilotic. If that be so, the period at which stone im-
to show that features of the second type were then introduced. plements were beginning to be superseded by bronze in Crete
A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch at Phaestus, must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will be remembered that
and possibly at Hagia Triada. Now the second type, the below all Evans's " Minoan " strata lies the immensely thick
" "
megaron arrangement, characterizes peculiarly the palaces Neolithic deposit. To date the beginning of this earliest record
discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at Mycenae, Tiryns of human production is impossible at present. The Neolithic
and Hissarlik, where up to the present no signs of the first type, stratum varies very much in depth, ranging from nearly 20 ft.
so characteristic of Crete, have been observed. These northern to 3 ft., but is deepest on the highest part of the hillock. Its
" "
megara are all of late date, none being prior to Minoan III. i. variations may be due equally to natural denudation of a stratum
At Phylakope, a " megaron " appears only in the uppermost once of uniform depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound
Aegean stratum, the underlying structures being more in con- by later builders. Even were certainty as to these alternatives
formity with the earlier Cretan. At the same epoch a notable attained, we could only guess at the average rate of accumula-
change took place in the Aegean script. The pictographic tion, which experience shows to proceed very differently on
characters, found on seals and
discs of Period II. in Crete, had different sitesand under different social and climatic conditions.
given way entirely to a linear system by Period III. That In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems to have proceeded
system thenceforward prevailed exclusively, suffering a slight at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft. per thousand years. Reckoning by
modification again in III. 2 and 3. that standard we might push the earliest Neolithic remains back
These and other less well marked changes, say some critics, behind 10,000 B.C.; but the calculation would be worthy of little
are signs of a racial convulsion not long after 2000 B.C. An old credence.
race was conquered by a new, even if, in matters of civilization, Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus,
the former capta victorem cepit. For these races respectively and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic
" "
Dorpfeld suggests the names Lycian and " Carian, " the Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism
latter coming in from the north Aegean, where Greek tradition of remains belonging to the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2500 B.C. accord-
remembered former dominance. These names do not greatly
its
ing to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) with
help us. we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomen-
If products of Minoan Period II. 2. Characteristic Cretan pottery
clature, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats, of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in conjunction
both Lycians and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having with Xllth Dynasty remains, and various Cretan products of the
formerly possessed the civilizations attributed to them in pre- period show striking coincidences with Xllth Dynasty styles,
historic times signs which research has hitherto wholly failed especially in their adoption of spiraliform ornament. The spiral,
to find. The most that can be said to be capable of proof is however, it must be confessed, occurs so often in natural objects
the infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at the end
(e.g. horns, climbing plants, shavings of wood or metal) that too
of Minoan Period II. but it probably much stress must not be laid on the mutual parentage of spirali-
;
brought about no change
of dynasty and certainly no form ornament A
change in the prevailing race. in different civilizations. diorite statuette,
A good
deal of anthropometric investigation has been devoted referable by its style and inscription
Dynasty XIII., was dis-
to
to human remains of the Aegean epoch,
especially to skulls and covered in deposit of Period II. 3 in the Central Court, and a
bones found in Crete in tombs of Period II. The result of this, cartouche of the "Shepherd King," Khyan, was also found at
however, has not so far established more than the fact that Cnossus. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C. This brings us
the Aegean races, as a whole, belonged to the dark, to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan Periods
long-headed
250 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
III. i, 2, with Dynasty XVIII. (c. 1600-140x5 B.C.). This co- more advanced culture of Crete, in proportion to their nearness
incidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but previously, of vicinity. Early Hissariik shows less Cretan influence and
in connexion with discoveries of scarabs and other Egyptian more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early Melos. The inner Greek
objects made at Mycenae, lalysus, Vaphio, &c. In Egypt itself mainland remained still in a backward state. Five hundred
Kefti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves years, later about 1600 B.C. we observe that certain striking
similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become
Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., are depicted under this astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic
and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes). developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of
Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans
of Dynasty XVIII., especially in the town of Amenophis IV. have stayed their previous decadence, and are once more pos-
Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna; while in the Aegean area itself sessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a
we have abundant evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence more convenient and expressive written character by stages of
beginning with this same Dynasty. To this wave were owed in which one is best represented by the tablets of Hagia Triada.
all probability the Nilotic scenes depicted on the Mycenae The art of all the area gives evidence of one spirit and common
daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and Cnossus, on pottery of models in religious representations it shows the same anthropo-
;

Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, &c. and also many forms

; morphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects
and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan coffins, and the faience industry produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean
of Cnossus. These serve to date, beyond all reasonable question, intercourse has widened and become more busy. Commerce
Periods III. 1-2 in Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle, with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and
the Vaphio tomb, &c., to the i6th and isth centuries B.C., and Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun
Period III. 3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central and
the sixth stratum at Hissariik, the lalysus burials, the upper western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and Spain.
stratum at Phylakope, &c., to the century immediately suc- There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one
ceeding. Aegean centre, and that all the area had come under its political,
The terminus ad quern is less certain iron does not begin to social and artistic influence.
be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and How was this brought about, and what was the imperial
then not exclusively. If we fix its introduction to about 1000 centre? Some change seems to have come from the north;
B.C. and make it coincident with the incursion of northern tribes, and there are those who go so far as to say that the centre
remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, we henceforward was the Argolid, and especially " golden " Mycenae,
must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp out whose lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification
Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area. of Aegean art on all other Aegean lands. Others again cite the
But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated the old-established power and productivity of Crete; the immense
"
Age, with which, for convenience at any rate, we
''
Geometric advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and geo-
may close the history of Aegean civilization proper. graphical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean
(2) Annals. From these and other data the outlines of primi- civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the
tive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus. A people, gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the
agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the Mediterranean Aegean. They point to the fact that, even in the new period, the
race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still remained
Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security with Crete. There alone we have proof that the art of writing
was combined with great natural fertility, remained in a savage was commonly practised, and there tribute- tallies suggest an
and unproductive condition until far into the 4th millennium imperial organization; there the arts of painting and sculpture
B.C. it had long been developing a certain
In Crete, however, in stone were most highly developed there the royal residences,
;

and at a period more or less contemporary with

civilization, which had never been violently destroyed, though remodelled,
Dynasties XI. and XII. (2500 B.C. ?) the scattered communities continued unfortified; whereas on the Greek mainland they
of the centre of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical required strong protective works. The golden treasure of the
state, whose capital was at Cnossus. There the king, probably Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is not more splendid than
also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone would have been found at Cnossus had royal burials been spared
palace, and received the tribute of feudatories, ofwhom, prob- by plunderers, or been happened upon intact by modern ex-
ably, the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messara plain, plorers. It is not impossible to combine these views, and place
was chief. The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with the seat of power still in Crete, but ascribe the Renascence there
Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g. to an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil
to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and to fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its
Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian obsidian essential character.
knives. A system of pictographic writing came into use early If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived. The security
in this Palace period, but only a few documents, made of durable of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 B.C.,
material, have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and Cretan art
character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great suffered an irreparable blow. As the comparatively lifeless
strides, and from ceramic forms we may legitimately infer also character which it possesses in the succeeding period (III. 3)
a high skill in metallurgy. The absence of fortifications both is coincident with a similar decadence all over the Aegean area,

at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was in- we can hardly escape from the conclusion that it was due to the
ternally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland
very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained
the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no
commerce. Gournia and Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends: culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which
Zakro must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the they found. Who these were we cannot say; but the prob-
starting-point for the African coast. The acme of this dominion ability is that they too came from the north, and were pre-
was reached about the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., and there- cursors of the later " Hellenes." Under their rule peace was
after there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline. re-established, and art production became again abundant
Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly, among the subject population, though of inferior quality. The
it appears, on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. Cnossian palace was re-occupied in its northern part by chieftains
Tiryns and Hissariik, other communities of the early race began who have left numerous rich graves; and general commercial
to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the intercourse must have been resumed, for the uniformity of the
 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION PLATE III.

RELIGION

FIG. i. LION-GUARDED GODDESS AND FIG. 2. MALE DIVINITY BE- FIG. 3. GOLD SIGNET FROM ACROPOLIS
SHRINE, ON A CLAY SEALING FROM TVVEEN LIONS, ON A LENTOID TREASURE, MYCENAE, SHOWING THE GOD
CNOSSUS. GEM FROM KYDONIA, CRETE. DESS BENEATH A SACRED TREE, WITH
B.S./l. vii. 29, Fig. o. J.H.S. ai. 163, Fig. . ADORANTS AND SACRED EMBLEMS.
J.H.S. xxi. 108, Fig. 4.

FIG. 5. CLAY SEALINGS FROM ZAKRO, WITH MINOTAUR TYPES.

B.S.A. vii. 133, Fig. 45.

FIG. 4 BIRDS ON A TRIAD OF

PILLARS, CNOSSUS.
B.S.A. viii. 29, Fig. 14.

FIG. 6 DUAL PILLAR WORSHIP, ON A GOLD SIGNET

RING, CNOSSUS.
J.H.S. xxi. 170, Fig. 48.

FIG. 8 FACADE OF SMALL TEMPLES, COMPLETED

FIG. 7. FAIENCE FIGURE OF THE GODDESS, WITH FROM A FRESCO PAINTING, CNOSSUS.
SERPENT ATTRIBUTES, CNOSSUS. J.H.S. xxi. 193, Fig. 66.
I. 250. B.S.A. ix. 75, Fig. 54. By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies.
PLATE IV. AEGEAN CIVILIZATION
TYPES AND COSTUMES, ETC.

FIG. i. TESSERAE OF PORCELAIN MOSAIC IN FORM OF HOUSES FIG, 2. CUP-BEARER, CNOSSUS

AND TOWERS, CNOSSUS. B.s.A. via. is, Pi*. 8. Pholc by Dr A. J. Evans

FIGS. 3, 5. IVORY HEADS FIG. 4. FRESCO PAINTING FIG. 5. See FIG. 3.

FROM SPATA (ATTICA). OF GIRL, CNOSSUS.
Reichcl, Homerische Waflen, 1901, p. 103. B.S.A. vii. 57, Fig. 17.
By permission of A. Holder, Vienna.

FIG. 6. FAIENCE FIGURE

OF FEMALE VOTARY
OF SNAKE-GODDESS
CNOSSUS.
B.S.A. a. 77, Fig. 56.

FIG. 7 KEFTIU (CRETAN)

BEARING AEGEAN
VASE AS TRIBUTE TO
PHARAOH.
From H. R. Hall, Oldest Civilization
in Greece (1901).

By permission of the Society for the

Promotion of Hellenic Studies.
 AEGEAN SEA AEGINA 251
decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become across the sea the one through Scyros and Psara (between which
more marked than ever. shallow banks intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped
About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe. The promontory east of it; and the other running from the south-
palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt eastern promontory of Euboea and continuing the axis of that
or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean art, island, in a southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos,
as a living thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean Nikaria and Samos. A third curve, from the south-easternmost
isles including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus, promontory of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Crete, Carpathos
and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian coasts, there is some and Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean
reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan Sea, in
art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, north of the
artistic faculty as survived elsewhere issued in the lifeless line, between it and the Aegean proper. The Aegean itself is
geometric style which is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but naturally divided by the island-chains and the ridges from which
wholly unworthy of it. Cremation took the place of burial of they rise into a series of basins or troughs, the deepest of which
the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for is that in the north, extending from the coast of Thessaly to

a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another in- the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated southward by the Northern
cursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the peninsula of Gallipoli. The
but possessed of superior iron weapons those tribes which later greater part of this trough is over 600 fathoms deep. The pro-
Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians. They crushed fusion of islands and their usually bold elevation give beauty
a civilization already hard hit; and it took two or three centuries and picturesqueness to the sea, but its navigation is difficult
for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, and probably and dangerous, notwithstanding the large number of safe and
preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean commodious gulfs and bays. Many of the islands are of volcanic
racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to formation; and a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan
have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements, Sea on the north, including Milo and Kimolos, Santorin (Thera)
known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration and the Aeolic and Therasia, and extends to Nisyros. Others, such as Paros,
"
and Dorian colonizations "; and when once more we see the are mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some.
Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, though it has The larger islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys
not lost all memory of its earlier culture. and plains. The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic,
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Much of the evidence is contained in archaeo- figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and silk. The people are em-
logical periodicals, especially Annual of Ike British School at Athens
ployed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for bream,
(1900- ); Monumenti Antichi and Rendiconti d. R. Ac. d. Lincei
mullet and other fish. The men are hardy, well built and hand-
(1901- ); Ephemeris Archaiologike (1885- ); Journal of
Hellenic Studies, Alhenische Mittheilungen, Bulletin de correspondance some; and the women are noted for their beauty, the ancient
hellenique, American Journal of Archaeology, &c. (all since about Greek type being well preserved. The Cyclades and Northern
SPECIAL WORKS: H. Schliemann's books (seeScnuEMANN),
1885). Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the Greek shore,
summarized by C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (1891);
Chr. Tsountas, Mvicfjuai (1893); Chr. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt, belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey.
The Mycenaean Age (1897); G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, Histoire de AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of
/'artdans I'antiquite, vol. vi. (1895); W. DSrpfeld, Troja (1893) and Cecrops, was king of Athens and the father of Theseus. He was
Troja und Ilios (1904) A. Furtwangler and G. Loschke, Mykenische
;
deposed by his nephews, but Theseus defeated them and re-
Vasen (1886); A. S. Murray, Excavations in Cyprus (1900); W.
Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (1901 foil.); "H. R. Hall, The Oldest
instated his father. When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver
Civilization of Greece (1901); A. J. Evans, Mycenaean Tree and Athens from the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus
" "
Pillar Cult in Journ. Hell. Studies (1901) and Prehistoric Tombs that, if he were successful, he would change the black sail carried
"
of Knossos in Archaeologia (1905); F. Noack, Homerische Palaste
by his ship for a white one. But, on his return, he forgot to
(1903); Excavations at Phylakopi, by members of the British
hoist the white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had
School at Athens (1904) Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), Excavations
;

at Gournia (1907); D. G. Hogarth, "Aegean Religion" in lost his life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was
Hastings' Diet, of Religions (1906). For a recent view of the place keeping watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the
of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic culture see Die The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a
Hellenische Kultur by F. Baumgarten, &c. Various Aegean.
(1905).
and one of the Attic demes was named after him.
summaries, controversial articles, &c., formerly quoted, are now shrine,
superseded by recent discoveries. See also CRETE, MYCENAE, Plutarch, Theseus; Pausanias i. 22; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus
TROAD, CERAMICS, PLATE, &c. (D. G. H.) Ixiv. 207.

AEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA), an island of Greece in the Saronic
archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the Gulf, 20 m. from the Peiraeus. Tradition derives the name from
east, bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the
Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea. island. In shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from N.W. to
The name Archipelago (q.v.) was formerly applied specifically to S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. m. The
this sea. The origin of the name Aegean is uncertain. Various western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well
derivations are given by the ancient grammarians one from cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton,
the town of Aegae; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons vines, almonds and figs. The rest of the island is rugged and
who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father mountainous. The southern end rises in the conical Mount Oros,
of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in it. and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow
The following are the chief islands: Thasos, in the extreme fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the
north, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting the climate is the most healthy in Greece. The island forms part
Gulf of Saros; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the of the modern nomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms
peninsula of Gallipoli (Thracian Chersonese); Euboea, the largest an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance.
of all, lying close along the east coast of Greece; the Northern The chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the
Sporades, including Sciathos, Scopelos and Halonesos, running island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants.
out from the southern extremity of the Thessalian coast, and Capo dTstria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square,
Scyros, with its satellites, north-east of Euboea; Lesbos and erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, which was
Chios; Samos and Nikaria; Cos, with Calymnos to the north; subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The
all off Asia Minor, with the many other islands of the Sporades; museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the
and, finally, the great group of the Cyclades, of which the largest collection was transferred to Athens in 1834.
are Andros and Tenos, Naxos and Pares. Many of the Aegean Antiquities. The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred
islands, or chains of islands, are actually prolongations of pro- in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner
montories of the mainland. Two main chains extend right of the island. Excavations were made on its site in 1811 by
 252 AEGINA
Baron Haller von Hallerstein and the English architect C. R. Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the
Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of sculpture Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime
from the pediments, which was bought in 1812 by the crown importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is
prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the Glypto- usually stated, on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.)
thek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. Thor- of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement
valdsen. Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that
parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money.
the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering. Thus it was the Aeginetans who, within thirty or
forty years of
Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced
figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich to the western world a system of such incalculable value to
was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and
pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a 'fallen measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek
warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel- world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance
ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the of the island. It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian
composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In 1901 league; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos,
Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation of a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of
the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a King Amphicrates (Herod, iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier
fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one
have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Nau-
in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. Accord- cratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of European Greece that has
ing to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards a share in this factory (Herod, ii. 178). At the beginning of the
the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, 5th century it seems to have been an entrep6t of the Pontic
into a series of groups of two or three figures each. A
figure of grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod, vii.
Athena occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set
still 147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th
farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of centuries B.C.,e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina
this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers
over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this
opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other statement.
figures also the bowmen especially face towards the angles, The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost
and so give more variety to the composition. The western exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state
pediment, which more conservative in type, represents the
is of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by
earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the Herodotus (v. 79-89;vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical
eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the
episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the
pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetans had carried
never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures off from Epidaurus, their parent state. The Epidaurians had
see GREEK ART. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian
for theunsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian
cella into theopisthodomus. This opisthodomus was completely olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal
fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it of the Aeginetans to continue these offerings, the Athenians
to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine). endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miracu-
It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was lously frustrated according to the Aeginetan version, the
dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent statues fell upon their knees, and only a single survivor returned
excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades'
of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is
Britomartis and Dictynna. "
assigned by Herodotus for this old feud "; recent writers, e.g.
The excavations have laid bare several other buildings, includ- J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon
ing an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains and Peisistratus, c. 570 B.C. It may be questioned, however,
of an earlier temple. The present temple probably dates from whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis
the time of the Persian wars. In the town of Aegina itself are of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetio-
the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one logical traditions, explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the
column of this still remains stahding, and its foundations are kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use
fairly preserved. of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the
AUTHORITIES. Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pi. ii.-vii.;
C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina, &c.
change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the
Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostili-
(London, 1860); Ch. Gamier, Le Temple de Jupiter Panhellenien a
Egine (Paris, 1884) Ad. Furtwangler and others, Aegina, Heiligtum
;
ties between the two states in the early years of the 5th century
der Aphaia (Munich, 1906), where earlier authorities are collected B.C. is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by
and discussed. , (E. GR.) Athens about 507 appealed to Aegina for assistance. The
B.C.,
History. (i) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus (v. 83), Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images
was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state was originally
it of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subse-
subject. The discovery in the island of a number of gold orna- quently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged
ments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make
the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they
for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and con-
Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, tent themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus,
vol. xiii. p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues
before the
pth century
B.C. One of the earliest facts known to for the restoration of Hippias. In 491 B.C. Aegina was one of
us in its history is its membership in the League of Calauria, the states which gave the symbols of submission (" earth and
which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) water ") to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to
Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I. (<?.t'.), one of the
probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean, Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who
for the suppression of the piracy which had were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful ;
sprung up in the
 AEGINA 253

NORTH TERRACE WALL

WK
I

SOUTH TERR ACE WALL

LOWER TERRACE WALL

THE SANCTUARY OF APHAEA

Yards

Reproduced by permission,from Furtwiinglt

Metres
10
Aegina das Heiligtum der Aphaia
,

V.E.R.Fiechter.del. Emery Walker, so.

but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after 507
second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 B.C.
seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens (ii.) It is only for two years (490 and 491) out of the twenty-five
as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no
the Athenians to restore the hostages to the
Leotychides, incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon and
Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a Salamis, seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the
festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot war is described as the most important one then being waged
with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the in Greece (Herod, vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens

island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the lonians in 498
and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy B.C. if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an
vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian incidental indication of time, which points to the period after
force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An
engage- Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by
ment followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subse- Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years
quently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to
Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod, v. 89). As the
Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty
interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 B.C. as
invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. (cf. Herod, vi. 49 the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of
with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the follow- hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the
" "
ing are the principal: (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies building of the 200 triremes for the war against Aegina on
that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 B.C., the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of
nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod, vii. 144; Ath. Pol. 22. 7). It is
 254 AEGINETA AEGISTHUS
probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracin, number of the slave-population; it is clear,
however, that the
back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebe number must have been out of all
proportion to that of the
and Aegina (c. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromu free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does
before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made b but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.
Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came ti The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually
simple.
nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomati So long as the island retained its independence the government
form of " sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the out was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic
break of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostage monarchy
and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while
some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lastec it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the
from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this wa same time, that it could count upon little
support.J
is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to recorc (2) Modern. Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the
after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able successive dominations of Macedon, the
Aetolians, Attalus of
to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to
Pergamum and Rome. In 1537 the island, then a prosperous
the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barba-
were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was neces rossa (Khair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian
strongholds in
sary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the the Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowitz
(1718) to
naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers the Turks. In 1826-1828 the town became for a time the
capital
on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the
years 490-480 of Greece and the centre of a large commercial
population (about
(Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337). 10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300.
In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans BIBLIOGRAPHY. Herodotus loc. cit.; Thucydides i. 105, 108,
played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. ii. 27, iv. 56, 57. For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the
The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, Aristoteles und Athen
ii. 280-288, is indispensable. See also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi.'
naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina
102-120.
rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was
11.
(E. M. W.)
awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to AEGINETA, PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of
have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as oi Aegina, whence he derived his name. According to Le Clerc's
the Athenian (Herod, viii. 91). There are other indications, too, calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era;
of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of but Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus) places him with more
prob-
defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to ability in the 7th. The title of his most important as
work,
credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them given by Suidas, is 'ETTITO^S 'larpidys Bi/3Xta 'Eirra (Synopsis
by
Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. GREEK of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating
HISTORY, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the of operative surgery, is of special interest for
surgical history.
philo-laconian policy of Cimon (q.ii.) secured Aegina, as a member The whole work in the original Greek was published at
of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in
1538.
foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Several Latin translations have been and an
published,
Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Pelopon-
excellent English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams
nesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth (1844-1848).
and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of
Zeus,
after a siege, and to accept the position of a Fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels and
subject-ally (c. 456
B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre. Originally symbolical
the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to restore of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from
iuaau, signifying
to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead rapid, violent motion. When the god shakes it, Mount Ida is
letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431
B.C.)
wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with
Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a tear. He sometimes lends it to Athene and (rarely) to Apollo.
cleruchy
in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in [n the later story (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii.
Thyreatis, 13) Zeus is said
(aiyis = goat-skin)
on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new to have used the skin of the goat Amaltheia
,

home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. 1 A force which suckled him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to
landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the do battle against the giants. Another legend represents the
aegis
sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander as a fire-breathing monster like the
Chimaera, which was slain
restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the >y Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus
island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for opera- Siculus iii. 70). It appears to have been
really the goat's skin
tions against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would
however, was at an end. The part which it plays hence- generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially
forward is insignificant. envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and
would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina
It >ehind to be attached to the shield under the left arm.
solely to Hence,
the development of the Athenian navy. It is
probable that the >y transference, it would be employed to denote at times the
power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years shield which it supported, and at other times a
cuirass, the
after Salamis, and that it had declined
absolutely, as well as purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this
relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of double meaning the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as
Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and
arms, sometimes
principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from as a cuirass, with a border of snakes
corresponding to the tassels
the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be of Homer, usually with the
Gorgon's head in the centre. It is
explained by
her commercial relations with the Persian often represented on the statues of Roman
Empire. She was emperors, heroes
forced into patriotism in spite of and warriors, and_on cameos and vases.
herself, and the glory won at
Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre
(1857); L. Preller
decay of Jriechische Mylhologie,
her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so i.
(1887); articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-
powerful a ncydopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and
state we should look in vain for an
analogous case in the history saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites, and Smith's Dictionary of Greek
of the modern world finds an explanation in the economic nd Roman Antiquities (yd ed., 1890).
conditions of the island, the
prosperity of which rested upon AEGISTHUS, Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his
in
a basis of slave-labour. It is wn daughter Pelopia. Having been exposed by his mother to
impossible, indeed, to accept
Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of
'
470,000 as the onceal her shame, he was found by
shepherds and suckled by a
. Pericles called Aegina the "eye-sore" (M,^) of the Peiraeus. oat whence his name. His uncle Atreus, who had married
 AEGOSPOTAMI .ELFRIC 255
Pelopia, took him to Mycenae, and brought him up as his own chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of
son. When he grew up Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 998 his Canons as a pastoral
*

with his father over Mycenae, until they weie deposed by bishop of Sherborne, the diocese in which
letter for Wulfsige, the
Agamemnon on his return from exile. After the departure of the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued resi-
Agamemnon to the Trojan war, Aegisthus seduced his wife dence there. He became in 1005 the first abbot of Eynsham
Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra). and with her or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of ./Ethelmaer's.
assistance slew him on his return. Eight years later his murder After his elevation he wrote an abridgment for his monks of
was avenged by his son Orestes. jEthelwold's De consuetudine monachorum, 6 adapted to their
Homer, Od. iii.517; Hyginus, Fab. 87.
263, iv. rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter to Wulfgeat of
" Ylmandun 6 ; an introduction to the study of the Old and New
AEGOSPOTAMI Goat Streams "), a small creek issuing
(i.e.
into the Hellespont, N.E. of-Sestos, the scene of the decisive Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623);
battle in 405 B.C. by which Lysander destroyed the last Athenian a Latin life of his master .flJthelwold 7 ; a pastoral letter for

armament in the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). The township of Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin
that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and and English; and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus.*
4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant. The Colloquium* a Latin dialogue designed to serve his
"
jELFRIC, called the Grammarian " (c. 955-1020?), English scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his
abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the life at Cernel. It is safe to assume that the original draft of
Benedictine monastery at Winchester under ^Ethelwold, who this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, ^Elfric Bata, was by
was bishop there from 963 to 984. jEthelwold had carried on .iElfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like.
the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey of The mention of /Elfric Abbot, probably the grammarian,
last

Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts. is in a will dating from about 1020.
He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching. There have been three suppositions about ^Elfric. (i) He was
jElfric no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Win- identified with ./Elfric (995-1005), archbishop of Canterbury.
chester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cernel (Cerne Abbas, This view was upheld by John Bale (///. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum
Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop jElfheah . .2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by
.

(Alphege), ^Ethelwold's successor, at the request of the chief Humphrey Wanley (Cataiogus librorum septentrionalium, &c.,
benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman ^Ethelmaer, to teach the Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of George Hickes's Antiquae
Benedictine monks there. He was then in priest's orders. literaturae septentrionalis) by Elizabeth Elstob, The English-
;

/Ethelmaer and his father ^Ethelweard were both enlightened Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St Gregory (1709; new edition,
patrons of learning, and became iElfric's faithful friends. It 1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, jElfrico, Dorobernensi,
was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, it appears, of ^Ethel- archiepiscopo, Commentarius(ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in
weard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies which the conclusions of earlier writers on Alfric are reviewed.
(ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the ^Elfric Society), com- Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally
piled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, arch- archbishop of Canterbury. (2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concilia
bishop of Canterbury (990-994). The Latin preface to the first . . .
(1639, vol. i. p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum
series enumerates some of ^Elfric's authorities, the chief of whom episcopum, and suggested ^Elfric Putta or Putto, archbishop of
was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the
exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the name. The identity of ^Elfric the grammarian with JElfric
first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton,
Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as ex- in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation
pounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature, reprinted in J. P. Migne's Palrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70,
1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to Paris, 1853). (3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum
modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406)
Homilies. The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of
and direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year; Crediton. The main facts of his career were finally elucidated
the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history. by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W.
/Elfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed. Niedner's Zeitschrift fur hislorische Theologie (vols. for 1855 and
Thorpe, ii. 466) and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons
, 1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent
and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii. 262 seq.) was writings on the subject.
Sketches of /Elfric's career are in B. Ten Brink's Early English
appealed to by the Reformation writers as a proof that the early
Literature (to Wiclif) (trans. H. M. Kennedy, New York, 1883, pp.
English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transub-
105-1 12), and by J. S. Westlake in The Cambridge History of English
stantiation. 1 His Latin Grammar and Glossary"1 were written Literature (vol. i., 1907, An excellent bibliography
pp. 116-129).
for his pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of and account of the critical apparatus is given in Dr R. Wulker's
Some Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsdchsischen Litteratur (Leipzig,
homilies, the Lives of the Saints, dates from 996 to 997.
of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of 1885, pp. 452-480). See also the account by Professor Skeat in Pt. iv.
pp. 8-6 1 of his edition of the Lives of the Saints, already cited, which
rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed. gives a full account of the MSS., and a discussion of jElfric's sources,
W. W. Skeat, 1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society) with further bibliographical references; and^Elfric, a New Study of
the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as his Life and Writings, by Miss C. L. White (Boston, New York and
"
verse by Professor Skeat. London, 1898) in the Yale Studies in English." Alcuini Interro-
By the wish of ^Ethelweard he also gationes Sigewulfi Presbyteri in Genesin (ed. G. E. McLean, Halle,
began a paraphrase 3 of parts of the Old Testament, but under 1883) is attributed to yElfric by its editor. There are other isolated
protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable sermons and treatises by ^Elfric, printed in vol. iii. of Grein's Bibl.
v. A.S. Prosa.
for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained
at Cernel. It has been suggested that this part of his life was 4
Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England (1840), with the later pastoral for Wulfstan.
*
See A Testimonie of Antiquitie, shewing the auncient fayth in the 5
See E. Breck, A Fragment of JElfric; translation of Mlhelwold's
_

Church of England touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of De Consuetudine Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipzig,
the Lord here publikely preached, printed by John
Day (1567). It 1887).
was quoted in John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610). 6
llmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire.
1
Ed. J. Zupitza in Sammlung englischer Denkmaler (vol. i., Berlin, 7
Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron. Monast. de Abingdon
1880). (vol. ii. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858).
Edited by Edward Thwaites as Heptateuchus (Oxford, 1698)
3
;
8
See Oswald Cockayne, Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft
modern edition in Grein's Bibliothek der A S. Prosa (vol. i. Cassel and
.
(vol. iii., 1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 el seq.) in the Rolls Series.
Gottingen, 1872). See also B. Assmann, Abl JElfric's . . Esther
.
9 See an article by J. Zupitza in theZeitschrij'tfiir deutsches Altertum
(Halle, 1885), and Abt Mfric's Judith (in Anglia, vol. x.). (vol. xix., new series, 1887).
 256 AELIA CAPITOLINA AEMILIA VIA
AELIA CAPITOLINA, the city built by the emperor Hadrian, only in an abridged form consisting mainly of anecdotes of
and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jeru-
A.D. 131, men and customs (ed. Lunemann, 1811). Both works are valu-
salem (q.v.), which was in ruins when he visited his Syrian able for the numerous excerpts from older writers. Considerable
dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family name, fragments of two other works On Providence and Divine Mani-
and Capitolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a festations are preserved in Suidas; twenty Peasants' Letters,
temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple. after the manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed
AELIAN (AELIANUS TACTICUS), Greek military writer of to him.
the 2nd century A.D., resident at Rome. He is sometimes Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864-
confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to 1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming,
1576, and Stanley, 1665 ; of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895.
below. Aelian's military treatise, Tcum/ci) Gecopia, is dedicated
to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and .ffiLRED, AILRED, ETHELRED (1109-1166), English theo-
.

the date A.D. 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of logian, historical writer and abbot of Rievaulx, was born at
Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practised by the Hexham about the year In his youth he was at the court
1 109.
Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims of Scotland as an attendant Henry, son of David I. He was
of
to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was in high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect
a. lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in
value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding Yorkshire, which was founded in 1131 by Walter Espec. Here
works on the, art of war, and in the fulness of his technical ^Elred remained for some time as master of the novices, but
details in matters of drill. Critics of the i8th century Guichard between the years 1142 and 1146 was elected abbot of Revesby
Folard and the prince de Ligne were unanimous in thinking in Lincolnshire and migrated thither. In 1146 he became abbot
Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate of Rievaulx. He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was
successors, the Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his
the text for their own use, Aelian exercised a great influence. reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased.
The emperor Leo VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in In 1164 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway. He
his own work on the military art. The Arabic version of Aelian found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic
was made about 1350. In spite of its academic nature, the and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by the
copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant. He induced
highest value to the army organizers of the i6th century, who a Galwegian chief to take the habit of religion, and restored
were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the the peace of the country. Two years later he died of a decline,
semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. In the year
phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid 1191 he was canonized. His writings are voluminous and have
masses of pikemen and the " squadrons " of cavalry of the never been completely published. Amongst them are homilies
" on "
Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the k
the burden of Babylon in Isaiah "; three books on
i6th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill spiritual friendship "; a life of Edward the Confessor; an
and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon, account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the tract called
Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by every Relatio de Standardo. This last is an account of the Battle of
soldier of the i6th and lyth centuries who wished to be master the Standard (1138), better known than the similar account by
of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, and in places obscured
real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the TO/CTIKI) by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric.
Gewpio, is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not See the Vita Alredi in John of Tynemouth's Nova Legenda Anglie
generally accepted. (ed. C. Horstmann, 1901, vol. i. p. 41), whence it was taken by
The first edition of the Greek text is that of Robortelli (Venice, Capgrave. From Cajpgrave the work passed into the Bollandist
1552); the Elzevir text (Leiden, 1613) has notes. The text in
Acta Sanctorum (Jan. ii. p. 30). This life is anonymous, but of an
W. Rustow and H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller (1855) is early date. The most complete printed collection of /Elred's works
is in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. cxcv. but this does not include
accompanied by a translation, notes and reproductions of the original ;

illustrations. A Latin translation by Theodore Gaza of Thessalonica the Miracula Hagulstaldensis Ecclesiae which are printed in I. Raine's
was included in the famous collection Veteres de re militari scriptores Priory of Hexham, vol. i.(Surtees Society, 1864). A complete list of
(Rome and Venice, 1487, Cologne, 1528, &c.). The French transla- works attributed to jdred is given in T. Tanner's Bibliotheca Britan-
tion of Machault, included in his Milices des Grecs et Remains (Paris, nico-Hibernica ( 1 748) pp.'247-2 j.8. The Relatio de Standardo has been
, J

1615) and entitled De la Sergenterie des Grecs, a German translation critically edited by R. Hewlett in Chronicles, &c., of Stephen, Henry
from Theodore Gaza (Cologne, 1524), and the English version of Jo. II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886). (H. W. C. D.)
B(ingham), which includes a drill manual of the English troops in AEMILIA VIA, or AEMILIAN WAY. (i) A highroad of Italy,
the Dutch service, Tacticks of Aelian (London, 1616), are of import-
constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, from
ance in the military literature of the period. A later French transi-
tion by Bouchard de Bussy, La Mihce des Grecs ou Tactique d'ltlien whom it takes its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, a
(Paris, 1737 and 1757); Baumgartner's German translation in his distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain of the
incomplete Sammlune oiler Knegsschriftsteller der Griechen (Mann- Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the Apennines
heim and Frankenthal, 1779), reproduced in 1786 as Von Schlachtord- on the left. The 7gth milestone from Ariminum found in the
nungen, and Viscount Dillon's English version (London, 1814) may
also be mentioned. See also R. Forster, Studien zu den griechischen bed of the Rhenus at Bononia records the restoration of the
Taktikern (Hermes, xii., 1877, pp.
444-449); F. Wustenfeld, Das
road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 2 B.C.
Heerwesen der Muhammedaner und die arabische Uebersetzung (Notiz. Scav., 1902, 539). The bridge by which it crossed the
der Taktik des Aelianus (Gottingen, 1880); M. Jahns, Gesck. der
Sillaro was restored by Trajan in A.D. 100 (Notizie degli Scam,
Kriegswissenschaften, i. 95-97 (Munich, 1889); Rustow and Kochly,
Gesch. des griechischen Kriegswesens (1852); A. de Lort-Serignah, 1888, 621). The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and
La Phalange (1880); P. Serre, Etudes sur I'histoire militaireet mari- some of the original bridges still exist. After Augustus, the road
time des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. Miiller, in Pauly- gave its name to the district which formed the eighth region of
Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894).
Italy (previously known as Gallia or Provincia Ariminum), at
AELIAN (CLAUDIUS AELIANUS), Roman author and teacher first in popular usage (as in Martial), but in official
language as
of, rhetoric, born at Praeneste, flourished under Septimius early as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see EMILIA). The
Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. 222). He district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the Adriatic,
" "
spoke Greek so perfectly that he was called honey-tongued S. by the river Crustumium (mod. Conca), and W. by the Apen-
(fie\iy\<j}<T(ros); although a Roman he preferred Greek authors, nines and the Ira (mod. Staffora) at Iria (mod. Voghera), and
and wrote in Greek himself. His chief works are: On the Nature corresponds approximately with the modern district.
of Animals, curious and interesting stories of animal life, fre- (2) A road constructed in 109 B.C. by the censor M. Aemilius
quently used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784; Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and Luna to Vada Sabatia and
Jacobs, 1832); Various History for the most part preserved thence over the Apennines to Dertona (Tortona), where it joined
 AEMILIUS AENESIDEMUS 257
the Via Postumia from Genua to Cremona. We must, however of the glorification of Rome and Augustus, which dominates
(as Mommsen points out in C.I.L. v. p. 885), suppose that the the Virgilian epic. On this work were founded the Eneide or
portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to Genua at Eneit (between 1180 and 1190) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written
least must have existed before the construction of the Via in Flemish and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian
Postumia in 148 B.C.Indeed Polybius (iii. 39. 8) tells us (and dialect, and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490.
this must Gracchi if not earlier) that the
refer to the time of the See Eneas, ed. J. Salverda de Grave (Halle, 1891); see also A.
Romans had in his time built the coast road from the Rhone to Essai sur li romans d' Eneas (Paris, 1856); A. Duval in Hist.
Peij,
litteraire de la France, xix. Veldeke's Eneide, ed. Ettmtiller (Leipzig,
Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the coast road in Italy
;

1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); Eneydos, ed. F. J. Furni-

itself should not have been constructed previously. It is, how- vall For Italian versions see E. G. Parodi in Studi di
(1890).
ever, a very different thing to open a road for traffic, and so to filologia romanza (v. 1887).
construct it that it takes its name from that construction in AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest
perpetuity. (T. As.) Greek writers on the art of war. According to Aelianus Tacticus
AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO EMILIO ) (d. 1529), Italian his- and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises ("Yiroij.vrina.Ta.)
torian, was born at Verona. He obtained such reputation in his on the subject; the only one extant deals with the best methods
own country that he was invited to France in the reign of of defending a fortified city. An epitome of the whole was made
Charles VIII., in order to write in Latin the history of the kings by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The work is
of France, and was presented to a canonry in Notre Dame. He number
chiefly valuable as containing a large of historical illus-
enjoyed the patronage and support of Louis XII. He died at trations. Aeneas was considered by Casaubon to have been a
Paris on the 5th of May 1529. His De Rebus gestis Francorum
contemporary of Xenophon and identical with the Arcadian
was translated into French in 1581, and has also been translated general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon (Hellenica,
into Italianand German. vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.).
AENEAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), Gronovius' (1670) and Ernesti's
Aphrodite, one of the most important figures in Greek and (1763) editions of Polybius; also separately, with notes, by J. C.
Roman legendary history. In Homer, he is represented as the Orelli (Leipzig, 1818). Other texts are those of W. Riistow and
H. Kochly (Griechische Kriegsschriflsteller, vol. i. Leipzig, 1853) and
chief bulwark of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite
A. Hug, Prolegomena Critica ad Aeneae . editionem (Zurich
, .

of the gods, who frequently interpose to save him from danger See also Count Beausobre, Commentaires sur
University, 1874).
(Iliad, v. 311). The legend that he remained in the country la defense des places a' Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. Hug, Aeneas
after the fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom (Iliad, xx. von Stymphalos (Zurich, 1877) C. C. Lange, De Aeneae commentario
;

poliorcetico (Berlin, 1879) M. H. Meyer, Observationes in Aeneam

308; Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be
;

Tacticum (Halle, 1835); Haase, in Jahns Jahrbuch, 1835, xiv. i;

of comparatively late origin. The story of his emigration is Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschafien, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich,
post-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by Virgil 1889); Ad. Bauer, in Zeitschrift fur allg. Geschichte, &c., 1886, i.;
T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E.
in the Aeneid. Carrying his aged father and household gods on
Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie (Stuttgart, 1894).
his back and leading his little son Ascahius by the hand, he makes
his way to the coast, his wife Creusa being lost during the con- AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in
fusion of the flight. After a perilous voyage to Thrace, Delos, Crete and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first
Crete and Sicily (where his father dies), he is cast up by a storm, century B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as
sent by Juno, on the African coast. Refusing to remain with the third sceptical school and revived to a great extent the
doctrine of Pyrrho and Timon. His chief work was the Pyr-
Dido, queen of Carthage, who in despair puts an end to her life,
he sets sail from Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands rhonian Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero. His philosophy
at the mouth of the Tiber. He is hospitably received by Latinus, consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and

king of Latium, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and founds doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory and
a city called after her, Lavinium. Turnus, king of Rutuli, a a theory of morality. Of these the two former are important.
rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and Latinus, but is
The reasons for doubt are given in the form of the ten " tropes ":
defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river Numicius. The story (1) different animals manifest different modes of perception;
of the Aeneid ends with the death of Turnus. According to (2) similar differences are seen among individual men; (3) even
for the same man, sense-given data are self-contradictory,
Livy (i. i. 2), Aeneas, after reigning a few years over Latium,
is slain by the Rutuli; after the battle, his body cannot be found, (4) vary from time to time with physical changes, and (5) accord-
and he is supposed to have been carried up to heaven. He ing to local relations; (6) and (7) objects are known only in-
receives divine honours, and is worshipped under the name of directly through the medium of air, moisture, &c., and are in a
condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and
Jupiter Indiges (Dionysius Halic. i. 64).
See J. A. Hild, La Legende d"nee avant Vergile (1883) F. Cauer, motion; (8) all perceptions are relative and interact one upon
;

De Fabulis Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus (1884) and Die another; our impressions become less deep by repetition
(9)
Romische Aeneassage, von Naevius bis Vergilius (1886); G. Boissier, and custom; and (10) all men are brought up with different
"La Legende d'Enee " in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1883; beliefs, under different laws and social conditions. Truth varies
A. Forstemann, Zur Geschichte des Aeneasmythus (1894); articles
in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie (new ed., 1894); Reseller's infinitely under circumstances whose relative weight cannot be
Lexicon der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des accurately gauged. There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge,
antiquiles; Preller's Griechische und romische Mythologie; and for every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges
especially Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (1867). and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so that the
Romances. The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective validity. The
Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle second part of his work consists in the attack upon the theory
ages. The Roman d' Eneas (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain of causality, in which he adduces almost entirely those considera-
authorship (attributed by some to Benoit de Sainte-More), the tions which are the basis of modern scepticism. Cause has no
first French poem directly imitated from the
Aeneid, is a fairly existence apart from the mind which perceives; its validity is
:lose adaptation of the original. The trouvere, however, omits Kant would have said, subjective. The relation
ideal, or, as
he greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, and adorns his between cause and effect is unthinkable. If the two things
arrative with gorgeous descriptions, with accounts of the mar- are different, they are either simultaneous or in succession. If
vellous properties of beasts and stones, and of single combats simultaneous, cause is effect and effect cause. If not, since
among the knights who figure in the story. He also elaborates effect cannot precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there
the episodes most attractive to his audience, notably those of must be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not
~)ido and Aeneas and Lavinia, the last of whom plays a far itself. By these and similar arguments he arrives at the funda-
Qore important part than in the Aeneid. Where possible, he mental principle of Scepticism, the radical and universal opposi-
iibstitutes human for divine intervention, and ignores the idea tion of causes; iravrl \6yt? \6yos dm/carat. Having reached
1.9
 AEOLIAN HARP AEQUI
this conclusion, he was able to assimilate the physical theory the unfavourable winds have been confined. Out of curiosity,
of Heraclitus, asis explained in the Hypotyposes of Sextus or with the idea that it contains valuable treasures, Odysseus'
Empiricus. For admitting that contraries co-exist for the companions open the bag; the winds escape and drive them
perceiving subject, he was able to assert the co-existence of back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them with bitter
contrary qualities in the same object. Having thus disposed reproaches. According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on one of the
of the lideas of truth and causality, he proceeds to undermine Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyle
the ethical criterion, and denies that any man can aim at Good, (Stromboli), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in a vast
Pleasure or Happiness as an absolute, concrete ideal. All cavern (Virgil, Aen. i. 52). Another genealogy makes him the
actions are product of pleasure and pain, good and evil. The son of Poseidon and Arne, granddaughter of Hippotes, and a
end of ethical endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythical
is vain and illogical. The main tendency of this destructive ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67).
scepticism is essentially the same from its first crystallization AEON, a term often used hi Greek (ai&v) to denote an indefinite
by Aenesidemus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day or infinite duration of time; and hence, by metonymy, a being
(see SCEPTICISM). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus that exists for ever. In the latter sense it was chiefly used by
see AGRIPPA, SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. See also CARNEADES and the Gnostic sects to denote those eternal beings or manifestations
ARCESILAUS. Of the Hvpp&vfioi \oyoi nothing remains; we which emanated from the one incomprehensible and ineffable
have, however, an analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius. God. (See GNOSTICISM.)
See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; E. Saisset, jEnesideme, AEPINUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German
Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preller, 364-370. natural philosopher, was born at Rostock in Saxony on the
AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. harpe eolienne; Ger. Aolsharje, 1 3th of December 1724. He was descended from John Aepinus
Windharfe; Ital. arpa d" Eolo), a stringed musical instrument, (1499-1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aiirtivos) of the
whose name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind. The family name Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and con-
aeolian harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft. long, 5 in. troversialist at the time of the Reformation. After studying
wide, and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine, medicine for a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the
and having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins. physical and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained
A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but such distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin
tuned in exact unison, and left rather slack, are attached to academy of sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as
the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard wood, member of the imperial academy of sciences and professor of
one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally pro- physics, and remained there till his retirement in 1798. The rest
vided with two rose sound-holes. To ensure a proper passage of his life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the i oth of August
for the wind, another pine board is placed over the strings, 1802. He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine II.,
resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or on a con- who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured,
tinuation of the ends raised from i to 3 in. above the strings. without success, to establish normal schools throughout the
Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, who im- empire under his direction. Aepinus is best known by his re-
proved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, which was searches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and mag-
called by them Windfang and Windflugel; the upper board was netism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis
prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape of a funnel, in et Magnetismi, published at St Petersburg in 1759, was the first
order to direct the current of air on to the strings. The aeolian systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical reason-
harp is placed across a window so that the wind blows obliquely ing to these subjects. He also published a treatise, in 1761, De
across the strings, causing them to vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e. distributione caloris per tetturem, and he was the author of memoirs
(the fundamental note not being heard) the half or octave, the on different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure
third or interval of the twelfth, the second octave, and the mathematics, contained in the journals of the learned societies
third above it, in fact the upper partials of the strings in regular of St Petersburg and Berlin. His discussion of the effects of
succession. With the increased pressure of the wind, the dis- parallax in the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited
sonances of the nth and i3th overtones are heard in shrill dis- great interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of
cords, only to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force of the two transits of Venus that took place in the i8th century.
the wind abates. The principle of the natural vibration of AEQUI, an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs con-
strings by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient stantly in Livy's first decade as hostile to Rome in the first three
times; King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to centuries of the city's existence. They occupied the upper
hang his kinnor (kithard) over his bed at night, when it sounded reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and Himella; the
in the midnight breeze. The same is related of St Dunstan of last two being mountain streams running northward to join

Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with sorcery. The the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been taken by the
Chinese at the present day fly kites of various sizes, having Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and again about ninety
strings stretched across apertures in the paper, which produces years later (id. xiv. 106), but they were not finally subdued
the effect of an aerial chorus. till the end of the second Samnite war (Livy ix. 45, 'x. i;
See Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, where the aeolian Diod. xx. 101), when they seem to have received a limited form
harp is first described (1602-1608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop of franchise (Cic. Off. i. n, 35). All we know of their subsequent
of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds and
Musical Strings, pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket political condition is that after the Social war the folk of Cliternia
Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon, and Nersae appear united in a res publica Aequiculorum, which
"
article Aeolsharfe." An illustration is given in Rees' Encyclo- was a municipium of the ordinary type (C.I.L. ix. p. 388). The
pedia, plates, vol. ii. Misc. pi. xxv. (K. S.) Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioli (298 B.C.)
AEOLIS (AEOLIA), an ancient district of Asia Minor, colonized must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as such) all
at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks. The name was applied over the district; through it lay the chief (and for some time
to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lectum, the only) route (Via Valeria) to Luceria and the south.
i.e. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The Aeolians founded Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman con-
twelve cities on the mainland, including Cyme, and numerous quest we have no record; but since the Marsi (<?..), who lived
towns in Mytilene: they were said also to have settled in the farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect closely akin
Troad.and even within the Hellespont. to Latin, and since the Hernici (q.v.), their neighbours to the
AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of south-west, did the same, we have no ground for separating
Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of any of these tribes from the Latian group (see LATINI). If we
Aeolia. In the Odyssey (x. i) he entertains Odysseus, gives him could be certain of the origin of the q in their name and of the
a favourable wind to help him on his journey, and a bag in which relation between its shorter and its longer form (note that the i
 AERARII AERATED WATERS 259
in Aeguiculus is long Virgil, Aen. vii. 744 which seems to con- to the public finances. The treasury contained the moneys and
"
nect with the locative of aequum
it a plain," so that it would accounts of the state, and also the standards of the legions;
mean "dwellers in the plain"; but in the historical period the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the senate
they certainly lived mainly in the hills), we should know whether and other papers and registers of importance. These public
they were to be grouped with the q or the p dialects, that is to treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn, on the eastern
say, with Latin on the one hand, which preserved an original q, slope of the Capitoline hill, and, during the republic, were in
or with the dialect of Velitrae, commonly called Volscian (and charge of the urban quaestors (see QUAESTOR), under the super-
the Volsci were the constant allies of the Aequi), on the other intendence and control of the senate. This arrangement con-
hand, in which, as in the Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original tinued (except for the year 45 B.C., when no quaestors were
q is changed into p. There is no decisive evidence to show chosen) until 28 B.C., when Augustus transferred the aerarium
whether the q in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the senate from
as in Latin quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European k u as + ex-praetors; in 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores
in equtts, Umb. The derivative adjective Aequicus might
ekvo-. aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of
be taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the Sabini, office; Claudius in A.D. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated
but it is not clear that this adjective was ever used as a real by the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted
ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aequi, or Aequicoli. two ex-praetors, under the same conditions. In addition to the
At the end Republican period the Aequi appear, under
of the common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged
the name Aequiculi or Aequicoli, organized as a municipium, with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund,
the territory of which seems to have comprised the upper part also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium"'sanctum (or sanctius),
of the valley of the Salto, still known as Cicolano. It is probable, probably originally consisting of the spoils of war, afterwards
however, that they continued to live in their villages as before. maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manu-
Of these Nersae (mod. Nesce) was the most considerable. The mitted slaves, this source of revenue being established by a
polygonal terrace walls, which exist in considerable numbers in lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in
the district, are shortly described in Romische Mitteilungen cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 16, xxvii. 10). Under the
(1903), 147 seq., but require further study. emperors the senate continued to have at least the nominal
See further the articles MARSI, VOLSCI, LATINI, and the refer- management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate
ences there given; the place-names and other scanty records of
exchequer, called fiscus. But after a time, as the power of the
the dialect are collected by R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
(R. S. C.)
emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the senate
pp. 300 ff.

" existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased.
AERARII (from subsidiary sense of
Lat. aes, in its poll- Besides creating the fiscus, Augustus also established in A.D. 6
tax"), originally a class of Roman citizens not included in a military treasury (aerarium militare), containing all moneys
the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a poll-tax
raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the army,
arbitrarily fixed by the censor. They were (i) the inhabitants of including a pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was largely
conquered towns which had been deprived of local self-govern- endowed by the emperor himself (see Monumenlum Ancyranum,
ment, who possessed the jus conubii and jus commercii, but no iii. 3 5) and supported by the proceeds of the tax on public sales
political rights; Caere is said to have been the first example of and the succession duty. Its administration was in the hands
tf" s (353 B.C.); hence the expression "in tabulas Caeritum
" of three praefecti aerarii militaris, at first appointed by lot, but
referre came to mean " to degrade to the status of an aerarius ":
afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank,
(2) full citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the for three years. The later emperors had a separate aerarium
result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), of dishonour-
privatum, containing the moneys allotted for their own use,
able acts in private life (e.g. bigamy) or of conviction for certain
distinct from the fiscus, which they administered in the interests
crimes; (3) persons branded by the censor. Those who were of the empire.
thus excluded from the tribes and centuries had no Vote, were in- The tribuni aerarii have been the subject of much discussion.
capable of filling Roman magistracies and could not serve in the are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores
They
army. According to Mommsen, the aerarii were originally the
Iribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian
non-assidui (non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the
organization, levied the war-tax (tributum) in the tribes and the
comitia and the army. By a reform of the censor Appius
poll-tax on the aerarii (q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of
Claudius in 312 B.C. these non-assidui were admitted into the
the equites and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the
tribes, and the aerarii as such disappeared. But in 304, Fabius
lex Aurelia (70 B.C.) the list of judices was in addition
composed,
Rullianus limited them to the four city tribes, and from that
to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these were
time the term meant a man degraded from a higher (country)
the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected
to a lower (city) tribe, but not deprived of the right of voting
with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain.
or of serving in the army. The expressions " tribu movere "
"
and aerarium facere," regarded by Mommsen as identical in According to Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the
equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed
meaning (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), are from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by Augustus.
explained by A. H. J. Greenidge the first as relegation from a
According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii were not officials
higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the
at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite
second as exclusion from the centuries. Other views of the
distinct from the curatores Iribuum, who undertook certain
original aerarii are that they were: artisans and freedmen
financial work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in
(Niebuhr); inhabitants of towns united with Rome by a hos- the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended
pilium publicum, who had become domiciled on Roman terri- to include all those who possessed the property qualification
tory (Lange) only a class of degraded citizens, including neither
;
that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni aerarii.
the
L11C cives sine
suJTragio nor the artisans (Madvig) identical with ;
See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with Furneaux's notes; O. Hirsch-
,Ke capite censi of the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge). "
feld, Das Aerarium militare in der romischen Kaiserzeit," in
See A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia in Roman Law (1894), where Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, vol. xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario et
Meommsen's theory is criticized; E. Belot, Histoire des chevaliers Fisco Romanorum (Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and
remains, i. p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin, dictionaries of antiquities. On the tribuni aerarii see E. Belot, Hist,
des chevaliers remains, ii. p. 276; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula Academica,
.1853); P. Willems, Le Droit public remain (1883); A. S. Wilkins
in Smith's Diet,
of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) and ;
ii. p. 242; J. B.
Mispoulet, Les Institutions poliliques des Remains
the usual handbooks of antiquities. (1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, iii. p. 189;
A. S. Wilkins in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
AERARIUM "
(from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of money "), (3rd ed., 1890).
the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given in AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger pro-
ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense portion of carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary
 AERONAUTICS
atmospheric pressure occur in springs in various parts of the or myths of men or animals which
are supposed to have travelled
world (see MINERAL WATERS) Such waters, which also generally
.
through the such as Pegasus, Medea's dragons and Daedalus,
air,
hold in solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents, as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, wings appear as the means by
early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when carbon which aerial locomotion is effected. In later times there are
dioxide (" fixed air ") became familiar to chemists the possibility many stories of men who have attempted to fly in the same way.
was recognized, as by Joseph
Priestley (Directions for impregnat- John Wilkins (1614-1672), one of the founders of the Royal
ing water with fixed air . .. to communicate the peculiar Spirit Society and bishop of Chester, who in 1640 discussed the possi-
and Virtues of Pyrmontu>ater,iTj2), of imitating them artificially. bility of reaching the moon by volitation, says in his Mathe-
"
Many of the ordinary aerated waters of commerce, however, do matical Magick (1648) that it was related that a certain English
not pretend to reproduce any known natural water; they are monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's time," flew from a
merely beverages owing their popularity to their effervescing town in Spain for a distance of more than a
furlong; and that
properties and the flavour imparted by a small quantity of some other persons had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nurem-
salt such as sodium bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup. Their berg. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown
manufacture on a considerable scale was begun at Geneva so several times across Lake Trasimene. At the beginning of the
far back as 1790 by Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the 16th century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy
soda water prepared in London by j. Schweppe, who had been of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook
a partner of Paul's, is referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to France.
Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs, published in He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to the ground
1798. Many forms of apparatus are employed for charging the and broke his thigh-bone in the fall an accident which he ex-
water with the gas. A simple machine for domestic use, called a plained by asserting that the wings he employed contained some
" "
gasogene or seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes con- fowls' feathers, which had an affinity for the dung-hill, whereas
nected one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises ifthey had been composed solely of eagles' feathers they would
nearly to the top of the upper and smaller globe. Surmounting have been attracted to the air. This anecdote furnished Dunbar,
the small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow tube the Scottish poet, with the subject of one of his rude satires.
that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large Leonardo da Vinci about the same time approached the problem
globe. To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with water, in a more scientific spirit, and his notebooks contain several
and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, is placed a sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs. In the
mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, following century a lecture on flying delivered in 1617 by
which with water yields carbon dioxide. The valve head is Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at Tubingen, and pub-
then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is lished eleven years later, incited a poor monk to attempt to put
made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper the theory into practice, but his machinery broke down and he
vessel. The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus was killed.

produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the valve, In Francis Bacon's Natural History there are two passages
being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of the gas. which refer to flying, though they scarcely bear out the assertion
In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in little made by some writers that he first published the true principles
steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing the water of aeronautics.
which has to be aerated. On a large scale, use is made of con- The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air:
"
tinuously acting machinery which is essentially of the type Certainly many birds of good wing (as kites and the like)would
devised by Joseph Bramah. The gas is prepared in a separate bear up a good weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and
close, and in great breadth, will likewise bear up a great weight, being
generator by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium bicarbonate even laid, without tilting up on the sides. The farther extension of
or whiting, and after being washed is collected in a gas-holder, this experiment might be thought upon." The second passage is more
whence it is forced with, water under pressure into a receiver or diffuse, but less intelligible; it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching
saturator in which an agitator is kept moving. Some manu- the Flying of unequal Bodies in the Air: "Let there be a body of
unequal weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) if you throw
;

facturers buy their gas compressed in steel cylinders. The it from you with the light end forward, it will turn, and the weightier
water thus aerated or carbonated passes from the receiver, in end will recover to be forwards, unless the body be over long. The
which the pressure may be 100-200 Ib on the square inch, to cause is, for that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure
of the parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though
bottling machines which fill and close the bottles; if beverages
heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all violent
like lemonade are being made the requisite quantity of fruit motions and when the hinder part nioveth swifter (for that it less
;

syrup is also injected into the bottles, though sometimes the endureth pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for
fruit syrup mixture is aerated in bulk. For soda water sodium it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more

bicarbonate should be added to the water before aeration, in easily draw forward the lighter part." The fact here alluded to is
the resistance that bodies experience in moving through the air,
varying proportions up to about 1 5 grains per pint, but the simple which, depending on the quantity of surface merely, must exert a
carbonated water often does duty instead. Potash water, lithia effect on rare substances. The passage itself,
proportionally greater
water and many others are similarly prepared, the various salts however, after making every allowance for the period in which it
was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and unphilosophical.
being used in such amounts as are dictated by the experience
and taste of the manufacturer. Aerated waters are sent out In posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, published at
his
from the factories either in siphons (q.v.) or in bottles; the Rome in 1680-1681, G.A.Borelli gave calculations of the enormous
latter may be closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and his proposition
stoppers consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against cciv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Esl impossibile ut homines pro-
an indiarubber ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas. For priis viribus artificiose iiolare possint, points out the impossibility
" " of man being able by his muscular strength to give motion to
use in soda-fountains the waters are sent out in large
cylinders. wings of sufficient extent to keep him suspended in the air. But
See W. Kirkby, Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester, during his lifetime two Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Bcsnier
1902). about 1678, are said to have succeeded in making short flights.
AERONAUTICS, the art of "navigating" the "air." It is divis- An account of some of the modern attempts to construct flying
ible intotwo main branches aerostation, dealing properly with machines will be found in the article FLIGHT AND FLYING; here
machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, and aviation, we append a brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of
the problem.
dealing with the problem of artificial flight by means of flying
machines which, like birds, are heavier than the air, and also The very first essential for success is safety, which will probably
with attempts to fly made by human beings by the aid of only be attained with automatic stability.
The underlying principle
is that the centre of gravity shall at all times be on the same vertical
wings fitted to their limbs.
artificial line as the centre ofpressure. The latter varies with the angle of
Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the legends incidence. For square planes it moves approximately as expressed
 AERONAUTICS 261
by Joessel's formula, + (0-2+0-3 sin a) L, in which C is the distance

from the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the angle of
incidence. The movement is different on concave surfaces. The
term aeroplane is understood to apply to flat sustaining surfaces,
but experiment indicates that arched surfaces are more efficient.
S. P. Langleyproposed the word aerodrome, which seems the prefer-
able term for apparatus with wing-like surfaces. This is the type to
which results point as the proper one for further experiments. With
this it seems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 40 to 50 Ib
can be sustained per indicated
" h.p., or about twice that quantity
per resistance or thrust h.p., and that some 30 or 40% of the
weight can be devoted to the machinery, thus requiring motors, with
their propellers, shafting, supplies, &c., weighing less than 20 Ib
per h.p. It is evident that the apparatus must be designed to be as
light as possible, and also to reduce to a minimum all
resistances
to propulsion. This being kept in view, the strength and conse-
quent section required for each member may be calculated by the
methods employed in proportioning bridges, with the difference
that the support (from air pressure) will be considered as uniformly
distributed, and the load as concentrated at one or more points.
Smaller factors of safety may also have to be used. Knowing the
sections required and unit weights of the materials to be employed,
the weight of each part can be computed. If a model has been made
to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sized apparatus
may approximately be ascertained by the formula

in which W is the weight of the model, S its surface, and W and S'
the weight and surface of the intended apparatus. Thus if the model
has been made one-quarter size in its homologous dimensions, the
supporting surfaces will be sixteen times, and the total weight sixty-
four times those of the model. The weight and the surface being
determined, the three most important things to know are the angle
"
of incidence, the lift," and the required speed. The fundamental
formula for rectangular air pressure is well known: P = KV 2
S, in
which P is the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms,
K a coefficient (0-0049 for British, and o-n for metric measures),
V the velocity in miles per hour or in metres per second, and S the
surface in square feet or in square metres. The normal on oblique
surfaces, at various angles of incidence, is given by the formula
P= KV 2
S7j, which latter tactor is given both for planes and for arched
surfaces in the subjoined table :

PERCENTAGES OF AIR PRESSURE AT VARIOUS ANGLES

OF INCIDENCE

PLANES (DUCHEMIN FOR-

262 AERONAUTICS
on water. Albert of Saxony, who was bishop of Halberstadt by attaching to each a tube 36 ft. long, fitted with a stopcock,
from 1366 to 1390, had a similar notion, and considered that a and so producing a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was
small portion of the principle of fire enclosed in a light sphere ignorant of the invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke
would raise it and keep it suspended. The same speculation about 1650.
was advanced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who We now come to the invention of the balloon, which was
died in 1626 at the age of forty-six, and by Caspar Schott (1608- due to Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740-1810) and Jacques
1666), also a Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Wiirzburg, fitienne Montgolfier (1745-1799), sons of Pierre Mont-
though for fire he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he and celebrated papermaker at Annonay,
golfier, a large
believed to float above the atmosphere. So late as 1755 Joseph a town about 40 m. from Lyons. The brothers had
Galien (1690-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philo- observed the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere,
sophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed and it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour
to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose it in of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it might
a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and intended rise and carry the bag with it into the air. Towards the end of
to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's ark! 1782 they inflated bags with smoke from a fire placed under-
A somewhat but equally fantastic method of making
different neath, and found that either the smoke or some vapour emitted
heavy bodies quoted by Schott from Lauretus Laurus,
rise is from the fire did ascend and carry the bag with it. Being thus
according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled with nitre, assured of the correctness of their views, they determined to
sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the sun. Laurus have a public ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accord-
also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will ascend in the ingly invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay,
same circumstances, because dew is shed by the stars and drawn to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of June
up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the day. The same 1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spectators,
notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655) in his a linen globe of 105 ft. in circumference was inflated over a
romances describing journeys to the moon and sun, for his firefed with small bundles of chopped straw. When released
French traveller fastens round his body a multitude of very itrapidly rose to a great height, and descended, at the expiration
thin flasks filled with the morning's dew, whereby through the of ten minutes, at the distance of about i^m. This was the
attractive power of the sun's heat on the dew he is raised to discovery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined
the middle regions of the atmosphere, to sink again, however, on that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or other
the breaking of some of the flasks. vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it was not till
A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for some time later that it was recognized that the ascending power
aerial navigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (1631- was due merely to the lightness of heated air compared to an
1687), in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodromo owiero equal volume of air at a lower temperature. In this balloon,
Saggio di alcune invenzioni nuove promesso all' Arle Maestro.. no source of heat was taken up, so that the air inside rapidly
His idea, though useless cooled, and the balloon soon descended.
and unpractical in so far The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted so much
that it could never be attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741-
carried out, is yet de- 1819), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee d'Histoire
serving of notice, as the Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying the expense of
principles involved are repeating the experiment. The balloon was constructed by
sound; and this can be two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superintendence
said of no earlier of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles. The first suggestion was to
attempt. His project copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles proposed the appli-
was to procure four cation of hydrogen gas, which was adopted. The filling of the
copper balls of very balloon, which was made of thin silk varnished with a solution of
large dimensions (fig. i), elastic gum, and was about 13 ft. in diameter, was begun on the
yet so extremely thin 23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen
that after the air was gas was obtained by the action of
exhausted from them dilute sulphuric acid upon iron
they would be lighter and was introduced through
filings,
than the air they dis- leaden pipes; but as the gas was
placed and so would not passed through cold water, great
rise; and to those four difficulty was experienced in filling
balls he proposed to the balloon completely; and alto-
attach a boat, with sails, gether about 500 ft of sulphuric acid
&c., which would carry and twice that amount of iron
up a man. He sub- filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins
FlG. I. Lana's Aeronautical Machine. mitted the whole matter were issued daily of the progress of
to calculation, and pro- and the crowd was
the inflation;
posed that the globes should be about 25 ft. in diameter and on the 26th the bal-
so great that
-j^th of an inch in thickness; this would give from all four balls a loon was moved secretly by night
total ascensional force of about 1200 Ib, which would be quite to the Champ de Mars, a distance
enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the obvious of m. On the next day an im-
2

objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be quite im- mense concourse of people covered
possible to construct a globe of so large a size and of such small the Champ de Mars, and every spot
thickness which would even support its own weight without col- from which a view could be ob- FIG. 2. Charles' and
lapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear the external tained was crowded. About five Robert's Balloon.
atmospheric pressure when the internal air was removed. Lana o'clock a cannon was discharged as
himself noticed this objection, but he thought that the spherical the signal for the ascent, and the balloon when liberated rose to
form of the copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thin- the height of about 3000 ft. with great rapidity. A shower of
ness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain rain which began to fall directly after it had left the earth in no
the enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point way checked its progress; and the excitement was so great, that
of the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them ladies, stood
the metal. His proposal to exhaust the air from the globes exposed, watching it intently the whole time it was in sight, and
 AERONAUTICS 263
were drenched to the skin. The balloon, after remaining in the The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the same kind
air for about three-quarters of an hour, fell in a field near previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was constructed
Gonesse, about 15 m. off, and terrified the peasantry so much by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the ascent.
that it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at It was 27 ft. in diameter, and the car was suspended from a
this time known by the name of inflammable air; and balloons hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened to a
inflated with gas have ever since been called by the people net, which covered the upper hemisphere. The balloon ascended
air-balloons, the kind invented by the Montgolfiers being desig- very gently from the Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and
nated fire-balloons. French writers have also very frequently after remaining for some time at an elevation of about 2000 ft.,
them after their inventors, Charlieres and Montgolfikres. it descended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town about
styled
On thepth of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated
i 27 m. from Paris, when Robert left the car, and Charles made
the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the a second ascent by himself. He had intended to have replaced
king, the queen, the court and an immense number of spectators. the weight of his companion by a nearly equivalent quantity
The inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven of ballast; but not having any suitable means of obtaining such
minutes, when the balloon rose to the height of about 1500 ft., at the place of descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave
and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of about 2 m., the word to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened,
in the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon, ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 m. After staying
in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, which in the air about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the
were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite uninjured, place of ascent, although he believed the distance traversed,
except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in consequence owing to different currents, to have been about 9 m. In this
of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this took place second journey he experienced a violent pain in his right ear and
before the ascent. The balloon, which was painted with orna- jaw, no doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also
ments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance (fig. 3). witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day;
for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as
he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he
descended.
All the features of the modern balloon as now used are more
or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the top, sus-
pended the car from a hoop, which was itself attached to the
balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his use of hydrogen gas,
there are anticipations that must be noticed. As early as 1766
Henry Cavendish showed that this gas was at least seven times
lighter than ordinary air, and it immediately occurred to Dr.
Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, that a thin bag filled with hydrogen
gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. He provided, accordingly,
the allantois of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture
such a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have
failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great dis-
covery, almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years
afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, who found
that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are too heavy, and
that China paper is permeable to the gas. But in 1782, the year
before the invention of the Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating
soap-bubbles by inflating them with hydrogen gas.
Researches on the use of gas for inflating balloons seem to have
been carried on at Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the
experiments of the Montgolfiers; and when the news of the
latter reached America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson,
members of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, con-
structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen
gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several preliminary
FIG. 3. Montgolfier's Balloon. experiments, in which animals were let up to a certain height
by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter
The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Jean the car for a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he
Frangois Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785), a native of Metz, who remained in the air about ten minutes, and only then effected
was appointed superintendent of the natural history collections his descent by making incisions in a number of the balloons,
of Louis XVIII. On the i5th of October 1783, and following through fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching.
days, he made several ascents (generally alone, but once with Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experi-
a companion, Girond de Villette) in a captive balloon (i.e. one ments in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a
attached by ropes to the ground), and demonstrated that there topic of general discussion, still it was not till five First
was no difficulty in taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which months after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent ascents la
was kindled in a brazier suspended under the balloon, when in
the air. The way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on
a balloon into the air that any aerostatic experiment
was made in England. In November 1783 Count
?^
the 2ist of November 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis Francesco Zambeccari (1756-1812), an Italian who happened to
d'Arlandes first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The be in London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft. in diameter,
experiment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette, and weighing n ft. It was publicly shown for several days,
in the Bois de Boulogne. A large fire-balloon was inflated at and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas
about^two o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft., and passing and launched from the Artillery ground at one o'clock. It
over the Invalides and the Ecole Militaire, descended beyond descended after two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex,
the Boulevards, about 9000 yds. from the place of ascent, having 48 m. from London. This was the first balloon that ascended
been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the air. from English ground. On the 22nd of February 1784 a hydrogen
Only ten days later, viz. on the ist of December 1783, Charles gas balloon, 5 ft. in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in
ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders,
264 AERONAUTICS
75 m. distant. This was the
first balloon that crossed the came out to view the balloon. The king also was in conference
Channel. Theperson who rose into the air from British
first with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon was passing,
ground appears to have been J. Tytler, who ascended from he broke up the discussion, and with them watched the balloon
1

the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784, through telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in
in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on the Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785)
the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh
he rose. and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of no
But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced m.) these he described in a second series of letters.
;

aerostation into Great Britain. Although Tytler had the The first ascent from Ireland was made on the igth of January
precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial success 1785 by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following ipth of July at-
were all but unknown whereas Lunardi's experiments excited
; tempted to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into
an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London. He was secre- the sea. The second person who ascended from Ireland was
tary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, and his Richard Maguire. Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the
to his guardian, the chevalier Compagni, 1 2th of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up.
published letters Maguire
written while he was carrying in these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and his
out his project, and detail- offer being accepted he made the ascent. For this he was
ing the difficulties, &c., he
all knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant. Another attempt to cross
met with as they occurred, St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the ist of
give an interesting and vivid October 1812, and he had nearly succeeded when in consequence
account of the whole matter. of a change of wind he was forced to descend into the sea off
His balloon was 33 ft. in Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a fishing-boat. But on
circumference (fig-4) and was,
the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, Windham Sadler, succeeded
exposed to the public view in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead.
at the Lyceum in the Strand, The balloon voyage across the English Channel was
first
where it was visited by up- accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1753-1809) and Dr. J.
wards of 20,000 people. He Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7th of January voyages
originally intended to ascend 1785. In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March, aero**
from Chelsea Hospital, but Blanchard, who was one of the most celebrated of
the conduct of a crowd at a the earlier aeronauts, made his first voyage from Paris
garden at Chelsea, which de- in a balloon 27 ft. in diameter (fig. 5), and descended at Billan-
stroyed the fire-balloon of a court near Sevres.
Frenchman named de Moret, Just as the balloon
who announced an ascent on was about to start,
the nth of August, but was a young man jumped
unable to keep his word, led into the car and draw-
FIG. 4. Lunardi's Balloon.
to the withdrawal of the ing his sword declared
leave that had been granted. Ultimately he was permitted to his determination to
ascend from the Artillery ground, and on the isth of September ascend with Blanch-
1 784 the inflation with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended ard. He was ulti-
that an English gentleman named Biggin should accompany mately removed by
Lunardi; but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged force. It has some-
it prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full rather times been incorrectly
than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged stated that he was
to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence Napoleon Bonaparte ;

of the prince ofWales and an enormous crowd of spectators. his name in reality
He took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon was Dupont de Cham-
was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise or bon. In their Channel
lower it at pleasure. Shortly after starting the pigeon escaped, crossing Blanchard
and one of the oarsbecame broken and fell to the ground. In and his
companion,
about an hour and a half he descended at South Mimms, in who startedfrom
Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered from the Dover, when about
cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after the lapse of one-third across found
about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near Ware, where themselves descend-
he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants to come to his ing, and threw out
assistance; but at length a young woman, taking hold of one every available thing
of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, which they from the boat or car.
then did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense, When about three-
FIG. -Blanchard's Balloon.
and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He was pre- quarters across they 5.

sented to the king, and was courted and flattered on all sides. were descending A
Balloon of taffeta, 26 ft. in diameter,
covered with a net.
To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during his again, and had to
B, Car suspended by cords from hoop C.
ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, mistaking throw out not only
D> D> D, D, Wings worked by rack-work E.
the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by his supposed the anchor and cords, F, Parachute to break the force of descent
destruction that she died in a few days but, on the other hand,
;
but also to strip and should the balloon burst,
of G Tube communicating with inside of
"
he says he was told by the judges that he had certainly saved throw away part '

balloon -

the life of a young man who might possibly be reformed, and be their clothing, after
to the public a compensation for the death of the lady "; for the which they found they were rising, and their last resource, viz.
jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom they must to cut the car, was rendered unnecessary.
away As they ap-
ultimately have condemned, when the balloon appeared, and proached the shore the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch
to save time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court high over the land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes.
On the i made an attempt
sth of June 1785, Pilatre de Rozier
1
Mr Tytier contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse
been virtually editor of, the second edition (1778-1783) of the to repeat the exploit of

Encyclopaedia Britannica. direction, and cross from Boulogne to England. For this
 AERONAUTICS 265
purpose he contrived a double balloon, which
he expected would princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis
combine the advantages of both kinds a fire-balloon, 10 ft. in and Jules Godard. In spite of the elaborate preparations that
diameter, being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft. in had been made and the stores of provisions that were taken up,
diameter, so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the the balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent
former itmight be possible to ascend or descend without waste being rendered necessary, it was said, by an accident to the
of gas. Rozier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for valve-line. At a second ascent, made a fortnight later, there
rather less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar. The balloon
seemed to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near Nienburg
was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m. A strong wind was
the ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft. blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 m.
Rozier was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about All the passengers were bruised, and some seriously hurt. The
ten minutes. A monument was erected on the place where they balloon and car were then brought to England, and exhibited
was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864.
fell, which

starting-point.
The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary
The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accounts amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of proportion
are correct) ascended from Lyons on the igth of January 1784. to what they were entitled to. Nadar's idea was to obtain suffi-
It was more than 100 ft. in diameter, about 130 ft. cient money, by the exhibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan
Early and when distended had a capacity, it is
in height,
large
balloons. said, of over half a million cubic feet. It was called
" "
the Flesselles (from the name of its proprietor, we
believe), and after having been inflated from a straw fire in
seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons in the car to the
height of about 3000 ft., but descended again after the lapse of
about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in con-
sequence of a rent in the upper part.
Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft. in diameter, was constructed
by the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan, and on the 2 5th of
February he ascended in it from Milan, remaining in the air for
about twenty minutes. This is usually regarded as the first
ascent in Italy (but see Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247).
On the 7th of November 1836, at half-past one o'clock, a
large balloon containing about 85,000 cub. ft. of gas ascended
from Vauxhall Gardens, London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P.,
Monck Mason and Charles Green, and descended about two
leagues from Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, at half-past
seven the next morning, having thus traversed a distance of
about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege was passed in the course of
the night, and Coblentz in the early morning. In consequence
"
of this journey the balloon became famous as the Nassau
" who
Balloon (fig. 6). Charles Green (1785-1870), constructed
it and subsequently became its owner, was the most celebrated

of English aeronauts, and made an extraordinary number of

ascents. His first, made from the Green Park, London, on the
i pth of July 1821 at the coronation of George IV., was distin-

guished for the fact that for the first time coal-gas was used
instead of hydrogen for inflating the balloon. In 1828 he made
an equestrian ascent from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, London,
seated on his favourite pony. Such ascents have since been FIG. 6. The Great Nassau Balloon.
repeated; in 1852 Madame Poitevin made one from Cremorne
Gardens, but was prevented from giving a second performance of aerial locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the
by police interference, the exhibition outraging public opinion. principle of the screw; in fact, he spoke of
"
Le Geant " as " the
It was in descending from the
"
Nassau Balloon " in a parachute last balloon." He also started L'Aeronaute, a newspaper devoted
that Robert Cocking was killed in 1 83 7 (see PARACHUTE) . Green to aerostation, and published a small book, which was translated
was the inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope into English under the title The Right to Fly.
trailing below the car. Its function is to reduce the waste of gas Directly after Nadar's two ascents, Eugene Godard con-
and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper altitude. structed a fire-balloon of nearly half a million cubic feet capa-
When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of the guide-rope city more than double that of Nadar's and only slightly less
rests on the ground, it is relieved of so much weight and therefore
" "
than that attributed to the Flesselles of 1783. The air was
tends to rise; if on the other hand it rises so that most of the heated by an i8-ft. stove, weighing, with the chimney, 980 Ib.
" "
rope is lifted off the ground, it has to bear a greater weight and This furnace was fed by straw; and the car consisted of a
tends to sink. gallery surrounding it. Two ascents of this balloon, the first
In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, construtced " Le fire-balloon seen in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens
Geant," which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that time in July 1864. After the first journey the balloon descended at
and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas. Underneath it Greenwich, and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was
was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the object injured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding its
of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. The enormous size, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half
car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a cottage in an hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more
wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft. in length, containing a than an hour. In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation
small printing-office, a photographic department, a refreshment- was effected, few who saw the ascent could fail to receive an
room, a lavatory, &c. The first ascent took place at five o'clock impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter of
on Sunday the 4th of October 1863, from the Champ de Mars. safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in
There were thirteen persons in the car, including one lady, the the car, could not be other than most dangerous.
266 AERONAUTICS
In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily tember 1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon left the
Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 1840, deter- Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 A.M., and descended at 3.45 P.M.
mined to construct a very large balloon, and enable between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result obtained was
balloon tne American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience
voyages, favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to any sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface which
Europe, by taking advantage of the current from west we can attain to. Gay-Lussac also brought down air collected
to east which was believed by many to exist constantly at heights at the height of nearly 23,000 ft., and on analysis it appeared
above 10,000 ft. The project came to nothing owing to the that its composition was the same as that of air collected at the
quality of the material of which the balloon was made. When it earth's surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer
was being inflated in September 1873 a rent was observed after stood at 82 F., and at the highest point reached (23,000 ft.)
325,000 cub. ft. of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly it was 14-9 F. Gay-Lussac remarked that at his highest point
collapsed. The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000 there were still clouds above him.
cub. ft., so that it would lift a weight of 14,000 ft. No balloon From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents
voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the breadth in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter year J. A.
of the Atlantic. In fact only two voyages exceeding 1000 m. Bixio (1808-1865) and J. A. Barral (1819-1884) made two ascents
are on record that of John Wise from St Louis to Henderson, of this kind. In the first they ascended from the Paris observa-
N.Y., 1 1 20 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry de la Vaulx tory on the 2gth of June 1850, at 10.27 A M -i tne balloon being
-

from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1193 m., in 1900. On inflated with hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the
the nth of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two companions, ascent took place without any previous attempt having been
Strendberg and Frankel, ascended from Spitzbergen in a daring made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. When liber-
attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. distant. One ated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming fully inflated it

carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours after the start, pressed upon the network, bulging out at the top and bottom.
was shot, and two floating buoys with messages were found, but The ropes by which the car was suspended being too short, the
nothing more was heard of the explorers. balloon soon covered the travellers like an immense hood. In
At an early date the balloon was applied to scientific purposes. endeavouring to secure the valve-rope, they made a rent in the
So far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from London in balloon, and the gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to
wn ' c ^ ^ e carri e d out barometric, thermometric and suffocate them. Finding that they were descending then too
^dentine
ascents. hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of rapidly, they threw overboard everything available, including
the air at different heights. In 1803 the St Petersburg their coats and only excepting the instruments. The ground
Academy of Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experi- was reached at job. 45m., near Lagny. Of course no observa-
ments made on mountain-sides by J. A. Deluc, H. B. de Saus- tions were made. Their second ascent was made on the 27th of
sure, A. von Humboldt and others must give results different July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met
from those made in free air at the same heights, resolved to with. At about 20,000 ft. the temperature was 1 5 F., the balloon
arrange a balloon ascent. Accordingly, on the 3oth of January being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the cloud,
1804, Sacharof, a member of the academy, ascended in a gas- at 23,000 ft., the temperature sank 10-38 F., no less than
balloon, in company with a French aeronaut, fi. G. Robertson, 53 F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same
who at one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris. The elevation. The existence of these very cold clouds served to
ascent was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected explain certain meteorological phenomena that were observed
at a quarter to eleven. The height reached was less than 15 m. on the earth both the day before and the day after the ascent.
The experiments were not very systematically made, and Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in most other high
the chief results were the filling and bringing down of several ascents; when liberated, they showed a reluctance to leave the
flasks of air collected at different elevations, and the supposed car, and then fell heavily downwards.
observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A telescope In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved
fixed in the bottom of the car and pointing vertically down- to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of investi-
wards enabled the travellers to ascertain exactly the spot over gating such meteorological and physical phenomena as require
which they were floating at any moment. Sacharof found the presence of an observer at a great height in the atmosphere.
that, on shouting downwards through his speaking-trumpet, John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was the
"
the echo from the earth was quite distinct, and at his height observer, and the great Nassau Balloon " was employed, with
was audible after an interval of about ten seconds (Phil. Green himself as the aeronaut. Four ascents were made in
Mag., 1805, 21, p. 193). 1852, viz. on the i7th and 26th of August, die 3ist of October
Some of the results reported
by Robertson appearing doubtful, and the loth of November. The heights attained were 19,510,
Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of 19,100, 12,640 and 22,930 ft., and the lowest temperatures
Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their dis- met with in the four ascents were 8-7 F. (19,380 ft.), 12-4 F.
posal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be utilized (18,370 ft.), 16-4 F. (12,640 ft.) and 10-5 F. (22,370 ft.).
in sending up balloons to test their accuracy. The proposition The decline of temperature was very regular. A siphon baro-
was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, who was then meter, dry and wet bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and
minister of the interior, and accordingly the necessary arrange- a Regnault hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a
ments were speedily effected, the charge of the experiments considerable height was found on analysis not to differ appreci-
being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. Biot. The principal ably in its composition from air collected near the ground. For
object of this ascent was to determine whether the magnetic the original observations see Phil. Trans., 1853, pp. 311-346.
force experienced any appreciable diminution at heights above At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
the earth's surface. On the 24th of August 1804, Gay-Lussac of Science held atAberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed
and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten o'clock for the purpose of making observations in the higher ,

in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were incommoded strata of the atmosphere by means of the balloon. asce ats.
by the rotation of the balloon, but they found that, up to the For two years nothing was effected, owing to the want
height of 13,000 ft., the time of vibration of a magnet was ap- both of an observer and of a suitable balloon. After its re-
preciably the same as on the earth's surface. They found also appointment at the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee
that the air became drier as they ascended. The height reached communicated with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1819-1900), an
was about 13,000 ft., and the temperature declined from 63 aeronaut who had made a good many ascents, and he agreed to
to 51 F. The descent was effected about half -past one, at construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft. capacity, on the
Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris. condition that the committee would undertake to use it, and pay
In a second experiment, which was made on the i6th of Sep- 25 for each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying
 AERONAUTICS 267
also the cost of gas, &c., so that the expense of each high ascent magnet was taken in very many of the ascents, and the results
amounted to nearly 50. An observer being still wanted, James of ten different sets of observations indicated that the time of
Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to take vibration was longer than on the earth. In almost all the
the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was made on ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of air in
the i7th of July 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverhampton, different directions which varied greatly in thickness. The direc-
this town being chosen on account of its central position in the tion of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole
country. Altogether, Glaisher made twenty-eight ascents, the mass of air up to 20,000 ft., whilst at other times the direction
last being on the 26th of May 1866. Of these only seven were changed within 500 ft. of the earth. Sometimes directly oppo-
specially high ascents, although six others were undertaken for site currents were met with at different heights in the same
the objects of the committee alone. On the other occasions he ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered moving
availed himself of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and in different directions. The direct distances between the places
other places of entertainment, merely taking his place like the of ascent and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon
other passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut and under the influence of these various currents, were always very
a smaller balloon were employed. The dates, places of ascent much greater than the horizontal movement of the air as meas-
and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight ured by anemometers. For example, on the I2th of January
ascents were 1862: July 17, Wolverhampton, 26,177; July 30, 1862, the balloon left Woolwich at 2h. 8m. P.M., and descended
Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; at Lakenheath, 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4h.
August 20, Crystal Palace, 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; igm. P.M. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson
September i, Crystal Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhamp- anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m.
ton, 37,000; September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March only. With regard
to physiological observations, Glaisher found
31, Crystal Palace, 22,884; April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163; that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, as
June Wolverton, 23,200; July n, Crystal Palace, 6623;
26, also did the number of inspirations. The number of his pulsa-
July 21, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon- tions was generally 76 per minute before starting, about 90 at
Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,590; October 9, 10,000 ft., 100 at 20,000 ft., and no at higher elevations.
Crystal Palace, 7310. 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897; But a good deal depended on the temperament of the individual.
April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June 13, Crystal Palace, 3543; This was also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 ft. the
June 20, Derby, 4280; June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be
29, Crystal Palace, 14,581; December i, Woolwich, 5431; scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher found the pulsations
December 30, Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing was very much
4865; October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich, affected, so that panting was produced by the slightest exertion;
4628. 1866: May26, Windsor, 6325. at 29,000 ft. he became insensible. In reference to the propa-
The primary object of the ascents was to determine the gation of sound, it was at all times found that sounds from the
temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different earth were more or less audible according to the amount of mois-
elevations to as great a height as could be reached; and the ture in the air. When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train
secondary objects were (i) to determine the temperature of was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever
the dew-point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun was
as by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the heard at 10,000 ft. The barking of a dog was heard at the
results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer height of 2 m., while the shouting of a multitude of people
with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height of 5 m.; was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 ft. In his ascent
(3) to determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic of the sth of September 1862, Glaisher considered that he
condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration of a reached a height of 37,000 ft. But that figure was based, not
magnet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; (7) to note on actual record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft.,
the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness; (8) when he became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft. a
to determine the rate and direction of different currents in the minute, and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen
atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on sound. The minutes later it was falling 2000 ft. a minute, and the accuracy
instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers, dry of his conclusions has been questioned. Few scientific men
and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point hygrometer, have imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological
Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and minimum observations. In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made
thermometers, a magnet for horizontal vibration, hermetically eight or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The
sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an electrometer. In heights attained were not great, but the general result was to
one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up. confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see Voyages
The complete observations, both as made and after reduction, atriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, London, 1871, in
are printed in the British Association Reports, 1862-1866; here which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are noticed. On
only a general account of the results can be given. It appeared the isth of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. Croce-Spinelli and
"
that the rate of the decline of temperature with elevation near Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in the balloon Zenith,"
the earth was very different according as the sky was clear or and reached a height of 27,950 ft.; but only Tissandier came
cloudy; and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase down alive, his two companions being asphyxiated. This put an
with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which were end to such attempts for a time. But Dr A. Berson and Lieut.
not anticipated. Even at the height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were Gross attained 25,840 ft. on the nth of May 1894; Berson,
seen high in the air, apparently as far above as they seem ascending alone from Strassfurt on the 4th of December 1894,
when viewed from the earth. The results of the observations attained about 31,500 ft. and recorded a temperature of 54 F.;
differed very much, and no doubt the atmospheric conditions and Berson and Stanley Spencer are stated by the latter to
depended not only on the time of day, but also on the season of have attained 27,500 ft. on the isth of September 1898 when
the year, and were such that a vast number of ascents would be they ascended in a hydrogen balloon from the Crystal Palace,
requisite to determine the true laws with anything approaching the thermometer registering 29 F. On the 3ist of July 1901,
to certainty and completeness. It was also clear that England Berson and R. J. Suring, ascending at Berlin, actually noted
is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, as, a barometric reading corresponding to a height of 34,500 ft.,
from whatever place the balloon started, it was never safe to be and possibly rose 1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of
more than an hour above the clouds for fear of reaching the sea. oxygen inhalations they were unconscious during the highest
It appeared from the observations that an aneroid barometer portion of the ascent.
could be trusted to read as accurately as a mercurial barometer The personal danger attending high ascents led Gustave
to the heights reached. The time of vibration of a horizontal Hermite and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the
268 AERONAUTICS
sending up of unmanned balloons (ballons sondes) equipped with names of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the
automatic recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those
been employed for similar meteorological purposes. (See also balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended.
METEOROLOGY.) The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally
The balloon had not been discovered very long before it from the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway)
received a military status, and soon after the beginning of the under the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed
French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was were mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use
'balloons
f un ded at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau, whatever was made in the war of balloons for purposes of
the chemist, and Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835). reconnaissance.
Four balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only
the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt. dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the
In June 1794 Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85
to reconnoitre the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus, the French found balloons very useful during their campaign
and two reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours. in Tongking; and the British government also despatched
It is generally stated that it was to the information so gained balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that
that the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several
constant requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it
that, with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, was said that a great moral effect was produced. The employ-
any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view. ment of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars.
But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis-
concerted at having their movements so completely watched, We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military operations.
The French in the campaigns of the igth century used varnished silk
while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft. capacity. The Americans in the
information it was believed they were gaining. An attempt Civil War used much larger ones., those of 26,000 cub. ft. being
was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign found the most suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the
of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be present day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft.,
made of varnished cambric; but the British war balloons, made of
employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon was goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size, the normal
sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons loaded capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 7000 and 4500
with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French cam- cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin. The usual shape is
spherical; but since 1896 the Germans, and now other nations, have
paign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the use
adopted a long cylindrical-shaped balloon, so affixed to its cable as
of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic corps, to present an inclined surface to the wind and thus act partly on the
and their management was entrusted to the brothers Godard. principle of a kite. Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasion-
Several reconnaissances were made, and one of especial interest ally be used for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness
far preferable. In the early days of ballooning this had to be manu-
the day before the battle of Solferino. No information of much
factured in the field, but nowadays it is almost universally carried
importance seems, however, to have been gained thereby. compressed in steel tubes. About 100 such tubes, each weighing
In the American Civil War (1861) balloons were a good deal 75lb, are required to fill a lo,ooo-ft. balloon. Tubes of greater
used by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached capacity have also been tried.
to McClellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain and
The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed to go free
it will usually be rapidly carried away by the wind and the results
about 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The apparatus of the observations cannot easily be transmitted back. Occasions
consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each; two may occur when such ascents will be of value, but the usual method
is to send up a captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft.
balloons, drawn by four horses each, and an acid-cart, drawn by
two horses. The two balloons used contained about 13,000 and With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, one
of whom has now particularly to attend to the management of the
26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation usually occupied about balloon, while the other makes the observations.
three hours. (See Royal Engineers' Papers, vol. xii.) By their With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends
aid useful information was gained about the enemy round on circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in
Richmond and in other places, but eventually difficulties of which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in the
war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose the troops
transport and the topography of the theatre of war made balloon- to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a rule, to be ob-
ing impracticable; and little was heard of it after the first two tained; but in fairly open country all important movements of
years of the war. troops should be discernible by an experienced observer at any point
The balloon proved within about four or five miles of the balloon. The circumstances,
itself very valuable during the siege of it may be mentioned, are such as would usually preclude one un-
Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was
accustomed to ballooning from affording valuable reports. Not only
kept up between the besieged city and the external world, as is he liable to be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous

the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which after- situation, but troops and features of the ground often have so
wards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The total peculiar an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will
often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a column of
number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the siege,
troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will depend on atmo-
conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four the first spheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather a balloon is well-nigh
having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the last on useless; and in strong winds, with a velocity of anything over 20 m.
the 28th of January 1871. Gambetta effected his escape from an hour, efficient observation becomes a matter of difficulty. When
some special point has to be reported on, such as whether there is
Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon "Armand-Barbes,"
any large body of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid
an event which doubtless led to the prolongation of the war. ascent may still be made in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the
Of the sixty-four balloons only two were never heard of; they balloon would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be
were blown out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages made. It is usually estimated that a successful captive ascent can
was that of the " Ville d'Orleans," which, leaving Paris at only be made in England on half the days of the year. As a general
rule balloon ascents would be made for one of the following objects :

eleven o'clock on the 2ist of November, descended fifteen hours to examine the country for an enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's
afterwards near Chris tiania, having crossed the North Sea. position to ascertain the strength of his force, number of guns and
;

Several of the balloons on their descent were taken by the exact situation of the various arms also to note the plan of his
;

earthworks or fortifications. During an action the aerial observer

Prussians, and a good many were fired at while in the air. The would be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give
average size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer could also
from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. ft. The above facts are extracted keep the general informed as to the progress of various detached
parties of his own force, as to the advance of reinforcements,
or to
from Les Ballons du siege de Paris, a sheet published by Bulla
the conduct of any fighting going on at a distance. Balloon observa-
and Sons, Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well- tions are also of especial aid to artillery in correcting their aim.
known French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times The vulnerability of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been
of ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the tested by many experiments with variable results. One established
 AERONAUTICS PLATE I.

Photo, Topical Press

FIG. i. CLEMENT-BAYARD DIRIGIBLE.

Photo. Topical Press.

I. 858.
FIG. 2 ZEPPELIN VII. (DEUTSCHLAND), WRECKED JUNE 28, 1910.
PLATE II. AERONAUTICS

Pliolo, Topical Press.

FIG. .1 BRITISH ARMY DIRIGIBLE, BETA.

Photo, Topical Press.

FIG. 4. PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE.
 AERONAUTICS 269
fact isthat the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely difficult
to judge, and, as its altitude can be very rapidly altered, it becomes
a very difficult mark for artillery to hit. A few bullet-holes in the
fabric of a balloon make but little difference, since the size of the
surface of
perforation is very minute as compared with the great
material, but on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of
it may cause a rapid fall. It is therefore considered prudent to keep
the balloon well away from an enemy, and two miles are laid down
as the nearest approach it should make habitually.
Besides being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have also
been tried in connexion with the naval service. In France especially
regular trials have been made of inflating balloons on board ships,
and sending them aloft as a look-out; but it is now generally con-
tended that the difficulties of storing the gas and of manoeuvring the
balloon are so great on board ship as to be hardly worth the results
to be gained.
A very important development of military ballooning is that of
the navigable balloon. If only a balloon could be sent up and driven
in any required direction, and brought back to its starting-point,
it is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war.

From the very first invention of balloons the problem has

beenhow to navigate them by propulsion. General J. B. M. C.
Meusnier (1754-1793) proposed an elongated balloon
Aaffoonx
m
J 7^4- ^ l was experimented on by the brothers
Robert, who made two ascensions and claimed to
have obtained a deviation of 22 from the direction of a light
wind by means of aerial oars worked by hand. The relative
speed was probably about 3 m. an hour, and it was so evident
that a very much more energetic light motor than any then
known was required to stem ordinary winds that nothing more
was attempted till 1852, when Henri Giffard (1825-1882) as-
cended with a steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness.
The subjoined table exhibits some of the results subsequently
obtained :

EXPERIMENTS WITH DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS

Year.
2JO AEROTHERAPEUTICS
to substitute flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former
can be suspended near the centre of resistance. C. Danilewsky
followed him in 1898 and 1899, but without remarkable results.
Dupuy de Lome was the first to estimate in detail the resistances
to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed that in the
aggregate they were greater than he calculated. Renard and
Krebs also found that their computed resistances were largely
exceeded, and after revising the results they gave the formula
R = 0-01685 D V*, R being the resistance in kilograms, D the
2

diameter in metres and V the velocity in metres per second.

Reduced to British measures, in pounds, feet and miles per
hour, R 0-0006876 D V which is somewhat in excess of the
= 2 2
,

formula computed by Dr William Pole from Dupuy de Lome's

experiments. The above coefficient applies only to the shape
" 1

and rigging of the balloon La France," and combines ah resist-

ances into one equivalent, which is equal to that of a flat plane
"
18% of the master section." This coefficient may perhaps
hereafter be reduced by one-half through a better form of hull
and car, more like a fish than a spindle, by diminished sections
of suspension lines and net, and by placing the propeller at the
centre of resistance. To compute the results to be expected
from new projects, it will be preferable to estimate the resistances
in detail. The following table shows how this was done by
Dupuy de Lome, and the probable corrections which should
have been made by him:
RESISTANCES DUPUY DE LOME'S BALLOON
Computed by Dupuy de L6me.
V 2'22 m. per sec.
 AERTSZEN AESCHINES 271
investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower than the books he is entered as Langhe Peter, schilder. Three of his sons
larger bronchial tubes is affected. Complicated apparatus has attained to some note as painters.
been devised for the application, although a wide-mouthed jug AESCHINES (380-314 B.C.),Greek statesman and orator, was
filled with boiling water, into which the drug is thrown, is almost born at Athens. The statements as to his parentage and early
equally efficacious. life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents,
Artificial atmospheres may be made for invalids by respirators though poor, were respectable. After assisting his father in his
which cover the mouth and nose, the air being drawn through school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success,
tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the disinfectant to be used. served with distinction in the army, and held several clerkships,
This is most valuable in the intensely offensive breath of some amongst them the office of clerk to the Boule. The fall of
cases of bronchiectasis. Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and
The air be modified as to temperature. Cold air at
may he was sent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnesus against
32-33 been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of the
F. has Philip. In 347 he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip
lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse becomes of Macedon, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side.
fuller and slower and the general condition improves. The His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346) sent to ratify
more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to the terms of peace led to his accusation by Demosthenes and
show that this may be immensely valuable in the treatment Timarchus on a charge of high treason, but he was acquitted
of haemoptysis. The inspiration of superheated dry air has as the result of a powerful speech, in which he showed that his
been the subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful accuser Timarchus had, by his immoral conduct, forfeited the
results. right to speak before the people. In 343 the attack was renewed
Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its therapeutic by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines
effects. If a current of hot air is directed upon healthy skin, the replied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted.
latter becomes pale and contracts in consequence of vaso-con- In 339, as one of the Athenian deputies (pylagorae) in the Amphi-
striction. But if it is directed on a- patch of diseased skin, as ctyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the
in lupus, an inflammatory reaction is set up and the diseased Sacred War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix
part begins to undergo necrosis. This fact has been used with the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336, when
good results in lupus, otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be
laryngeal troubles. rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services to
Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied. The the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated the
physiological effects of compressed air were first studied in law in bringing forward the motion. The matter remained in
diving-bells, and more recently in caissons. Caisson workers at abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their speeches

first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, how- Against Ctesiphon and On the Crown. The result was a complete
ever, the opposite effect is produced and intense debility super- victory for Demosthenes. Aeschines went into voluntary exile
venes. In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series of at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards
troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See removed to Samos, where he died in the seventy-fifth year of
CAISSON DISEASE.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has his age. His three speeches, called by the ancients " the Three
been utilized by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to Graces," rank next to those of Demosthenes. Photius knew of
hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve
the atmosphere can be exactly regulated. This form of treat- published under his name (Hercher, Epislolographi Graeci) are
ment has been found of much value in the treatment of emphy- not genuine.
sema, early pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of ANCIENT AUTHORITIES. Demosthenes, De Corona and De Falsa
persistent high temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppura- Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legations and In Ctesiphontem;
Lives by Plutarch, Philostratus and Libanius; the Exegesis of
tion), delayed absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease, Benseler (1855-1860) (trans, and notes),
Apollonius. EDITIONS.
anaemia and chlorosis. But compressed air is contra-indicated Weidner (1872), Blass (1896); Against Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872),
in advanced tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or (l878),G.A.and W.H. Simcox( 1866), Drake (i872),Richardson(l889),
intestines. Gwatkin and Shuckburgh (1890). ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS. Leland
Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod, (1771), Biddle (1881), and others. See also Stechow, Aeschinis Ora-
toris vita (1841); Marchand, Charakteristik des Redners Aschines
who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod Boot. (1876) Castets, Eschine, I'Orateur (1875) for the political problems
; ;

By means of this the blood could be drawn into any part to which see histories of Greece, esp. A. Holm, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896);

it was applied, the vessels of which became gorged with blood at A. Schafer, Demosth. und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 18561858); also
the expense of internal organs. More recently this method of DEMOSTHENES.
treatment has undergone far-reaching developments and is AESCHINES (sth century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher.
known as the passive hyperaemic treatment. According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage-maker,
There are also various forms of apparatus' by means of which but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60;
air at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the lungs, Suidas, s.v.). He was an intimate friend of Socrates, who is
and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various kinds. reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son alone knew
Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which how to honour him. Diogenes Laertius preserves a tradition
is much used. A committee of the Brompton Hospital, that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help Socrates to escape
London, investigating its capabilities, decided that its use from prison. He was always a poor man, and Socrates advised
'

brought about (i) an increase of chest circumference, and (2) him to borrow from himself, by diminishing his expenditure."
in cases of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area He started a perfumery shop in Athens on borrowed capital,
of dulness. became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan court, where he
AERTSZEN (or AARTSEN), PIETER (1507-1573), caUed was well received by Aristippus. According to Diog. Laert. (ii.
" on account of his
"Long Peter height, Dutch historical 61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly ignored Aeschines, but
painter, was bom and died at Amsterdam. When a youth he this does not agree with Plutarch, De adulators et amico (c. 26).
distinguished himself by painting homely scenes, in which he On the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, he returned to
reproduced articles cooking utensils, &c., with
of furniture, Athens, and, finding it impossible to profess philosophy publicly
marvellous but he afterwards cultivated historical
fidelity, owing to the contempt of Plato and Aristotle, was compelled to
painting. Several of his best works altar-pieces in various teach privately. He wrote also forensic speeches; Phrynichus,
churches were destroyed in the religious wars of the Nether- in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions
lands. An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes
picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp Museum. also spoke highly of him (Ilepi I8(uv). He wrote several philo-
Aertszen was a member of the Academy of St Luke, in whose sophical dialogues: (i) Concerning virtue, whether it can be
272 AESCHYLUS
taught; (2) Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning riches, whether in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former com-
"
they are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is to plains (Fr. 866) that the battle is not fair, because my own
be feared, but those extant on the several subjects are not poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and
genuine remains. J. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of therefore he will have it with him to recite " a clear reference, as
them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Sihae the scholiast points out, to the continued production at Athens
Philologicae, and they have been edited by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig, of Aeschylus' plays after his death.
1786), and K. F. Hermann, De Aeschin. Socrat. relig. (Gott. Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is
1850). The genuine dialogues appear to have been marked by said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's life
the Socratic irony; an amusing passage is quoted by Cicero in that deserve mention are connected with his Sicilian visits, and
the De inventione the charge preferred against him of revealing the
"
(i. 31). secrets of
See Hirzel, Der Dialog, i. 129-140; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Demeter." This tale is briefly mentioned by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2),
vol. iii. p. 342 (Eng. trans. G. G. Berry, London, 1905). and a late commentator (Eustratius, i2th century) quotes from
AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the one Heraclides Pontius the version which may be briefly given
only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive, as follows:
and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of the Greek The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there
drama, was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. His father, was a reference to Demeter. The audience suspected him of
" "
Euphorion, belonged to the Eupatridae or old nobility of revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet fled
Athens, as we know on the authority of the short Life of the to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved his life
poet given in the Medicean Manuscript (see note on for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd respected
Lite.
"authorities" at the end). According to the same the inviolable sanctuary. He was afterwards charged with the
tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle of Greece crime before the Areopagus; and his plea " that he did not
against Persia; and was present at the battles of Marathon, know that what he said was secret " was accepted by the court
Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, in the years 490-479. At least and secured his acquittalt The commentator adds that the
one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with him at Marathon, prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was the real
and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act of bravery; cause of the leniency of his judges. The story was afterwards
and the brothers' portraits found a place in the national picture developed, and embellished by additions; but in the above
of the battle which the Athenians set up as a memorial in shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main fact
"
the Stoa Poecile (or Pictured Porch ") at Athens. seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic.
The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus' As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that
poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native certain descriptions in the Persae, and the known facts that he
genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly in- wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king Lycurgus,
spired by the personal share he took in the great actions of a persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his having a special
heroic national uprising. In the same way, the poet's brooding knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely that he had visited
thoughtfulness on deep questions the power of the gods, their it. This, however, remains at best a conjecture. For his repeated
dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, the future life in visits to Sicily, on the other hand, there is conclusive ancient
Hades though largely due to his turn of mind and temperament, evidence. Hiero the First, tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned
was doubtless connected with the place where his childhood about twelve years (478-467), and amongst other efforts after
was passed. Eleusis was the centre of the most famous worship magnificence invited to his court famous poets and men of letters,
of Demeter, with its processions, its ceremonies, its mysteries, had founded a new town, Aetna, on the site of Catana which he
its impressive spectacles and nocturnal rites; and these were captured, expelling the inhabitants. Among his guests were
intimately connected with the Greek beliefs about the human Aeschylus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides. About 476
soul, and the underworld. Aeschylus was entertained by him, and at his request wrote
His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more and exhibited a play called The Women of Aetna in honour of
than forty years. In 499, his 26th year, he first exhibited at the new town. He paid a second visit about 472, the year in
Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at Athens, which he had produced the Persae at Athens; and the play is
was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. The total said to have been repeated at Syracuse at his patron's request.
number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have been ninety; Hiero died in 467, the year of the Seven against Thebes; but
and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named or nameable after 458, when the Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find
which survive only in fragments, amount to over eighty, so that the poet again in Sicily for the last time. In 456 he died, and
Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable tradition. It is well was buried at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph in
known that in the sth century each exhibitor at the tragic con- two elegiac couplets saying: " Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus,
tests produced four plays; and Aeschylus must therefore have son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat-
competed (between 499 and 458) more than twenty times, or once bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon
in two years. His first victory is recorded in 484, fifteen years can speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well." The
after his earliest appearance on the stage; but in the remaining authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says it w.as
twenty-six years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while Athenaeus
successful at least twelve times. This clearly shows that he was and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus. Probably most people
the most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458; would agree that only the poet himself could have praised the
and for more than half that time was usually the victor in the soldier and kept silence about the poetry.
contests. Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name
position amonghis contemporaries is the well-known decree little need be said. Pausanias' tale, how Dionysus appeared to
passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to exhibit the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and bade
"
a play of Aeschylus should receive a chorus," i.e. be officially him write a tragedy or the account in the Life, how he was
allowed to produce the drama at the Dionysia. The existence killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise whose shell
of this decree, mentioned in the Life, is strongly confirmed by the bird was unable to crack clearly belong to the same class
two passages in Aristophanes: first in the prologue of the of legends as the story that Plato was son of Apollo, and that
Acharnians (which was acted in 425, thirty-one years after the a swarm of bees settled upon his infant lips as he lay in his
poet's death), where the citizen, grumbling about his griefs and mother's arms. Less supernatural, but hardly more historical,
troubles, relates his great disappointment, when he took his seat isthe statement in the Life that the poet left Athens for Sicily
"
in the theatre expecting Aeschylus," to find that when the in consequence of his defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by
play came on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the Sophocles; or the alternative story of the same authority that
Frogs (acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested the cause of his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes
 AESCHYLUS 273
slain at Marathon was preferred to his own. Apart from the ispreserved in the Arguments; and the other two approximately.
inherent improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither The dates rest, in the last resort, on the oi8a<TKa\la.i, or the official
story fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles' records of the contests, of which we know that Aristotle (and
success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with others) compiled catalogues; and some actual fragments have
the Septem; and the Marathon elegy must have been written in been recovered. The order of the plays is probably that given
490, fourteen years before his first visit to Sicily. above; and certainly the Persae was acted in 472, Septem in
In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously 467, and the last three, the trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is
far more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with generally, though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest;
tne fragments of more than seventy others), and par- and the best authorities tend to place it not far from 490. The
Work
ticularly in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics. early date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme
The real importance of our poet in the development of the drama simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) opening,
(see DRAMA: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 54, or the
known predecessors who are at best hardly more than names highest of all the seven plays. The chief doubt is in regard to
to us is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review of Prometheus, which is variously placed by good authorities; but
the rise of tragedy (Poet. iv. 13), names no one before Aeschy- the very low percentage of lyrics (only 27, or roughly a quarter
lus. He recognizes, it is true, a long process of growth, with of the whole), and still more the strong characterization, a
several stages, from the dithyramb to the drama; and it is not marked advance on anything in the first three plays, point to
difficult to see what these stages were. The first step was the its being later than any except the trilogy, and suggest a date
addition to the old choric song of an interlude spoken, and in somewhere about 460, or perhaps a little earlier. A few com-
early days improvised, by the leader of the chorus (Poet. iv. ments on the extant plays will help to indicate the main points
12). The next was the introduction of an actor (wro/cptri?? or of Aeschylus' work.
"
answerer "), to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue Supplices. The exceptional interest of the Supplices is due to
" "
added to recitation. The answerer was at first the poet its date. Being nearly twenty years earlier than any other
himself (Ar. Rhet. iii. i). This change is traditionally attributed extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in the evolution of
to Thespis (5363.0.), who is, however, not mentioned by Aristotle. Attic drama which would otherwise have been unrepresented.
"
The mask, to enable the actor to assume different parts, by Genius, as Patin says, is a puissance libre," and none more so
whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' day. than that of Aeschylus; but with all allowance for the " un-
"
The third change was the enlarged range of subjects. The lyric controlled power of this poet, we may feel confident that we
dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and the inter- have in the Supplices something resembling in general structure
ludes had, of course, to follow suit. Nothing in the world so the lost works of Choerilus, Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th-
tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; and it is century pioneers of drama.
interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, as ever, The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus
"
eager for some new thing ") nevertheless opposed at first the (who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their
introduction of other tales. But the innovators won; or other- father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to Argos,
wise there would have been no Attic drama. to escape the marriage which they abhor. They claim the pro-
In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in tection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but timid; and
honour of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical) he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to the people,
interlude by the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one who agree to protect the fugitives. The pursuing fleet of suitors
actor (at first the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in is seen approaching; the herald arrives (with a
company of
more than one part. followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the cowering Danaids
But everything points to the fact that in the development of to the ships and finally attempts to drag them away. Pelasgus
the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator. The two interposes with a force, drives off the Egyptians and saves the
things that were important, when the 5th century began, if suppliants. Danaus urges them to prayer, thanksgiving and
tragedy was to realize its possibilities, were (i) the disentangle- maidenly modesty, and the grateful chorus pass away to the
ment of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an shelter offered by their protectors.
artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and (2) It is clear that we have here the drama in its nascent stage,
its general elevation of tone. Aeschylus, as we know on the just developing out of the lyric pageant from which it sprang.
express authority of Aristotle (Poet. iv. 13), achieved the first The interest still centres round the chorus, who are in fact the
" "
by the introduction of the second actor; and though he did protagonists of the play. Character and plot the two
not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse and con- essentials of drama, in the view of all critics from Aristotle
summation by the overwhelming effect of his serious thought, downwards are both here rudimentary. There are some
the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic purpose, fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a single situation.
and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness of the construction The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation of the king, the re-
and presentment of his tragedies. solve of the people; the defeat of insolent violence; and the
As to the importance of the second actor no argument is rescue. It should not be forgotten, indeed, that the play is one
needed. The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy of a trilogy an act, therefore, rather than a complete drama.
between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the mask, But we have only to compare it with those later plays of which
a series of messengers), as must have been the case when Aeschy- the same is true, to see the difference. Even in a trilogy, each
lus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic sense at all, play is a complete whole in itself, though also a portion of a
but rather narrative. The discussion, the persuasion, the in- larger whole.
struction, the pleading, the contention in short, the interacting Persae. The next play that has survived is the Persae, which
personal influences of different characters on each other are has again a special interest, viz. that it is the only extant Greek
indispensable to anything that can be called a play, as we historical drama. We
know that Aeschylus' predecessor, Phryni-
understand the word; and, without two "personae dramatis" chus, had already twice tried this experiment, with the Capture
at the least, the drama in the strict sense is clearly impossible. of Miletus and the Phoenician Women; that the latter play
The number of actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus dealt with the same subject as the Persae, and the handling of
are due the perception and the adoption of the essential step; its opening scene was imitated by the younger poet. The plot
and therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very real sense of the Persae is still severely simple, though more developed
to be called the 'ounder of Athenian tragedy. than that of the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the
Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Septem contra first quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the

Tkebas, Promet teus, Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, five anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge
can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's name army. Then comes the messenger with the news of Salamis.
274 AESCHYLUS
including a description of the sea-fight itself which can only One novelty should not be overlooked. There is here the first

be called magnificent. We realize what it must have been for passage of 5idi>ota, or general reflexion of life, which later became
the vast audience 30,0x30, according to Plato (Symp. 175 E) a regular feature of tragedy. Eteocles muses on the fate which
to hear, eight years only after the event, from the supreme poet involves an innocent man in the company of the wicked so that
of Athens, who was himself a distinguished actor in the war, he shares unjustly their deserved fate. The passage (Theb.
this thrilling narrative of the great battle. But this reflexion at 597-608) is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a
once suggests another; it is not a tragedy in the true Greek new effort of the poet to draw character, which may have some-
sense, according to the practice of the 5th-century poets. It thing to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before
may be called in one point of view a tragedy, since the scene is (468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy.
laid in Persia, and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia, which
the Persian pride. But its real aim is not the "pity and terror" show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when we
of the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind.
Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one place, Prometheus. The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays:
over the ruin of their foe. This is best shown by the praise of Prometheus the Fire-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus
Aeschylus' great admirer and defender Aristophanes, who (Frogs, Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the
1026-1027) puts into the poet's mouth the boast that in the Fire-bringer is probably the first, though recently it has been held
"
Persae he had glorified a noble exploit, and taught men to be by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy. That Prometheus
eager to conquer their foe." sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from heaven; that he was
Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, the punished by fearful tortures for ages; that he finally was recon-
Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, the experi- ciled to Zeus and set free, all this was the ancient tale indisput-
ment was not repeated either by the author or his successors. ably. Those who hold the Fire-bringer (Hvp<t>6pos) to be the final
One further point may be noted. Aeschylus always has a taste play, conjecture that it dealt with the establishment of the
for the unseen and the supernatural; and one effective incident worship of Prometheus under that title, which is known to have
here is the raising of Darius's ghost, and his prophecy of the existed at Athens. But the other order is on allgrounds more
disastrous battle of Plataea. But in the ghost's revelations probable; it keeps the natural sequence crime, punishment,
there is a mixture of audacity and naivete, characteristic at reconciliation, which is also the sequence in the Oresteia. And
once of the poet and the early youth of the drama. The dead if the reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme

Darius prophesies Plataea, but has not heard of Salamis; he of action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible.
1

gives a brief (and inaccurate) list of the Persian kings, which However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of
the queen and chorus, whom he addresses, presumably know; unsurpassed force and impressiveness. Nevertheless, from the
and his only practical suggestion, that the Persians should not point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first
again invade Greece, seems attainable without the aid of super- sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest of a
human foresight. tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except lo, who is a dis-
Septem contra Thebas. Five years later came the Theban tracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between the open-
Tragedy. It is not only, as Aristophanes says (Frogs, 1024), ing where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, and the
"
a play full of the martial spirit," but is (like the Supplices) close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero and the
one of a connected series, dealing with the evil fate of the Theban chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto impossible. This
House. But instead of being three acts of a single story like the is just the opportunity for the poet's bold inventiveness and fine

Supplices, these three plays trace the fate through three genera- imagination. The tortured sufferer is visited by the Oceanic
tions, Laius, Oedipus and the two sons who die by each other's Nymphs, who float in, borne by an (imaginary) winged car, to
hands in the fight for the Theban sovereignty. This family fate, console; Oceanus (riding a griffin, doubtless also imaginary)
where one evil deed leads to another after many years, is a larger follows, kind but timid, to advise submission; then appears lo,
conception, strikingly suited to Aeschylus' genius, and con- victim of Zeus' love and Hera's jealousy, to whom Prometheus
stitutes a notable stage in the development of the Aeschylean prophesies her future wanderings and his own fate; lastly
drama. And just as here we have the tragedy of the Theban Hermes, insolent messenger of the gods, who tries in vain to
house, so in the last extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces extort Prometheus' secret knowledge of the future. Oceanus,
the tragedy of the Pelopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin the well-meaning palavering old mentor, and Hermes, the
to Orestes' vengeance and purification. And the names of several blustering and futile jack-in-office, gods though they be, are
lost plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy. vigorous, audacious and very human character-sketches; the
The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and soft entrance of the consoling nymphs is unspeakably beautiful;
again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in detail. and the prophecy of lo's wanderings is a striking example of
Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; and the that new keen interest in the world outside which was felt by the
two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the kingdom. Eteo- Greeks of the 5th century, as it was felt by the Elizabethan
cles has driven out Polynices, who fled to Argos, gathered a host English in a very similar epoch of national spirit and enterprise
under seven leaders (himself being one), and when the play opens two thousand years later. Thus, though dramatic action is by
has begun the siege of his own city. The king appears, warns the nature of the case impossible for the hero, the visitors provide
the people, chides the clamour of women,appoints seven Thebans, real drama.
including himself, to defend the seven gates, departs to his post, Another important point in the development of tragedy is
"
meets his brother in battle and both are killed. The other six what we may call the balanced issue." The question in
chieftains are all slain, and the enemy beaten off. The two dead Suppliants is the protection of the threatened fugitives; in
princes are buried by their two sisters, who alone are left of the Persae the humiliation of overweening pride. So far the sym-
royal house. pathy of the audience is not doubtful or divided. In the Septem
Various signs of the early drama are here manifest. Half the there is an approach to conflict of feeling; the banished brother
play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole action has a personal grievance, though guilty of the impious crime of
is recited by messengers; and the
fatality whereby the predicted attacking his own country. The sympathy must be for the de-
mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about is no accidental fender Eteocles; but it is at least somewhat qualified by his
stroke of destiny, but the choice of the king Eteocles himself. injustice to his brother. In Prometheus the issue is more nearly
On the other hand, the opening is no longer lyric (like the two 1
The Eumenides is quoted as a parallel, becau;je there the estab-
earlier plays) but dramatic; the main scene, where the mes- lishment of this worship at Athens concludes t'le whole trilogy;
but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is mich besides the
senger reports at length the names of the seven assailants, and
pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, t le acquittal, the
the king appoints the seven defenders, each man going off in conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while here thr story would be
silence to his post, must have been an impressive spectacle. finished before the last play began.
 AESCHYLUS 275
balanced. The hero is both a victim and a rebel. He is punished especially in the Oresteia. And at times, particularly in the
for his benefits to man; but though Zeus istyrannous and un- Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, he almost
"
grateful, the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling. approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. One God above
As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated by all,who directs all, who is the cause of all" (Ag. 163, 1485);
the attitude of the chorus. They enter overflowing with pity. the watchfulness of this Power over human action (363-367),
They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's violence especially over the punishment of their sins; and the mysterious
and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last crisis, the mean law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 758-760): these
advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and save themselves; are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the Agamemnon with
and in the final crash they share his fate. peculiar force, in a strain at once lofty and sombre. One specially
Oresteia. The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the noteworthy point in that play is his explicit repudiation of the
Oresteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete common Hellenic view that prosperity brings ruin. In other
trilogy preserved to us. It is a three-act drama of family fate, places he seems to share the feeling; but here (Ag. 730) he goes
like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the revenge, deeper, and declares that it is not o\/3os but always wickedness
the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy. Again, as in that brings about men's fall. All through there is a recurring
Prometheus, the plot, at first sight, is such that the conditions of note of fear in his view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid
drama seem to exclude much development in character-drawing. images the
"
death that lurks behind the wall " (Ag. 1004),
"
The gods are everywhere at the root of the action. The inspired the hidden reef which wrecks the bark, unable to weather
"
prophet, Calchas, has demanded the sacrifice of the king's the headland (Eum. 561-565). In one remarkable passage of
daughter Iphigenia, to appease the offended Artemis. The in- the Eumenides (517-525) this fear is extolled as a moral power
spired Cassandra, brought in as a spear-won slave from conquered which ought to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them
Troy, reveals the murderous past of the Pelopid house, and the from impious or violent acts, or from the pride that impels them
imminent slaughter of the king by his wife. Apollo orders the to such sins.
son, Orestes, toavenge his father by killing the murderess, and Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, both
protects him when after the deed he takes sanctuary at Delphi. in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account can be
The Erinnyes (" Furies ") pursue him over land and sea; and at attempted the briefest word must here suffice. He is everywhere
;

last Athena gives him shelter at Athens, summons an Athenian distinguished by grandeur and power of conception, presentation
council to judge his guilt, and when the court is equally divided and expression, and most of all in the latest works, the Prome-
gives her casting vote for mercy. The last act ends with the theus and the Trilogy. He is pre-eminent in depicting the slow
reconciliation of Athena and the Furies; and the latter receive approach of fear, as in the Persae; the imminent horror of
a shrine and worship at Athens, and promise favour and pros- impending fate, as in the broken cries and visions of Cassandra
perity to the great city. The scope for human drama seems in the Agamemnon (1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to

deliberately restricted, if not closed, by such a story so handled. the nether powers in the Choephoroe (315-478), and the gradual
Nevertheless, as a fact, the growth of characterization is, in rousing of the slumbering Furies in the Eumenides (117-139).
spite of all, not only visible but remarkable. Clytemnestra is The fatal end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the effect is
one of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek due to its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense
drama. Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken pur- which no poet has more powerfully rendered. Again, he is a
pose, her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice, master of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic:
Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to
her unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable the tortured Prometheus (115-135); or the unmatched lyrics
fate,when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all portrayed which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) of the death of Iphi-
with matchless force her very craft being scornfully assumed, genia; or the vision of his lost love that the night brings to
as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped when Menelaus (410-426). And not least noticeable is the extra-
the purpose is served. And there is one other noticeable point. ordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his diction. One
In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has attempted some example of his lyrics may be given which will illustrate more
touches of character in two of the humbler parts, the Watchman than one of these points. It is taken from the long lament in the
in Agamemnon, and the Nurse in the Choephoroe. The Watch- Septem, sung by the chorus and the two sisters, while following
man opens the play, and the vivid and almost humorous senten- the funeral procession of the two princes. These laments may at
tiousness of his language, his dark hints, his pregnant metaphors times be wearisome to the modern reader, who does not see, and
drawn from common speech, at once give a striking touch of imperfectly imagines, the stately and pathetic spectacle; but
realism, and form a pointed contrast to the terrible drama that to the ancient feeling they were as solemn and impressive as
impends. A very similar effect is produced at the crisis of the they were ceremonially indispensable. The solemnity is here
Choephoroe by the speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message heightened by the following lines sung by one of the chorus of
to Aegisthus pours out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported Theban women (Sept. 854-860):
death of Orestes and her fond memories of his babyhood with Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters,
the most homely details; and the most striking realistic touch Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars,
is perhaps the broken structure and almost inconsequent utter-
The stroke that passes ever across Acheron,
ance of the old faithful slave's speech. These two are veritable Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark,
The bark Apollo comes not near,
figures drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear The bark that is hidden from the sunlight
only once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innova- To the shore of darkness that welcomes all !

tion is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus. AUTHORITIES. The is a single MS. at
chief authority for the text
It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas Florence, of the early nth century, known as the Medicean or M.,
written by a professional scribe and revised by a contemporary
of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry.
scholar, who corrected the copyist's mistakes, added the scholia, the
The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was arguments and the dramatis personae of three plays (Theb., Agam.,
teristics. prominent from the first, owing to its evolution from Eum.), and at the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his
the choral celebration of the god Dionysus. But the Dramas. The MS. has also been further corrected by later hands. In
new spirit imported by the genius of Aeschylus into the early 1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction publishd the MS. in
photographic facsimile, with an instructive preface by Signer
drama was religious in a profounder meaning of the term. The Rostagno. Besides M. there are some eight later MSS. (i3th to I5th
sadness of human lot, the power and mysterious dealings of the century), and numerous copies of the three select plays (Sept., Pers.,
gods, their terrible and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (aya and Prom.) which were most read in the later Byzantine period, when
Greek literature was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts.
<j>dovos), their certain vengeance upon sinners, all the more fearful These later MSS. are of little value or authority.
if
delayed, such are the poet's constant themes, delivered The editions, from the beginning of the I5th century to the present
with strange solemnity and impressiveness in the lyric songs, time, are very numerous, and the text has been further continuously
 276 AESCULAPIUS AESOP
improved by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars. The three tions are still preserved massive cyclopean walls, which serve
first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and
Robortello, 1552
as foundation to the walls of the modern town and of a Roman
give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from which MS
some leaves were lost; in 1557 the full text was restored by Vettor bridge, and the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, cut in
(Victorius) from later MSS. After these four, the chief editions o the rock, and dating from Roman times.
the seven plays were those of Schiitz, Person, Butler, Wellauer, Din
dorf, Bothe, Ahrens, Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkel, Kirch
AESOP (Gr. AIO-COTTOS), famous for his Fables, is supposed to
hoff and Wecklein. Besides these, over a hundred scholars have have lived from about 620 to 560 B.C. The place of his birth is
thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, by editions uncertain Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samos, Athens and Sardis
of separate plays, by emendations, by special studies of the
poet's allclaiming the honour. We possess little trustworthy informa-
work, or in other ways. Among recent writers who have made such
tion concerning his life, except that he was the slave of ladmon
contributions may be mentioned Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Enger
Conington, Blaydes, Cobet, Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Headlam of Samos and met with a violent death at the hands of the in-
Davies, Tucker, Verrall and Haigh. The Fragments have been habitants of Delphi. A pestilence that ensued being attributed
edited by Nauck and also by Wecklein. The Aeschylean staging is to this crime, the Delphians declared their
discussed in Albert Muller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Buhnenalter- willingness to make
" compensation, which, in default of a nearer connexion, was
thiimer in Die Biihne des Aeschylos," by Wilamowitz
;
(Hermes, xxi.)
in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. " Theatrum " claimed and received by ladmon, the grandson of his old master.
(R. C. Jebb); in
Dorpfeld and Reisch (Das griechische Theater), Haigh's Attic Theatre Herodotus, who is our authority for this (ii. 134), does not state
and Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek Antiquities. the cause of his death; various reasons are assigned
English by later
Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Milman and R.
Browning writers his insulting sarcasms, the embezzlement of
Oresteia, Suppliants, Persae, Seven against Thebes, Prometheus Vinc- money
tus, by E. D. A. Morshead; Prometheus, E. B. entrusted to him by Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft
Browning; the
whole seven plays, Lewis Campbell. (A. Si.) of a silver cup.
Aesop must have received his freedom from ladmon, or he
'
AESCULAPIUS (Gr. A.aK\rnrios) the legendary Greek god
,

of medicine, the son of Apollo and the could not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian
nymph Coronis. Tricca
in Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis demagogue According to the story,
disputed the honour of his (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20).
birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus. He he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where he met
was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the art of Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages of Greece
healing and hunting. His skill in curing disease and restoring with Periander at Corinth. During the reign of Peisistratus he
the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, is said to have visited Athens, on which occasion he related the
being afraid that
he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunder- fable of The Frogs asking for a King, to dissuade the citizens
bolt (Apollodorus 10; Pindar, Phthia, 3; Diod. Sic. iv. 71).
iii. from attempting to exchange Peisistratus for another ruler.
Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon The popular stories current regarding him are derived from a
and Podalirius, are the physicians in the Greek camp before Troy life, or rather romance, prefixed to a book of fables, purporting
to be his, collected by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the I4th
(Iliad, ii. 731). Temples were erected to Aesculapius in many
parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains. century. In this he is described as a monster of ugliness and
The practice of sleeping (incubatio) in these sanctuaries was very deformity, as he is also represented in a well-known marble
common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or pre- figure in the Villa Albani at Rome. That this life, however,
scribed remedies to the sick in dreams. All who were healed was in existence a century before Planudes, appears from a
offered sacrifice especially a cock and hung up votive tablets, 13th-century MS. of it found at Florence.
In Plutarch's Sym-
on which were recorded their names, their diseases and the posium of the Seven Sages, at which Aesop
a guest, there are
is

manner in which they had been cured. Many of these votive many jests on his original servile condition, but nothing deroga-
tablets have been discovered in the course of excavations at tory is said about his personal appearance. We are further
Epidaurus. Here was the god's most famous shrine, and games told that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue
by
were celebrated in his honour every five years, accompanied the famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong argument
by
solemn processions. Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description against the fiction of his deformity. Lastly, the obscurity in
of one of his temples, and of the offerings made to him. His which the history of Aesop is involved has induced some scholars
worship was introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books to deny his existence altogether.
(293 B.C.), to avert a pestilence. The god was fetched from It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to writing;

Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him on Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as having
" "
the island in the Tiber (Livy x. 47; Ovid, Melam. xv. .earnt the absurdities of Aesop from conversation at banquets,
622).
Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient artists. He is and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by turning some of
"
commonly represented standing, dressed in a long cloak, with Aesop's fables which he knew " into verse (Plato, Phaedo,
bare breast; his usual attribute is a club-like staff with a serpent 61 b). Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283 B.C.) made a collection
(the symbol of renovation) coiled round it. He is often accom- n ten books, probably in prose (Aoycav Ai<7co7retcoc o-uvaywyai)
panied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his :or the use of orators, which has been lost. Next appeared an
daughter Hygieia, the goddess of health. Votive reliefs repre- edition in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's
senting such groups have been found near the temple of Aescu- name is unknown. Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and
lapius at Athens. The British Museum possesses a beautiful tutor to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into
head of Aesculapius (or possibly Zeus) from Mclos, and the choliambics in the earlier part of the 3rd century A.D. The
Louvre a magnificent statue. most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a f reedman of
AUTHORITIES. L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Jane E. Augustus. Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th century)
Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903) R. Caton,
; translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The collections
Temples and Ritual of A. at Epidaurus and Athens (1900) articles in
;
which we possess under the name of Aesop's Fables are late
Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclopddie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho-
logie; T. Panofka, Asklepios und die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice
" renderings of Babrius's version or Tlpoyvfivaffnara, rhetorical
Walton, The Cult of Asklepios," in Cornell Studies in Classical exercises of varying age and merit. Syntipas translated Babrius
Philology, iii. (New York, 1894); W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive nto Syriac, and Andreopulos put the Syriac back again into
Offerings (1902).
jreek. Ignatius Diaconus, in the 9th century, made a version of
AESERNIA (mod. Isernia), a Samnite town on the road from
53 fables in choliambic tetrameters. Stories from Oriental sources
Beneventum to Corfinium, 58 m. to the north-east of the former, were added, and from these collections Maximus Planudes
at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via Latina.
made and edited the collection which has come down to us under
These routes are all followed by modern railways the lines to he name of Aesop, and from which the popular fables of modern
Campobasso, Sulmona and Caianello. A Roman colony was Europe have been derived.
established there in 263 B.C. It became the headquarters of the
For further information see the article FABLE; Bentley, Dissert-
Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only recovered
ition on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies inedites du moyen
by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.C. Remains of its fortifica- tge (1854) ; J- Jacobs, The Fables of Aesop (1889) i. The history of
:
 AESOPUS AESTHETICS 277
the Aesopic fable; ii. The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by urable feeling. In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities of feel-
William Caxton, 1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Les
Fabulistes Latins (1893-1899). ing attain their fullest and most perfect development. Yet, as
Before any Greek text appeared, a Latin translation of too its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation
Fabulae Aesopicae by an Italian scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius) might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by Oittena-
was published at Rome, 1476. About 1480 the collection of a certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling,
Planudes was brought out at Milan by Buono Accorso (Accursius), aesthetic
Even when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is
together with Ranuzio's translation. This edition, which contained export-
144 fables, was frequently reprinted and additions made from time comparatively restrained. A rare exhibition of beauty ence-
to time from various MSS. the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine, may the soul for a moment, yet in general the
thrill
"rterfsJfcs
Vatican ..and Augsburg by Stephanus (1547), Nevelet (1610),
Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (1741), Furia (1810), Coray (1810), enjoyment of it is far removed from the excitement as feeling.
Schneider (1812) and others. A critical edition of all the previously of passion. On the other hand, aesthetic pleasure
known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the collections of is pure enjoyment. Even when a disagreeable element is
Furia, Coray and Schneider, was published in the Teubner series of present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering of
Greek and Latin texts. A Fabularum Aesopicarum sylloge (233 in a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of enjoy-
number) from a Paris MS., with critical notes by Sternbach, appeared ment.
in a Cracow University publication, Rozprawy akademii umiejet-
It is, moreover, free from the painful elements of
nosci (1894). craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, which
AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as
the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs. To this
discovered by Mai in 1816. purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement,
AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian, which implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily
flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving
and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. As
a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens. Cicero was on the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic Marked
friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally distin- experience is clearly marked off from practical life, with off from

guished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruc- itsurgent desires and the rest. In aesthetic contempla- practical

tion. Plutarch (Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus, tion desire and will as a whole are almost dormant, activity,

that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should This detachment from the daily life of practical needs and aims
revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic enjoyment

the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed must be disinterested ("ohne Interesse"), that when we regard
one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last an object aesthetically we are not in the least concerned with
appearance in 55 B.C. when Cicero tells us that he was advanced its practical significance and value: one cannot, for
example,
in years on the occasion of the splendid games given by Pompey at the same moment aesthetically enjoy looking at a a/so ^a,
at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat ex- painting and desire to be its possessor. In like manner, Intel-
travagant living, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son, even if less apparently, aesthetic contemplation is factual

who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace marked off from the arduous mental work which enters actlvUy-
(Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of into the pursuit of knowledge. In contemplating an aesthetic
Caecilia Metella and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas all
the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a the more serious intellectual work of science involves the diffi-
draught. culties of the abstract. The contemplation is, moreover, free from
Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint., Instil. those restraints which are imposed on our mental activity by
xi. 3, in ; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14. the desire to obtain knowledge.
AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously defined as the While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience
philosophy or science of the beautiful, of taste or of the fine arts. appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of the
The name is something of an accident. In its original soul, it is connected just as clearly, through the act unifonn-
Pre
"?'j?', Greek form (aiotfTjrais) it means what has to do with of sense-perception, with the world of objects which is ity of
ary defini-
tion, sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and this our common possession. Being thus dependent on a con- aesthetic
is still its meaning in Kant's philosophy (" Transcen- templation of things in this common world it raises the />*
dental Aesthetic"). Its limitation to that function of sensuous question whether, like the perception of these objects,
perception which we know as the contemplative enjoyment of it is a uniform experience, the same for others as for myself. We
beauty is due to A. G. Baumgarten. Although the subject does touch here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience which
not readily lend itself to precise definition at the outset, we may needs to be noted at this stage, its uniformity or subjection to
indicate its scope and aim, as understood by recent writers, by law. It is a common idea that men's judgments about matters
saying that it deals successively with one great department of of taste disagree to so large an extent that each individual is
human experience, viz. the pleasurable activities of pure con- left very much to his subjective impressions. With regard to
templation. By pure contemplation is here understood that many of the subtler matters of aesthetic appreciation, at any
manner and more
of regarding objects of sense-perception, rate, there is undoubtedly on a first view the appearance of a
particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by the want of agreement. Contrasted with logical judgments
" "
pleasure of the act itself. The term object means whatever or even with ethical ones, aesthetic judgments may no ae /<Aetfc
"
can be perceived through one of the senses, e.g. a flower, a land- doubt look uncertain and subjective." The proposi- judgment.
" " seems to lend itself much
scape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of tones. The contemplation tion this tree is a birch
may be immediate when (as mostly happens) the object is present better to critical discussion and to general acceptance or rejection
to sense; or it may be mediate, when as in reading poetry we "
than the proposition this tree is beautiful." This circumstance,
dwell on images of objects of sense. Whenever we become as Kant shrewdly suggests, helps to explain why we have come
an object merely as presented for our contemplation " " in
interested in to employ the word taste dealing with aesthetic matters;
our whole state of mind may be described as an aesthetic atti- for the pronouncements of the sense of taste are recognized
" " of our
tude, and our experience as an aesthetic experience. Other as among the most uncertain and subjective sense-
expressions such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and impressions. Yet viewed as a species of pleasurable feelings,
appreciation of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will aesthetic experiences will be found to exhibit a large amount of
serve less precisely to mark off this department of experience. uniformity, of objective agreement as between different experi-
Aesthetic experience is differentiated from other kinds of ences of the same person and experiences of different persons.
experience by a number of characteristics. commonly speak We This general agreement appears to be clearly implied in the
of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of feeling.
ordinary form of our aesthetic judgments. To say " this rose is
" "
The appreciation of beauty is pervaded and sustained by pleas- beautiful means more than to say the sight of this rose affects
 278 AESTHETICS
me agreeably." It means that the rose has a general power of concerned with determining the nature of a species of the desir-
so affecting me (at different times) and others as well. able or the good (in the large sense). It seeks one or Aesthetic*
Logical
judgment The judgment is not the same as a logical one. It more regulative principles which may help us to asnor-
and Judg* does not say or imply that as a matter of fact it always distinguish a real from an apparent aesthetic value,
"">tive
meat of does please even if we add the limitation, those who
*

value.
and to set the higher and more perfect illustrations of
possess the sensibilities and the taste presupposed; beauty above the lower and less perfect. As a science it will

for, as we know, our varying mood and state of receptivity make seek to realize its normative function by the aid of a patient,
a profound difference in the fulness of the aesthetic enjoyment. methodical investigation of facts, and by processes of observa-
" "
It is a judgment of value which claims for the rose aesthetic tion, analysis and induction similar to those carried out in the
rank as an object properly qualified to please contemplative natural sciences. In speaking of aesthetics as a nor- Aesthetics
subjects. This value, it is plain, is relative to conscious subjects; ma live science we do not mean that it is a practical not a
yet since it is relative to all competent ones, it may be regarded one in the sense that it supplies practical rules which practical
" " sceace -
as objective that is to say, as belonging to the object. 1 may serve as definite guidance for the artist and the
This slight preliminary inspection of the subject will prepare lover of beauty, in their particular problems of selecting and
one for the circumstance that the scientific treatment of it has arranging elements of aesthetic value. It is no more a practical
Late de- begun late, and is even now far from being complete. science than logic. The supposition that it is so is probably
veiopment This slowness of development is in part explained favoured by the idea that aesthetic theory has art for its special
of the the detachment of aesthetic from the But this is to confuse a general aesthetic theory
by experience subject.
urgent needs of In a comparatively early stage
life. what the Germans call " General Aesthetics " with a theory of
of human progress some thought had to be bestowed on such art (Kunstwissenschaft). The former, with which we are here
pressing problems as to how to cope with the forces of nature concerned, has to examine aesthetic experience as a whole;
and to turn them to useful account; how to secure in human which, as we shall presently see, includes more than the enjoy-
communities obedience to custom and law. But the problem of ment and appreciation of art.
throwing light on our aesthetic pleasures had no such urgency. 2 We may now indicate with more fulness the main problems
To this it must be added that aesthetic experience (in all but its of our science, seeking to give them as precise a form as possible.
simpler and cruder forms) has been, and still is confined to a At the outset we are confronted with an old and
small number of persons; so that the subject does not appeal almost baffling question: " Is beauty a single quality f tD g
to a wide popular interest; while, on the other hand, the sub- inherent in objects of perception like form or colour?" science,
jects of this experience not infrequently have a strong senti- Common language certainly suggests that it is.
mental dislike to the idea of introducing into the region of refined Aesthetics, too, began its inquiry at the same point of view, and
feeling the cold light of scientific investig ition. Lastly, there are its history shows how much pains men have taken in
is beauty

special difficulties inherent in the subject. One serious obstacle trying to determine the nature of this attribute, as well a single
to a scientific theory of aesthetic experience is the illusive as that of the faculty of the soul by which it is per- <ii"iity in
oblectaf
character of many of its finer elements for example, the subtle ceived. Yet a little examination of the facts suffices to
differences of feeling-tone produced by the several colours as show that the theory is beset with serious difficulties. Whatever
well as by their several tones and shades, by the several musical beauty may be it is certainly not a quality of an object in the
intervals, and so forth. Finally, there is the circumstance just same way in which the colour or the form of it is a Beauty
touched on that much of this region of experience, instead of quality. These are physical qualities, known to us by not a'
at once disclosing uniformity, seems to be rather the abode of specific modifications of our sensations. The beauty physical
The variations in taste at different i uallty-
caprice and uncertainty. of a rose or of a peach is clearly not a physical quality.
levels of culture, among different races and nations and among Nor do we in attributing beauty to some particular quality in
the individual members of the same community are numerous an object, say colour, conceive of it as a phase of this quality,
and striking, and might at first seem to bar the way to a scien- like depth or brilliance of colour, which, again, is known by a
tifictreatment of the subject. These considerations suggest special modification of the sensations of colour. Hence we
that an adequate theory of aesthetic experience could only be must say that beauty, though undoubtedly referred to a physical
attempted after the requisite scientific skill had been developed object, is extraneous to the group of qualities which makes it a
in other and more pressing departments of inquiry. physical object.
If we glance at the modes of treating the subject up to a quite Beauty is frequently attributed to a concrete object as
recent date we find but little of serious effort to apply to it a a whole to a flower or shell, for example, as a visible whole.
strictly scientific method of investigation. The whole Our everyday aesthetic judgments are wont to leave
Inadequate ,

theories of extent of concrete experience has not been adequately

the attributes thus vaguely referred to the concrete attributed
subject. recognized, still less adequately examined. For the object. Yet it is equally certain that we not infre- todit*
fereat
greater part thinkers have been in haste to reach some quently speak of the beauty of some definable aspect
simple formula of beauty which might seem to cover the more or quality of an object, as when we pronounce the
Jaobjects.
obvious facts. This has commonly been derived deductively contour of a mountain or of a vase to be beautiful.
from some more comprehensive idea of experience or human And it may be asked whether, in thus localizing beauty, so to
life as a whole. Thus in German treatises on aesthetics which speak, in one of the constituent qualities of an object, we always
have been largely thought out under the influence of philosophic place it in the same quality. A mere glance at the facts will
idealism the beautiful is subsumed under the idea, of which it is suffice to convince us that we do not. We call the facade of a
regarded as one special manifestation, and its place in human Greek temple beautiful with special reference to its admirable
experience has been determined by defining its logical relations form; whereas in predicating beauty of the ruin of a Norman
to the other great co-ordinate concepts, the good and the true. castle we refer rather to what the ruin means to the effect of
These attempts to reach a general conception of beauty have an imagination of its past proud strength and slow vanquishment
often led to one-sidedness of view. And this one-sidedness has by the unrelenting strokes of time. This fact that beauty ap-
sometimes characterized the theories of those who, like Alison, pertains now more to one quality, now more to another, helps
have made a wider survey of aesthetic facts. us to understand why certain theorists, known as formalists,
Aesthetics, like Ethics, is a Normative Science, that is to say, regard all beauty as formal or residing in form, whereas Formalists
1
others, the idealists or expressionalists, view it as and ex-
See below for Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment, as having
residing in ideal content or expression. These theories, pression-
subjective universal validity. On the meaning of judgments of *
value see J. Cohn, Allgem. Asthetik, Einleitung, pp. 7 ff., and Teil i., however, like other attempts to find an adequate
Kap. 2 and 3. single principle of beauty, are unsatisfactory. Form and ideal
2
Cf. Ladd, Introduction to Philosophy, pp. 330, 331. content are each a great source of aesthetic enjoyment, and
 AESTHETICS 279
either can be found in a degree of supremacy which practically expression for aesthetic value in all its degrees. Yet it is
renders the co-operation of the other unimportant. The two better to keep the term applicable to the objects commonly
buildings cited above, two human faces, two musical composi- denoted by it by making it represent the fuller aesthetic satis-
tions, may exhibit in an impressive and engrossing way the factions which flow from a rare and commanding exhibition of
beauty of form and of expression respectively. Nor is this all. one or more of these qualities, from what may be described as
Three Beauty refuses to be confined even to these two. an appreciable excellence of aesthetic quality.
ultimate There are the various beauties of colour, for example, By thus dispensing with the concept of beauty as some occult
modes of as exhibited in such familiar undefinable quality, we get rid of much of the contradiction
phenomena of nature as
sea and sky, autumn moors and woods. A slight which appears to inhere in our aesthetic experience. For ex-
analysis of the constituents of objects to which we attribute ample, a bit of brilliant colour in a bonnet which pleases the
beauty shows that there are at least three distinct modes of wearer but offends her superior in aesthetic matters takes its
this attribute, namely (i) sensuous beauty, (2) beauty of form place as something which per se has a certain degree of aesthetic
and (3) beauty of meaning or expression, nor do these appear to value even though the particular relations into which it has
be reducible to any higher or more comprehensive principle. now thrust palpable to the trained eye, may practically
itself,
boldness to attempt to effect a rapproche-
It requires a certain rob it In thus substituting the relative idea of
of its value.
ment between the formal and the expressional factor. 1 An aesthetic value for the absolute idea of beauty we may no doubt
apparent unification of the three seems at present only possible seem to be destroying the reality of the object of aesthetic
by substituting for beauty another concept at least equally perception. This point may more conveniently be taken
vague, such as perfection ? which seems to imply the idea of up later when we consider the whole question of aesthetic
purposiveness, and to apply clearly only to certain domains of illusion.

beauty, e.g. organic form. This new way of envisaging aesthetic objects requires us to
We may now take another step and say that beauty appears make the study of their effect a prominent part of our investiga-
to be a quality in objects which is not sharply differentiated tion. In all the valuable recent work on the subject,
'
from other and allied qualities. If we look at the attention has been largely concentrated on this effect.
Beauty ^^' c
and allied usages of speech we shall find that beauty has its More particularly we have to investigate and illumine effect.
concep- kindred conceptions, such as gracefulness, prettiness scientifically the pleasurable side of the experience. In
and
others. Writers on aesthetics have spent much doing this we shall make use of all the light we can obtain from a
"
time on these Modifications of the Beautiful." The point study of known laws of pleasure. Thus we shall avail ourselves
emphasized here is the difficulty of drawing the line between not only of the theory of the pleasure-tones of sensation Aesthetics
them. Even an expert may hesitate long before saying but of that of the conditions of an agreeable exercise of and
whether a human face, a flower or a cameo should be called the attention upon objects, more particularly of the lanrsof
Must we postulate as many allied quali- characteristics of objects which adequately stimulate
pe '

beautiful or pretty.
ties as there are names for these pleasing aspects of objects? the attention without confusing or burdening it. Yet this does
Or must we do violence to usage and so stretch the word not require that we should treat the aesthetic problem as a part
" "
Beauty as to make it cover all qualities or aspects of of the more general science of pleasure, as has been
" p^/en,,,/
objects which have aesthetic value, including those modifica- attempted by some, e.g. Grant Allen (Physiological aesthetic
"
ions of the beautiful which we know as the sublime, the Aesthetics) and Rutgers Marshall (Pain, Pleasure and enjoyment
comic and the rest? But the wider we try in this way to Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles). To do so would a sP eclal
make the denotation of the term the vaguer grows the be to run the risk of considering only the more general
connotation. We are thus left equally incapable of saying aspects and conditions of aesthetic enjoyment, whereas what we
what the quality is, and in which aspect or attribute of the object need is a theory of it as a specific kind of pleasurable experience.
it inheres.
3
What is required at the present stage of development of the
It seems to follow that in constructing a scientific theory we science is a deeper investigation of the aesthetic attitude of mind
do well to dispense with the assumption of an objective quality as a whole, of what we may call the aesthetic psychosis. We
of beauty. Aesthetics will return to Kant and con- need to probe the act of contemplation itself, the mode of activity
Assump-
fine itself to the examination of objects called beauti- of attention involved in this calm, half-dreamlike gazing
tion of T/je ulm
objective ful in their relation to, and in their manner of affecting 'on the mere look of things unconcerned with their tude of
quality of our minds. 4 The aesthetic value of such an object ordinary and weightier imports. We need further to aesthetic
beauty will be viewed as consisting in the possession of certain determine the effect of this contemplative attitude
dispensed
with. assignable characteristics by means of which it is fitted upon the several mental processes involved, the act of
to affect us in a certain desirable way, to draw us into perception itself, with its grasp of manifold relations, the flow
the enjoyable mood of aesthetic contemplation. These charac- of ideas, the partial resurgence and transformation of emotion.
teristics may conveniently be called aesthetic qualities. 5 Objects In we must keep in view the double
examining^these effects
which are found to possess one or more of these side of the contemplative attitude, the wide range of free
qualities in the required degree of fulness claim a movement which perception and imagination claim and enjoy,
certain aesthetic value, even though they fall short and the willing subjection of the contemplative mind to the
"
of being beautiful," in the more exacting use of this word. spell of the object. A deeper inspection of the con-
" late lec
They are in the direction im Sinne," as Fechner says of templative mood may * be expected to render clearer ! . '.
. . tualand
beauty, conceived as something fuller and richer, answering the difference between the mental activity employed aesthetic
to a higher standard of aesthetic enjoyment and a severer in aesthetic perception and imagination and intellectual activity
demand on our part. The word " beauty " may still be used activity proper; between, say-, the differencing of allied
her
^,^
occasionally, where no ambiguity arises, as a convenient tints involved in the finer aesthetic enjoyment of tiated.
1
For example, that hinted at by Bosanquet in his definition of colour and the sharper, clearer discrimination of tints
the beautiful, History of Aesthetic, p. 5.
1
required in scientific observation, and between such a grasp of
Beauty is defined as Perfection by P. Souriau, La Beaute relations as is required for a just appreciation of beautiful
rationnelle, 2""
partie.
3
K. Groos argues well against this violent stretching of the form and that severe analysis and measurement of formal
word
beautiful, Einleitung in die Asthetik, pp. 46 seq. elements and their relations which is insisted upon by science.
4
Kant, in developing his idea of beauty as subjective, was
" prob- As a result of a finer distinction here we may probably be in
ably influenced by Hume, who wrote: Beauty is no quality in things a better position to determine the point touched on more than
themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates
them " once in recent works on aesthetics how far intellectual pleasure
(Essays, xxii.).
6
On the nature of these qualities see S. Witasek, Grundziige der proper, e.g. that of recognizing and classifying objects, enters
allgem. Asthetik, p. n. as a subordinate element into aesthetic enjoyment.
280 AESTHETICS
One point in the characterization of aesthetic experience has and enjoyable freedom of movement. They are, moreover,
its

been reserved, namely, the question whether it is essentially a the two senses by the use of which a number of persons may
is aes-
form of social enjoyment. No one doubts that a man join most perfectly in a common act of aesthetic contemplation.
thetic often enjoys beauty, e.g. that of a landscape, when This distinction strengthens their claims to be in a special
enjoyment alone; yet at such a moment he not only recognizes manner the aesthetic senses, and this for a double reason, (i)
esse l" ny
that his pleasure is a possible one for others, but is It makes them sense-avenues by which each of us obtains the
i "j

probably aware of a sub-conscious wish that others most immediate and most impressive conviction that aesthetic
were present to share his enjoyment. Kant went so far as experience is a common possession of the many, and is largely
to say that on a desert island a man would adorn neither similar in the case of different individuals. (2) It marks them
his hut nor his person. However this be, it seems certain that off as the senses by the exercise of which perceptual enjoyment
as a rule we tend to indulge our aesthetic tastes in company may most readily and certainly be increased through the resonant
with others. This habit of making aesthetic enjoyment a social effects of sympathy. The experiences of the theatre and of the
experience would in itself tend to develop the sympathies and concert-hall sufficiently illustrate these distinguishing functions
the sympathetic intelligence and thus to promote exchanges of of the two senses. Other distinguishing prerogatives of sight
aesthetic experience. The content, too, of our aesthetic ex- and hearing flow from the characteristics of their sensations
periences would be favourable to such conjoint acts of aesthetic and perceptions, a point to be touched on later.2
contemplation, and to the mutual sharing of aesthetic experi- Our determination of the characteristics of the aesthetic
ences; for, as disinterested and universal modes ofenjoyment now been
attitude has carried far enough to enable us to consider
detached from personal interests, they are clearly free from another point much discussed in recent aesthetic
the egoistic exclusiveness which characterizes our private enjoy- literature, viz. the relation of this attitude to that of
ments which at best can only be participated in by one or two Play. The affinities of the two are striking and are and play.
closely attached friends. Our aesthetic enjoyments are thus disclosed in everyday language, as when we speak of (a) Point*
" " " "
eminently fitted to be social ones; and as such they become the play of imagination or of playing on a o/atanity

greatly amplified by sympathetic resonance. musical instrument. Both play and aesthetic con- them.
We are now in a position to consider a point much discussed templation are activities which are controlled by no
of late, namely, the special connexion of aesthetic enjoyment extraneous end, which run on freely directed only by the
with the two senses, sight and hearing. Two questions intrinsic delight of the activity. Hence they both contrast
The " "
arise here: (i) Do the other and lower senses take with the serious work imposed on us and controlled by what we
senses. anv P ar ^ maesthetic experience? (2) What are the mark off as the necessities of life, such as providing for bodily
characteristicswhich give the predominance to the wants, or rearing a family. They each add a sort of luxurious
" "
two higher ones ? With regard to the first it is coming to be fringe to life. In aesthetic enjoyment our senses, our intelligence
recognized that aesthetic pleasure is not strictly confined to the and our emotions are alike released from the constraint of these
two senses in question. Common language suggests that we necessary ends, and may be said to refresh themselves in a kind
find in certain odours and even in certain flavours a value of play. Finally, they are both characterized by a strong infusion
analogous to that implied in calling an object beautiful. Hegel of make-believe, a disposition to substitute productions of the
excluded the other senses even touch on the ground imagination for everyday realities. In this respect, again, they
Aesthetic
claims of
touch.
. .,.1,1
tllat aes thetics had to do only with art, in which
there was no place for perceptions of touch. A closer
form a contrast to that serious concern with fact and practical
truth which the necessary aims of life impose on us. Little
examination has shown that this important sense wonder, then, that Plato recognized in the contrast between the
plays a considerable part in art-effects. And even if this were representative and the useful arts an analogy between play and
earnest, and that since the time of Schiller so much use has been
3
not so, Hegel's exclusion of touch from the rank of aesthetic
senses would be a striking illustration of the narrowing effect on made of the analogy in aesthetic works. Yet though
scientific theory of the identification of aesthetic objects with similar, the two kinds of activity are distinguishable in
productions of art. To say that the experience of exploring important respects. For one thing, aesthetic contem- eace .

with the fingers a velvety petal or the smooth surface of a sea- plation pure and simple is a comparatively tranquil
rounded pebble has no aesthetic element savours of a perverse and .passive attitude, whereas play means doing something and
arbitrariness. Touch is no doubt wanting in a prerogative of commonly involves some amount of strenuous exertion, either
hearing and sight which we shall presently see to be important, of body or of mind. A closer analogy might be drawn between
namely, that being acted on by objects at a distance they admit play and artistic production. Yet even when the parallel is thus
of a simultaneous perception by a number of persons as indeed narrowed, pretty obvious differences disclose themselves. It
even the sense of smell does in a measure. This is-- probably is only in their more primitive phases that the two attitudes
the chief reason why, according to certain testimony," the blind exhibit a close similarity. As they develop, striking divergences
1
receive but little aesthetic enjoyment from tacti^l experience. begin to appear. The play mood, instead of approaching the
Yet this drawback is compensated to some extent by the fact calm contemplative mood of the lover of beauty, involves
that agreeable tactual experience may be taken up as suggested feelings and impulses which lie at the roots of our practical
meaning into our visual perceptions. interests, viz. ambition, rivalry and struggle. It has, moreover,
The two privileged senses, sight and hearing, owe their superi- in all its stages a palpable utility even though this is not
ority to a number of considerations. They are the farthest realizedby the player serving for the exercise and development
Preroga- removed from the necessary life functions, with the of body, intelligence and character. Beauty and art rise high
tivea of pressing needs and disturbing cravings which belong to above play in purity of the disinterested attitude, in placid
sight and
nesrinv. iiii**.<>.
these. Even touch, though important as a source of
knowledge, has for primary function to examine
its
detachment from the serviceable and the necessary, and, still
more, in range and variety of refined interest, comprehended
"
the things which approach our organisms in their relation in the love of beauty." Finally,activities are
aesthetic
to this as injurious or harmless. The two higher senses directed by ideal conceptions and standards to which hardly
present to us material objects in their least aggressive and
by Home and was
2 re-
Originally, as pointed out others, sight
menacing manner: visible forms and colours, tones and their
garded as the sense by which we received impressions of beauty.
combinations, appear when compared with objects felt to be in Yet the recognition of the claims of hearing date back to Plato.
contact with our body, to be rather semblances or distant signs (See Bosanquet, Hist, of Aesth. pp. 51-52). For recent discussions
"
of material realities than these realities themselves; and this of the claims of sight and hearing see article by J. Volkelt, Der
circumstance fits these senses to be in a special way the organs Aesth. Werth der niederen Sinne," in Zeitschrift fur Psych, u. Phys.
der Sinnesorgane, vol. xxix. pp. 402 ff. see also below, Biblio-
;

of aesthetic perception with its calm, dreamlike detachment

graphy.
1
See J. Cohn, Allgem. Aslhetik, p. 95. 'Laws, 889 (see Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54).
 AESTHETICS 281
it is apt to be complicated and disguised
anything corresponds in play save where games of skill take on supposed to originate
something of the dignity of a fine art.
1
by other motives, e.g. utility in architecture, 3 an impulse to in-
So far as to the preliminary delimiting work in aesthetic struct if not to reform in modern fiction. Again, if it is said that
science. Only a bare indication can be made as to the methods a certain degree of permanence assures us of the Effects of
Methods of research by which its advance can be furthered, aesthetic value of a feature of art, we are met by the custom
otre- and as to the several directions of inquiry which it difficulty that custom plays an important part in art,
search in w ;jj nave to fo u ow With regard to the former the
. the result of convention fixed by tradition often
aesthetics.
metno(j o f investigation will consist in a careful simulating the aspect of a deep-seated aesthetic prefer-
inquiry into two orders of fact: (i) Objects which common ence. In this connexion it is to be remarked that even
testimony or the history of art show to be widely recognized so permanent an element as symmetry may owe its quasi-
objects of aesthetic value (2) records of the aesthetic experience
;
aesthetic value to custom, by which is understood its wide and
4
of individuals, whether artists or amateurs. impressive display in the organic and even the inorganic world.
Since aesthetic experience is brought about and its modes Yet the influence of custom taken in this larger sense need not
determined by objects possessing certain qualities, it seems evi- greatly disturb us. In aesthetics, as in ethics, the question of

Bxamlaa- dent that scientific aesthetics must make an examin- validity has to be kept distinct from that of origin. If symmetry
tton ot and comparison of these a fundamental part
ation (in general) is appreciated as aesthetically pleasing, the question
aesthetic o f j ts p ro bl e m. These objects will, as already hinted, of its genesis becomes immaterial. Another difficulty, not
objects. is that of reconstructing the
jnciude both natural ones in the inorganic and organic peculiar to aesthetic investigation,
worlds, and- works of art which can be shown to be objects modes of aesthetic consciousness represented by forms of art
of general or widely recognized aesthetic value. Without which differ widely from those of our own age and type of

Nature as attempting here to discuss adequately the relation of culture.

supplying natural beauty to that of art we may note one or two In utilizing art material for aesthetic theory the theorist will
aesthetic
points. Some contemplation and appreciation of the need to note the work recently done by English and German
beautiful aspects of nature is not only prior in time writers on primitive art. And this not merely because Value ot
to art, but is a condition of its genesis. The enjoyment of of the value of the early forms of art for a theory of primitive
r
the pleasing aspects of land and sea, of mountain and dale, but
the evolution of the aesthetic consciousness ;
^J
t ^ etlcs-

of the innumerable organic forms, has steadily grown with the because the embryonic stages of art are likely to have
development of culture; and this growth, though undoubtedly a peculiar interest as illustrating in a comparatively isolated
aided by that of the feeling for art especially painting and form some of the simpler modes of aesthetic appreciation,
Some in the grouping of colours, in the mode of covering a surface
2
poetry is to a large extent independent of it. of the e.g.
beauty has been gained by those
finest insight into the secrets of with linear ornament. Yet it is not necessary to give primitive
who had only a limited acquaintance with art. What is still art a considerable place in a general aesthetics. As a normative
more important in the present connexion is that the aesthetic science, it is to be remembered, this is much more immediately

experience gained by the direct contemplation of nature includes concerned with the higher stages of aesthetic culture. In seeking
varieties which art cannot reproduce. It is enough to recall to establish norms or regulative principles, we must, it is evident,
what Helmholtz and others have told us about the limitations make a special study of objects of art which belong to our own
of the powers of pictorial art to represent the more brilliant level of culture. For these reasons it would appear necessary
degrees of light; the admissions of painters themselves as to to include in a general aesthetic theory some reference to the
the limits of their art when it seeks to render the finer grada- evolution of art and of the aesthetic consciousness. A further
tions of light and colour in such common objects as a tree-trunk or reason for including it is that the evolution of art supplies a most
a bit of old wall. Nature, moreover, in spreading out her spaces valuable auxiliary criterion of degree or height of Bygiution
of earth, sea and sky, and in exhibiting the action of her forces, aesthetic value. Provided that we distinguish what ascriter.
lo " f
does so on a scale which seems to make sublimity her prerogative is a real process of evolution from one of mere change
c
in which art vainly endeavours to participate. of fashion in taste, and that we confine ourselves to
*^.A
On the other hand, it is coming to be seen that the construction the larger features of the process, we may make the
of a theory of aesthetic values must be assisted by a much more principle of evolution a serviceable one by regarding
those
Use of precise examination than aestheticists are commonly forms and features of art as higher in respect of aesthetic value
worts of content to make, of works of art. The importance which grow distinct and relatively fixed in the later and better
8
that thev are well-defined objec-
of i ncludin 6 these is stages of the evolution of art. This part of aesthetic investiga-
*th *ri '/"*
tive expressions of what the aesthetic consciousness tion should be made as exact as possible. Thus in Exaci
approves and prefers. In inquiring, for example, into the dealing with the triads of colour said to be most fre- mea sure-
pleasing relations of colour we might have to wait long for quently employed in the best period of Italian painting
meat of
a theory if we were dependent on what even so gifted a writer the observer should note and record as far as this is "^""^ of
as Ruskin can tell us about nature's juxtapositions: whereas possible not only the precise tints, but also the precise
art. work.
if it can be shown that throughout the history of chromatic art degrees of their several luminosities. With regard to
or during its better period there has been a tendency to prefer elements of form in art, the judicious use of photography and
certain combinations, this fact becomes a piece of convincing careful measurement would probably help us to understand the
evidence as to their aesthetic value. Even here, practices of art in its better periods. This examination of art
ties in however, there are sources of uncertainty. It is not material by the aesthetic theorist should be supplemented by a
using true to say that a work of art is a pure outcome of study of what artists have written about their methods, of the
worts of the aesthetic down for students of art, and lastly of the ge_neraliza-
feeling of the artist, even if we take rules laid

mater/a/. s ^ m
a comprehensive sense. It is subject to the tions reached by the more scientific kind of writer upon art.
6

influence of all the temporary feelings and tendencies Aproper methodical inquiry into aesthetic objects aided by a
of the time which produced it. The aesthetic motive which is K. Lange goes very far in attributing a practical motive to
3

features of architecture commonly supposed to have aesthetic value,

e.g. a regular series of similar forms (Das Wesen
1
Plato had a glimpse of the resemblance of art to play (see der Kunst, Bd. i.
Bosanquet, op. cit. p. 54). Among modern writers the idea is pp. 277 ff.).
specially connected with the names of Schiller and Herbert Spencer.
4
K. Lange thinks that even symmetry probably has a technical
In recent works the subject is touched on by S. Wittasek, Grundzuge origin (op. cit. pp. 283-284).
Asthetik, pp. 223 ff. Bray, Du Beau, pp. 62 ff., and by The question of the place of the historical development of art
6
der allgem. ;

Rutgers Marshall and others referred to below in Bibliography. in aesthetic theory is carefully considered by J. Volkelt, System der
1 e'
Hence to say, as Bosanquet says (op. cit. pp. 3-4), that art is to Asthetik, Bd. i. 5 Kap.
See, for example, a little work, The Genesis of Art-form, by G. L.
nature as the scientific conception of the world to that of the ordinary 6

observer, seems wide of the mark. Raymond.

282 AESTHETICS
knowledge of the practices of art would lead to inductions of (A) In dealing with the sensuous factor the psychologist
"
the type objects in so far as they possess such and ismaterially aided by the physiologist. It is sufficient to point
such characteristics are aesthetically valuable." 1 This to the contribution made to the analysis of musical
Thg
tions. preliminary work of aesthetic science in collecting and sensations by the classical researches of Helmholtz sensuous
analysing facts may be extended in two directions: by (see below). Yet the application of a knowledge of factor.
an examination (a) of the earlier and simpler forms of aesthetic Pay slo-
physiological conditions seems as yet to be of little
experience, and (b) of the fuller and more complex experiences service when we come to the finer aspects of this
aesthetics.
^ ^ nose specially trained in the perception and enjoy- sensuous experience, to the subtle effects of colour-
Germs of
aesthetic ment of beauty, (a) The former would be illustrated combination, for example, and to the nuances of feeling-tone
preference by a more methodical investigation into the rudiment- attaching to different tints. In the finer analysis of the sensuous
ll
ar ^ aestnet i c likings of children, and of the surviv- material of aesthetic enjoyment it is the psychologist who counts. 5
'aren etc
ing lower races. Such inquiries may be expected to Among the valuable contributions recently made in this
add to our knowledge of the simpler and more universal domain one may instance the careful determination of
forms of aesthetic enjoyment. Some attention has been paid the aesthetically important characteristics of the sensa- problems.
by Darwin and others to germs of taste in birds and other animals. tions of sight and hearing, such as the finely graduated
Yet this line of inquiry, though of some value for a theory of the variety of their qualities (colour and tone), their capability
evolution of taste, seems to throw but little light on aesthetic of entering into combinations in which they preserve their
preferences as found in man.
2
An important feature in this new individuality, including the important combinations of time
investigation into simpler modes of aesthetic preference and space form. With these are to be included the distinguish-
is that it proceeds by way of experiment, that is to say, ing characteristics of the concomitant feeling-tones, e.g. their
ment. a methodical testing of the aesthetic preferences of a comparative calmness and their clear separation from the
number of individuals. Fechner introduced the method sensations which they accompany. These characteristics help
of experiment into aesthetics in his researches on the preferability us to understand the greater refinement of these senses and also
"
(according to Zeising) of the proportion known as the golden the more prolonged as well as varying enjoyment which they
3
section." Since his time other experimental inquiries have contribute, as well as the extension of this enjoyment by imagina-
been made, both as to what forms (e.g. what variety of rectangle) tive reproduction. 7 Next to this determination of important
and what combinations of colours are most pleasing. The results aesthetic characteristics of the two senses may be named a finer
of these experiments are distinctly promising, though they have probing of the nuances of pleasurable tone exhibited by the
Expert- not yet been carried far enough to be made the basis of several colours and tones. A point still needing special investiga-
ence and perfectly trustworthy generalizations.
4
(b) Avaluable tion is extent of the sensuous factor in aesthetic enjoyment.
judgments or O n of the data for a science of aesthetics lies in the There has been a tendency in aesthetic theory to over-intellectual-
*
p ti

recorded experiences of artists, art critics and others ize aesthetic experience and to find the value even of the sensuous
who have specially developed their tastes. This source of factor insome intellectual principle, as when it is said (by Plato
information has certainly never been made use of in a com- and Hegel among others) that a smooth or level tone and a
plete and methodical manner by theorists, a quotation now and uniform mass of colour owe their value to the principle of unity.
again from writers like Goethe and Ruskin having been deemed But such prolongation (within obvious limits) in time or space is
sufficient. Yet it is safe to say that an adequate understanding a condition of the full enjoyment of the distinctive quality of an
of the finer effects of beauty, both in nature and in art, presup- individual tone or colour, and as such has a sensuous value.
poses the assimilation of what is best in these records. And Aesthetics has to prove the sensuous value, the pleasure which
this not only because they commonly supply us with new and is due not only to the feeling-tones of the several sensations

valuable varieties of experience of the more refined kind, but but to those of their various combinations. Spite of a tendency
"
because the aesthetic judgments on nature and art of men in of late to disparage the co-operation of the motor sensations "
whom the feeling of beauty has been specially cultivated have a connected with movements of the eye in the aesthetic apprecia-
6
greater value than those of others. It may be added that these tion of linear form, e.g. curves, evidence suggests that certain
records are wont to contain reflexions which, though wanting curves, like fine gradations of colour, may owe a considerable
in scientific precision, can be utilized by science. part of their value to a mode of varying the sensuous experience
We now come to the work of scientific construction proper. which is in a peculiar manner agreeable. On the other hand, this
The finer analysis of the objects which please aesthetically as theoretic investigation of sense-material will need to determine
Psycho- w ellas of the agreeable type of consciousness to which with care the added value due to the action of experience in
logical they minister belongs to the psychologist, and it is giving something of meaning to particular colours and tones
analysis of no t e and their combinations, e.g. warmth of colour, height of tone.
worthy that the best recent contributions to the
science have been made by men who were either (B) Under the scientific treatment of the perceptual or formal
known as psychologists or at least had trained themselves in factor in aesthetic experience we have many special problems,
psychological analysis. A word or two must suffice to indicate of which only a few can be touched on here. Taking
the more important directions of the theoretic interpretation. this factor to include all combinations of elements in
perceptual
We may in illustrating this set out from the convenient triple which there is a more or perception of factor.
less distinct
division of the factors in aesthetic experience: (A) the sensuous, pleasing relations, we meet here with such work as that
(B) the perceptual or formal, (C) the imaginative, including all of C. Stumpf (Ton-psychologie) in determining the way in which
that is suggested by the aesthetic presentation, its meaning and tones combine and tend to fuse. Later experiments have added
expressiveness. to our knowledge of the obscure subject of colour harmony,
1
Kant, stopping short of an analysis of the beauty of a concrete enabling us to distinguish pleasing contrasts of colour from the
object, said there were no aesthetic judgments of this universal form more combinations of nearly allied tints. Our knowledge
restful
(see below). On the importance of these inductions see K. H. von of pleasingform in the narrower sense, that is to say, space and
Stein, Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik (Einleitung). time form, has been advanced by a number of recent inquiries.
*
Curiously enough Thomas Reid recognized a germ of aesthetic The value of symmetry, the meaning of proportion and the
taste in animals. Essays, Of Taste, ch. v. The aesthetic importance
of the observations made on animals is dealt with by L. Bray, Du aesthetic value to be set on certain proportions, the forms of
Beau, pp. 233 ff. rhythm these are some of the points dealt with in more general
3
See below, and Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 382 ff. 6
Examples of a forcing of the physiological method in aesthetics
4
The chief lines of experimental aesthetics are indicated by W. may be found in the Physiological Aesthetics of Grant Allen, and the
Wundt in his Physiol. Psychologic (5" Auflage), Bd. iii. pp. 142 ff. Aufgabe der Kunstphysiologie, by Georg Hirsch.
and 147 ff. 7
These aesthetic prerogatives of the sensations of hearing and
'
On the value of judgments of experts see K. Groos, Der dsth. sight have been well brought out in the article by J. Volkelt, already
Genuss, p. 149. referred to.
 AESTHETICS 283
and in special works. In the case of forms, still more than in
1
Lipps himself thinks) or may be realized in part by sensuous
that of sensuous elements, it is needful to determine the extent elements, viz. motor sensations; which again may be regarded
to which the value of the formal aspect is modified by experience either as concomitants of eye movements, or as arising from an
and the acquisition of meaning. This is pretty certainly the organically connected impulse to move the hand along the lines
source of the aesthetic value claimed for certain proportions, followed by the eye. 4 Thus the columns of a temple represent
whether in the human figure or other organic forms or in the upward movement, and are apperceived as striving upwards so as
freer constructions of form in art.
2
Another problem is to deter- to resist the downward pressure of the entablature. Since move-
mine the influence of the feeling-tones of the combining elements ments are the great means of expression in man, this imagina-
on the pleasing character of the whole. It is probable that a tive reading of movement into motionless and even massive and

particular combination of colours owes something of its pleasure- stable forms enables us to endow them with quasi-human feelings.
value to a harmony of the feeling-tones of the elements. This In looking, for example, at the weighty masses of a building we
is pretty certainly the case where the feeling-tones of the elements enter sympathetically into the successful strivings of the sup-
are closely akin, as in the case of a number of low tones of colours, porting structures to resist the downward thrust of gravity in
or of architectural or other forms where one formal element the supported masses. The theory here briefly indicated 5 is
say, a vertical line, a rectangle of a certain proportion or a interesting as illustrating an attempt from the psychological
particular variety of arch repeats itself and becomes a dominat- side to find a scientific support for philosophic idealism or ex-

ing feature of the whole. pressionalism. It is already beginning to be recognized in

(C) The imaginative factor which corresponds with what Germany as an exaggeration. It may be enough to say that as
" "
Fechner calls the indirect includes all that imaginative applied to forms generally, including those of sculpture and
activity adds to our enjoyment when we contemplate architecture, the theory is opposed by our ordinary way of speak-
an aest hetic object. It may consist first of all in re- ing, which implies quite another point of view in the aesthetic
facinr. calling concrete experiences firmly associated with the contemplation of form, namely, that of a spectator external to
object, as when the sight of wild-flowers in a London the object contemplated. When our eye glides over the beauties
street calls up an image of fields and lanes. In order that these of a statue, our imaginative activity so far from transporting us

images may add to the aesthetic value of the object they must within the object carries us as tactual feelers outside the surface.
correspond to our common associations, as distinguished from Similarly, when we delight in the divided spaces of a Gothic roof,
accidental individual ones. A large increase of aesthetic enjoy- so far from being imaginatively engaged in taking part in the
ment comes to us through such suggested images. Although in efforts and strains of pillar, arch and the rest, we move in fancy

general it is images of concrete objects which are called up, ideas along the pathways defined by the designer, tactually feeling
of a more abstract character may take part though they tend and appreciating each dimension, each detail of form. The
in this case to assume a concrete aspect. This is illustrated in attempt to force a theory fitted for poetry on sculpture and archi-
" "
the appreciation of typical beauty in which a concrete form tecture would rob these of their distinctive aesthetic values;
represents in an exceptional way the common form of a species, in the one case, of the plastic beauty of finely moulded marble
and symbolic representation. An important part of
in that of surfaces as realized by imaginative excursions of the hand; and
this work is to render objects expressive of mental
of association in the other case, of the perfect stillness and stability which give

states, as when we read off the particular shade of feeling ex- to great structures their solemn and quieting aspect. 6

pressed by a natural scene.

3
The theory of a vitalizing play of imagination (Einfuhlung)
In the poetic contemplation of nature, her forces, her gladness running through all modes of aesthetic contemplation is an
and other moods, this imaginative activity, though still deriving exaggeration of the element of illusion which certainly
its material from association, takes a freer form, characterizes this contemplation. As suggested above,

n- leading to
an investment of natural objects with a by blotting out for the moment the perception of all
new and more fanciful meaning, as when we save that which pleases it substitutes a new for the more solid
" "
apperceive a willow drooping over a pond or reality of our practical mood. Moreover, as a state of perceptual
the front of an old cottage under a quasi-human form, absorption in which one loses consciousness of the ordinary
endowing it with something akin to our own feelings and self and its world, it has a certain resemblance to the state of

ecstasy and of the hypnotic trance.

7
memories. What, it may be asked, is the whole range of this It is favourable to the
freer play of a life-giving fancy in our aesthetic enjoyment? play-like indulgence in a fanciful transformation of what is
"
Some recent theorists have attempted to answer this question seen or heard, which may be described as a willing self-decep-
by saying that it constitutes a vital element in all aesthetic con- tion," more or less complete. Yet as we have seen, something
templation. Th. Lipps and others who follow him seek to show of the real everyday world survives even in our freer aesthetic
that this vitalizing activity of the fancy, which produces a new contemplation of form. Hence there is much to be said for the
and illusory object, is the essential ingredient in the aesthetic idea that we have in aesthetic illusion to do with a kind of
enjoyment of the forms of material objects. According to this double consciousness, a tendency to an illusory acceptance of
theory, when in the aesthetic mood I enjoy the form of a tree, of the product of our fancy as the reality, restrained by a sub-
a church steeple or of the front of a Greek temple, I am not only conscious recognition of the everyday tangible reality behind. 8
ascribing life and feeling to it, but am projecting myself in fancy It is evident that both in the more confined and in the freer
into the object thus constructed, feeling for the moment that I form the element of imaginative activity in aesthetic experience
am the tree or the steeple. The process of vivification is carried will vary greatly among individuals and among peoples. Differ-
out as follows. Lines represent certain movements, and in the ences in past experience leading to diverse habits of association,
aesthetic mood we translate all lines and so all forms back into
4
This idea of imitative hand-movement in contemplating form
the corresponding movements, which may be merely imagined (as is supported by K. Groos, Der dsth. Cenuss,
" pp. 49 ff. "
1
On the later investigations into musical consonance and har- 6
It is commonly spoken of as
" " feeling
oneself into (Ein-
mony, harmony of colours, rhythmic and pleasing spatial forms, fiihleri), or as sympathetic feeling (Mitempfinden).
see Wundt, op. tit. Bd. ii. pp. 419 ff., and iii. 135 ff., 140 ff., 147 ff. 9
Lipps' theory is developed in a number of works, the chief of
and 154 ff. Time-form in music is specially discussed by E. Gurney, which is Asthetik: Psychologic des Schonen und der Kunst, see esp. l er
The Power of Sound, v. Theil, i" to 3" Abschnitt; cf. Paul Stern, Einfuhlung und Associa-
2
K. Lange, who recognizes the influence of nature and custom, tion, in which is to be found an historical sketch of the theory, and
here denies that proportion is an aesthetic principle (Das Wesen der A. Hildebrand, Form in der bildenden Kunst. The play of imagina-
es
Kunst, ll Kap.). tion in the contemplation o^form is discussed also by P. Souriau,
3
Alison and other English Associationists have emphasized the L'Esthetique du mouvement, 3" part., and La Suggestion dans I' art,
aesthetic importance of the principle of association. Among more pp. 300 n. Cf. works of Karl Groos and K. Lange named below
recent advocates of it is G. T. Fechner, Vorschule der Asthetik, and (Bibliography).
O. Kiilpe, "tiber den associativ. Factor des asthet. Eindrucks," 1
See P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans I'art (i^ re partie).
8 Cf. K.
Vierteljahrsschrift fur wissensch. Philosophic, xxiii. pp. 145 ff. Lange, op. cit. Bd. i. p. 208.
 AESTHETICS
as well as in those natural dispositions which prompt one person is something unique, differing in individual characteristics from
to prefer motor images, another visual, another audile, will all others; and as the the mood of the contem-
object, so
Variations modify the process in this enjoyable enlargement and plator. One may almost say that there are as many modes of
ofimagin- transformation of what is presented to sense. It is musical delight as there are worthy compositions. It would seem
*"v " for aesthetics at once to recognize these variations either that this feeling of a unique indivisible whole must be
y' of imaginative activity and to determine the more dismissed as an illusion, or that we have to admit an unexplained
common and universal directions which it follows. residue in our aesthetic experience, which may some day be
The recent inquiry into our way of contemplating form is, explained by help of a larger and more exact conception of
in spite of exaggeration, valuable as showing that our distinc- aesthetic harmony, of the laws of interaction and of fusion of

Formand ^ ons f f rm an<^ expression are not absolute. Just psychical elements.
3

expression as there is the rudiment of ideal significance in colour, We may now glance at the ideal purpose of this scientific
not so form, even in its more abstract and elementary analysis and interpretation, namely, the construction of norms
absolutely aS ec t is not wholly expressionless, but may be or regulative principles corresponding to the severally Construe-
p S)
endowed with something of life by the imagination. essential elements of aesthetic value ascertained. The tion of
The recognition of this truth does not, however, affect the validity later psychological treatment of the subject has led *<> stn etic
'
of our treating form and expression as two broadly distinguish- up to the formulation of certain ideal requirements
able factors of aesthetic pleasure. A line may be pleasing to in beautiful objects. The work of Fechner in this direction
sense-perception, and in addition illustrate expressional value (Vorschule der Asthetik) was a noteworthy contribution
by suggested ease of movement or pose. Similarly, a concrete to this kind of construction, at once scientific and directed
form, e.g. that of a sculptured human figure in repose, or of a to the construction of ideal demands, and is still a model for
graceful birch or fern, owes its aesthetic value to a happy com- workers in the same field. He has taught us how the attempt
bination of pleasing lines and of interesting ideas. to formulate one all-comprehensive principle e.g. unity in
In close connexion with the determination of the imaginative variety, has led to a barren abstractedness, and that we need in
factor in aesthetic contemplation, the psychologist is called on its place a number of more concrete In formulating
principles.
to define the special characteristics of aesthetic emo- these principles care must be taken to determine their respective
emotioa. tion. That our attitude when we watch a beautiful scopes and their mutual relations to decide, forexample,whether
object, say the curl of a breaker as it falls, or some expression, to which our modern feeling undoubtedly ascribes
choice piece of sculpture, is an emotional one is certain, and a high value, is a universal demand in the same sense as unity
ingenious attempts have been made by Home (Lord Kames) or harmony of parts is admitted to be. A system of norms
and others to equip the emotion with a full accompaniment must further supply some comprehensive criterion by help of
of corporeal activity, such as heightened respiratory activity. 1 which degrees of aesthetic value may be determined, as determined
Yet aesthetic emotion is to be contrasted with the more violent by the degrees of completeness of the several pleasurable activities,
and passionate state of love and other emotions, and this differ- sensuous, perceptual and imaginative, and justify the form
"
ence calls for further investigation. A closer inquiry into the of judgment this object is more beautiful (or of a higher kind
features of that calm yet intense emotion which a rapt state of of beauty) than that." Such regulative principles and standards
aesthetic contemplation induces is a necessary preliminary to a of comparison will, it is clear, fail us just at the point where
scientific demarcation of the sphere of beauty in the narrow or analysis stops. Edmund Gurney urges that an aesthetic prin-
more exclusive sense, from that of the sublime, the tragic and ciple such as unity in variety is complied with equally well by
the comic. Each of these departments of aesthetic experience musical compositions which are commonplace and leave us cold
has well-marked emotional characteristics; and the definition and by those which evoke the full thrill of aesthetic delight, and
" "
of these modifications of the beautiful has in the main been he concludes that the special beauty of form in the latter in-
reached through an analysis of the emotional states involved. stance is appreciated by a kind of intuition which cannot be
This chapter in the psychological treatment of aesthetic experi- analysed (see The Power of Sound, ix.). The argument is hard
ence has to consider two points which have occupied a prominent to combat. It would seem that after all our efforts to define
" "
place in aesthetic theory. The first is the nature of revived aesthetic qualities and enumerate corresponding ideal require-
" "
or ideal emotion, such as is illustrated in the feeling excited ments we are left with an unexplained remainder. This can
sympathetically when we witness or hear of another's sorrow or only be tentatively defined as the concrete object itself in its
joy. The second point is the nature of those mixed emotional wholeness, which is not only a perfectly harmonized combina-
states which are illustrated in our aesthetic enjoyment of the tion of sensuous, formal and expressional values, but impresses
sublime and the other " modifications," in all of which we can us as something which has a fresh individuality and the distinc-
recognize a kind of double emotional consciousness in which tion of aesthetic excellence.
painful elements accompany and modify pleasurable ones, in Aesthetics is wont to treat of a certain kind of experience as
such a manner that in the end the latter appear to be rather if it were a closed compartment. Yet there is in reality no such
2
strengthened than weakened. perfect seclusion. Our enjoyment of beauty, though connexion
The psychological treatment of aesthetic data here sketched to be distinguished from our intellectual and our between
out cannot stop at an analysis of the aesthetic state or attitude practical interests, touches and interacts with these, aesthetic
* nto a numDer f recognizable elements each of which With regard to intellectual interests it is clear that "" d er
Limits f eH^
analysis in
contributes its own quantum of pleasurableness. Our much mental activity which enters into our em*: (a)
of the
aesthetics, enjoyment in contemplating, say, a green alp set aesthetic enjoyment is intellectual e.g. in the per- with in-
above dark crags, is an indivisible whole. And it is a ception of the relations of form, even though it stops
tetlectaal

consciousness of this fact which makes men disposed to resent short of the abstract analysis of scientific observation.
the dissection of their aesthetic enjoyment into a number of Again, in appreciating beauty of type which involves according
constituent pleasures. Nor is this all. Every aesthetic object to Taine a recognition of the most important characters of the

See a curious passage in Home's Elements of Criticism, chap, iv.,

1 species, we are, it is evident, close to the scientific point of view.
in which the emotions excited by great and elevated objects are Similarly, when scientific knowledge enables us in the mood of
said to express themselves externally by a special inflating inspira- aesthetic contemplation to retrace imaginatively the mode of
"
tion, and by stretching upward and standing a-tiptoe respec- formation of a cloud or a mountain form, or the mode in
Recent Aesthetics " by Vernon Lee in
! '
tively; also an article on which a climbing plant finds its way upwards. It is for
the Quarterly Review, 1904, part i. pp. 420-443.
_*
See Hume, Essays, "Essay of Tragedy," and the important aesthetics to recognize the fact, and to discriminate a
discussions on the meaning of Aristotle's doctrine of the emotions of 3
That beauty implies a peculiar blending of formal and spiritual
"
tragedy and of emotional purification or alleviating discharge" (geistige) factors is recognized by H. Riegel, Die bildende Kiinste,
(xABafiaa) touched on by Bosanquet, op. cit. pp. 64 ff. and 234 ft. pp. 1 6 ff.
 AESTHETICS 285
legitimate aesthetic function of scientific ideas when they en- social environment. Their importance for aesthetics lies in the
large the scope of a pleasurable play of the imagination, and circumstance that they are fitted to throw light upon the aes-
are freed from the control of a serious purpose of explaining thetic consciousness as it is developed in those who are not only
what is seen. in a special sense cultivators of it, but represent in a peculiar
A similar remark applies to the contacts of our aesthetic with manner the ideas and the aims of art. 1
our practical interests. While as dominant factors the latter
HISTORY OF THEORIES
are excluded from aesthetic activity they may in-
fl uence our feeling for beauty in an indirect and sub- In the following summary of the most important contributions
laterests. ordinate way. This is recognized by those (e.g. Home) to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will be recognized as
who insist on a particular kind of aesthetic value contribute to a general conception of aesthetic objects or experi-
under the name of relative beauty, or the pleasing aspect of ence. These include the more systematic treatment of the sub-
fitness for a purpose. If a drinking-vessel please in part because ject in philosophic works as well as the more thoughtful kind of
of its perfect adaptation to its purpose, the aesthetic value discussion of principles to be met with in writings on art by
ascribed to it seems to derive something from a feeling of respect critics and others.
for utility itself. In another way beauty reasserts in modern I. Greek Speculations. Ancient Greece supplies us with the first
aesthetics that kinship with utility on which it insisted in the important contributions to aesthetic theory, though these are
days of Socrates. The idea that typical beauty co- scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what one might have expected
mc id es with what is vigorous and conducive to the from a people which had so high an appreciation of beauty and so
strong a bent for philosophic speculation. The first Greek thinker
of beauty, conservation of the species is as old as Hobbes. 1 of whose views on the subject we really know something is Socrates.
Darwin and his followers have developed the bio- We learn from Xenophpn's account of him that he regarded the
logical conception that sexual selection tends to develop beautiful as coincident with the good, and both of them are resolvable
aesthetic preferences along lines which correspond to what
into the useful. Every beautiful object is so called because it serves
some rational end, whether the security or the gratification of man.
subserves the maintenance of the species or tribe. Recent Socrates appears to have attached little importance to the immediate
writers have shown how the rude germs of aesthetic activity in gratification which a beautiful object affords to perception and
primitive types of community would subserve necessary tribal contemplation, but to have emphasized rather its power of further-
ends e.g. musical rhythm by exercising members of the tribe ing the more necessary ends of life. The really valuable point in
his doctrine is the relativity of beauty. Unlike Plato, he recognized
in concerted war-like action. 2 Yet these interesting specula- no self-beauty (aiiro TO xaXoi/X existing absolutely and out of all
tions have do rather with the earlier stages of the evolution
to relation to a percipient mind.
of the aesthetic faculty than with its functions in the higher Of the views of Plato on the subject, it is hardly less difficult to
stages. An idea of a social utility in aesthetic experience which gain a clear conception from the Dialogues, than it is in the case
of ethical good. In some of these, various definitions of
does demand the attention of the theorist is that the culture of the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic
beauty and art has a socializing influence, helping to Socrates. At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned
and ethics. S' ve to our emotional experience new forms of expres- decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took its
place in his scheme This true beauty
of ideas or self -existing forms.
whereby our sympathies are deepened and en-
lion
is nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, for these
larged.
3
The further elucidation of this element of humanizing are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love (Eros) pro-
influence in aesthetic enjoyment may be expected to throw new duces aspiration towards this pure idea. Elsewhere the soul's in-
light on the question, much discussed throughout the history tuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its pre-
of aesthetics, of the relation of the science to ethics, by showing
natal existence. As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty
that they have a common root in our sympathetic nature and
reveals itself, Plato is not
very decided. His theory of an absolute
beauty does not easily adjust itself to the notion of its contributing
interest in humanity. merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean
In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need in some dialogues. He tends to identify the self-beautiful with the
to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special prob- conceptions of the true and the good, and thus there arose the
Platonic formula Ka\oK&yaBia. So far as his writings embody the
l ems f Fine Art- I*- i s ev ident that the definition of
Acsthtxic notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion,
theory and the aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in harmony or unity among their parts. He emphasizes unity in its
problems its several forms, involving as it does special technical simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of colour. He
ofart~
knowledge, may,with advantage be treated apart from recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and seems to think that
the highest beauty of proportion is to be found in the union of a
a general theory. (See FINE ARTS.) At the same time the beautiful mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion
study of art raises larger problems which require to be dealt of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation (/*iji)<m) which takes us
with to some extent by this theory. We may instance the group another step farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition
into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly,
of problems which have to do with the relation of art to
" " in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable
beauty in its narrower sense, such as the function of the
censorship of poets, &c., so as to make art as far as possible an
painful and of the ugly in art, the meaning of artistic imitation instrument of moral and political training.
and truth to nature, of idealization, and the nature of artistic Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the aesthetic

illusion; also the question of the didactic and of the moral

phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis certain principles
of beauty and art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric .
function of art. Even more special problems of art, such as he gives us, along with a theory of these arts, certain
the effect of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can general principles of beauty; and scattered among his other
only be adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same subject.
He seeks (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the good and
theory.
the beautiful by saying that the former is always In action (iv jrp<x)
In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well (iv AKIWJTOIS).
theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of art-lore, At the same time he had as a Greek to allow that though essentially
inquiring into the nature of the artistic impulse and tempera- different things the good might under certain conditions be called
4

beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and

ment, and into the processes of imaginative creation. These in a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and necessary.
inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion He helped to determine another characteristic of the beautiful, the
with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art to the absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows. The universal
elements of beauty, again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be
1
See passage in Human Nature (first part of Tripos), ch. viii. 5
(Molesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38).
1
On the nature of the primitive art-culture, see Rutgers Marshall,
1
See among others, R. Wallascheck, Primitive Music, pp. 270 ff., Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii.; M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter-
and Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, pp. 9 ff. cf. W. Jerusalem, Einleitung
; pretations, pp. 151 ff : Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii. On artistic
in die Philosophie, pp. 116, 117. genius and its creative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of Art,
*
The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment is touched Part ii. P. Souriau, L' Imagination de I 'artiste; G. Seailles, Essai
;

on by Kant, Critique of Judgment (Bernard's trans.), p. 174; and is sur la genie dans I'art; E. Grpsse, Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien,
more fully workea out by Guyau, L'Art au point de vue sociologique, iii.; Arreat, Psychologie du peintre; L. Dauriac, Essai sur I' esprit
ch. ii. and iii. cf. Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, pp. 81-82.
;
musical.
286 AESTHETICS
order symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (r6
(T&(IS), pure subjectivity
when he says that the highest significance of
tipurnivov). InthePoericsheaddsanotheressential, namely, acertain beauty is to symbolize moral good going further than Ruskin when
;

magnitude; it being desirable for a synoptic view of the whole that he attaches ideals of modesty, frankness, courage, &c., to the seven
the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception primary colours of Newton's system. He has made a solid contribu-
requires that it should not be too small. Aristotle's views on art tion to the theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive
are an immense advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recog- if a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous. But his main service
nized (in the Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical determination of
its aim and its fundamental problems.
pleasure, as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical
arts. He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, hold- Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of Art. He
ing that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied knowledge this as the third part of his system of transcendental ideal-
develops
and discovery, that its objects not only comprised particular things ism following theoretic and practical philosophy. (See
which happen to most, but contemplated what is probable and SCHELLING also Schelling's Werke, Bd. v., and I. Watson, *"""'*
;

what necessarily exists. The celebrated passage in the Poetics, Schelling' s Transcendental Idealism, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) Ac-
where he declares poetry to be more philosophical and serious a cording to Schelling a new philosophical significance is ?iven to art
matter (airovbaibrfpov) than philosophy, brings out the advance of by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object which is
Aristotle on his predecessor. He gives us no complete classification half disguised in ordinary perception and volition is only clearly
of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its real self
celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to by intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling of
be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. infinite satisfaction. Art in thus effecting a revelation of the absolute
Of the later Greek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus seems to attain a dignity not merely above that of nature but above
deserves to be mentioned. According to him, objective reason that of philosophy itself. Schelling throws but little light on the con-
(vovs) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence crete forms of beauty. His classification of the arts, based on his anti-
Plotinus,
w hjcn reduces dead matter to form. Matter when thus thesis of object and subject, is a curiosity in intricate arrangement.
formed becomes a notion (\6-yos), and its form is beauty. He applies his conception in a suggestiye way to classical tragedy.
Objects are ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and In
Hegel's system
of philosophy art is viewed as the first stage of
therefore formless. The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is the absolute spirit. (See HEGEL; also Werke, Bd. x., and Bosan-
called the more than beautiful. There are three degrees or stages quet's Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art.) In
of manifested beauty that of human reason, which is the highest
: ; this stage the absolute is immediately present to sense-
of the human soul, which is less perfect through its connexion with perception,
an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with
"
a material body; and of real objects, which is the lowest mani- Kant s doctrine of the " subjectivity of beauty. The beautiful is
festation of all. As to the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous
opposition to Aristotle, that a single thing
not divisible into parts medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Schein)
might be beautiful through its unity and simplicity. He gives a and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the
high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness is universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the
overpowered by light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty beautiful is unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) gives
he said that when the artist has notions as models for his creations, necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity), while the reality
these may become more beautiful than natural objects. This is demands the semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He
clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine towards our modern discusses very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of
conception of artistic idealization. notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of
2. German Writers. We may pass by the few thoughts on the organic life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds
Art makes up for the
subject to be found among medieval writers and turn to modern the Jiighest revelation of the beautiful.
German theories, beginning with those of German writers as deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea into clearer
the most numerous and most elaborately set forth. The light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual
, first of the Germans who attempted to develop an aes- animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern
sy '
'_

. .. thetic theory as a part of a system of philosophy was worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form.
'
Baumgarten Adopting the Leibnitz-Wolffian
(Aesthetica). He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle
theory of knowledge, he sought to complete of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest being
" by setting
it
"
over against the clear scientific or logical knowledge architecture, the highest, poetry.
gartca. Qf tne un(j ers ta n ding, the confused knowledge of the Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be found
"
senses, to which (as we have seen) he gave the name aesthetic." in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation to the ugly, the
Beauty with him thus corresponds with perfect sense-knowledge. sublime, &c., by Hegel's disciples, e.g. C. H. Weisse and J. K. F.
Baumgarten is clearly an inteliectualist in aesthetics, reducing taste Rosenkranz. The most important product of the Hegelian nfa/ecf/c
to an intellectual act and ignoring the element of feeling. The School is the elaborate system of aesthetics published by
details of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. Arguing from F. T. Vischer (Asthetik, 3 Theile, 1846-1854). It illustrates
"***
Leibnitz's theory of the world as the best possible, Baumgarten the difficulties of the Hegelian thought and terminology ;

concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and yet in dealing with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive.
that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible The aesthetic problem is also treated by two other philosophers
imitation of nature. whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system,
The next important treatment of "aesthetics by a philosopher is viz. Schopenhauer and Herbart. Schopenhauer (see Schopen-
"
that of Kant. He deals with the Judgment of Taste in the SCHOPENHAUER, also The World as Will and Idea, trans- hauer.
Critique of the Power of Judgment (]. H. Bernard's trans- lated by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219-346), abandon-
lation, 1892), which treatise supplements the two better- ing also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in
known critiques (vide KANT), and by investigating the conditions aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of intellect from
of the validity of feeling mediates between their respective subjects, will. In this contemplation the mind is filled with pure intellectual
" "
cognition and desire (volition). He takes an important step in deny- forms, the Platonic Ideas as he calls them, which are objecti-
ing objective existence to beauty. Aesthetic value for him is fitness fications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representa-
to please as object of pure contemplation. This aesthetic satis- tion. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in
faction is more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinter- which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of existence is
ested and free^ that is to say, from all concern about the real exist- surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds
ence of the object, and about our dependence on it. He appears to that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed
concede a certain formal objectivity to beauty in his doctrine of as merely imperfect manifestation or obiectification of will. In this
an appearance of purposiveness (Zweckmdssigkeit) in the beautiful way the beauty of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel,
object, this being defined as its harmony with the cognative faculties isrehabilitated.
involved in an aesthetic judgment (imagination and understand- J. F. Herbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping from
ing) a harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic
; Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbach's edition of
pleasure. Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly developed. Werke, Bd. ii. pp. 339 et seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 105 et seq.,
Herbart
While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have objective validity and and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq.). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's
remains valid only for the contemplator, he claims for it universal view of the aesthetic judgment as singular (" individual "); though
subjective validity, since the object we pronounce to be beautiful is he secures a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphasiz-
fitted to please all men. We
know that this must be so from re- ing the point that the predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the
flecting on the disinterestedness of our pleasure, on its entire inde- same aesthetic object. At the same time, by referring the beauty of
pendence of personal inclination. Kant "insists that the aesthetic concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted
judgment is always, in "logical phrase, an individual," i.e. a singu- the of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra). Since
possibility
lar one, of the form This object (e.g. rose) is beautiful." He he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known as a for-
denies that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the malist, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He
"
form All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful." sets out with the idea that only relations please in the Kantian
(A judgment of this form would, he considers, be logical, not aesthetic.) sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire; and his aim is to
"
In dealing with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a determine the aesthetic elementary relations," or the simplest
source of aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he shows relations which produce this pleasure. These include those of will,
something of contempt. He seems to retreat from his doctrine of so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought
 AESTHETICS 287
under an aesthetic form. His typical example of aesthetic relations by Reynolds) has been worked out more recently by H. Taine. In
in objects of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones. his work, The Ideal in Art (trans, by J. Durand), he proceeds in the
The science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music what manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters Talae
should be done also for other departments of aesthetic experience. in the physical and moral man. The degree of the uni-
This doctrine of elementary relations is brought into connexion with versality or importance of a character, and of its beneficence or
the author's psychological doctrine of presentations with their adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its aesthetic
tendencies to mutual inhibition and to fusion, and of the varying value, and render the work of art, which seeks to represent it in its
feeling-tones to which these processes give rise. This mode of treat- purity, an ideal work.
ing the problem of beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French literature
developed and worked up into a complete system of aesthetics by are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosophic writers
one of Herbart's disciples, Robert Zimmermann (Asthetik, 1858). who under the influence of German thinkers effected a ,,
Lessing, in his Laocoon and elsewhere, sought to deduce the special reaction against the crude sensationalism of the i8th
>
function of an art from a consideration of the means at its disposal. century. They aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual *es</i"tfJ
Lessiax ^ took pains to define the boundaries of poetry and
painting, and in so doing he reached general reflexions
element in aesthetic impressions,
appearing to ignore any
capability in the sensuous material of affording a true
-.
,,,
.,
.
'
-

upon the ends and appliances of art. Among these his distinction aesthetic delight. V. Cousin and Jean Charles Levgque
between arts which employ the coexistent in space and those which are the principal writers of this school. The latter developed
employ the successive (as poetry and music) is of lasting value. In an elaborate system of the subject (La Science du beau). All
his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop clear beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The i_ ev^ aue
general principles on such points as poetic truth, improving upon several beautiful characters of an organic body of which
Aristotle,on whose teaching he mainly relies. the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity
Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment
aphorisms. He attempts to mediate between the claims of ideal may be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and
Goethe beauty, as taught by J. I. Winckelmann, and the aims of order of the species. These are perceived
by reason to be the mani-
Schiller 'ndiyidualization. Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number festations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of in-
of disconnected essays and letters, some of the main ques- organic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays
tions in the philosophy of art. He looks at art from the side of of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty is in its objective
culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in
cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His order.
letters on aesthetic education (Ober die dsthetische Erziehung des 4. English Writers. There is nothing answering to the German
Menschen, trans, by J. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing conception of a system of aesthetics in English literature. The
out among other
points the connexion between aesthetic activity inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for the most part
and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts to such modest problems as the psychological process by which we
on aesthetic subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philo- perceive the beautiful discussions which are apt to be regarded by
sophy. Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of German historians as devoid of real philosophical value. Tne writers
art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorschule der Asthetik of may be conveniently arranged in two divisions, answering to the two
Jean Paul J
ean ^ au Richter. This is a rather ambitious discussion
'
opposed directions of English thought (l) the Intuitipnalists, those
:

of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which is a simple
much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic unanalysable attribute or principle of things; and (2) the Analytical
poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically theorists, those who follow the analytical and psychological method,
on the problems to which modern poetry gives rise are Wilhelm von concerning themselves with the sentiment of beauty as a complex
Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Gervinus. growth out of simpler elements.
A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on beauty. In
savants to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions to the his Characteristics the beautiful and the good are combined in one
Coatrlbu investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic effect, ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself is
tloas
by
as welF as to introduce into the
study of the simpler ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really The Jntul-
tlonallsts.
German aesthetic forms the methods of natural science. The classic resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the Shaftes-
savants. work of Helmholtz on " Sensations of Tone " is a highly product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived bury.
successful attempt to ground the known facts and laws of not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral
physiology. The endeavour to
musical composition on physics and sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the
determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment.
of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by Francis Hutcheson, in his System of Moral Philosophy, though he
E. W. Briicke, Ewald Hering and more recent investigators, has so adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any inde-
far failed to realize the desideratum laid down
"
All beauty," he
by Herbart, that pendent" isself-existing beauty in objects. Hutche-
there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness says, relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it."
son.
and exactness to that of tone-relations. The experimental inquiry The cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple sensa-
into simple aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner tion such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or
"
uniformity amidst variety." The faculty by which
in seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeising's hypothesis that this principle
the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the vertical part "
is discerned is an internal sense which is defined as a passive power
"
of a cross, is the golden section," where the smaller division is to of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is
the larger as the latter to the sum. He describes in his work on uniformity in variety." This inner sense resembles the external
"
".
Experimental Aesthetics (Zur experimentalen Asthetik) a series senses in the immediateness of the pleasure which its activity brings ;

of experiments carried out on a large number of persons, bearing on and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing
this point, the results of which he considers to be in favour of Zeising's being always, whether we will or no, beautiful. He distinguishes
hypothesis. two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or compara-
3. French Writers. In France aesthetic speculation grew out of tive. The latter is discerned in an object which is regarded as an
the discussion by
poets
and critics on the relation of modern art, and imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that " an
Discus- especially poetry, to ancient. The writings of Malherbe exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were
sions of
and Boileau in the 1 7th century, the development of the entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of this
" "
more dispute between the ancients and the " moderns " at sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlarge-
concrete the end of the ryth century by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle ment of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uni-
and Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discus- formity than the opposite.
problems. "
sion as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. Of Taste ") Thomas
1 8th
century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only offer Reid applies his principle of common sense to the problem of beauty
to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape of a record by by saying that objects of beauty agree not only in pro- Reid.
experts of their aesthetic experience, but disclose glimpses of im- ducing a certain agreeable emotion, but in the excitation
portant aesthetic principles. A more systematic examination of along with this emotion of a belief that they possess some perfection
the several arts (corresponding to that of Lessing) is to be found in or excellence, that beauty exists in the objects independently of
the Cpurs de belles lettres of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the our minds. His theory of beauty is severely spiritual. All beauty
meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral.
elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) according as The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an
they employ the forms of space or those of time. emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because it sym-
The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in bolizes and expresses the latter. Thus the beauty of a plant resides
general is connected with the name of Pere Burner (see First Truths, in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expres-
Theories English translation, 1780). He confines himself to organic sion of the wisdom of its Creator.
oforganic
form, and illustrates his theory by the human face. A In his Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a short
beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare account of the sentiments of taste, which (with a superficial resem-
beauty.
Huffier. among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy blance to Kant) he regards as subserving both the sub- Hamilton.
way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical sidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, that is,
form of the species. This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted the imagination and the understanding. The activity of the
288 AESTHETICS
former corresponds to the element of variety in a beautiful object, the working of the principle of association at great length, and with
that of the latter with its unity. He explicitly excludes all other much skill yet his attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic
;

kinds of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification pleasure fails completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in
of beauty. He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness. the Edinburgh Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are
John Kuskin's well-known speculations on the nature of beauty little more than a modification of Alison's theory.
in Modern Pa-inters (" Of ideas of beauty "), though sadly wanting in D. Stewart's chief contribution to aesthetic discussion in his
Ruskla scientific precision, have a certain value in the history of Philosophical Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted
aesthetics. For him beauty is spiritual and typical of assumption lurking in the doctrine of a single quality Dusald
divine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic running through all varieties of beautiful object. He seeks Stewart,
faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and apprecia- to show how the successive changes in the meaning of the
" "
tion of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imagina- term beautiful have arisen. He suggeststhat it originally connoted
tive or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain the pleasure of colour. The value of his discussion resides more in
way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He the criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new
distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the ideas. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology
external quality of bodies,which typifies some divine attribute. The of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects.
"
(alter consists
in the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function Of the association psychologists James Mill did little more towards
in living things." The forms of typical beauty are: (l) infinity, the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than re-state Alison's doc-
the type of the divine incomprehensibility (2) unity, the type of the
; trine. Alexander Bain, in his treatise, The Emotions and Bala.
divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine per- the Will (" Aesthetic Emotions "), carries this examination
manence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity, considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other
the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of varieties of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics: (i) their
government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought for their
when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable concomitants;
if only the degree of conformity, of an individual to the appointed (3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a
functions of the species is taken into account. Ruskin's writings comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, in-
"
"
illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral cluding the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its ideal
perception. form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of
"
Addison's Essays on the Imagination," contributed to the those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call the love of novelty,
Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected
The ' scientific
analysis in the statement that the pleasures with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees,
^ imagination (which arise originally from sight) fall into which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder.
analytical
theorists. two c ' ass es: (i) primary pleasures, which entirely pro- The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on Aristotle
Addison. ce d from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing dignity in
pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The circumstances that excite no other strong emotion.
latter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of Psychology
of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of
recognizes, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of evolution. Adopting
our aesthetic preferences. Schiller's idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity Herbert
In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Kames) another at- and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing spencer.
tempt is made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its elements. the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the
Home Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and un- outcome of the superfluous energies of the organism : as the activity
pleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. He of organs and faculties which, owing to a prolonged period of in-
appears to admit no general characteristic of beautiful objects activity, have become specially ready to discharge their function, and
beyond this power of yielding pleasure. Like Hutcheson, he divides as a consequence vent themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic
beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter the activities supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the
appearance of fitness and utility, which is excluded from the beautiful higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further agree
by Hutcheson. with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to
Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of life; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer
beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we come to the seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to
Horarth speculationsofanotherartist and painter, William Hogarth. the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of
He
discusses, in his Analysis of Beauty, all the elements of sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute
visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements: (i) fitness the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived
of the parts tosome design ; (2) variety in as many ways as possible ; emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race
(3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful transmitted by heredity; as when he refers the deep and indefinable
when it helps to preserve the character of fitness (4) simplicity or
; emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones expressive
distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its of feeling built up during the past history of our species. His bio-
enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which logical treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influence,
some
"
provides employment for our active energies, leading the eye a (e.g. Grant Allen) being content to develop
his evolutional method.
wanton kind: of chase"; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws Yet, as suggested above, his theory is now recognized as taking us
our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of only a little way towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic
proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies experience.
these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in BIBLIOGRAPHY.' (a) Works on General Aesthetics.
lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for English and American. There are no important recent works
special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round which deal with the whole subject. The following will be found
from the base to the apex of a long slender cone). helpful: Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology,
" pt. viii. c. 9,
" Use and Beauty,"
Burke's speculations, in his Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of Aesthetic Sentiments," and the
" papers on
"
the Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency of English writers Origin and Function of Music Land others in the Essays; A. Bain,
. to treat the problem as a psychological one and to intro- Emotions and Will, "Aesthetic "Emotions"; J. "Sully, Human
"
duce physiological considerations. He finds the elements Mind, ii. " Aesthetic Sentiment Grant Allen,
; Physiological
of beauty to be : (i) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation Aesthetics (Meth., PI., Senses, Play) Rutgers Marshall, Pain,
;

of direction in gentle curves; (4) delicacy, or the appearance of Pleasure and Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., PI., Play).
fragility; (5) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime French and Italian Works. M. Guyau, LesProblemesdel'esthetique
is rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always contemporaine (1884) (PI., Play) E. Veron, L'Esthetique(i8<)o) (slight
;
"
contains an element of terror. Thus infinity has a tendency to PI.) ;L. Bray, Du Beau (1902), (PI., Play) P. Saurian, La Beaute
;

fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls rationnelle (1904) (Meth., PL, Senses, Einf.) M. Pilo, Estetica (PL,
;
" "
efficient causes for these aesthetic impressions incertain affections Senses); A. Rolla, Storia delle idee estetiche in Italia (1905) (full,
account of ideas of Dante and other medieval writers, as well as of
1

of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely,

the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres. The arbitrari- modern systems).
ness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's German Works. K. Kostlin, Prolegomena zur Asthetik (1889)
attention.
Only recent works are included. Important points in each are
1
Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and Principles of
Taste, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth indicated by abbreviations, namely :

... and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process when Einf., for Einfuhlung (expres- PL, for theory of pleasure.
we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. He sional element in form). Play, for Play and aesthetic
finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination, EvoL, for bearings of evolution. enjoyment.
111., for aesthetic illusion. Senses, for aesthetic value of
namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas
always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheer- Judg., for aesthetic judgment" higher senses.
fulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes Meth., for method of aesthetics. VaL, for aesthetic value.
association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the exist- Norm., for normative function of
ence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates aesthetics.
 AESTIVATION ^THELFRITH 289
(good introduction to subject); K. Groos, Der dsthetische Genuss Christ Church was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to
(1902) (Meth., Judg. Play, Senses, Einf. and 111.) J. Volkelt, System
, ;
found the see of Rochester, of which Justus became firstbishop
der Asthetik (1905) (very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses,
in 604, and his influence established Mellitus at London in the
Einf.); J. Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K.
same year. A code of laws issued by him which is still extant
Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., 111., Play).
(b) Works on History o] Aesthetics. H. Lotze, Geschichte der is probably the oldest document in the English language, and
Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Krilische Geschichte der contains a list of money fines for various crimes. Towards
Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with ancient and modern
the close of his reign his pre-eminence as Bretwalda was dis-
theories) E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche Asthetik seit Kant
;

(Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.); K. H. von Stein, Die Entstehung der turbed by the increasing power of Raedwald of East Anglia.
neueren Asthetik (theories of French critics, &c.) ; F. Brunetiere, He died probably in 616, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald.
L' Evolution des genres (History of critical discussions in the I7th See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon Chronicle
and i8th centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full, (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 568. (F. G. M. B.)
especially on ancient theories and German systems); W. Knight, KTHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the
" "
Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. History (Univ. Extension
Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.)
sub-kingdom of Kent during the lifetime of his father /Ethelwulf ,

and retained it until the death of his elder brother ^Ethelbald in

AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or
" 860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger
summer; the word is sometimes spelled estivation"), literally
brothers .^thelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled
"
summer residence," a term used in zoology for the condition
these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. His reign was
of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest
marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who
season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar
destroyed Winchester in 86p, in spite of the resistance of the
winter condition known as hibernation (q.v.). In botany the
ealdormen Osric and ^Ethelwulf with the levies of Hampshire
word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the
and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent.
petals in a flower before expansion in the. summer, contrasted with See Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 860, 865; King
" "
vernation of leaves which unfold in the spring. Alfred's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 553.
jETHELBALD, king of Mercia, succeeded Ceolred A.D. 716. THELFLAED (ETHELFLEDA), the " Lady of the Mercians,"
According to Felix, Life of St GuMac, he visited the saint at the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with her
Crowland, when exiled by Ceolred and pursued by his emissaries brother Edward at her father's court. As soon as she was of
and was cheered by predictions of his future
before his accession,
marriageable age (probably about A.D. 886), she was married to
greatness. According to Bede, the whole of Britain as far north ^Ethelred, earl of Mercia, to whom Alfred entrusted the control
as the Humber was included within the sphere of his authority. of Mercia. On the accession of her brother Edward, ^Ethelflaed
His energy in preserving his influence is shown by several entries and her husband continued to hold Mercia. In 907 they fortified
in the Chronicle. He made an expedition against Wessex in
Chester, and in 909 and 910 either ^Ethelflaed or her husband
733, in which year he took the royal vill of Somerton. In 740 must have led the Mercian host at the battles of Tettenhall and
he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria Wednesfield (or Tettenhall- Wednesfield, if these battles are one
in a campaign against the Picts to invade his kingdom. In 743 and the same). It was probably about this time that ^Ethelred
he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, against the Welsh, but fell ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully
the alliance did not last long, as in 752 Cuthred took up arms
besieged Chester. yEthelflaed won the support of the Danes
against him. In 757 /Ethelbald was slain by his guards at against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into an
Seckington (Warwickshire) and buried at Repton. He seems to alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans. In
have been the most powerful and energetic king of Mercia be-
911 ./Ethelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and Oxford-
tween Penda and Offa. A letter of St Boniface is preserved, shire. Except for this ^Ethelflaed's authority remained un-
in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities and encroach-
impaired. In 912 she fortified " Scergeat " and Bridgenorth,
ments on church property, while recognizing his merits as a Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddisbury and Warwick in 914,
monarch. By a charter of 749 he freed ecclesiastical lands from " "
Cherbury, Weardbyrig and Runcorn in 915. In 916 she sent
all obligations except the trinoda necessitas. an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as
See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), v. 23 and Continuatio s.a. 740,
Brecknock. In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, and
750, 757; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 716, 733, 737,
740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum, ii. pp. 264, 275, 276, in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to her.
2 79. 283-284; P. Jaffe, Monumenta Moguntiaca, iii. pp. 168-177; She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was
W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.) buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester. This noble queen,
/ETHELBALD, king of Wessex, was the son of ^thelwulf, whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and
with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes brother, left one daughter, yElfwyn. For some eighteen months
at Aclea, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his iElfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and then,
father on the latter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Mercia into his
him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On his " "
own hands, and jElfwyn was led away into Wessex. .iEthel-
father's death in 858 he married his widow, Judith. flaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and the
See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 12; Saxon
royal title is often given them by the chroniclers.
Chronicle, s.a. 851, 855, 860. See The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especially the Mercian register
KTHELBERHT, king ofKent, son of Eormenric, probably in MSS. B, C and D) ; Florence of Worcester; Fragments of Irish
came to the throne in A.D. 560. The first recorded event of Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)
his reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of KTHELFRITH, king of Northumbria, is said to have come
Wessex in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune. to the throne in A.D. 593, being the son of ^Ethelric (probably
jEthelberht married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, reigned 568-572). He married Acha, daughter of Ella GElle),
who
?ho brought over Bishop Liudhard as her private confessor. king of Deira, whom he succeeded probably in 605, expelling
Accc:ording to Bede, ^Ethelberht's supremacy in 597 stretched his son Edwin. In 603 he repelled the attack of Aidan, king of
)ver all the English kingdoms as far as the Humber.
over The nature the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating him with great loss.
of this supremacy has been much disputed, but it was at any The appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, ^Ethelfrith's prede-
rate sufficient to guarantee the safety of Augustine in his con- cessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate family
ference with the British bishops. ^Ethelberht exercised a quarrels in the royal house of Bernicia. Later in his reign,
stricter sway over Essex, where his nephew Saberht was king. probably in 614, he defeated the Welsh in a great battle at
In 597 the mission of Augustine landed in Thanet and was re- Chester and massacred the monks of Bangor who were assembled
ceived at first with some hesitation by the king. He seems to to aid them by their prayers. This war may have been due
have acted with prudence and moderation during the conversion partly to ^Ethelfrith's persecution of Edwin, but it had a stra-
of his kingdom and did not countenance compulsory proselytism. tegic importance in the separation of the North Welsh from the
gave Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and Strathclyde Britons. In 617 ^Ethelfrith was defeated and slain
I. 10

Kthelberht
290 HIRELING ^THELRED II.

by Raedwald of East Anglia,

at the river Idle whom Edwin had A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially
"
persuaded to take up his cause. retrieved their fortune by a victory at Msretun " (perhaps
See Bede, Chronica Majora, 531; Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 34, Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the
ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist. Brittonum, Easter of this year ^Ethelred died, perhaps of wounds received
57, 63; Annales Cambriae, s.a. 613. (F. G. M. B.)
in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne.
JETHELING, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of cethele, or
He a son, yEthelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin
left
ethel,meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin to the
Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom.
modern German words Adel, nobility, and adelig, noble. During
^Ethelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king.
the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England the word
AUTHORITIES. The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; Birch, Cartul.
was probably used to denote any person of noble birth. Its Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v. Eng. Hist. Review, {.
;

use was, however, soon restricted to members of a royal family, 218-234. (A. Mw.)
and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively JETHELRED ETHELRED) (c. 968-1016), king of the
II. (or
for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally
English (surnamed THE UNREADY, i.e. without rede or counsel),
used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the son of King Edgar by his second wife ^Elfthryth, was born in
royal family. The earlier part of the word formed part of the
968 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder of his
name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, ^Ethelbert, .iEthelwulf,
step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was dis-
e.g.
/Ethelred, and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth. astrous from the beginning. The year after his accession the
According to a document which probably dates from the loth Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the Peaceful,
century, the wergild of an aetheling was fixed- at 15,000 thrymsas,
recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder only,
or 1 1 2 50 shillings. This wergild is equal to that of an archbishop
,
not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 982 and 988.
and one-half of that of a king. In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated and slew the
THELNOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon. After this, peace
also as EGELNODUS or EDNODUS, was a son of the ealdorman was purchased by a payment of 10,000 a disastrous expedient.
^Ethelmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex. He The Danes were to desist from their ravages, but were allowed
became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of to stay in England. Next year ^Ethelred himself broke the peace
Christ Church, Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and
by an attack on the Danish ships. Despite the treachery of
on the I3th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of
JElinc, the English were victorious; and the Danes sailed off to
Canterbury. In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium, ravage Lindsey and Northumbria. In 994 Olaf Tryggvason,
and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII.
king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, united in a great
Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to invasion and attacked London. Foiled by the valour of the
be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents of
citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast from Essex to
silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of Coventry.
Hampshire. ^Ethelred now resorted to the old experiment
He appears to have exercised considerable influence over Canute, and bought them 16,000 and a promise of supplies.
off for
largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at Canterbury. Olaf also visited ^Ethelred at the latter's request and, receiving
A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise that he
King Harold I., as he had promised Canute to crown none but a would never again come to England with hostile intent, an en-
son of the king by his wife, Emma. ^Ethelnoth, who was called
" gagement which he faithfully kept. The Danish attacks were
the Good," died on the 29th of October 1038, and his name repeated in 997, 998, 999, and in 1000 ^Ethelred availed himself
appears in the lists of saints.
of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to invade
4STHELRED, king of Mercia, succeeded his brother Wulfhere
Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold. Next year,
in A.D. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword,
however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil than
destroying thomonasteries and churches and taking Rochester. ever. The national defence seemed to have broken down alto-
jEthelred married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of
gether. In despair ^Ethelred again offered them money, which
Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion being 24,000.
between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the But soon afterwards the king, suspecting treachery, resolved to
province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close get rid of his enemies once and for all. Orders were issued
of the reign of Wulfhere. In a battle on the banks of the Trent
commanding the slaughter on St Brice's day (December 2) of
in 679, the king of Mercia was victorious and regained the "
all the Danish men who were in England." Such a decree
province. ^Elfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this could obviously not be carried out literally; but we cannot
occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of doubt that the slaughter was great. This violence, however,
Canterbury, yEthelred agreed to pay a wergild for the North- only made matters worse. Next year Sweyn returned, his
umbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Osthryth For two years he
hostility fanned by the desire for revenge.
was murdered in 697 and yEthelred abdicated in 704, choosing
ravaged and slew; in 1003 Exeter was destroyed; Norwich
Coenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney, and Thetford in 1004. No effectual resistance was offered,
and, according to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Coenred on of
despite a gallant effort here and there; the disorganization
his return from Rome. ^Ethelred died at Bardney in 716. (See
the country was complete. In 1005 the Danes were absent in
WILFRID.)
SOURCES. Denmark, but came back next year, and emboldened by the utter
Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23 40, 43, 45-48, 57;
lack of resistance, they ranged far inland. In 1007 ^Ethelred
Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), iii. n, iv. 12,21; Saxon Chronicle,
s.a. 676, 679, 704, 716, (F. G. M. B.) bought them off for a larger sum than ever (36,000), and for
jETHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was two years the land enjoyed peace. In 1009, however, in accord-
the fourth son of ^Ethelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his ance with a resolution made by the witan in the preceding year,
"
father's will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest ,Cthelred collected such a fleet as never before had been in
brother ^Ethelbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in England in any king's day"; but owing to a miserable court
favour of his brother jEthelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint quarrel the effort came to nothing. The king then summoned
kingdoms he succeeded in 866. ^Ethelred's reign was one long a general levy of the nation, with no better result. Just as he
struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from doing
large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 so,and the opportunity was lost. In 1010 the Danes returned,
"
There
^Ethelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or kingdom more utterly disorganized than ever.
to find the
Burhred, of Mercia, against this host, but the Mercians soon was not a chief man in the kingdom who could gather a force,
made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at but each fled as he best might; nor even at last would any there
Reading, where they defeated ^Ethelred and his brother, but resist another." Incapable of offering resistance, the king again
"
later in the year the English won a great victory at /Escesdun." offered money, thistime no less than 48,000. While it was being
 .ETHELSTAN ^THELWEARD 291
collected, the Danes sacked Canterbury and barbarously slew Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at York, received the
the archbishop Alphege. The tribute was paid soon afterwards; submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing their boundary along
and about the same time the Danish leader Thurkill entered the the line of the Wye, and drove the Cornishmen west of the Tamar,
English service. From 1013 an important change is discernible fortifying Exeter as an English city.
in the character of the Danish attacks, which now became In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing
definitely political in their aim. In this year Sweyn sailed up to an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson. The
the Trent and received the submission of northern England, army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire,
and then marching south, he attacked London. Failing to take while the navy sailed to Caithness. Simeon of Durham speaks
it, he hastened west and at Bath received the submission of
of a submission of Scotland as a result; if it ever took place it
"
Wessex. Then he returned northwards, and after that all the was a mere form, for three years later we find a great confederacy
nation considered him as full king." London soon acknowledged formed in Scotland against ^Ethelstan. This confederacy of
him, and .Ethelred, after taking refuge for a while with Thurkill's 937 was joined by Constantine, king of Scotland, the Welsh of
fleet, escaped to Normandy. Sweyn died in February 1014, Strathclyde, and the Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson
and ^thelred was recalled by the witan, on giving a promise and Anlaf Godfredsson, who, though they came from Ireland,
to reign better in future. At once he hastened north against had powerful English connexions. A great battle was fought
Canute, Sweyn's son, who claimed to succeed his father, but at Brunanburh (perhaps Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E.
Canute sailed away, only to return next year, when the traitor Dumfriesshire), in which ^thelstan and his brother Edmund were
Edric joined him and Wessex submitted. Together Canute and completely victorious. England had been freed from its greatest
Edric harried Mercia, and were preparing to reduce London, danger since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Guthrum.
when .lEthelred died there on the 23rd of April 1016. Weak, jEthelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any
self-indulgent, improvident, he had pursued a policy of oppor- real sense to be lord paramount of Britain. In his charters he
"
tunism to a fatal conclusion. is continually called rex totius Britanniae," and he adopts for
^Ethelred's wife was Emma, or ^Elfgif u, daughter of Richard I. the first time the Greek title basileus. This was not merely an
the Fearless, duke of the Normans, whom he married in 1002. idle flourish, for some of his charters are signed by Welsh and
After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute the Scottish kings as subreguli. Further, ^Ethelstan was the first
Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to secure king to bring England into close touch with continental Europe.
England for her son, Hardicanute. In 1037, however, when By the marriage of his half-sisters he was brought into connexion
Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she went with the chief royal and princely houses of France and Germany.
to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 1040. His sister Eadgifu married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became
In 1043, after Edward the Confessor had become king he seized the wife of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth was
the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the queen lived married to the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister ^Elfgifu to
in retirement at Winchester until her death on the 6th of March a petty German prince. Embassies passed between ^Ethelstan
1052. By ^Jthelred Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor and Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result
and the aHheling Alfred (d. 1036), and by Canute she was the that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is
mother of Hardicanute. Emma's marriage with ^Jthelred was known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adalsteinsfostri.
an important step in the history of the relations between yEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmes-
"
England and Normandy, and J. R. Green says it suddenly bury, an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his
opened for its rulers a distinct policy, a distinct course of lifetime. Apparently he was never married, and he certainly
action, which led to the Norman conquest of England. From had no issue.
the moment of Emma's marriage Normandy became a chief A considerable body of law has come down to us in ^Ethel-
factor in English politics." stan'sname. The chief collections are those issued at Grately in
AUTHORITIES. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C. Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresfeld, and the Judicia civitatis
Plummer, 2 vols. Oxford, 1892-1899) Florence of Worcester (ed. B.
; Lundonie. In the last-named one personal touch is found when
Thorpe, London, 18481849) Encomium Emmae (ed. by G. H. Pertz
;
the king tells the archbishop how grievous it is to put to death
.in the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Band xix., Hanover, 1866)
for the latter part of the reign. .See also J. M. Kemble, Codex Diplo- persons of twelve winters for stealing. The king secured the
maticus aevi Saxonici (London, 18391848); and B. Thorpe, Ancient raising of the age limit to fifteen.
Laws (London, 1840). (C. S. P.*) AUTHORITIES. Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann.; William
JETHELSTAN (c. 894-940), Saxon king, was the son of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls Series, contain-
ing valuable original information (v. Stubbs' Introduction, II. lx.-
(probably illegitimate) of Edward the elder. He had been the Ixvii.); Birch, Cartel. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 641-747; A.S. Laws,
favourite of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the (ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; jEthelweard, Florence of Worcester.
"
household of his aunt ^Ethelflaed, the Lady of the Mercians." Secondary: Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142;
On the death of his father in 924, at some date after the i2th D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)
of November, ^Ethelstan succeeded him and was crowned at &THELWEARD (ETHELWARD), Anglo-Saxon historian, was
Kingston shortly after. The succession did not, however, take the great-grandson of yEthelred, the brother of Alfred, and
place without opposition. One Alfred, probably a descendant ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the
of ^thelred I., formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester; whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973,
the plot was discovered and Alfred was sent to Rome to defend and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death
himself, but died shortly after. The king's own legitimate must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with
brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious
was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances; Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop yElfheah
the later chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on the part (Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover.
of the king, but this seems more than doubtful. >Ethelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to
One of jEthelstan's first public acts was to hold a conference the year 975. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on
at Tamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria, the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is
and as a result Sihtric received yEthelstan's sister in marriage. largely independent of it. ^Ethelweard gave himself the bom-
In the next year Sihtric died and ^Ethelstan took over the "
bastic title Patricius Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus," and un-
Northumbrian kingdom. He now received, at Dacre in Cumber- fortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man.
land, the submission of all the kings of the island, viz. Howel Dda, His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time
king of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, Constantine, king attempts more than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often
of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and henceforth he calls
very obscure. ^Ethelweard was the friend and patron of jElfric
himself "rex totius Britanniae." About this time (the exact the grammarian.
chronology is uncertain) ^Ethelstan expelled Sihtric's brother AUTHORITIES. Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch,
292 .&THELWULF AETHER
Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224; evidence for the existence of the luminiferous aether has accumu-
Fabii Ethelwerdi Chron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 449-454. Secondary: lated as additional phenomena of light and other radiations
Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci. Napier and Stevenson,
;
have been discovered; and the properties of this medium, as
Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.)
deduced from the phenomena of light, have been found to be
JETHELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father
precisely those required to explain electromagnetic phenomena."
Ecgberht in A.D. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for
This description, quoted from James Clerk Maxwell's article
823 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and
in the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, represents the
the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent,
On the accession of historical position of the subject up till about 1860, when Maxwell
which was successfully accomplished.
^thelwulf jEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of
,
began those constructive speculations in electrical theory, based
on the influence of the physical views of Faraday and Lord Kelvin,
Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. ^Ethelwulf's reign was chiefly
which have in their subsequent development largely transformed
occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king's
theoretical physics into the science of the aether.
defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at
In the remainder of the article referred to, Maxwell reviews
the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of
the evidence for the necessity of an aether, from the fact that
Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and yEthelstan of
Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered light takes time to travel, while it cannot travel as a substance,
In 851 also ^Ethelwulf for if so two interfering lights could not mask each other in the
in England that year for the first time.
dark fringes (see INTERFERENCE or LIGHT). Light is therefore
and ^Ethelbald won their great victory at Aclea, probably the
modern Ockley. In 853 jEthelwulf subdued the North Welsh, an influence propagated as wave-motion, and moreover by trans-
verse undulations, for the reasons brought out by Thomas Young
in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, and gave him his
and Augustin Fresnel; so that the aether is a medium which
daughter .lEthelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Dona-
tion of yEthelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On possesses elasticity of a type analogous to rigidity. It must be
his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. very different from ordinary matter as we know it, for waves
travelling in matter constitute sound, which is propagated
According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his
hundreds of thousands of times slower than light.
son jEthelbald on his return, and content himself with the
If we suppose that the aether differs from ordinary matter in
eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858.
See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 1-16; Saxon degree but not in kind, we can obtain some idea of its quality
Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.) from a knowledge of the velocity of radiation and of its possible
AETHER, or ETHER (Gr. aiOrip, probably from aWw, I burn, intensity near the sun, in a manner applied long ago by Lord
though Plato in his Cratylus (410 B) derives the name from Kelvin (Trans. R. S. Edin, xxi. 1854). According to modern
its perpetual motion oYt 6.fl Oel irepl rdv aipa pkuiv, d0ei)p measurements the solar radiation imparts almost 3 gramme-
Suaicos o.v /caXoTro), a material substance of a more subtle calories of energy per minute per square centimetre at the
kind than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of distance of the earth, which is about 1-3X10 ergs per sec. per
space which are apparently empty. cm. 2 The energy in sunlight per cubic cm. just outside the
" The
hypothesis of an aether has been maintained by different earth's atmosphere is therefore about 4X10"* ergs; applying
speculators for very different reasons. To those who maintained the law of inverse squares the value near the sun's surface would
the existence of a plenum as a philosophical principle, nature's be 1-8 ergs. Let E be the effective elasticity of the aether;
abhorrence of a vacuum was a sufficient reason for imagining then E = pc2 where p is its density, and c the velocity of light
,

an all-surrounding aether, even though every other argument which is 3X10 10 cm./sec. If =A cosn (t-x/c) is the linear
should be against it. To Descartes, who made extension the vibration, the stress is E d/dx; and the total energy, which is
sole essential property of matter, and matter a necessary condi- twice the kinetic energy p(d/dt) 2 dx, is 2p 2 A2 per cm., which
tion of extension, the bare existence of bodies apparently at a is thus equal to 1-8 ergs as above. Now X = 2irc/w, so that
distance was a proof of the existence of a continuous medium A/X=fc, we have p(27rc) =i-8, giving p = io~ ^~ and
2 22 2
if

between them. But besides these high metaphysical necessities E=io~1 &~2 Lord Kelvin assumed as a superior limit of k, the
.

for a medium, there were more mundane uses to be fulfilled by ratio of amplitude to wave-length, the value io~ ,
2
which is a
aethers. Aethers were invented for the planets to swim in, to very safe limit. It follows that the density of the aether must
constitute electric atmospheres and magnetic effluvia, to convey exceed io~ 18 , and its elastic modulus must exceed io3 which,

sensations from one part of our bodies to another, and so on, 8

is only about io~ of the modulus of rigidity of glass. It thus
till all space had been filled three or four times over with aethers. appears that if the amplitude of vibration could be as much as
It is only when we remember the extensive and mischievous lo"2 of the wave-length, the aether would be an excessively rare
influence on science which hypotheses about aethers used for- medium with very slight elasticity; and yet it would be capable
merly to exercise, that we can appreciate the horror of aethers of transmitting the supply of solar energy on which all terrestrial
which sober-minded men had during the i8th century, and activity depends. But on the modern theory, which includes
which, probably as a sort of hereditary prejudice, descended the play of electrical phenomena as a function of the aether,
even to John Stuart Mill. The disciples of Newton maintained there are other considerations which show that this number io""
1

that in the fact of the mutual gravitation of the heavenly bodies, is really an enormous overestimate; and it is not impossible

according to Newton's law, they had a complete quantitative that the co-efficient of ultimate inertia of the aether is greater
account of their motions; and they endeavoured to follow out than the co-efficient of inertia (of different kirjd) of any existing
the path which Newton had opened up by investigating and material substance.
measuring the attractions and repulsions of electrified and The question of whether the aether is carried along by the
magnetic bodies, and the cohesive forces in the interior of earth's motion has been considered from the early days of the
bodies, without attempting to account for these forces. Newton undulatory theory of light. In reviving that theory at the be-
himself, however, endeavoured to account for gravitation by ginning of the igth century, Thomas Young stated his conviction
differences of pressure in an aether; but he did not publish his that material media offered an open structure to the substance
'
theory, because he was not able from experiment and observa- called aether, which passed through them without hindrance
tion to give a satisfactory account of this medium, and the
"
like the wind through a grove of trees." Any convection of
manner producing the chief phenomena of
of its operation in that medium could be tested by the change of effective velocity
nature.' On
the other hand, those who imagined aethers in of light, which would be revealed by a prism as was suggested
order to explain phenomena could not specify the nature of the by F. J. D. Arago. Before 1868 Maxwell conducted the experi-
motion of these media, and could not prove that the media, as ment by sending light from the illuminated cross-wires of an
imagined by them, would produce the effects they were meant to observing telescope forward through the object-glass, and
explain. The only aether which has survived is that which was through a train of prisms, and then reflecting it back along the
invented by Huygens to explain the propagation of light. The same path; any influence of convection would conspire in
 AETHER 293
altering both refractions, but yet no displacement of the image transmitting medium, they in fact modelled the whole of their
depending on the earth's motion was detected. As will be seen natural philosophy on that principle, and tried to express all
later, modern experiments have confirmed the entire absence of kinds of material interaction in terms of laws of direct mechanical
any effect, such as convection would produce, to very high attraction across space. If material systems are constituted of

precision. It has further been verified by Sir Oliver Lodge that discrete atoms, separated from each other by many times the
even in very narrow spaces the aether is not entrained by its diameter of any of them, this simple plan of exhibiting their
surroundings when they are put into rapid motion. interactions in terms of direct forces between them would
A train of ideas which strongly impressed itself on Clerk indeed be exact enough to apply to a wide range of questions,
Maxwell's mind, in the early stages of his theoretical views, provided we could be certain that the laws of the forces depended
was put forward by Lord Kelvin in 1858; he showed that the only on the positions and not also on the motions of the atoms.
special characteristics of the rotation of the plane of polarization, The most important example of its successful application has
discovered by Faraday in light propagated along a magnetic been the theory of capillary action elaborated by P. S. Laplace;
field, viz. that it is doubled instead of being undone when the though even here it appeared, in the hands of Young, and in
light retraces its path, requires the operation of some directed complete fulness afterwards in those of C. F. Gauss, that the
agency of a rotational kind, which must be related to the definite results attainable by the hypothesis of mutual atomic
magnetic field. Lord Kelvin was thereby induced to identify attractions really reposed on much wider and less special prin-
magnetic force with rotation, involving, therefore, angular ciples those, namely, connected with the modern doctrine of
momentum in the aether. Modern theory accepts the deduction, energy.
but ascribes the momentum to the revolving ions in the molecules Idea of an Aether. The wider view, according to which the
of matter traversed by the light; for the magneto-optic effect hypothesis of direct transmission of physical influences expresses
is present only in material media. Long previously Lord Kelvin only part of the facts, is that all space is filled with physical
himselfcame nearer this view, in offering the opinion that activity, and that while an influence is passing across from a
magnetism consisted, some way, in the angular momentum
in body, A, to another body, B, there is some dynamical process in
of the material molecules, of which the energy of irregular action in the intervening region, though it appears to the senses
translations constitutes heat; but the essential idea of moving to be mere empty space. The problem is whether we can repre-
electric ions of both kinds, positive and negative, in the molecules sent the facts more simply by supposing the intervening space
had still to be introduced. to be occupied by a medium which transmits physical actions,
The question of the transparency of the celestial spaces after the manner that a continuous material medium, solid or
presents itself in the present connexion. Light from stars at liquid, transmits mechanical disturbance. Various analogies of
unfathomable distances reaches us in such quantity as to suggest this sort are open to us to follow up: for example, the way in
that space itself is absolutely transparent, leaving open the which a fluid medium transmits pressure from one immersed
question as to whether there is enough matter scattered through solid to another or from one vortex ring belonging to the fluid
it to absorb a sensible part of the light in its journey of years to another, which is a much wider and more suggestive case;
from the luminous body. If the aether were itself constituted or the way in which an elastic fluid like the atmosphere transmits
of discrete molecules, on the model of material bodies, such sound; or the way in which an elastic solid transmits waves of
transparency would not be conceivable. We must be content transverse as well as longitudinal displacement. It is on our
to treat the aether as a plenum, which places it in a class by familiarity with modes of transmission such as these, and with
itself; and we can thus recognize that it may behave very the exact analyses of them which the science of mathematical
differently from matter, though in some manner consistent with physics has been able to make, that our predilection for filling
itself a remark which is fundamental in the modern theory. space with an aethereal transmitting medium, constituting a
Action across a Distance contrasted with Transmitted Action. universal connexion between material bodies, largely depends;
In the mechanical processes which we can experimentally modify perhaps ultimately it depends most of all, like all our physical
at will, and which therefore we learn to apprehend with greatest conceptions, on the intimate knowledge that we can ourselves
fulness, whenever an effect on a body, B, is in causal connexion exert mechanical effect on outside bodies only through the
with a process instituted in another body, A, it is usually possible agencies of our limbs and sinews. The problem thus arises,
to discover a mechanical connexion between the two bodies Can we form a consistent notion of such a connecting medium?
which allows the influence of A to be traced all the way across It must be a medium which can be effective for transmitting all
the intervening region. The question thus arises whether, in the types of physical action known to us; it would be worse
electric attractions acrossapparently empty space and in gravi- than no solution to have one medium to transmit gravitation,
tational attraction across the celestial regions, we are invited another to transmit electric effects, another to transmit light,
or required to make search for some similar method of continuous and so on. Thus the attempt to find out a constitution for the
transmission of the physical effect, or whether we should rest aether will involve a synthesis of intimate correlation of the
content with an exact knowledge of the laws according to which various types of physical agencies, which appear so different to
one body affects mechanically another body at a distance. us mainly because we perceive them through different senses.
The view that our knowledge in such cases may be completely The evidence for this view, that all these agencies are at bottom
represented by means of laws of action at a distance, expressible connected together and parts of the same scheme, was enormously
in terms of the positions (and possibly motions) of the interacting strengthened during the latter half of the ipth century by the
bodies without taking any heed of the intervening space, belongs development of a relation of simple quantitative equivalence
modern times. It could hardly have been thought of before between them; it has been found that we can define quantities
Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of the actual facts regarding uni- relating to them, under the names of mechanical energy, electric
versal gravitation. Although, however, gravitation has formed energy, thermal energy, and so on, so that when one of them
lie most perfect instance of an influence
completely expressible, disappears, it is replaced by the others to exactly equal amount.
up to the most extreme refinement of accuracy, in terms of laws This single principle of energy has transformed physical science
of direct action across space, yet, as is well known, the author
by making possible the construction of a network of ramifying
of this ideally simple and perfect theory held the view that it is connexions between its various departments; it thus stimulates
not possible to conceive of direct mechanical action independent the belief that these constitute a single whole, and encourages
means of transmission. In this he differed from his
belief the search for the complete scheme of interconnexion of which
Dupil,Roger Cotes, and from most mathematical
of the great the principle of energy and the links which it suggests form
stronomers of the i8th century, who worked out in detail the only a single feature.
task sketched by the genius of Newton. They were content In carrying out this scientific procedure false steps will from
with a knowledge of the truth of the principle of gravitation; time to time be made, which will have to be retraced, or rather
instead of essaying to explain it further by the properties of a amended; but the combination of experimental science with
294 AETHER
theory has elevated our presumption of the rationality of all most minute portion of matter which we can examine are thus
natural processes, so far as we can apprehend them at all, into of the nature of averages. We may gradually invent means of
practical certainty; so that, though the mode of presentation of tracing more and more closely the average drifts of translation
the results may vary from age to age, it is hardly conceivable or orientation, or of changes of arrangement, of the atoms; but
that the essentials of the method are not of permanent validity. there will always remain an unaveraged residue devoid of any
Atomic Structure of Matter. The greatest obstacle to such a recognized regularity, which we can only estimate by its total
search for the fundamental medium is the illimitable complexity amount. Thus, if we are treating of energy, we can separate out
of matter, as contrasted with the theoretical simplicity and uni- mechanical and electric and other constituents in it; and there
formity of the physical agencies which connect together its will be a residue of which we know nothing except its quantity,
different parts. It has been maintained since the times of the and which we call thermal. This merely thermal energy
early Greek philosophers, and possibly even more remote ages, which is gradually but very slowly being restricted in amount as
that matter is constituted of independent indestructible units, new subsidiary organized types become recognized in it though
which cannot ever become divided by means of any mutual transmutable in equivalent quantities Nvith the other kinds, yet
actions they can exert. Since the period, a century ago, when is so only to a limited extent; the tracing out of the laws of this

Dalton and his contemporaries constructed from this idea a limitation belongs to the science of thermodynamics. It is the
scientific basis for chemistry, the progress of that subject has business of that science to find out what is the greatest amount
been wonderful beyond any tonception that could previously of thermal energy that can possibly be recoverable into organized
have been entertained; and the atomic theory in some form kinds under given circumstances. The discovery of definite laws
appears to be an indispensable part of the framework of physical in this region might at first sight seem hopeless; but the argu-
science. Now this doctrine of material atoms is an almost ment rests on an implied postulate of stability and continuity of
necessary corollary to the doctrine of a universal aether. For if constitution of material substances, so that after a cycle of
we held that matter is continuous, one of two alternatives would transformations we expect to recover them again as they were
be open. We might consider that matter and aether can co- originally- on the postulate, in fact, that we do not expect them
exist in the same space; this would involve the co-existence to melt out of organized existence in our hands. The laws of
and interaction of a double set of properties, introducing great thermodynamics, including the fundamental principle that a
complication, which would place any coherent scheme of physical physical property, called temperature, can be defined, which
action probably beyond the powers of human analysis. Or we tends towards uniformity, are thus relations between the
might consider that aether exists only where matter is not, properties of types of material bodies that can exist permanently
thus making it a very rare and subtle and elastic kind of matter; in presence of each other; why they so maintain themselves
then we should have to assign these very properties to the matter remains unknown, but the fact gives the point d'appui. The
itself where it replaces aether, in addition to its more familiar fundamental character of energy in material systems here
properties, and the complication would remain. The other comes into view; if there were any other independent scalar
course is to consider matter as formed of ultimate atoms, each entity, besides mass and energy, that pervaded them with
the nucleus or core of an intrinsic modification impressed on relations of equivalence, we should expect the existence of yet
the surrounding region of the aether; this might conceivably another set of qualities analogous to those connected with
be of the nature of vortical motion of a liquid round a ring-core, temperature. (See ENERGETICS.)
thus giving a vortex atom, or of an intrinsic strain of some sort Returning now to the aether, on our present point of view
radiating from a core, which would give an electric atom. We no such complications there arise; it must be regarded as a
recognize an atom only through its physical activities, as mani- continuous uniform medium free from any complexities of
fested in its interactions with other atoms at a distance from it; atomic aggregation, whose function is confined to the transmis-
this field of physical activity would be identical with the sur- sion of the various types of physical effect between the portions
rounding aethereal motion or strain that is inseparably
field of of matter. The problem of its constitution is thus one which
associated with the nucleus, and is carried on along with it as it can be attacked and continually approximated to, and which
moves. Here then we have the basis of a view in which there are may possibly be definitely resolved. It has to be competent to
not two media to be considered, but one medium, homogeneous transmit the transverse waves of light and electricity, and the
in essence and differentiated as regards its parts only by the other known radiant and electric actions; the way in which
presence of nuclei of intrinsic strain or motion in which the this is done is now in the main known, though there are still
physical activities of matter are identified with those arising questions as to the mode of expressionand formulation of our
from the atmospheres of modified aether which thus belong to knowledge, and also as regards points of detail. This great
its atoms. As regards laws of general physical interactions, the advance, which is the result of the gradual focussing of a century's
atom is fully represented by the constitution of this atmosphere, work in the minute exploration of the exact laws of optical and
and its nucleus may be left out of our discussions; but in the electric phenomena, clearly carries with it deeper insight into
problems of biology great tracts of invariable correlations have the physical nature of matter itself and its modes of inanimate
to be dealt with, which seem hopelessly more complex than any interaction.
known or humanly possible physical scheme. To make room for If we rest on the synthesis here described, the energy of the
these we have to remember that the atomic nucleus has remained matter, even the thermal part, appears largely as potential
entirely undefined and beyond our problem; so that what may energy of strain in the aether which interacts with the kinetic
occur, say when two molecules come into close relations, is outside energy associated with disturbances involving finite velocity
physical science not, however, altogether outside, for we know of matter. It may, however, be maintained that an ultimate
that when the vital nexus in any portion of matter is dissolved, the analysis would go deeper, and resolve all phenomena of elastic
atoms willremain, in their number, and their atmospheres, and resilience into consequences of the kinetic stability of steady
all inorganic relations, as they were before vitality supervened. motional states, so that only motions, but not strains, would
Nature of Properties of Material Bodies. It thus appears remain. On such a view the aether might conceivably be a
that the doctrine of atomic material constitution and the doctrine perfect fluid, its fundamental property of elastic reaction arising
of a universal aether stand to each other in a relation of mutual (as at one time suggested by Kelvin and G. F. FitzGerald) from
support; if the scheme of physical laws is to be as precise as a structure of tangled or interlaced vortex filaments pervading
observation and measurement appear to make it, both doctrines its substance, which might conceivably arrange themselves into
are required in our efforts towards synthesis. Our direct know- a stable configuration and so resist deformation. This raises
ledge of matter can, however, never be more than a rough the, further question as to whether the transmission of gravitation
knowledge of the general average behaviour of its molecules; can be definitely recognized among the properties of an ultimate
for the smallest material speck that is sensible to our coarse medium; if so, we know that it must be associated with some
perceptions contains myriads of atoms. The properties of the feature, perhaps very deep-seated, or on the other hand perhaps
 AETHER 295
depending simply on incompressibility, which is not sensibly the aether, as the law of astronomical aberration suggests, this
implicated in the electric and optical activities. With reference must differ iromfds/V by terms not depending on the path
to all such further refinements of theory, it is to be borne in that is, by terms involving only the beginning and end of it. In
mind that the perfect fluid of hydrodynamic analysis is not a the case of the free aether V is constant; thus, if we neglect
2
merely passive inert plenum; it is also a continuum with the squares like (w/V) the condition is that udx +vdy+wdz be the
,

property that no finite internal slip or discontinuity of motion exact differential of some function $. If this relation is true
can ever arise in it through any kind of disturbance; and this along all paths, the velocity of the aether must be of irrotational
property must be postulated, as it cannot be explained. type, like that of frictionless fluid. Moreover, this is precisely
Motion of Material Atoms through the Aether. An important the condition for the absence of interference between the com-
question arises whether, when a material body is moved through ponent of a split beam; because, the time of passage being to
the aether, the nucleus of each atom carries some of the surround- the first order
ing aether along with it; or whether it practically only carries fds/V -/(udx+vdy+wdz')y,
on its strain-form or physical atmosphere, which is transferred the second term will then be independent of the path (<j> being a
from one portion of aether to another after the manner of a single valued function) and therefore the same for the paths of
shadow, or rather like a loose knot which can slip along a rope both the interfering beams. If therefore the aether can be put
without the rope being required to go with it. We can obtain into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such motion, in free
a pertinent illustration from the motion of a vortex ring in a fluid; space, must be of strictly irrotational type.
if the circular core of the ring is thin compared with its diameter, But our experimental data are not confined to free space. If
and the vorticity is not very great, it is the vortical state of c is the velocity of radiation in free space and /* the refractive
motion that travels across the fluid without transporting the index of a transparent body, V=c/ju; thus it is the expres-
latter bodily with it except to a slight extent very close to the sion c~^fij?(u'dx+v'dy+w'dz) that is to be integrable explicitly,
core. We might thus examine a structure formed of an aggrega- where now ('',v' ,iti'} is what is added to V owing to the velocity
tion of very thin vortex rings, which would move across the fluid (u,ii,w) of the medium. As, however, our terrestrial optical appa-
without sensibly disturbing it; on the other hand, if formed of ratus is now all in motion along with the matter, we must
stronger vortices, it may transport the portion of the fluid that deaLwith the rays relative to the moving system, and to these
is within, or adjacent to, its own structure along with it as if it also Fermat's principle clearly applies; thus V+ (/' +mv' +niv')
were a solid mass, and therefore also push aside the surrounding is here the velocity of radiation in the direction of the
ray, but
fluid as it passes. The motion of the well-known steady spherical relative to the moving material system. Now the expression
vortex is an example of the latter case. above given cannot be integrable exactly, under all circumstances
Convection of Optical Waves. The nature of the motion, if any, and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, unless (/i2M',/iV,/ra>')
that is produced in the surrounding regions of the aether by the is the gradient of a continuous function. In the simplest case,
translation of matter through it can be investigated by optical that of uniform translation, these components of the gradient
experiment. The obvious body to take in the first instance is will each be constant throughout the region; at a distant place
the earth itself, which on account of its annual orbital motion is in free aether where there is no motion, they must thus be equal
travelling through space at the rate of about 18 miles per second. to -M,-,-W, as they refer to axes moving with the matter.
If the surrounding ae ther is thereby disturbed, the waves of
(
Hence the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the
light arriving from the stars will partake of its movement; the material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the
ascertained phenomena of the astronomical aberration of light system, provided the velocity of radiation relative to the system,
show that the rays travel to the observer, across this disturbed in material of index ju, is diminished by n~* times the velocity of
aether near the earth, in straight lines. Again, we may split a the system in the direction of the radiation, that is, provided the
narrow beam of light by partial reflexion from a transparent absolute velocity of radiation is increased by i-/i" 2 times the
plate, and recombine the constituent beams after they have velocity of the material system; this" involves that the free
traversed different circuits of nearly equivalent lengths, so as aether for which fj.
is unity shall remain at rest. This statement
to obtain interference fringes. The position of these fringes will constitutes the famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures
depend on the total retardation in time of the one beam with that all phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those
respect to the other; and thus it might be expected to vary depending on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection
with the direction of the earth's motion, relative to the apparatus. of the material medium, in accordance with the results of
But it is found not to vary at all, even up to the second order experiment.
of the ratio of the earth's velocity to that of light. It has in Is the Aether Stationary or Mobile? This theory secures that
fact been found, with the very great precision of which optical the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of the
experiment is capable, that all terrestrial optical phenomena motion of the system, only up to the first order of the ratio of
reflexion, refraction, polarization linear and circular, diffraction its velocity to that of radiation. But a classical experiment of
are entirely unaffected by the direction of the earth's motion, A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was wholly in air, showed
while the same result has recently been extended to electrostatic that the independence extends to higher orders. This result is
forces; and this is our main experimental clue. inconsistent with the aether remaining at rest, unless we assume
We pass on now to the theory. We shall make the natural that the dimensions of the moving system depend, though to an
supposition that motion of the aether, say with velocity (u,v,vi) extent so small as to be not otherwise detectable, on its orienta-
at the point (x,y,z), is simply superposed on the velocity V of tion with regard to the aether that is streaming through it. It is,
lie optical undulations through that
medium, the latter not however, in complete accordance with a view that would make
eing intrinsically altered. Now the direction and phase of the the aether near the earth fully partake in its orbital motion a
light are those of the ray which reaches the eye; and by Fermat's view which the null effect of convection on all terrestrial optical
principle, established by Huygens for undulatory motion, the and electrical phenomena also strongly suggests. But the aether
ith of a ray is that track along which the disturbance travels at a great distance must in any case be at rest; while the facts of
least time, in the restricted sense that any alteration of
any astronomical aberration require that the motion of that medium
short reach of the path will increase the time. Thus the path of must be irrotational. These conditions cannot be consistent
he ray when the aether is at rest is the curve which makes with sensible convection of the aether near the earth without
when it is in motion it is the curve which makes
fds/V least; but involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate
sl(V+lv+im>+nw) least, where (l,m,n) is the direction vector distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory.
of 8s. The latter integral becomes, on expanding in a series, Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be stationary
is afforded by the character of the equations of
fds/V -/(udx +vdy +wdz)/V
2
+Adx +vdy +wdz)*/ electrodynamics;
they are all of linear type, and superposition of effects is
possible.
since lds=dx. If the is to be unaltered the motion of Now the kinetics of a medium in which the' parts can have finite
path by
296 AETHER
relative motions will lead to equations which are not linear as, constituent of the current is the most delicate point in the in-
for example, those of hydrodynamics and the phenomena will vestigation. The usual definition of the component current in
be far more complexly involved. It is true that the theory of any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses,
vortex rings in hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in space
currents cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because at right angles to that direction, per unit area per unit time,
their circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness here gives no definite result. The establishment and convection
on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed. of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a ^Maw-magnetization,
Dynamical Theories of the Aether. The analytical equations in addition to the polarization current as above defined, the
which represent the propagation of light in free aether, and also negative poles completing the current circuits of the positive
in aether modified by the presence of matter, were originally ones. But in the transition from molecular theory to the electro-
developed on the analogy of the equations of propagation of dynamics of extended media, all magnetism has to be replaced
elastic effects in solidmedia. Various types of elastic solid by a distribution of current; the latter being now specified by
medium have thus been invented to represent the aether, without volume as well as by flow so that (u,v,w) ST is the current in the
complete success in any case. In T. MacCullagh's hands the element of volume ST. In the present case the total dielectric
correct equations were derived from a single energy formula by contribution to this current works out to be the change per unit
the principle of least action; and while the validity of this time in the electric separation in the molecules of the element
dynamical method was maintained, it was frankly admitted of volume, as it moves uniformly with the matter, all other
that no mechanical analogy was forthcoming. When Clerk effects being compensated molecularly without affecting the
Maxwell pointed out the way to the common origin of optical propagation.
1
On subtracting from this total the current of
and electrical phenomena, these equations naturally came to establishment of polarization d/dt/(f',g',h') as formulated above,
repose on an electric basis, the connexion having been first there remains vd/dx(f ,g' ,//') as the current of convection of
definitely exhibited by FitzGerald in 1878; and according as polarization when the convection is taken for simplicity to be
the independent variable was one or other of the vectors which in the direction of the axis ofx with velocity v. The polariza-
represent electric force, magnetic force or electric polarity, they tion itself determined from the electric force (P,Q,R) by the
is

took the form appropriate to one or other of the elastic theories usual statical formula of linear type which becomes tor an iso-
above mentioned. tropic medium
In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the more
recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which in-
volve the dynamical verification of Fresnel's hypothesis regard- because any change of the dielectric constant K arising from the
ing optical convection and the other relations above described. convection of the material through the aether must be inde-
The aether is taken to be at rest; and the strain-forms belong- pendent of the sign of v and therefore be of the second order.
ing to the atoms are the electric fields of the intrinsic charges, Now the electric force (P,Q,R) is the force acting on the electrons
or electrones, involved in their constitution. When the atoms of the medium moving with velocity v; consequently by Fara-
are in motion these strain-forms produce straining and unstrain- day's electrodynamic law
ing in the aether as they pass across it, which in its motional or
kinetic aspect constitutes the resulting magnetic field; as the where (P',Q',R') is the force that would act on electrons at
strains are slight the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved rest, and (a,b,c) is the magnetic induction. The latter force is,
must be great. True electric current arises solely from con- by Maxwell's hypothesis or by the dynamical theory of an aether
vection of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is there- pervaded by electrons, the same as that which strair s the aether,
fore not restricted as to form in any way. But when the rate of and may be called the aethereal force; it thereby produces an
change of aethereal strain that is, of (j,g,h) specified as Max- aethereal electric displacement, say (f,g,h), according to the
well's electric displacement in free aether is added to it, an relation = (4 TC! )
-'(P'.Q'.R ).
(f,g,h)
1

analytically convenient vector (u,v,w) is obtained which possesses in which C is a constant belonging to the aether, which turns
the characteristic property of being circuital like the flow of out to be the velocity of light. The current of aethereal dis-
an incompressible fluid, and has therefore been made funda-
placement d/dt(f,g,h) is what adds on to the true electric current
mental in the theory by Maxwell under the name of the total to produce the total circuital current of Maxwell.
electric current.
We have now to substitute these data in the universally valid
As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical pro- line integral of
circuital relations namely, (i) magnetic force
pagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid medium round a circuit is equal to \-K times the current through its
have failed; and though the idea of regions of intrinsic strain,
aperture, which may be regarded as a definition of the constitu-
as for example in unannealed glass, is familiar in physics, yet
tion of the aether and its relation to the electrons involved in
on account of the absence of mobility of the strain no_ attempt and (ii) line integral of the electric force belonging to any
it;
had been made to employ them to illustrate the electric fields material circuit (i.e. acting on the electrons situated on it which
of atomic charges. The idea of MacCullagh's aether, and its move with the velocity of the matter) is equal to minus the
property of purely rotational elasticity which had been ex- time-rate of change of the magnetic induction through that
pounded objectively by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much circuit as it moves with the matter, this being a dynamical
vivifiedby Lord Kelvin's specification (Complex Rendus, 1889) consequence of the aethereal constitution assigned in (i).
of a material gyrostatically constituted medium which would
More recently a way has been pointed
We may now, as is somewhat the more natural course in the
possess this character. terrestrial application, take axes (x,yp) which move with the
out in which a mobile permanent field of electric force could
matter; but the current must be invariably defined by the flux
exist in such a medium so as to travel freely in company with
across surfaces fixed in space, so that we may say that relation
its nucleus or intrinsic charge the nature of the mobility of the while (ii) refers to one moving
(i) refers to a circuit fixed in space,
latter, as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown.

_
with the matter. These circuital relations, when expressed
A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field of
analytically, are then for a dielectric medium
of types
electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the displaced
positive and negative intrinsic charges in the atom the polariza-
:

tion per unit volume (f',g',h') may be defined on the analogy of

where (.r,w) (f',g',h')+jt (f,g,h),
<

magnetism, a.ndd/dt(f',g',h') thus constitutes true electric current

of polarization, i.e. of electric separation in the molecules, dQ_ da
and dj~df~~a7
.........
specified per unit volume. The convection of a medium thus
polarized involves electric disturbance, and therefore must con- See H. A. Lorentz, Larmor, Aether and Matter,
1
loc. cit. infra; J.
tribute to the true electric current; the determination of this p. 262 and passim.
 AETHICUS ISTER 297
where, when magnetic quality is inoperative, the magnetic
both transparent and opaque bodies. The experiment of J. H.
induction (a,b,c) is identical with the magnetic force (a,(3,7). Poynting may also be mentioned, in which the tangential com-
These equations determine all the phenomena. They take ponent of the thrust of obliquely incident radiation is separately
this simple form, however, only when the movement of the put in evidence, by the torsion produced in an arrangement
matter is one of translation. If v varies with respect to locality, which is not sensitive to the normal component or to the radio-
or if there is a velocity of convection (p,q,r) variable with respect meter-pressure of the residual gas. (See RADIOMETER.)
to direction and position, and analytical expression of the re- Next to these researches on the pressure of radiation, which,
lation (ii) assumes a more complex form; we thus derive the by forming the mechanical link between radiation and matter,
are fundamental for the thermodynamics of radiant energy, the
most general equations of electrodynamic propagation for
matter treated as continuous, anyhow distributed and moving most striking recent result has been the discovery of H. Rubens
in any manner. and E. Hagen that for dark heat rays of only about ten times the
For the simplest case of polarized waves travelling parallel wave-length of luminous radiation, the properties of metals are
to the axis of *, with the magnetic oscillation 7 along 2 and determined by their electric resistance alone, which then masks
the electric oscillation Q along y, all the quantities are functions all resonance due to periods of free vibration of the molecules;

of x and / alone; the total current is along y and given with and, moreover, that the resistance for such alternations is practi-
respect to our moving axes by cally the same as the ohmic resistance for ordinary steady cur-
rents. They found that the absorbing powers of the metals, and
therefore, by the principle of exchanges, their radiating powers
also, are proportional to the square roots of their electric con-
also the circuital relations here reduce to ductivities. Maxwell had himself, at an early stage of his theory,
tested the absorbing power of gold-leaf for light, and found that
"dx~ vv<
dx~ ~^H the effective conductivity for luminous vibrations must be very
much greater than its steady ohmic value; it is, in fact, there a
thus dx^^^Si case of incipient conductivity, which is continually being undone
on account of the rapid alternation of force before it is fully
giving, on substitution for v,
established. That, however, complete conduction should arrive
with alternations only ten times slower than light was an un-
expected and remarkable fact, which verifies the presumption
For a simple wave-train, Q varies as sin m(x-Vt), leading on that the process of conduction is one in which the dynamic
substitution to the velocity of propagation V relative to the activities of the molecules do not come into play. The corollary,
moving material, by means of the equation
2
?uV = c2 u2 ;
KV + that the electric resistance of a metal can be determined in
this gives, to the first order of u/c, V = c/K u/K, which is in absolute units by experiments on the reflexion of heat-rays
accordance with Fresnel's law. Trains of waves nearly but not from its surface, is a striking illustration of the unification of
quite homogeneous as regards wave-length will as usual be the various branches of physical science, which has come in the
propagated as wave-groups travelling with the slightly different train of the development of the theory of the aether. (See
1
velocity rf(VX~ )/<^X~
1
,
the value of K
occurring in V being a RADIATION.)
function of X determined by the law of optical dispersion of the Finally, reference should be made to the phenomena of radio-
medium. activity,whether excited by the electric discharge in vacuum
For purposes of theoretical discussions relating to moving tubes, foreshadowed in part by Sir Wm. Crookes and G. G.
radiators and reflectors, it is important to remember that the Stokes, and later by A. Schuster andothers, but first fully
dynamics of all this theory of electrons involves the neglect of developed with astonishing results including the experimental
terms of the order (u/c) 2 not merely in the value of K but
, discovery of the free electron by J. J. Thomson, or the correlated
throughout. phenomena occurring spontaneously in radio-active bodies as
Recent Experimental Developments. The modification of the discovered by H. Becquerel and by M. and Mme Curie, and
spectrum of a radiating gas by a magnetic field, such as would investigated by them and by E. Rutherford and others. These
result from the hypothesis that the radiators are the system of results constitute a far-reaching development of the modern or
revolving or oscillating electrons in the molecule, was detected electrodynamic theory of the aether, of which the issue can
by P. Zeeman in 1896, and worked up, in conjunction with H. A. hardly yet be foreseen.
Lorentz, on the general lines suggested by the electron-theory REFERENCES. Maxwell, Collected Papers-, H. A. Lorentz, Archives
of molecular constitution. While it cannot be said that the full .Neerlandaises, xxi. 1887,and xxv. 1892, and a tract, Versuch einer
significance of this very definite phenomenon, consisting of the Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten
" "
splitting of the spectral line into a number of polarized com-
Korpern
" (Leyden, 1895) " also recent articles
; Elektrodynamik
and Elektronentheorie in the Encyk. der Math. Wissenschaften,
ponents, has yet been made out, a wide field of correlation with Band v. 13, 14; O. Lodge, " On Aberration Problems," Phil. Trans.
optical theory, especially in the neighbourhood of absorption 1893 and 1897; J. Larmor, Phil. Trans. 1894-95-97, and a treatise,
bands, has been developed by Zeeman himself, by A. H. Bec- Aether and Matter (1900), where full references are given. Of recent
querel, by D. Macaluso and O. M. Corbino, and by other workers. years most treatises on physical optics, e.g. those of P. K. L. Drude,
A. Schuster, R. W. Wood, have been written largely on the basis of
The most fundamental experimental confirmation that the the general physics of the aether; while the Collected Papers of
theory of the aether has received on the optical side in recent LordRayleigh should be accessible to all who desire a first-hand know-
years has been the verification of Maxwell's proposition that ledge of the development of the optical side of the subject. See
radiation exerts mechanical force on a material system, on which also MOLECULE, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT and RADIATION. (J. L.*)
it falls, which may be represented in all cases as the resultant AETHICUS (
= ETHICUS)
ISTER, "the philosopher of Istria,"
of pressures operating along the rays, and of intensity equal at the supposed but unknown author of a description of the world
each point of free space to the density of radiant energy. A written in Greek. An abridgment, under the title of Cosmo-
high vacuum is needed for the detection of the minute forces graphia Ethici, written in barbarous Latin, and wrongly described
here concerned; but just in that case the indirect radiometer- as the work of St Jerome, probably belongs to the 7th century.
effect of the heating of the residual gas masks the effect. P. N. After a discussion of the creation of the world and a description
Lebedew in 1900 succeeded, by operating on metallic vanes so of the earth, an account of the wonderful journeys of Aethicus
thin that the exposed and averted faces were practically at the is given, with digressions on various subjects, such as Alexander
same temperature, in satisfactorily verifying the relation for the Great and the kings of Rome, full of obscure and fabulous
metals; and very soon after, E. F. Nichols and G. F. Hull details.
published accounts of an exact and extensive research, in which The name Aethicus is also attached to another geographical
the principle had been fully and precisely confirmed as
regards treatise probably dating from the 6th century, a reproduction,
298 AETIOLOGY AETOLIA
with some unimportant additions, of the cosmography little AETIUS (d. 454), a Roman general of the closing period of the
else than a dry list of names of Julius Honorius. Western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the 4th
EDITIONS. D'Avezac (1852); Pertz (1853); Wuttke (1854); century. He was the son of Gaudentius, who, although possibly
Riese's Geographi Latini Minores (1878); see also Bunbury, History of barbarian family, rose in the service of the Western empire to
of Ancient Geography. be master of the horse, and later count of Africa. Aetius passed
AETIOLOGY, or ETIOLOGY (from Gr. alria, cause, and some years as hostage, first with Alaric and the Goths, and later
Xo7ia, discourse) strictly, the science or philosophy of causation,
,
in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, acquiring in this way the
but generally used to denote the part of any special science (and knowledge which enabled him afterwards to defeat them. In 424
especially of that of medicine and disease) which investigates the he led into Italy an army of 60,000 barbarians, mostly Huns,
causes and origin of its phenomena. An aetiological myth is which he employed first to support the primicerius Joannes, who
one which is regarded as having been invented ex post facto to had proclaimed himself emperor, and, on the defeat of the latter,
explain some fact, name or coincidence, the true account or to enforce his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul
origin of which has been forgotten. Such myths were often upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valentinian III.
based on grotesque philological analogies, according to which His calumnies against his rival, Count Boniface, which were at
an existing connexion between two personalities (cities, &c.) first believed by the emperor, led Boniface to revolt and call the
was traced back to a common mythical origin. For a good Vandals to Africa. Upon the discovery of the truth, Boniface,
example of the evolution of such myths, see the argument under although defeated in Africa, was received into favour by Valen-
AEGINA, History. tinian; but Aetius came down against Boniface from his Gallic
AETION, or EETION, a Greek painter, mentioned by Cicero, wars, like another Julius Caesar, and in the battle which followed
Pliny and Lucian. His most noted work, described in detail wounded Boniface fatally with his own javelin. From 433 to 450
by Lucian (Herodotus or Eetion, 5), was a picture representing Aetius was the dominating personality in the Western empire.
the marriage of Alexander and Roxana. He is said to have In Gaul he won his military reputation, upholding for nearly
exhibited it at the Olympic games, and by it so to have won twenty years, by combined policy and daring, the falling fortunes
the favour of the president that he gave him his daughter in of the empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur-
marriage. Through a misunderstanding of the words of Lucian, Marne (September 20, 451), in which he led the Gallic forces
Action has been supposed to belong to the age of the Antonines; against Attila and the Huns. This was the last triumph of the
but there can be little doubt that he was a contemporary of empire. Three years later (454) Aetius presented himself at
Alexander and of Apelles (Brunn, Geschichte der griechischen court to claim the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son
Kunstler, ii. Pliny gives his date as 350 B.C.
p. 243). Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs upon the
"
AETIUS 350), surnamed
(fl. the Atheist," founder of an crown, slew him with his own hand.
extreme sect of Arians, was a native of Coele-Syria. After See T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols. i. and ii. (1880).

working as a vine-dresser and then as a goldsmith he became a AETOLIA, a district of northern Greece, bounded on the S.
travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on by the Corinthian Gulf, on the W. by. the river Achelous, on the
medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a N. and E. by the western spurs of Parnassus and Oeta. The
wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of land naturally falls into two divisions. The basins of the lower
the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus, Achelous (mod. Aspropotamo) and Euenus (Phidharis) form a
bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the series of alluvial valleys intersected by detached ridges which
" "
presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon mostly run parallel to the coast. This district of Old Aetolia
by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by lacks a suitable sea-board, but the inland, and especially the plain
the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of of central Aetolia lying to the north of Lakes Hyria and Trichonis
Sirmium he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops, and Mount Aracynthus, forms a rich agricultural country. The
Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up northern and eastern regions are broken by an extensive complex
against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to of chains and peaks, whose rugged limestone flanks are clad at
Alexandria with Eunomius (q.v.) in order to advocate Arianism, most with stunted shrubs and barely leave room for a few pre-
but he was banished by Constantius. Julian recalled him from carious mule-tracks. These heights often rise in the frontier-
exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him ranges of Tymphrestus, Oxia and Corax to more than 7000 ft.;
for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated the snow-capped pinnacle of Kiona attains to 8240 ft. A few
a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating defiles pass through this barrier to the other side of the north
other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364) Greek watershed.
he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constanti- In early legend Old Aetolia, with its cities of Pleuron and
nople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians, Calydon, figures prominently. During the great migrations (see
of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him DORIANS) the population was largely displaced, and the old
Aetians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connexion inhabitants long remained in a backward condition. In the sth
with a refutation written by Epiphanius (Haer. Ixxvi. 10). Its century some tribes were still living in open villages under petty
main thought is that the Homousia, i.e. the doctrine that the kings, addicted to plunder and piracy, and hardly recognized
Son (therefore the Begotten) is essentially God, is self-con- as Hellenes at all. Yet their military strength was not to be
tradictory, since the idea of unbegottenness is just that which despised: in 426 their archers and slingers easily repelled an
constitutes the nature of God. Athenian invasion under Demosthenes. In the 4th century the
See A. Harnack, History of Dogma, vol. iv. passim. Aetolians began to take a greater part in Greek politics, and, in
AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, return for helping Epaminondas(367)andPhilipofMacedon (338),
flourished at the beginning of the 6th century A.D. He studied recovered control of their sea-board, to which they annexed the
at Alexandria, and became court physician at Byzantium and Acarnanian coast and the Oeniadae. Aetolia's prosperity dates
comes obsequii, one of the chief officers of the imperial household. from the period of Macedonian supremacy. It may be ascribed
He wrote a large medical work in sixteen books, founded on partly to the wealth and influence acquired by Aetolian mer-
Oribasius and compiled from various sources, especially Galen cenaries in Hellenistic courts, but chiefly to the formation of a
[Galenos]. and mysticism play a great part in
Superstition national Aetolian league, the first effective institution of this
his remedies. Eight books of the Greek original were printed kind in Greece. Created originally to meet the peril of an in-
at Venice, 1534, and a complete Latin translation by Cornarius vasion by the Macedonian regents Antipater and Craterus, who
appeared at Basel, 1542. had undertaken a punitive expedition against Aetolia after the
Lamian War (322), and by Cassander (314-311), the confederacy
See Weigel, Aetianarum exercitationum specimen (1791) Danelius,
;

Beitrag zur Augenheilkunde des Aetius (1889); Zernos, Aetii sermo grew rapidly during the subsequent period of Macedonian weak-
sextidecintus et ultimus, editio princeps (1901). ness. Since 290 it had extended its power over all the uplands of
 AFARS AFFECTION 299
central Greece, where its command over Heracleia (280) provided Aetolia passed to a branch of the old imperial house (1205).
it with an important defensive position against northern invaders, In the isth century it was held by Scanderbeg (q.v.) and by
its control of Delphi and the Amphictyonic council with a useful the Venetians, but Mahommed II. brought it definitely under
political instrument. The valour of the Aetolians was con- Turkish rule. In the War of Independence the Aetolians by
spicuously displayed in 279, when they broke the strength of the their stubborn defence, culminating in the sieges of Missolonghi
Celtic irruption by slaughtering great hordes of marauders. The (q.v.), formed the backbone of the rebellion. Northern Aetolia
commemorative festival of the Soteria, which the league estab- remains a desolate region, inhabited mainly by Vlach shep-
lished at Delphi, obtained recognition from many leading Greek herds. The south-western plain, though rendered unhealthy by
states. After annexing Boeotia (by 245) the Aetolians controlled lagoons, and central Aetolia yield good crops of currants, vine,
all central Greece. Endeavouring next to expand into Pelopon- maize and tobacco, which are conveyed by railway from Agrinion
nesus, they allied themselves with Antigonus Gonatas of Mace- and Anatolikon to the coast. The country, which forms part of
donia against the Achaean league (q.v.), and besides becoming the modern department of Acarnania and Aetolia, contains
protectors of Elis and Messenia won several Arcadian cities. numerous fragments of Ancient fortifications. It has contributed
Their naval power extended to Cephalonia, to the Aegaean a notable proportion of distinguished men to modern Greece.
islands and even to the Hellespont. The league at its zenith had AUTHORITIES. Strabo pp. 450 sqq.; Thucydides iii. 94-98;
thus a truly imperial status. Diodorus xviii. 24. 5; Pausanias x. 20 sq.; Polybius and Livy
passim; W. J. Woodhouse, Aetolia (Oxford, 1897); M. Dubois,
Later in the century its power began to be sapped by Mace- Les Ligues acheenne et elolienne (Paris, 1885); E. A. Freeman,
donia. To check King Demetrius (239-229) the Aetolians joined Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), ch. vi. B. V. Head, Historia
;

arms with the Achaeans. In 224 they held Heracleia Trachis Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 283-284; M. Holleaux in Bulletin de
Correspondence Hellenique (1905, pp. 362-372); G. Sotiriades in
against Antigonus Doson, but lost control of Boeotia and Phocis.
'E07jMpis 'ApxcuoXo-xiKij, (1900) pp. 163-212, (1903) pp. 73-94, and
Since 228 their Arcadian possessions had been abandoned to in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1907), pp. 139-184;
Sparta. At the same time a new enemy arose in the Illyrian C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), PP-
which outdid them in unscrupulousness and violence.
pirate fleets, 270-320. (M. O. B. C.)
The raids oftwo Aetolian chiefs in Achaean territory (220) led to AFARS (DANAKIL), a tribe of African "Arabs" of Hamitic
a coalition between Achaea and Philip V. of Macedon, who stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia
assailed the invaders with great energy, driving them out of and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the
Peloponnesus and marching into Aetolia itself, where he surprised Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral
and sacked the federal capital Thermon. After buying peace by and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich
the cession of Acarnania (217) the league concluded a compact and tree- worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism.
with Rome, in which both states agreed to plunder ruthlessly They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and
their common enemies (211). In the great war of their Roman small pointedchins; their cheekbones are not prominent.
allies against Philip the federal troops took a prominent part, They are more
scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla,
their cavalry being largely responsible for the victory of Cynos- wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-cloth. Their women,
cephalae (197). The Romans in return restored central Greece when quite young, are pretty and graceful. Their huts are often
to the league, but by withholding its former Thessalian posses- tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats,
sions excited its deep resentment. The Aetolians now invited embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided
Antiochus III. of Syria to European Greece, and so precipitated into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose
a conflict with Rome. But in the war they threw away their power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in
chances. In 192 they wasted themselves in an unsuccessful 1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under
attempt to secure Sparta. In 191 they supported Antiochus Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888, however, their most important
badly, and by their slackness in the defence of Thermopylae sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian
made his position in Greece untenable. Having thus isolated protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian
themselves the Aetolians stood at bay behind their walls against and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in
the Romans, who refused all compromises, and, after the general considerable numbers in French Somaliland. They have a
"
surrender in 189, restricted the league to Aetolia proper and saying Guns are only useful to frighten cowards." They were
assumed control over its foreign relations. In 167 the country formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these
suffered severely from the intrigues of a philo-Roman party, corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red
which caused a series of judicial murders and the deportation of Sea who hunt the dugong.
See Fr. Scazamucci and E. H. Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil (1884)
many patriots to Italy. By the time of Sulla, when the league P. Paulitschke, Ethnographic Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., Berlin, 1893-
;

is mentioned for the last time, its functions were purely nominal.
1896), and Die geographische Erforschung der A Ml- Lander und Har&rs
The federal constitution closely resembled that of the Achaean in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884).
league (<?..), for which it doubtless served as a model. The AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, bom at
general assembly, convoked every autumn at Thermon to elect Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in the
officials, and at other places in special emergencies, shaped the
reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil
league's general policy;it was nominally open to all freemen,
Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known;
though no doubt the Aetolian chieftains really controlled it. but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against
The council of deputies from the confederate cities undertook some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He
the routine of administration and jurisdiction. The strategus gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the
(general) aided by 30 apocleti (ministers)
,
had complete control
,
widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts
in the field and presided over the assembly,though with restricted against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consul-
advisory powers. The Aetolians also used the Amphictyonic
ship under Caligula (39) and under Nero he was superintendent
;

synod for passing solemn enactments. The league's relation to of the water supply. He died A.D. 60, according to Jerome, of
outlying dependencies is obscure; many of these were probably
over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta),
mere protectorates or " allied states and secured no representa-
"
collections of which were published, and mentions two books by
tion. The federal executive was certainly much more efficient him On Witnesses.
than that of the Achaeans, and its councils suffered less from Quintilian, Instil, vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. I. 118, &c. ; Tac. Ann.
disunion; but its generals and admirals, official or otherwise, iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, Ix. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18.

enjoyed undue licence; hence the league deservedly gained an AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a
evil name for the numerous acts of lawlessness or violence which
person), literally, a mental state resulting generally from an
its troops committed. But as a champion of republican Greece external influence. It is popularly used of a relation between
against foreign enemies no other power of the age rendered equal persons amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. By
services. After the first overthrow of the Byzantine empire ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct
300 AFFIDAVIT AFFILIATION
states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it on a petition, summons or motion. Interlocutory proceedings
" "
with passion as being free from the distinctively sensual before trial are conducted by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of
element. More specifically the word has been restricted to documents, hence called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are
emotional states which are in relation to persons. In the former sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have
sense, it is the Gr. ira.6os, and as such it appears in Descartes been duly and legally performed (such as service of proceed-
and most of the early British ethical writers. On various ings, &c.). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice,
grounds, however e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excite- in the administration of the revenue and in the inferior and
ment, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the county courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any
entire absence of the sensuous element it is generally and use- kind, such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must
fully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of scripts).
word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit is almost
" "
spoken of the social or parental affections as in some sense unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as prima facie
a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court (R.S.C. Ord.
similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid down for all
which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, affidavits and affirmatiems
in causes or matters depending in
Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349. the High Court. An affidavit must consist of title, body or
In psychology the terms
"
affection
"
and " affective " are statement and jurat. It must be written or printed on foolscap,
of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by bookwise, in the first person; give correctly the names of the
experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has parties to the action; and the description and true place of
been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, abode of the deponent. An affidavit is confined, except on
the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately interlocutory motions, to such facts as the witness is able of
composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has his own knowledge to prove. The signature of the deponent
been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many must be written opposite to the jurat, which must contain the
psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all place, date and time of swearing, and this signed by the officer

experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions or magistrate before whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit
proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are sworn on a Sunday is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and
primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those Separatists were first privileged to make a solemn declaration
which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it or affirmation, and by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852
does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that and other statutes all persons prevented by religious belief from
it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit taking an oath were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths
between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is Act 1888, every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to
that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by affirm in all places and for all purposes where an oath is required
reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name. by law. By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take affi-
W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig, davits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a
1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. The same
directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any
question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and the matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when
reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depres- an oath was specially authorized by statute, as in the bankruptcy
sion. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been law, and excepting criminal inquiries, parliamentary proceedings
discovered. and instances where oaths are required to give validity to docu-
Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The ments abroad. Scottish justices can act in England and vice
first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and the Commissioner of Oaths
in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to Act 1889 consolidated all previous enactments relating to oaths
accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus and gave the lord chancellor power to appoint commissioners
it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, for oaths to take affidavits for all purposes (see OATH). Under
and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff may file an affidavit for the
and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection arrest of a debtor (affidavit to hold to bail) when the debt
and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation amounts to 50 or upwards, where it can be shown that the
is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are debtor's absence from the kingdom would materially prejudice
insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly the prosecution of the action.
problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador,
can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with a jenvoy, minister, charge d'affaires, secretary of embassy or lega-
perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject tion, consul or consular agent.
introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in
The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the England and its general uses are the same, but it is not sub-
changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him stituted for oral evidence in court to anything like the extent
in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated to which that is done in the English courts of chancery. The
according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in statutes of each state designate the persons before whom affi-
groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. davits may be made outside the state, and special commissioners
Mention should also be made of a third method which has are appointed for that purpose by each state. Affidavits made
hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate abroad must be made before such commissioners or persons
one of the three " directions " by the method of suggestion or so designated, who are usually diplomatic and consular officials,
even hypnotic trance observations. justices, notaries public or mayors. "Affidavit of documents"
For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of is not generally used in the United States; discovery is procured
psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O.
by motion.
Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans.
E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experi- AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son),
mental Psychology (1905) art. PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted. in law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child
;

AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath," is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support
from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn or affirmed enforced. In England a number of statutes on the subject
to before some person who has authority to administer an oath have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of 1845,
or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873.
in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in England The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to
 AFFINITY AFFRE 301
petty sessions within twelve months of the birth (or at any later as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with
time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in
within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister
hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence has no affinity to her husband's brother. This is (2) Secondary
be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting
to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations.
sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibi-
together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the tions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity.
funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited
costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended
child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would
order direct the payments to be continued until the child is be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be
sixteen years of age. An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease.
the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been
King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child after- founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of
wards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the
may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable
whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both
to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical,
father for a contribution. Any woman who is single, a widow, not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 all marriages
or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were
an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared
child is begotten, provided it is born in England. An application null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a
for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. (See CONSAN-
in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of GUINITY; MARRIAGE.)
a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of
of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemi-
down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the cal combination with each other. (See CHEMISTRY; CHEMICAL
making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual ACTION; VALENCY.)
to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses. AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declara-
The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due provision for tion that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the
the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly,
an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscien-
the Army Act 1 88 1, if an order has been made against a soldier tiously object to taking an oath. (See OATH.)
of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a
secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay public place to the terror (a I' ejfroi ) of the lieges. The offence is
to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and
to sailors in the royal navy. imprisonment. A fight in private is an assault and battery, not
In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also
(with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see
Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these
filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may,
mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an
child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid affray. In the United States the English common law as to
may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes
Supplt. 372). On the continent of Europe, however, the legis- of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892,
lation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, vol. i. 535). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopts the
"
Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Servia and the canton of English definition of affray, with the substitution of actual
Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an " "
disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the lieges."
illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray
upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a
Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons pro- fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place
vide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, to which the public have access. This definition is taken from
and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the
father. Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the
France, is a term applied to a species of adoption
Affiliation, in definition of vis publica.
by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTS (1793-1848), archbishop of Paris,
to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased. was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th
(See ADOPTION. Also BASTARD; POOR LAWS.) of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St
AUTHORITIES. Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders of Affilia- Sulpice, where in 1818 he became professor of dogmatic theology.
tion; Lushington, Law of Affiliation and Bastardy; Little, Poor After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to
Law Statutes. (T. A. I.) the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the
AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from
government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but
affinis,bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law, devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however,
as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term
applied to is remembered owing to its tragic close. During the
chiefly
the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that
wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually de- by his personal interference peace might be restored between
scribed as of three kinds, (i) Direct: that relationship which the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the
subsists between the husband and his wife's relations
by blood or warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the
between the wife and the husband's relations by blood. The entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch
marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however,
are held as related by affinity in the same when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they
degree to the one spouse
302 AFFREIGHTMENT
were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by
archbishop struck by a stray bullet.
fell,
He was removed to the terms of such contract.
his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England
the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered
sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on the by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of
7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind,. goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to
The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the
including an Essai sur les hieroglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834), general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the
in which he showed that Champollion's system was insufficient English law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See,
to explain the hieroglyphics. as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judg-
See Ricard, Les grands eveques de I'eglise de France au XIXe ments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson (1874), L.R., 9 Ex.
siecle (Lille, .1893) L. Alazard, Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de
;
338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) i C.P.D. 423.) In practice
Paris (Paris, 1905).
goods are not often shipped without a written contract or
AFFREIGHTMENT (from "freight," ?..). Contract of acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried.
A/reightment the expression usually employed to describe
is For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a
the contract between a shipowner and some other person bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo

called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called

of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the
the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the
carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a other part. But at present we are considering the relations of
specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract,
"
specified price, called freight," for the carriage of the goods as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried
or the use of the ship. A ship may be let like a house to some to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but
person who takes possession and control of it for a specified without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In
term. The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law,
the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties
" *
by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it or promises which though not expressed must, as the
p fs
is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation contract.
mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obli-
distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is some- gations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to
times called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a be as follows: The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or
form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. in a Condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable
The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods,
course, a branch of the general law of contract. The rights and unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity
obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as
in the to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be
case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery
entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship
some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts. at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in
Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are, some usual discharging place. The shipper must pay the agreed
therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight
example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the
when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage.
interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract. On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first
The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods
other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it, shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to
must be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or
certain'more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment damage 'caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by
have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part VIII.) it is further
in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss,
logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board
certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts. the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away
A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of
rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment;
absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter and, further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of
dealt with by such rules. This is done either by statutory goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding
enactment, as by that part (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The
Act 1894 which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other
established rules of the unwritten law, the
"
common law " words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into
as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common an express undertaking: (i) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that
Rules
ol law. carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and
the goods carried, unless it is prevented by t\: act of shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the
God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common voyage.
law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or
by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations
though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been
affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods,
will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind are such as have been described above. The importance of
where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and
to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, conse- shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules
quently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading,
terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remember- charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified
ing always that these same rules apply when there is a written or negatived by the express terms of the contract.
 AFFREIGHTMENT 303
Bills of Lading. essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of
The document signed by the master or agent for the ship- lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains
nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed
owner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel
of

and the terms which it is to be carried, is called a to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations
goods upon
Bill of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the
used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to
Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has bind his owner by signing bills of lading.
been selected as a sample: The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses
in have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a
Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by
and upon the good Vessel called the now lying in the port of vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at
and bound for with liberty to call at any ports in all events those common to all be stated as
, bills of lading, may
any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in dis- follows:
tress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property ;

and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the afore- 1. The name of the shipper.
said port of unto or to his or their assigns, freight 2. The name of the ship.
and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils 3. The place of loading and destination of the ship.
of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates,
and and restraints of princes, rulers, and people,
thieves, arrests,
4. A description of the goods shipped.
collisions, and other accidents of navigation excepted,
stranding, 5. The place of delivery.
even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment 6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made.
of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners. The freight to be paid.
7.
of
Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting 8. The excepted perils.
boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery
or
hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the 9. The shipowner's lien.-
Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager. The description of (i) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no
General Average payable according t6 York-Antwerp Rules. remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because
In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath
there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking
affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn
as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily
others to stand void. to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the
Dated in day of 188
goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation
this .

The of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of

bill are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any
goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the
on terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the devia-
master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the tion, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted
shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel perils.The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may
may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways : be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however,
(1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship, very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking
" "
to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send by introducing in the bill of lading certain liberties to deviate,
"
goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is as, for example, in the form given above, liberty to call at any
bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the load- ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to
ing, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an deviate for the purpose of saving life and property." The nature
acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is after- and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract.
wards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses
by a general ship the lading is the evidence and memor-
bill of giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the ship-
andum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper. owner.
(2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped
the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them
case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper, as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course,
and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against
a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading,
to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely con-
otherwise. By the ancient custom of merchants recognized clusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself
and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is
title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods
which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence
a cargo is shipped under a charter-party, although bills of lading by proving, if he can, that.the goods mentioned, or some of
may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not them, were not in fact shipped.
the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently
between the parties of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3) arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver
There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle
with which we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must
chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where,
ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as
the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature
under bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the
freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises
course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place
chartered freight, and so make a profit. The master, although named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen,
he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term for example, in the case of a declaration of war between Great
of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and Britain and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading
on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for break-
effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills ing his contract if its performance has become illegal. There
of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party
may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the
are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties
to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on
304 AFFREIGHTMENT
the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not
things, the non-existence of which would render performance be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward
impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods,
became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered.
consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is pre-
the continued existence of the place named as a port was an vented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery
implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or
excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he
remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destina-
contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable tion, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and
for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him
his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her
such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement
why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably
important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the
described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the
consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay in- other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the
volves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destina-
shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which tion, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destina-
occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery tion by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner
described in the bill of lading. of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at
(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of any place short of their destination without payment of the full
lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more usually freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made
" "
they are made deliverable to the order or assigns of the payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become
named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in
deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be
instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become
rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of repayable because the goods do not reach their destination.
lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the If,however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance
document. When an indorsement has once been made by the are lost,and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of
shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing
back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be trans- the damage recoverable from the shipowner.
ferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A lading so
bill of There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater
(8)
"
indorsed is said to be indorsed in blank." But the shipper or practical importance or which demands more careful considera-
consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by tion by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth
"
indorsing it not in blank," but with a direction requiring the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of
delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his loss, forwhich the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By
"
order. This is called an indorsement in full." When an in- the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier,
" "
dorsement has been made in full to a named indorsee or order, apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act
" " " "
such indorsee must again indorse in blank or in full to of God or the king's enemies. The expression " act of God "
effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading. requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say
(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes
of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or
under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party, negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies
by reference" to the charter-party. A common form of such much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it
reference is freight and other conditions, as per charter-party." usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint
It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not in- of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrong-
corporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms doing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in
and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to
to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not
ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of
demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy
thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions and fit for the voyage at its commencement. It is important
in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the to point out in this connexion that there are two duties which
bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are
contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions,
destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the
becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes abso-
freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether. lutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the
This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed.
by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or
act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel
express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement,
interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may, the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable
by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking
delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by
of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at
of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied their destination the goods received by him for carriage. Should
in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause
taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted
such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in peril, the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the
still
fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage
 AFFREIGHTMENT 305
would not have occurred but for the negligence of the maste that the master shall sign bills of
lading for the cargo shipped
or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in either at the same rate of freight as is
payable under the charter-
other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable can party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case
to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause. with a stipulation that, if the total bill of
lading freight is less
It must not be
supposed that even these primary obligations than the total freight payable under the
charter-party, the dif-
which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not b) ference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the
words but by implication, may not be excluded by tht
express terms of the contract. It has now become sailing of the vessel); and there is usually what is called the
common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not cesser clause, by which the charterer's
liability under the charter-
be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking
servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and
even when brought about bythe negligenceof hisservants. And with demurrage. The
regard toseaworthiness.it isnot uncommon fortheshipownertostipu- charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which
late that he shall not be responsible for loss are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses pro-
arising even from the
unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has
viding for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing
been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the
the charter-party, the " address " commission to be
ship seaworthyat the commencementof theyoyage. There is indeec paid to the
no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from agents for the vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters
exempting
himself by the terms of the bill of lading from
liability for damage
of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, inde-
and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any
finitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the
other cause
^hatsoever. In such a case the goods are carried at ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage.
their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it
by insurance. In this respect the law of England permits greater What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage,
freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states. the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the
The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the United liability of the shipowner and his lien applies equally to .charter-
States of America are forbidden by an act of parties. It may be desirable to add a few words on
Congress, commonly demurrage, dead
called the Harter Act, passed in the year freight, and on the cesser clause.
1893, to insert in their
contracts of affreightment any clause
exempting the shipowner Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour
from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the
same time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time
been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days.
fit for the voyage at its
commencement, the shipowner shall not be Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept
liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no
in the navigation of the vessel, or by
perils of the sea or certain demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is
other causes set forth in the act. It is now very usual to insert kept loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is
in the bills of lading of British vessels loading in the United States entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered
a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to by the detention of his ship or, if the vessel is detained beyond the
;

make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading. fixed number of demurrage days,
damages for detention will be re-
The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard coverable. Sometimes there is no time fixed by the
charter-party
to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact lan- for loading or discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load
or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the
guage, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are
recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with
ques- such reasonable despatch, the shipowner win be entitled to claim
tion must be, What is the true and natural
meaning of the language
used by the parties? This question is not governed by the
general
damages for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any)
rules which we have endeavoured to explain but the words of the will generally be accepted as the measure of the
; damages for deten-
contract must always be considered with reference to these rules, tion, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for
which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which
recognized and formulated by the courts of law. may be more or may be less than the agreed rate ot demurrage.
The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be
(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated
shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the ship- this exception does not
apply to the computation of the period of
owner has by the common law a lien for freight. If it is desired detention after the lay days have expired.
to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see Dead freight is the name given to the amount of freight lost, and
below) or other therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as
charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with
of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until the terms of the charter-party.
payment has
been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for The cesser clause has come into common use because very fre-
which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost quently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo
shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered
by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee :he vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of
which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain lading
freight. The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have
possession of the goods until payment has been made. The ship- shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the ship-
owner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining owner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead
a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead
them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public ware-
freight that may be payable to him. It has become an established
house, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the
language used
Shipping Act 1894. will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive
only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the
Charter-parlies. :harterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien
Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for s given to the shipowner. The shipowner is further secured by the
( i ) A charter-party for a voyage
a voyage or for a period of time. stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under
is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference
the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel "
shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty
being tight, which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that
staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms ot
voyage," shall
load at a certain named place a full cargo either of he bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive
goods of a
ien as against the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under
specified description or of general merchandise, and being so
:he bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for
loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a
specified the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and
place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and unless the bill of lading
expressly reserves it, they are not subject to
there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their There a lien for the chartered freight. The master
assigns. may guard against this
are clauses which provide for the amount of difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve
freight to be paid and he shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often
the manner and time of payment; for the
time, usually described Dut into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter-
as lay days, to be allowed for
loading and discharging, and for the >arty requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger
'. Mod
demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days; Tryvan, 1907 A. C. 272.
"
usually also a clause requiring the cargo to be brought to and (2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner
taken from alongside at merchant's risk and nd
expense "; a clause charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the
306 AFGHANISTAN
charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment, and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are
either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within called general average (see AVERAGE) sacrifices and expenses,
certain limits. A
place is usually named at which the vessel is to and are made good, to the person who has made the sacrifice or
be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is
freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion
pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably accord-
coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain ing to the benefit received. The law regulating the rights of the
rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of
in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the
cases if disabled; the master, though he usually is
the vessel is owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment
and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage
orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel, of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay
they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage.
they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by
otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred
contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such
lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo;
of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a volun-
their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circum- tary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo
stances of each case. from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo
It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner to contribute in general average to make good the loss.
to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905) Scrutton, Charter-
;

employed within certain limits according to the wish and direc- parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.)
tions, and for the purposes and
profit of, the charterers. But, as AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia. Estimated area
we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the 245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan). Pop.
shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the about 5,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan,
master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the
proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been independent tribes of the North-West Frontier of India and
already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by Baluchistan. The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern
the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge " "
days is due to its position as a buffer state intervening be-
of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner tween the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British India.
responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by During the last quarter of the igth century our knowledge of
the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his the country was greatly increased, and its boundaries on the
ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact N., E. and S. were strictly delimited. The second Afghan war
in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for the extension of wide
at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In geographical surveys on a scientific basis. The Russian-Afghan
the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 resulted in the delimitation
the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have and mapping of the northern frontier. The Durand agreement
pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner, of 1893 led to the partition of the Pathan tribes on the southern
the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employ- and eastern frontiers. The Pamir Commission of 1895 settled
ment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, its north-eastern border. Finally the Perso-Baluch Commission
who appoints his own master and crew, different considera- of 1904-1905 defined its western face.
tions apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari
let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of Rud river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows
affreightment. a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, and
There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the Kushk river in
relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of Jamshidi territory at a point which was once known as Chahil
Custom y extraordinary peril
or urgency in the course of a voyage, Dukteran, but is now the Russian post Kushkinski, and the
rights"" which, though not strictly contractual, are well estab- terminus of a branch railway from Merv. Kushkinski is about
lished by the customs of merchants and recognized by 20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement of Kushk, which is
the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in the capital of Badghis. The settlement and the post originally
the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the called Kushk must not be confused together. From Kushk-
owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be inski the boundary runs north-east, crossing the Murghab river
necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority near Maruchak (which is an Afghan fortress) and thence passes
,

or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only north-east through the hills of the Chul, and the undulating
of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner. deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, to the Oxus, leaving the valleys
Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the of Charshamba and of Andkhui (to which it runs approximately
safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be parallel) within Afghan limits. These valleys denote the limits
necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and of cultivation in this direction. Throughout all this region the
afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will boundary is generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars,
be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost but it is here and there indicated by natural features forming
of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner; local lines of water-parting or water-course. The boundary meets
part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the culti-
the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in vated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to the
order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel of
safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. (See
necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or Oxus.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier line was
to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. A
such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan territory, but the
as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of boundary crosses this Pamir before the great bend northwards of
the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a series of crags and un-
from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made traversable mountain ridges, is lost on the Chinese frontier in the
 AFGHANISTAN 307

AFGHANISTAN

66 Longitude East 68 of Greenwich

Emtry Walker ic.

snowfields of Sarikol. Bending back westwards upon itself, the Thence following a course nearly due south, it reaches Landi
line of Afghan frontier now follows the water-parting of the Kotal. From the abutment of the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol
Hindu Rush; and as the Hindu Kush absolutely overhangs the in the Pamir regions to Landi Kotal, and throughout its eastern
Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, it follows that, at this point, and southern limits, the boundary of Afghanistan touches
Afghanistan is about 10 m. wide. Thus a small and highly districts which were brought under British political control with
elevated portion of the state extends eastwards from its extreme the formation of tlje North- West Frontier Provinces of India in
north-eastern corner, and is attached to the great Afghan quadri- 1901. From the neighbourhood of Landi Kotal the boundary
lateral by the thin link of the Panja valley. These narrow limits is carried to the Safed Koh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and

(called Wakhan) include the lofty spurs of the northern flank then, rounding off the cultivated portions of the Kurram valley
of the Hindu Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where below the Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper
the glacial passes reach 19,000 ft. in altitude, and the enclosing reaches of the Tochi. Crossing these again, it is continued on
peaks 24,000 ft. The backbone or main water-divide of the the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at
Hindu Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghan- Domandi. South of the Gomal it separates the interests of
istan and those semi-independent native states which fringe Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the
Kashmir in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan. North-West Frontier Province. From Domandi (the junction
From near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral of the Kundar river with the
Gomal) the Afghan boundary
with the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-clad spur marches with that of Baluchistan. (See BALUCHISTAN.) It is
reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of carried to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by
Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote the the channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond
eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the Chitral the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of the
river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45m. south of Chitral. Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and
Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the boundary Nushki. From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching
to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, after crossing the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great part
passes
it by a spur which leaves the insignificant Arnawai valley to of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it strikes nearly
the north; along this water-divide it extends to a point nearly west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on the Koh-i-Malik Siah
opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in the Kunar valley (the mountain, south of Seistan. Two points of this part of the
Chitral river has become the Kunar in its course southwards), Afghan boundary are notable. It leaves some of the most
and then stretches away an uneven and undefined line, dividing
in Durani Afghan people on the Baluch side of the
fanatical of the
certain sections of the Mohmands from each other by hypo- frontier in the Toba district, north of the Quetta-Chaman line
thetical landmarks, till it. strikes the Kabul river near Palosi. of railway; and it passes 50 m. south of the Helmund river,
 3 o8 AFGHANISTAN
enclosing within Afghanistan the only approach to Seistan from
and Tashkurghan. Opposite Tashkurghan the Oxus plain narrows
to a short 25 m. On the south this great band of roughly un-
India which is available during the seasons of Helmund overflow.
dulating central plateau is bounded by the Koh-i-Baba, to the west
Between Afghanistan and Persia the boundary was denned by of Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush to the north and north-east of that
Sir F. Goldsmid's Commission in 1872 from the Malik-Siah-Koh city. Thus the main routes from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must
to the Helmund Lagoons, and rectified by the Commission under cross either one or other of these ranges, and must traverse one or
other of the terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by
Sir Henry MacMahon in 1903-1905. Beyond these lagoons to the upper tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the
Hashtadan it is still indefinite. The eastern limits of Hashtadan Oxus. Probably in no country in the world are there gathered
had been previously fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river together within comparatively narrow limits so many clean-cut
at Toman Agha. From this point to Zulfikar the Hari Rud is waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording such a
itself the boundary. stupendous system of narrow roadways through the hills.
After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range
Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises which divides Ningrahar (or the valley of Jalalabad) from Kurram
four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern and the Afridi Tirah, and is called Safed Koh (also the name of the
Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Turkes- range south of the Hari Rud), is the most important, as it is the
an together with the minor dependencies of the
*-
most impressive, in Afghanistan.
proviaces. '
The highest peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram, is 15,600 ft. above
Ghilzai and Hazara Highlands, Ghazni, Jalalabad and sea-level. From this central dominating peak it falls gently towards
Kafiristan. All these are described in separate articles. The the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, reaching to within a
kingdom of Kabul is the historic Afghanistan; the link which few miles of Kabul and barring the road from Kabul to Ghazni. At
unites it to Kandahar, Herat and the other outlying provinces a point which is not far east of the Kabul meridian an offshoot is
directed southwards, which becomes the water-parting between the
having been frequently broken and again restored by amirs of Kurram and the Logar at Shutargardan, and can be traced to a
sufficient strength and capability. The Herat province is largely connexion with the great watershed of the frontier dividing the
Persian, while Afghan Turkestan is chiefly Usbeg; and in neither Indus basin from that of the Helmund. This main watershed
is the sentiment of loyalty to the central government retains its high altitude far to the south. There are peaks measur-
very strong.
The bond is geographical and political rather than racial.
ing over 12,000 ft. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghazni
The
plains.
geographical divisions of the country are created by the basins
So far as we know at present the geological history of Afghan-
of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund, the Hari Rud and
istan differs widely from that of India. When, somewhere at
the Oxus. The Kabul river drains Northern Afghanistan, the
the commencement of the Cretaceous period, the
Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus that of Afghan Geology.
Turkestan. Afghanistan is largely a country of mountains and peninsula of India was connected by land with Mada-
gascar and Southern Africa, all Afghanistan, Baluchistan and
deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly irrigated and most
Persia formed part of an area which was not continuously below
productive country where fruit is grown in such abundance
as to become an important item in the export trade. sea-level, but exhibited alternations of land and sea. The end
The
of the Cretaceous period saw the beginning of a series of great
Afghans are expert agriculturists and make profitable use of all earth movements ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale
the natural sources of water-supply. As practical irrigation
such as the earth has never since witnessed, which resulted
engineers they are only rivalled by the Chinese.
in the upheaval of the Himalayas by a process of crushing
The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu
and folding of the sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were
Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which
forced to an altitude of 20,000 ft. above the sea. It v/as not
is indicated by the Koh-i-Baba to the north-west of
Mountain till the Tertiary age, and even late in that age, that much
systems. Kabul, and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan),
of the land area of Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level.
which merges still farther to the west by gentle
Then the ocean gradually retired into the great Central Asian
gradients into the Paropamisus, and which may be traced across
the Hari Rud to Mashad. depressions.
Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of level
The culminating peaks of the
Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources since that period, and the process of flexure and the formation of
of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kunduz and the Kabul anticlinals traversing the northern districts of Afghanistan is a
very
nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, is 16,870), process which is still in action. So rapid has been the land elevation
and from them to the south-west long spurs divide the upper tribu- of Central Afghanistan that the erosive action of rivers has not been
taries of the Helmund,
_and separate its basin from that of the Farah able to keep pace with that of upheaval and the result all through
;

Rud. These spurs retain a considerable altitude, for they are marked Afghanistan (but specially marked in the great central highlands
by peaks exceeding 1 1,000 ft. They sweep in a broad band of roughly between Kabul and Herat) is the formation of those immensely deep
parallel ranges to the south-west, preserving their general direction gorges and denies which are locally known as daras. One of these,
till they abut on the Great in the Astarab, to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. wide,
Registan desert to the west of Kandahar,
where they terminate in a series of detached and broken anticlinals and is enclosed between
perpendicular limestone cliffs 1500 ft. high.
whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching sand. The long, C. L. Griesbach considers that the general outline of the land con-
straight, level-backed ridges which divide the Argandab, the Tarnak figuration has remained much the same since Pliocene times, and
and Arghastan valleys, and flank the route from Kandahar to Ghazni, that the force which brought about the wrinkling of the older de-
determining the_ direction of that route, are outliers of this system, posits still continues to add fold on fold. The highlands which shut
which geographically includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Amran, range off the Turkestan provinces from Southern Afghanistan have afforded
in Baluchistan. the best opportunities for geological investigation, and as might be
North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad syn- expected from their geographical position, the general result of the
clinal plateau into which the Hindu Kush is examination of exposed sections leads to the identification of geo-
merged is traversed
by the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of logical affinity with Himalayan, Indian and Persian regions. The
the Kunduz, and farther to the west by the Band-i-Amir or Balkh general configuration of the Turkestan highlands has been already
river. Between the debouchment of the Upper Murghab from the indicated.
Firozkhoi uplands into the comparatively low level of the valley
Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain area
above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a nearly straight line northwards are ranged the Tertiaries and recent deposits. North
to the upper sources of the Shibarghan stream, the Band-i-Turkestan of Maimana they form low undulating loess hills, in which most
range forms the northern ridge between the plateau and the sand of the Band-i-Turkestan drainage is lost. This wide-spreading loess
formations of the Chul. It is a level, straight-backed line of sombre area, formed partly of wind-blown sand and partly of detritus
mountain ridge, from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extra- from the mountains, is known as Chul, and merges into the great
ordinary configuration of that immense loess deposit called the Chul plains south of the Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with
can be seen stretching away northwards to the Oxus modern aerial deposits. Beneath this Chul formation the older beds
ridge upon
ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yellow-grey sea of storm-twisted of the outer and Turkestan ranges dip and pass to an irregular out-
billows. The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may be traced eastwards crop near the banks of the Oxus. Between the Oxus and the hills
of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within the folds of the Kara Koh there has already been formed a rise or flexure in the ground, which
to the Kunduz, and beyond but the Kara Koh does not mark the
; extends more or less parallel to the northern edge of the hills, and,
northern wall of the great plateau nor overlook the sands of the
shutting in the cultivated area of the plains, arrests all tributaries
Oxus plain, as does the Band-i-Turkestan. Here there intervenes seeking to effect a junction with the Oxus from the south, and leads
a second wide synclinal plateau, of which the northern edge is denned to the formation of marshes and swamps. This appears to be the
by the flat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Mazar-i-Sharif, and beginning of a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the
immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial plains of Mazar Balkh plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which
 AFGHANISTAN 3.09
may have been effective within historic times in changing the climate
Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central
and the agricultural prospects of this part of Central Asia. The Oxus
itself is steadily encroaching on its right banks and depositing detritus Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan
on the left. through the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see
No
fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of high economic HINDU RUSH), the highways of Afghanistan may be
value to Afghanistan have been made of late years. Such as classed under two heads: (i) Foreign trade routes, and (2)
are known and worked at present have been worked from very
Internal communications.
ancient times, and their capacity is not likely to develop greatly
under the Kabul government. The most important feature in (i) Of the many routes which cross the frontiers of Afghanistan
the most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus
this connexion which was noted by the geologist of the Russo-
regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those which
Afghan Commission is the existence of vast coal beds in northern lead from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar to the plains of India.
Afghanistan. In 1903 some coal mines were discovered in the Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three
Jagdalak districts. main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu
There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan but
vidences of their recent existence are abundant. The great boulder
;
Kush. One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its head from
ed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern slopes of the Tashkurgjhan, and then, preserving a high general level of 8000 to
Ferozkhoi plateau are probably of glacial origin. In the mountains 9000 ft., it passes over the water-divides separating the upper tribu-
taries of the Kunduz river, and drops into the valley formed by an-
west of Kabul glaciers have retired, leaving the moraines
perfectly other tributary at Bamian. From Bamian it passes over the central
undisturbed. They are probably contemporary with the older
mountain chain to Kabul either by the well-known passes of Irak
alluvia. (T. H. H.*)
The oldest rocks which have yet been identified 1 in Afghanistan (marking the water-divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking
occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been referred the summit of the Sanglakh, a branch of the Hindu Kush), or else,
to the Carboniferous. At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the Shibar,
a pass which is considerably lower than the Irak and is very seldom
example, there is a dark Productus limestone which seems
to be identical with theProductus limestoneof the Central Himalayas. snowbound. From the foot of the Unai pass it follows the Kabul
These beds are conformably succeeded, along the Central Asian river, and from the foot of the Shibar it follows the circuitous route
which is offered by the drainage of the Ghorband valley to Charikar,
watershed, by a continuous series of strata which apparently repre-
sent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of Europe. and thence southwards to Kabul. The main points on this route are
They consist of Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian. It is full of awkward grades and
marine beds alternating with freshwater and littoral deposits,
'
minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass
igether with plant beds and coal-seams of considerable thickness.
he lowest beds of this series, which from their position may belong (if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft. That
either to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous, this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward
have yielded no recognizable fossils but they include a conglomerate from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear silent
;

which closely resembles the boulder bed near the base of the Talchir witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's talent for
series in India. The Upper Trias has been definitely identified by roadmaking has not opened out better alternative lines. One of his
the occurrence of Halobia and other fossils while in the higher beds roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar
;

of the series marine forms belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic pass across the Hindu Kush. The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.),
have been found. but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, south
The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the remains of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of
which nave been found in them are several forms which occur Badakshan, is more direct. A third route also passes through
also in the Gondwana beds of India. There can be no doubt Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawak
that the series as a whole is the equivalent of the Gondwana pass and Panjshir river. The latter joins the Ghorband close to
Charikar. The Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades
system, and when the country has been more closely examined
the association of marine fossils with Gondwana plants will be of are easy and the snowfall usually light. This high road is stated (on
the greatest value in determining the precise homotaxis of th.e Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the year
Indian deposits. round by the employment of forced labour for clearing snow. It is
The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect conformity, a recently developed route and one of great importance to Kabul,
both strategically "and commercially.
by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of Afghan Turkestan
and probably forms the greater part of the ranges which run south Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier
and south-west from the principal watershed. The lowest beds between Peshawarandthe Gomal occur at intervals alongthe western
consist of red grits which contain Neocomian fossils, while the middle border, and in the northern section of the Indian frontier they
and upper Cretaceous consist chiefly of limestone and chalk. The are all well marked. The Khyber, Kurram and Tochi are the best
entire system may be represented in the west, but in the Herat known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan are
province and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to
held by British troops or Indian levies. But the Bara valley route
be absent, and it is probable that, as in other regions, the upper into the heart of the Afridi Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked,
Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lower beds. Tertiary although it is not a trade route of any importance. Between Kabul
and recent deposits are widely spread, filling most of the valleys and and Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and
the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Jagdalak
covering the plains of the Helmund. Eocene beds have not yet been
proved to exist; but this is probably owing to the imperfect know- passes, the latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade
ledge of the country, for the formation is known in Persia, Baluch-
in 1842. Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.).
istan and the Suliman Hills. The lower part of the Miocene is The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route of advance from
marine in Herat and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Miocene is Kabul to Peshawar. From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul
river through the valley of Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans
usually of freshwater or estuarine origin. In Afghanistan, as in
other regions near the great Eurasian system of folds, the Miocene call it) over a gentle water-parting into the Kunar valley,
leaving
includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt. It was during this Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south. From the Kunar it crossed
period that the forces which finally raised the country above the into Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes,
level of the sea began to take effect. The Pliocene consists entirely and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malakand or
of freshwater and terrestrial deposits, which were some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar.
probably laid The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes
down at the foot of the rising hills and on the floors of the intervening
valleys. As the elevation continued, they were sometimes involved (8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of
in the folding to which the mountains owe their the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, however
origin. During suitable as an alternative military line of advance.
this period the gradual desiccation of the country continued, and
wind-blown deposits, such as the loess, began to make their Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India
appearance. by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley and the dis-
Although volcanic cones are known both in Persia and in Baluch- tricts at its head, yet this is the shortest and most direct route
istan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan itself. There between Ghazni and the frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni
raiding was the road by which the great robber Mahmucf occasionally
descended on to the Indus plains. Traces of his raiding and road-
'.
According to
1 with the lowest making are still visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more
part of the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place direct route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the
during the Neocomian period. But the most important igneous Tochi. The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the
masses are the great intrusions of syenitic granite and of basic rock Tochi and the Ghazni plain is still unknown to us.
which penetrate the Cretaceous beds. These are probably of Eocene The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan
or of late Cretaceous age. and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at Wana,
(P. LA.)
will do much to ensure its continued popularity. The Gomal in-
volves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to
1
We
owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost follow the actual course of the river on account of the narrow defiles
entirely to the observations of C. L. Griesbach, and a summary of which have been cut through the recent conglomerate beds which
his researches will be found in Records
of the Geological Survey of flank the plains of the Indus. It has been carefully surveyed for a
India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map. possible railway alignment; and an excellent road now connects
310 AFGHANISTAN
Tank (at its foot) with the Zhob line of Communications to Quetta, snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie
and with VVana on the southern flank of Waziristan. The Gomal Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard
long.
route is of immense importance, both as a commercial and strategic
line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either
enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from
the Kurram or the Tochi. Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at
Of theinteriorlinesof communication, those which connect the
(2) Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's army,
great cities of Afghanistan, Herat, Kabul and Kandahar,
are obvi-
retreating from Persia, is have lost 18,000 men from cold
said to
ously the most important. Between Kabul and Herat there is no
" " in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records
royal road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow-
bound wastes that lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i- of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as
Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. It is a 17 F., and the maximum 38. The
eastern reaches of the Hari
waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the Rud river are frozenhard in the winter, rapids and all, and the
road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year. Between
Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route people travel on it as on a road.
by Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai There is but one insignificant water-
.
The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in
parting or kotal a little to the north of Ghazni; and the road, India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya,
although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are
in Europe for military purposes. Between Kandahar and Herat
there the recognized trade route which crosses the Helmund at
is
more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs
Girishk and passes through Farah and Sabzawar. It includes about of theHindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh.
360 miles of easy road, with spaces where waterisscarce. Thereis Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley.
not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty, South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the
to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the
western limit. of the monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the
north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, con-
rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the
taining the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern
Afghan tribes. Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though
Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman. "
It is on
less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter
the whole a route across open plains and hard, stony dasht" a
extension rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. In the
route which would offer no great difficulties to that railway
from Chaman which has so long been contemplated. A very con- absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indica-
siderable trade now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost tions than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in
prohibitive imposts;
but the trade does not follow the railway from winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their
New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak. Long strings of influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold is then
camels may still be seen from the train windows patiently treading
their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally,
train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain tunnel the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. The sun shines with
into the Peshin valley.
splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even
The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected. more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great
Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and

Climate g reat difference between the mean temperature of night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of
Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas. Each climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the
may be placed at a point between 50 and 60 F. But the remark- emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you
able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours'
its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The journey a place where snow almost never melts!
least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local
greatest in the hot. For seven months of the year (from May climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, and of
to November) this range exceeds 30 F. daily. Waves of intense some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh.
cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure The people have by no means that immunity from disease
a cold of 12 below zero, rising to a maximum of 17 below which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine
freezing-point. On the other hand the summer temperature is physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to
exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent;
maximum of 1 10 to 120 is not uncommon. At Kabul, and over bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the autumn.
allthe northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak, The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top in summer
winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh
plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest
people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At of climates, the mortality from fever and bowel complaint,
Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal between July and October, is great, the immoderate use of
equinox; the thermometer sinks to 10 and 15 below zero fruit predisposing to such ailments.
(Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the
population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once. mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people
At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known
*_
ufa
Indian character. The summer heat is great everywhere in as the Durani. The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful w ^"
Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the as the Durani) claims to be of Turkish origin; the
Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan. Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others
All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the are more or less subject races. Popularly any inhabitant of
simoon is not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of Afghanistan is known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without
the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and distinction of origin or language; but the language division
fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the between the Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the
country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render Pathan is a very distinct one. The predominance of the Afghan
the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun inAfghanistan dates from the middle of the 1 8th century, when
has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous con-
cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually quests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire.
cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist on
hills; when it does, it melts at once. their descent from the tribes who were carried away captive
At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar. Yet they also
climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other
is far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan.
blows from the N.W. with great violence, and this extends The bond of affinity between the various peoples who compose
across the country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild; the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common language.
 AFGHANISTAN
All ofthem recognize a common code or unwritten law called fection, and they utilize every acre of profitable soil. Certain
Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construc-
to the old Hebraic law, though modified by Mahommedan tion of the karez or underground water-channel.
ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan.
Rajput custom. Besides their division into clans and tribes, Next to Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan
the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents kingdom in existence. The vast majority of Afghans KeUglon _

and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not are of the Sunni sect; but there are, in their midst,
coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central
at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, e.g., is the districts, the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram
case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai. border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian
The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in animosity whichis so marked a feature in India. The Kafirs of
part the population of the few towns. Their chief occupation the mountainous region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahom-
is with the soil. They form the core of the nation and the medan. They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace
main part of the army. Nearly all own the land on which they some faint reflexion of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles
live, and which they cultivate with their own hands or by and the tenets of Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from
hired labour. Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering the varied elements of their mixed extraction. Those contiguous
are their sole occupations. No Afghan will pursue a handicraft Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the
or keep a shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in faith of Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most
travelling trade and transport of goods. As a race the Afghans virulent upholders of the faith around them. In and about the
are very handsome and athletic, often with fair complexion and centre of civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are com-
flowing beard, generally black or brown, sometimes, though paratively rare. In the western provinces about Kandahar
rarely, red; the features highly aquiline. The hair is shaved (amongst the Durani Afghans the people who claim to be Ben-
off from the forehead to the top of the head, the remainder at i-Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism
the sides being allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders. runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi a man
Their step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds.
be rough. Persian the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan
is

The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the last population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the
trait often true also of the men)fair complexions, sometimes
; language of the court and of literature. Pushtu, how-
ase
rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided and plaited ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not *?/"
behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels. They seem be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west literature.
to
are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent. of the Helmund. Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan.
The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. The oldest
with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by work in Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh
failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or dis- Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (A.D.
cipline apparently frank and affable in manner, especially when
; 1413-24). In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan;
they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered,
brutality when that hope ceases. They are unscrupulous in and he wrote a history of the events. In the reign of Akbar,
"
perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindic- Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, the Saint of Light," the
tiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief
in the most cruel manner. Nowhere is crime committed on such antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza.
trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it The literature is richest in poetry. Abdur Rahman ( 1 7th century)
is punished the punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the is the best known poet. Another very popular poet is Khushal
Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrange- Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb.
ments and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller Many other members of his family were poets also. Ahmad
conceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his journey. Shah, the founder of the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry.
The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of prey. If from habit Ballads are numerous.
and tradition he respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghan-
considers it legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is istan. Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher educa-
afoot, or even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has tion befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more
Education.
quitted his roof. The repression of crime and the demand of wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but
taxation he regards alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to
boasting of their lineage, their independence and their prowess. the passer-by. Here the younger boys are collected and in-
They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man structed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious creed
looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan. by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires an early
They are capable of enduring great privation, and make influence over the Afghan mind. The method of teaching is
excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced repetition
few in the Indian army. Sobriety and hardiness characterize the which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the Koran
bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained is, of course, the text-book in all forms of education. Every
with deep and degrading debauchery. The first impression made Afghan gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond
by the Afghan is favourable. The European, especially if he this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical
come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open- development of the youth by instruction in horsemanship and
hearted, hospitable and manly manners; but the charm is not feats of skill. Such advanced education as exists in Afghan-
of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and istan is centred in the priests and physicians; but the ignorance
crafty as he is independent. No trustworthy statistics exist of both is extreme.
showing either present numbers or fluctuations in the population The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under
of Afghanistan. Within the amir's dominions there are the amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary. There are
probably
from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast majority five chief political divisions in the country namely,
are agriculturists. Kabul, Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan,
The " "
cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers each of which is ruled by a naib or governor, who iaws .

and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and isdirectly responsible to the amir. Under the governors
as industrious and successful agriculturists of provinces the nobles and kazis (or district judges) dispense
they are unsurpassed
in Asia. They have carried the art of irrigation to great per- justice rhuch in the feudal fashion. There are three classes of
312 AFGHANISTAN
chiefs who form the council or durbar of the king. These are and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper ore from various
the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs. The sirdars are parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked.
hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people, Lead is found in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the
and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion. The khan is elected Shinwari country (also among the branches of Safed Koh) and ,

by the clan or tribe. The clannish attachment of the Afghans is in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines
rather to thecommunity than to the chief. These three classes of near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found
representatives are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi near the Arghand-ab, 32 m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the
or royal assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or commons. The Ghorband valley, north of Kabul. Most of the lead used, how-
mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their ever,comes from the Hazara country, where the ore is described
individual rank. The executive officials of the amir have a as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great
selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet council, extent and elaborate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghor-
but no member can give advice to the crown without being asked band valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities
to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own department. The atShah-Maksud, about 30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is
amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief judge ,said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments,
and supreme court of appeal. Any one has the right to appeal to but the chief supply comes from the Hazara country and from
the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem
Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their to be a crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the
subjects. Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief same place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of
centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near
performs, as in India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate. In the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat
large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the (between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni.
trial of commercial cases. There are government departments Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan,
for the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military and often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals.
affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts of The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains
Afghanistan is that of Islam and of the customs of the country, of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great
with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman. mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their
The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and
between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar- terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact,
Defeace i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at these are naked rock and stone.
frontier outposts on the side of India. Abdur Rahman
Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself and
claimed that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft., we have
week for the defence of Herat. In 1896 he introduced a system abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the
of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between
most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa,
Pinus longijolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch.
the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at militdry We have also the
yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and
training. In this way he calculated that he could have raised almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of
1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron

difficulty would be money and transport. The pay of the and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is im-
portant for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild
army is apt to be irregular. The amir's factories at Kabul for vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern
arms and ammunition are said to turn out about 20^000 mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and
cartridges and 15 rifles daily, with 2 guns per week; but the kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed
arms thus produced are very heterogeneous, and the different with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astra-
galus, &c. Here also are Indigoferae and dwarf laburnum.
varieties of cartridge used would cause endless complications. Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species of
The two chief fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus;
and Dehdadi near Balkh. The latter fort took twelve years to and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis
(which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet
build, and commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into
flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of
Afghan Turkestan. It is armed with naval quick-firing guns, Gesnerae.
Krupp,Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim. The chief cantonment The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as
for the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, 12 m. from Balkh. has been said, 'naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost
Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a wholly herbal shrubs are only occasional trees almost non-exist-
; ;

ent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common.

kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public works Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges.
Finance.
and army. There appears to be no inherent reason In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains
why this should be so. Whilst it can never (in the of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of
absence of any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysarum
Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis
country, it can at least support its own population; and it spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush;
would, but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman, plants of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa a plant of
;

certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency. Its the rue family, called by the natives lip&d; the common worm-
revenues (about which no trustworthy information is available) wood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The
rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines the
are subject to great fluctuations, and probably never exceed the former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility
value of one million sterling per annum. They fell in Shere Ali's and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lip&d, owing to its
time to 700,000. The original subsidy to the amir from the heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some
Indian government was fixed at 12 lakhs of rupees (80,000) places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the
rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane,
per annum, but in 1893, in connexion with the boundary settle- the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae.
ment, it was increased to 120,000. In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow,
Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane; but these are due to man's
Rahman claims in his autobiography that the country is rich planting.
* n mmes
One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex
Minerals.
Some small quantity of gold is taken from
-
which grows abundantly in the high and dry plains of
asafelida,
the streams in Laghman and the adjoining districts. Western Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and fjacum.
Famous silver mines were formerly worked near the head of the Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its vated _,.
Panjshir valley in Hindu Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied way to India, where it is much used as a condiment. It ^ucts O f
is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat va /uc
with iron from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the .

the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The

Upper Kurram and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant. collection of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the
Iron ore is most abundant near the passes leading to Bamian, Kakar clan of Afghans.
 AFGHANISTAN
In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local and used as such, forming in some valleys the main food
flour,
luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached of the people.
rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering
the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very
or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, but
hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. high. The
rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked.
The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are principal part of the garden lands in villages round Kandahar is
exported. vineyard, and the produce must be enormous.
The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of water- Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern
courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the mountain Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the
yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called
country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean
salep; a good deal of this goes to India.
Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its resin, aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting
is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true their combined volume to the surface at a lower level.
is found only on the northern frontier; the nuts are im- As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan
pistachio lies on the frontier
ported from Badakshan and Kunduz. of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to
Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially Fauaa -
which region Baluchistan seems to belong) and the
by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for
meat. Indo-Malayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat of the
Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian.
ttiranjbtn, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel- Felidae. F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian); F. caracal (Eur.,
thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; the other, sir-kasht, in Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be found
large grains and irregular masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded, almost all over the country, perhaps rather the cheetah (F. jubatus,
is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob (black wood), Ind. and Eth.); F. pardus, the common leopard (Eth. and Ind.).
thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus. The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan.
In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as gener- Canidae. The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds on
One of these, called by the Afghans bahdrak, or the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C.
ally in India.
the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn and Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in
troops on the snow, destroying cattle and sometimes attacking
reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a The hyena (H. striata, Africa to India) is common.
culture single horsemen.
variety of lentils. The other, called pdizah or ttrmdi, These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly attack a
the autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn. bullock they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. A favourite
;

feat of the boldest of the young men of southern Afghanistan is to

It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize,
enter the hyena's den, single-handed, muffle and tie him. There are
Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and Conolly. The small Indian
have but one harvest. fox (Vulpes Bengalensis) is found; also V. flavescens, common to
Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country. India and Persia, the skin of which is much used as a fur.
Mustelidae. Species of mungoose (Herpestes), species of otter,
Rice not largely distributed. In much of the eastern moun-
is
Mustela erminea, and two ferrets, one of them with tortoise-shell
tainous country bdjra (Holcus spicatus) is the chief grain. Most marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin; a marten (M.
English and Indian garden-stuffs are cultivated; turnips in flavigula, Indian).
some places very Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; and one
largely, as cattle food.
of a dirty yellow, U. Isabellinus, both Himalayan species.
The growth water-melons and other cucurbitaceous
of melons,
Ruminants. Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep
plants is reckoned very important, especially near towns; and (Ovis cycloceros or Vignei) ; Gazella subgutturosa these are often
this crop counts for a distinct harvest. netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream G. dorcas ;

Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though perhaps; Cervus Wallickii, the Indian barasingha, and probably
in the warmer most of the cotton cloth
some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains.
cotton is grown tracts, is
The wild hog (Sus scrofa) is found on the lower Helmund. The
imported. wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus onager), is frequent on the sandy
Madder an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and
is tracts in the south-west.
Kandahar and generally over the west, and supplies
districts, The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant
the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable, though it in Kafiristan.
takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and exported. Talpidae. A mole, probably Talpa Europaea; Sorex Indicus;
The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and furnishes most Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian).
Bats believed to be Phyllorhinus cineraceus (Punjab species),
of the oil of the country. Tobacco is grown very generally;
Scotophilus Bellii (W. India), Vesp. auritus and V. barbastellus, both
that of Kandahar has much repute, and is exported to India found from England to India.
and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are "taken. Rodentia. A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacusl) Mus Indicus and M.
;

Lucerne and a trefoil called shaflal form important fodder Gerbellinus; a jerboa (Dipus teluml); Alactaga Bactriana; Gerbil-
lus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian and Indian); Lagomys Nepal-
crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated, ensis, a Central Asian species. A hare, probably L. ruficaudatus.
are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The BIRDS. The largest list of Afghan birds that we know of is given
komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of by Captain Hutton in the /. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi.
pp. 775 seq. ;

but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 124 species in that list,

Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to
95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and
Herat. is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent
It
Indian, I (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and I only, Carpo-
fodder. Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and from dacus (Bucaneles) crassirostris, peculiar to the country. Afghanistan
two kinds of panick. It is common to cut down the green wheat appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat of a variety
and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in winter the

with barley at not to injure the grain crop. avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian.
of this, least, is said REPTILES. The following particulars are from Gray: Lizards
Bellew gives the following statement of the manner in which Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horsfieldii, Salea Horsfieldii,
the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district: Barley Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Phrynocephalus
is sown in November; in March and April it is twice cut for Tickeliia.\\ Indian forms. A tortoise (Testudo Horsfieldii) appears
to be peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or
fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the ground is ploughed tailed Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian;
and manured and sown with tobacco, which yields two cuttings. and the same may be said of the fish, but they are as yet most
The ground is then prepared for carrots and turnips, which are imperfectly known.
gathered in November or December. The camel is of a more robust and compact breed than the tall
Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits beast used in India, and is more carefully tended. The two-
are produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus regions,
quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a but is seldom seen near the Indian frontier.
large class of the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported. Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these,
In the valleys of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry. Those exported
skins for winter use. This mulberry cake is often reduced to to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan
 AFGHANISTAN
Turkestan. The indigenous horse is the yabu, a stout, heavy- Seistan has doubtless affected a trade which was already seriously
shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly for hampered by restrictions. In the year after the mission of Sir
burden, but also for riding. It gets over incredible distances Louis Dane to Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that
at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work and cannot the trade between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in
stand excessive heat. The breed of horses was much improved value.
under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest in it. The basin of the Kabul river especially abounds in remains
Generally, colts are sold and worked too young. of the period when Buddhism flourished. Bamian is famous
The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities for its wall-cut figures, and at Haibak (on the route
" '" "
of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but with the between Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most w s
hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important in Afghan diet, interesting Buddhist remains. In the Koh-Daman,
especially the pressed and dried curd called krul (an article and north of Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest
name perhaps introduced by the Mongols). of which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of
There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail. thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's
One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. Much Nicaea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some miles
of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now largely to south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley of Jalalabad
Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the main wealth of are many remains of the same character.
the nomad population, and mutton is the chief animal food of In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city (Ulan
the nation. In autumn large numbers are slaughtered, their Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia. About Girishk, on
carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried in the sun. The the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces of build-
same is done with beef and camel's flesh. ings; and the remains of several great cities exist in the plain of
The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to be a Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics of ancient
degenerate variety of the shawl-goat. Drangiana. An ancient stone vessel preserved in a mosque
The climate is found to be favourable to dog-breeding. at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was treasured
Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalala- at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of Sakya-
bad large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch; Muni. In architectural relics of a later date than the Graeco-
very like the old double-nosed Spanish pointer. There are grey- Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient. Of the
hounds also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs. city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, rto
The manufactures of the country have not developed much substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two
during recent years. Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the remarkable brick minarets. A vast and fruitful harvest of coins
many varieties of camel and goat's hair-cloth which, has been gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions.
" "
under the name of barak," karak," &c., are manu- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ra.wlinson,EnglandandRussiainthe East (1875) ;

factured in the northern districts, are still the chief H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) Wyllie's Essays on the
;

External Policy of India (1875) Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom

local products of that part of Afghanistan. Herat and Kandahar ;
"
of Kabul (1809); Parliamentary Papers, Afghanistan "; Curzon,
are famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the Problems in the Far East; Holdich, Indian Borderland( 1901) India ;

manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many of (1903) Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary
; Commission
'
the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from the Central (1886); Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). (T. H. H.*)
Asian khanates. The district of Herat produces many of the
smaller sorts of carpets (" galichas
"
or prayer-carpets), of
HISTORY
excellent design and colour, the little town of Adraskand being The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-IsraU (Arab,
especially famous for this industry; but they are not to be and claim descent from King Saul (whom
for Children of Israel),
compared with the best products of eastern Persia or of the they by the Mahommedan corruption Talui) through a son
call
Turkman districts about Panjdeh. whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a
The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly pastoral, and son called Afghana. The numerous stock of Afghana were
the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar provinces is famous removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their way to the moun-
for its quality. In this direction, the late boundary settlements tains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of Herat). Only nine
have undoubtedly led to a considerable development of local years after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard
resources. A large quantity of wool, together with silk, dried of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation headed by a
fruit, madder and asafetida, finds its way to India by the wise and holy man called Kais, to make inquiry. The deputation
Kandahar route. became zealous converts, and on their return converted their
It isimpossible to give accurate trade statistics, there being countrymen. From Kais and his three sons the whole of the
no trustworthy system of registration. The value of the imports genuine Afghans claim descent.
from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated at 221,000 Rx(or This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry
tens of rupees). In 1899 it was little over 217,000 Rx, the period books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the i6th
of lowest intermediate depression being in 1897. These imports century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of
include horses, cattle, fruits, grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco, older date. In the version given by Major Raverty (Introd. to
drugs and provisions (ghi, &c.). All this trade emanates from Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled by King Solomon himself
Kabul, there being no transit trade with Bokhara owing to the in the Sulimani mountains', there is nothing about Nebuchad-
heavy dues levied by the amir. The value of the exports from rezzar or Ghor. The historian Ferishta says he had read that
India to Kabul also shows great fluctuation. In the year 1892-1893 the Afghans were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh.
it was registered at nearly 611,000 Rx. In 1894-1895 it had sunk And one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates
"
to 274,000 Rx, and in 1899 it figured at 294,600 Rx. The chief a current tradition " that, previous to the time of Kais, Bilo
items are cotton goods, sugar and tea. In 1898-1899 the imports the father of the Biluchis, Uzbek (evidently the father of the
from Kandahar to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the Usbegs) and Afghana were considered as brethren. As Mahom-
exports from India to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three- med Usbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes
fourths of the exports consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths called Usbegs, reigned in the I4th century A.D., this gives some
of the imports were raw wool. The balance of the imports was possible light on the value of these so-called traditions.
chiefly made up of dried fruits. Comparison with trade statistics We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all
of previous years on this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing nations that derive their religion or their civilization from a
to the inclusion of a large section of Baluchistan and Persia foreign source. To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a con-
within the official " Kandahar " returns; but it does not appear siderable number of persons have been found to propagate
that the value of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the the doctrine that the English people are descended from the
increase. The opening up of the route between Quetta and tribes of Israel. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is
 AFGHANISTAN
more worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the
of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, have land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when
been strong in their belief of it; and though the customs alleged the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian Tsang, travelled in India; they had
in proof will not bear the stress laid on them, undoubtedly a even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and
prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy
has a character geographer, Abu-r-Raihan Muhammad al-Birunl (see BIRUNI),
This characteristic is certainly a remarkable in the nth century; and they are still celebrated in the Mongol
strongly Jewish.
one; but it is shared, to a considerable extent, by the Kash- versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story.
miris (a circumstance which led Bernier to speculate on the Turkoman Dynasties. In the time of Hsiian Tsang (A.D. 630-
Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe, 645) there were both Indian and Turk princes in the Kabul
by the Tajik people of Badakshan. valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem
Relations with the Greeks. In the time of Darius Hystaspes to have predominated in succession. The first Mahommedan
(500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan embraced attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though
in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts of it occupied Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early
(in Seistan), Arians (in Herat), Sattagydians date. It was not till the end of the loth century that a Hindu
by Sarangians
(supposed in highlands of upper Helmund and the plateau of prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands of the
Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountain- Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at Ghazni.
eers, perhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy), There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series of
Gandarii (in Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyes, on or near the descendants, till the middle of the I2th century, rendering the
Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have a powerful
we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race; and
name. Indeed, Pusht, Pasht or Pakht would seem to be the if so, the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent
oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions. from Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of
The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing the dynasty was Alauddin, chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for
dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and the cruel death of his brother at the hands of Bahrain the
south. Ghaznevide was wreaked in devastating the great city. His
About 310 B.C. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to nephew, Shahabuddin Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India,
the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a conquering as far as Benares. His empire in India indeed
marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus ruled by his freedmen who after his death became independent
occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahommedan
part of the Kabul basin. Somesixty years later occurred the monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief period
establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria. the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Khwarizm,
(See BACTRIA, MEDIA, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER of India, EUTHY- and- it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of
DEMUS, and PERSIA, Ancient History?) Of the details of their Jalaluddin of Khwarizm to withstand the progress of Jenghiz
history and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know Khan.
almost nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague A passage in Perish ta seems to imply that the Afghans in the
data as are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the
coins of independent princes have been found. But their power first century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may

extended certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, be built on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in
over the whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of 'Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about A.D. 1030,
Kashmir, the tope of Manikyala in the Punjab, and many coupled with that of the Khiljis. It also appears frequently in
sculptures found in the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable connexion with the history of India in the i3th and I4th cen-
Greek influence. Demetrius (c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have turies. The successive dynasties of Delhi are generally called
reigned in Arachosia after being expelled from Bactria, much Pathan, but were really so only in part. Of the Khiljis (1288-
as, at a later date, Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion 1321) we have already spoken. The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were
from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 B.C.) is alleged by Justin originally Tatars of the Karauna tribe. The Lodis (1450-1526)
to have warred in India. With his coins, found abundantly in were pure Pathans. For a century and more after the Mongol
the Kabul basin, commences the use of an Arianian inscription, invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were under Mongol
in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply the transfer of rule rule; but in the middle of the i4th century a native dynasty
to the south of the mountains, over a people whom
the Greek sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which
dynasty sought to Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?),
conciliate. extended its rule over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar. The history
the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana, pressed of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that
their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India regime must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge
at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta. The from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and
coinage of a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language.
irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical The Mogul Dynasty. All these countries were included in
and Chinese accounts- of the time when Bactria was overrun Timur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in the
by Scythian invaders. The chief nation among these, called by possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only three years
the Chinese Yue-Chi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in before it fell into the hands of another and more illustrious one,
Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian Sultan Baber. It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in
era the chief of one of these, which was called Kushan, subdued permanently wresting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a family of
the rest, and extended his conquests over the countries south of Mongol descent, who had long held it. From the time of his
the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526),
establishing a great dominion, of which we hear from Greek Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire
writers as Indo-Scythia. (See YuE-Cin.) of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul dynasty which Baber
Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir Shah
the Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted (1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the Moguls
that system. Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of and the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of Persia. Under the latter it
Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul. had remained from 1642 till 1708, when in the reign of Husain,
Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other. A notable the last of them, the Ghilzais, provoked by the oppressive
monarch was Kanishka (see INDIA, History) or Kanerkes, whose Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan (a Georgian prince of the
date is variously fixed at from 588. c. toA.D. 125, and whose power Bagratid house), revolted under Mir Wais, and expelled the
extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir Persians. Mir Wais was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar,
3i6 AFGHANISTAN
and eventually defeated the Persian armies sent against him, amir's court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought
but did not long survive (d. 1715). were not conceded by the government, and the rash resolution
Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a refugee in
energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest of British territory. Ranjit Singh, king of the Punjab, bound
Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain came forth from himself to co-operate, but eventually declined to let the expedi-
Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered the sword and tion cross his territories.
diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the Ghilzai (October 1722). The war began in March 1838, when the "Army of the Indus,"
Two years later Mahmud died mad, and a few years saw the end amounting to 21, coo men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced
of Ghilzai rule in Persia. through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane.
The Durani Dynasty. In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. Kohandil
Kandahar and took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the Khan Kandahar fled to Persia. That city was occupied in
of
Afghans, and enrolled many in his army. Among these was a April 1839, and Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather's
noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of the mosque. Ghazni was reached 2ist July; a gate of the city was
Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) was blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut.,
chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their leader, afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by
and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part of Nadir's storm. Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed
"
empire, with the style of Dur-i-Durdn, Pearl of the Age," the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 7).
bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the Abdalis. With The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a
Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took a place among peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force,
the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani dynasty, which he leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir W.
founded, still occupies its throne. During the twenty-six years Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague.
of his reign he carried his warlike expeditions far and wide. During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies
Westward they extended nearly to the shores of the Caspian; remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. The British
eastward he repeatedly entered India as a conqueror. At his great outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah
battle of Panipat (January 6, 1761), with vastly inferior num- Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost Mahommed surrendered
bers, he inflicted on the Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their (November 3, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honour-
power, a tremendous defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; ably treated. From the beginning, insurrection against the new
but the success had for him no important result. Having long government had been rife. The political authorities were over-
suffered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeath- confident, and neglected warnings. On the and of November 1841
ing to his son Timur a dominion which embraced not only the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of
Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and Burnes and other officers. The position of the British camp, its
Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan communications with the citadel and the location of the stores
as tributary governments. were the worst possible; and the general (Elphinstone) was
Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul, shattered in constitution. Disaster after disaster occurred, not
and continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the without misconduct. At a conference (December 23) with the
anarchy which followed close on his death. He left twenty- Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken the lead of the Afghans,
three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by that chief's own hand. On
Khan, head of the Barakzai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in the 6th of January 1842, after a convention to evacuate the
grasping the royal power. For many years barbarous wars raged country had been signed, the British garrison, still numbering
between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul- 4500 soldiers (of whom
690 were Europeans), with some 12,000
Mulk and Mahmud successively held the throne. The last followers, marched out camp. The winter was severe, the
of the
owed success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and massacre,
"Afghan Warwick "), a man of masterly ability in war and and the force was finally overwhelmed in the Jagdalak pass
politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable between Kabul and Jalalabad.
intelligence and force of character, and many of these he placed On the 1 3th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only
over the provinces. Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon
jealously by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity reached Jalalabad, wounded and half dead. Ninety-five
of the king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai prisoners were afterwards recovered. The garrison of Ghazni
family. He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards had already been forced to surrender (December 10). But
murdered with prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking General Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General
the first blow. Sale, who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of
The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. The the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly.
Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners prepara-
with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat remained thus till were made in India on a fitting scale; but it was the i6th of
tions
Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his able and April 1842 before General Pollock could relieve Jalalabad, after
wicked minister Yar Mahommed. The rest of the country was forcing the Khyber Pass. After a long halt there he advanced
divided among the Barakzais Dost Mahommed, the ablest, (August 20), and gaining rapid successes, occupied Kabul
getting Kabul. Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell (September 15)^ where Nott, after retaking and dismantling
to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 1823. The last Ghazni, joined him two days later. The prisoners were happily
Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost long before Kashmir recovered from Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of
in 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the Turkes- Kabul were destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghan-
tan provinces had been practically independent since the death istan, December 1842.
'

of Timur Shah. This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with
The First Afghan War, 1838-42. In 1809, in consequence of the elements of inevitable failure. A ruler imposed upon a free
the intrigues of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to
Elphinstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power, stand alone; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves
and had been well received by him at Peshawar. This was the obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or
first time the Afghans made
any acquaintance with Englishmen. retiring with the probability that it will fall after their departure.
Lieut. Alex. Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex. Burnes) visited Kabul The leading chiefs of Afghanistan perceived that the maintenance
on his way to Bokhara in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of of Shah Shuja's rule by British troops would soon be fatal to
Herat and the proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and their own power and position in the country, and probably to
Burnes was sent by the governor-general as resident to the their national independence. They were insatiable in their
 AFGHANISTAN 3 1 ?
demands for office and emolument, and when they discovered on the Afghan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the viceroy
that the shah, acting by the advice of the British envoy, was in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began. Sir
levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be directly under Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by
his control, they took care that the plan should fail. Without a the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance;
regular revenue no effective administration could be organized; while another army passed through the Khyber Pass and took
but the attempt to raise taxes showed that it might raise the up positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road'to
people, so that for both men and money the shah's government Kabul. Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched
was still obliged to rely principally upon British aid. All these up to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior
circumstances combined to render the new regime weak and of Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal,
unpopular, since there was no force at the ruler's command and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct
except foreign troops to put down disorder or to protect those route to Kabul through the Logar valley. The amir Shere Ali
who submitted, while the discontented nobles fomented dis- fled from his capital into the northern province, where he died
affection and the inbred hatred of strangers in race and religion at Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879. In the course of the next
among the general Afghan population. six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the
British and Russian Relations. It has been said that the tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts
declared object of this policy had been to maintain the inde- to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up;
pendence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure the friendly but the sphere of British military operations was not materi-
alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a great barrier of ally extended. It was seen that the farther they advanced the
mountainous country between the expanding power of Russia in more difficult would become their eventual retirement; and the
Central Asia and the British dominion in India. After 1849, problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who could and would
when the annexation of the Punjab had carried the Indian north- make terms with the British government.
western frontier up to the skirts of the Afghan highlands, the In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had
corresponding advance of the Russians south-eastward along the announced to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the head-
Oxus river became of closer interest to the British, particularly quarters of the British army, that he had succeeded his father
when, in 1856, the Persians again attempted to take possession at Kabul. The negotiations that followed ended in the con-
of Herat. Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on clusion of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Yakub
his death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civifrwar, until his Khan was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghan-
son, Shere Ali,had won his way to undisputed rulership in 1868. istan were transferred to the British government; the amir
In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia. To placed in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations,
the British government an attitude of non-intervention in Afghan receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; and
affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer possible. The the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last con-
meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the viceroy of India ceded. By this convention the complete success of the British
(Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the relations politicaland military operations seemed to have been attained;
between the two governments; the amir consolidated and began for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance with, and
to centralize his power; and the establishment of a strong, had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now made
friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote of an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had agreed
British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India. that a British envoy should reside permanently at his court.
When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and original object
Russians, and their gradual approach towards the amir's of British policy, that proved speedily fatal to the whole settle-
northern border, had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for ment. For in September the envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with
support to the British; and his disappointment at his failure to his staff and escort, was massacred at Kabul, and the entire
obtain distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great fabric of a friendly alliance went to pieces. A
fresh expedition
Britain's refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia was instantly despatched across the Shutargardan Pass under
over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated the Afghans at Charasia
that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian near Kabul, and entered the city in October. Yakub Khan,
authorities at Tashkend. In 1869 the Russian government had who had surrendered, was sent to India; and the British army
assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as remained in military occupation of the district round Kabul
completely outside the sphere of their influence; and in 1872 the until in December (1879) its communications with India were
boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled interrupted, and its position at the capital placed in serious
between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria. jeopardy, by a general rising of the tribes. After they had been
Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tash- repulsed and put down, not without some hard fighting, Sir
kend continued, and as the Russians were now extending their Donald Stewart, who had not quitted Kandahar, brought a
dominion over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north- force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming some resistance on
west, the British government determined, in 1876, once more to his way, and assumed the supreme command. Nevertheless
undertake active measures for securing their political ascendancy the political situation was still embarrassing, for as the whole
in that country. But the amir, whose feelings of resentment country beyond the range of British effective military control
had by no means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw the troops before
he mainly desired to hold the balance between two equally a government could be reconstructed which could stand without
formidable rivals. The result of overtures made to him from foreign support, and with which diplomatic relations of some
India was that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct kind might be arranged. The general position and prospect
instructions from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere of political affairs in Afghanistan bore, indeed, an instructive
Ali a treaty of alliance, Shere Ali showed himself very little resemblance to the situation just forty years earlier, in 1840,
disposed to welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit with the important differences that the Punjab and Sind had
a British agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke since become British, and that communications between Kabul
down. and India were this time secure.
Second Afghan War, 1878-80. In the course of the following Reign of Abdur Rahman. Abdur Rahman, the son of the
year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the inter- late amir Shere Ali's elder brother, had fought against Shere Ali
ference of England with their advance upon Constantinople, in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven
sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the
beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the
amir. It was immediately notified to him from India that a Russians. In March 1880 he came back across the river, and
British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred
began to establish himself in the northern province of Afghan-
to receiving it; and when the British The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing of his
envoy was turned back istan.
3 i8 AFGHANISTAN
reappearance, instructed the political authorities at Kabul to the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern
communicate with him. By skilful negotiations a meeting was border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped out
arranged, and after pressing in vain for a treaty he was induced and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention between
to assume charge of the country upon his recognition by the the two governments. The amir not only received a large annual
British as amir, with the understanding that he should have no subsidy of money from the British government, but he also
relations with other foreign powers, and with a formal assurance obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, moreover,
from the viceroy of protection from foreign aggression, so long availed himself very freely of facilities that were given him for
as he should unreservedly follow the advice of the British govern- the importation at his own cost of arms through India. With
ment in regard to his external affairs. The province of Kandahar these resources, and with the advantage of an assurance from
was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere the British government that he would be aided against foreign
Ali Khan, a member of the Barakzai family, was installed by aggression, he was able to establish an absolute military despot-
the British representative as its independent ruler. ism inside his kingdom, by breaking down the power of the
For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive warlike tribes which held in check, up to his time, the personal
settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained; autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and by organizing a regular army
and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved. In July well furnished with European rifles and artillery. Taxation of
1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman all kinds was heavily increased, and systematically collected.

as amir at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's The result was that whereas in former times the forces of an
younger son, who had been holding Herat since his father's Afghan ruler consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs
death, had marched upon Kandahar, had utterly defeated at of tribes who held land on condition of military service, and who
Maiwand a British force that went out from Kandahar to oppose stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for money
him, and was besieging that city. Sir Frederick Roberts at payment, the amir had at his command a large standing army,
once set out from Kabul with 10,000 men to its relief, reached and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his treasury.
Kandahar after a rapid march of 313 miles, attacked and routed Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose political
Ayub Khan's army on the ist of September, and restored British influence he saw reason to fear, or of whose disaffection he had
authority in southern Afghanistan. As the British ministry the slightest suspicion; his administration was severe and his
had resolved to evacuate Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan, punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he put down disorder,
who saw that he could not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs and brought violent
India, and the amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take posses- crime under some effective control in the districts. Travelling
sion of the province. But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile by the high roads during his reign was comparatively safe;
retreated to Herat, heard that the British forces had retired, although it must be added that the excessive exactions of dues
early in 1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again and customs very seriously damaged the external trade. In
approached Kandahar. In June the fort of Girishk, on the short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important political
Helmund, was seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which rose from the
defeated some days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan condition of a country distracted by chronic civil wars, under
took possession of Kandahar at the end of July. The amir rulers whose authority depended upon their power to hold down
Abdur Rahman, whose movements had hitherto been slow and or conciliate fierce and semi-independent tribes in the outlying
uncertain, now acted with vigour and decision. He marched parts of the dominion, to the rank of a formidable military state
rapidly from Kabul at the head of a force, with which he en- governed autocratically. He established, for the first time in
countered Ayub Khan under the walls of Kandahar, and routed the history of the Afghan kingdom, a powerfully centralized
hisarmy on 2nd September, taking all his guns and equipage.
2 administration strong enough to maintain order and to enforce
Ayub Khan toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile
fled obedience over all the country which he had united under his
been occupied by one of the amir's generals he took refuge dominion, supported by a force sufficiently armed and disciplined
in Persia. By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was to put down attempts at resistance or revolt. His policy, con-
established. sistently maintained, was to permit no kind of foreign inter-
In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a ference, on any pretext, with the interior concerns or the econo-
joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the northern mical conditions of his country. From the British government
boundary of Afghanistan. The work went on with much diffi- he accepted supplies of arms and subsidies of money; but he
culty and contention, until in March 1885, when the amir was would make no concessions in return, and all projects of a
at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy of India, Lord strategical or commercial nature, such as railways and telegraphs,
Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, a disputed place on proposed either for the defence or the development of his posses-
the boundary held by the Afghans, the Russians had attacked sions, seem to have been regarded by the amir with extreme
and driven out with some loss the amir's troops. For the distrust, as methods of what has been called pacific penetration
moment the consequences seemed likely to be serious; but the so that on these points he was immovable. It was probably
affair was arranged diplomatically, and the demarcation pro- due to the strength and solidity of the executive administration
ceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, beyond which the organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for the
commission were unable to settle an agreement. first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad Shah

During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur in the latter part of the i8th century, his death was not followed
Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his by disputes over the succession or by civil war.
dominion over the whole country. Some local revolts among Succession of Habibullah. The amir Abdur Rahman died on
the tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to the ist of October 1901; and two days later his eldest son,
upset his rulership the first by Ayub Khan, who entered Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the rulership.
Afghanistan from Persia, the second and more dangerous one He was recognized with acclamation by the army, by the religious
by Ishak Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and by all classes of the
in Afghan Turkestan were defeated. By 1891 the amir had people as their lawful sovereign; while a deputation of Indian
enforced his supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul from India to convey
completely than any of his predecessors. In 1895 the amir's the condolences and congratulations of the viceroy. The amir's
troops entered Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the firstmeasures were designed to enhance his popularity and to
north-east, inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto improve his internal administration, particularly with regard to
defied all efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually the relations of his government with the tribes, and to the
reduced to submission. Meanwhile the delimitation of the system introduced by the late amir of compulsory military
northern frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory service, whereby each tribe was required to supply a propor-
on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between tionate number of recruits. With this object a council of state
 AFGHAN TURKESTAN AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR
for tribal affairs was established; and it was arranged that and the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin. Its northern
a representative of each tribe should be associated with the frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873,

provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases.

and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of
In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah 1885, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident. The whole
showed a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Oxus
whom the British government had given an assurance of aid to on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, is
repel foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should
some 500 m. in length, with an average width from the Russian
follow the advice of that government in regard to external frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m. It thus comprises about
affairs. This condition was loyally observed by the new amir, 57,000 sq. m. or roughly two-ninths of the kingdom of Afghan-
who referred to India all communications of an official kind istan. Except in the river valleys it is a poor territory, rough
received from the Russian authorities in the provinces bordering and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulat-
on Afghanistan. But toward the various questions left pending ing wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman desert, and
between the governments of India and Afghanistan the new amir the Oxus riverain which is highly cultivated. The population,
maintained also his father's attitude. He gave no indications of which is mostly agricultural, settled in and around its towns
a disposition to continue the discussion of them, or to entertain and villages, is estimated at 750,000. The province includes
proposals for extending or altering his relations with the Indian the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh with Akcha; the
government. An invitation from the viceroy to meet him in western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana,
India, with the hope that these points might be settled in sometimes classed together as the Chahar Villayet, or " Four
conference, was put aside by dilatory excuses, until at last the Domains "; and such parts of the Hazara tribes as lie north of
project was abandoned, and finally the amir agreed to receive the Hindu Kush and its prolongation. The principal town is
at Kabul a diplomatic mission. The mission, whose chief was Mazar-i-Sharif, which in modern times has supplanted the
Sir Louis Dane, foreign secretary to the Indian government, ancient city of Balkh; and Takhtapul, near Mazar, is the chief
reached Kabul early in December 1904, and remained there Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush.
four months in negotiation with the amir personally and with Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more con-
his representatives. It was found impossible, after many inter- nected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government
it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost Mahommed.
views, to obtain from Habibullah his consent to any addition
to or variation of the terms of the assurance given by the British The bulk of the people of the cities are of Persian and Uzbeg
government in 1880, with which he professed himself entirely stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol Hazaras and
satisfied, so that the treaty finally settled in March 1905 went no Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus plains. Over these
further than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously races the Afghans rule as conquerors and there is no bond of
concluded with the amir's predecessor. It was felt in British racial unity between them. Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was
circles at the time that a very considerable concession to Habi- a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was
bullah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact that occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blood. About
" Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the
he was styled in the treaty His Majesty "; but, in the circum- 250 B.C.

stances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to accede to Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the
the amir's determination to insist on this matter of style. But history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to
the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the interests both of Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. After this
the British government and of Afghanistan that an opportunity came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic
should be made for enabling the amir to have personal acquaint- sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The
ance with the highest Indian authorities. A further step, district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and has never since
calculated to strengthen the relations of amity between the two fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged
governments, was taken when it was arranged that the amir to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the
should pay a visit to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in i8th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan
January 1907; and this visit took place with great cordiality and Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the
success. fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back
The Anglo-Russian Convention, signed on the 3ist of August under the independent rule of various Uzbeg chiefs. At the
1907, contained the following important declarations with regard beginning of the igth Century they belonged to Bokhara; but
to Afghanistan. Great Britain disclaimed any intention of under the great amir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered
altering the political status or (subject to the observance of the Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western
treaty of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over
any territory of Afghanistan,and engaged to use her influence Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute
there in no manner threatening to Russia. Russia, on her part, between Bokhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian
recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence. agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the
AUTHORITIES. MacGregor, Gazetteer of Afghanistan (1871); strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were
Elphinstone,/lccoMni of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809) Ferrier, History
; closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah
of the Afghans (1858) Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879)
; ;
the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. H.*)
Baber's Memoirs (1844); Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan
AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR (afium, opium), the popular name of
(1878); Malleson, History of Afghanistan (1879); Heusman, The
Afghan War (1881) Sir H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879)
; ;
Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of
Forbes, The Afghan Wars (1892); Rawlinson, England and Russia Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah.
in the East (1875); Wyllie, Essays on the External Policy of India Called
Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000).
(1875) A. C. Yate, England and Russia Face to Face in Asia (1887)
Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740,
; ;

C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888); Curzon, Problems of the

Far East (1894); Robertson, The Kafir of the Hindu Kush (1896); its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It
Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn, Asiatic Neighbours stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above
(1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1898); Lady it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of
Betty Balfour, Lord Lytton's Indian Administration (1899); Hanna, which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation
Second Afghan War (1899); Gray, At the Court of the Amir (1895);
Sultan Mohammad Khan, Constitution and Laws of Afghanistan on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia
(1900); Life of Abdur Rahman (1900); Angus Hamilton, Afghan- on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c., on the other, the
istan (1906). (H. Y. A. C. L.)
;
city became, a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well
AFGHAN TURKESTAN, most northern province of
the stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East.
Afghanistan. It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N. Opium in large quantities is produced and forms
in its vicinity
by the Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari the staple article of its commerce ;
and there are, besides,
Rud river, and on the S. by the Hindu Kush, the Koh-i-Baba manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium
320 A FORTIORI AFRICA
contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building) ,
tinent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly the
and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected elevation of both North and South America, but is
considerably
by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople. less than that of Asia (3117 ft.). In contrast with the other
See V. Cuinet, Turguie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv. continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of
A FORTIORI (Lat. " from a stronger [reason] "), a term used very high and of very low ground, lands under 600 ft. occupying
of an argument which justifies a statement not itself specifically an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the
demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion which includes highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America,
it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and
to be greateris known but the area of land over 10,000 ft. is also quite insignificant,
than C, it follows a fortiori that C
without further
is less than B being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and
proof. The argument is frequently based merely on a comparison mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the
of probabilities (cf. Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of
to common sense. these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are
AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg-
the Sertorian (70-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil Wars. landschaft] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind
Of humble origin (Cic. ad Alt. i. 16. 20), from his early years of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of
he was a devoted adherent of Pompey. In 60, chiefly by wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to
Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in per- the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude
forming the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the low-
to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor lands and the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into
of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line
the allotment of Spain to Pompey (ss), Afranius and Marcus (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle
Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the of the Red Sea to about 6 S. on the west coast. We thus obtain
rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were compelled, the following four main divisions of the continent: (i) The
after a short campaign in which they were at first successful, coast plains often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps
to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses
promising not to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta
of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands
battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's camp. On the merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which
defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (2) The Atlas
went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the
Thapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground,
cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a
Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose depressed and desert area (the Sahara), in places below sea-level.
veterans rose in tumult and put them to death. (3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below
See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius 2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 3500 ft. (4) The
xxxvii., xli.-xliii. Caesar, B.C. \. 37-87;
;
Appian, B.C. ii.; for the
north and west African plains, bordered and traversed by bands
history of the period, articles on CAESAR and POMPEY.
of higher ground, but generally below 2000 ft. This division
AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about includes the great desert of the Sahara.
94 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from
The third and fourth divisions may be again subdivided.
Roman life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed
middle-class
Thus the high plateaus include: (a) The South African plateau
freely from Menander and others. His style was vigorous and
as far as about 12 S., bounded east, west and south by bands
correct; his moral tone that of the period.
Horace, Epp. ii. i. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. 3; Quintilian
of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account
x. I. 100 fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scaenicae
;
South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer.
Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898). Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with
AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of level ground between them. The largest of these level areas,
the three great southward projections from the main mass of the Great Karroo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of
the earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known
outline an area, according to the most recent computations, of as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected
1 towards the north-east with (6) the East African plateau, with
11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands. Separated from
Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its N.E. probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by
extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide. From the most some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the
northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape Blanc, eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into
in 37 21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas, a number of zones running north and south and consisting in
34 51' 15" S., is a distance approximately of 5000 m.; from turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking
feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due
Cape Verde, 33' 22" W., the westernmost point, to Ras
17
Hafun, 51 52" E., the most easterly projection, is a dis-
27' largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust,
tance (also approximately) of 4600 m. The length of coast-line is the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards
16,100 m. and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is the south the two lines converge and give place to one great
shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 3,760,000 valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which
has a coast-line of 19,800 m. is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of
sq. m.,
the system. Farther north the western depression, sometimes
I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY known as the Central African trough or Albertine rift-valley,
The mainstructural lines of the continent show both the is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the
east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert Edward and Albert,
hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the the first-named over 400 m. long and the longest freshwater
north- to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a
is thus composed of two segments at
right angles, the northern number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a
running from east to west, the southern from north to south, meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern
the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two
depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley,
directions. contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without
L Main Orographical Features. The mean elevation of the con- outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough
'With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m. being Lake Rudolf or Basso Norok. At no great distance east
 J& ^ Ir\ ji 'v JrX
Scale 1:32,000,000

Political Colouring :

British m^Bi French

German Portuguese
Spanish i i
Italian
Belgian
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Canals.
,

CAPF. T V.X Bingcrville Colonial Capitals. O, - Oasix i>f

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aver 550 fathojns, dark..

AFRICA
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by The Encyclopaedia Britauniua Co.
GEOGRAPHY] AFRICA 321
of this rift-valley are Kilimanjaro with its two peaks Kibo distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the
and Mawenzi, the former 19,321 ft., and the culminating point outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north
of the whole continent and Kenya (17,007 ft.). Hardly less and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. The high
important is the Ruwenzori range (over 16,600 ft.), which lies lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the Nile
east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the and Congo: the former the longest, the latter the largest river
floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies
north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active, (c) The third from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African
division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abys- trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams
sinian highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the pour east to the Victoria Nyanza, the largest African lake
largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, (covering over 26,000 sq. m.), and west and north to the Albert
little of its surface falling below 5000 ft., while the summits Edward and Albert Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents
reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft. This block of country of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile
lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, the flows north, and between 7 and 10 N. traverses a vast marshy
northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarp- level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating
ment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west
the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana. and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian
Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood- water), it
highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a
the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards along vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the
the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake Bang-
of 7000 ft. In the west the zone of high land is broader but weulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper
somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards
from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, &c.), where turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad
heights of 6000 to 8000 ft. are reached. Exactly at the head of basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic
the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many
action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to
of 13,370 ft., while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of
of the line of islands, rises to over 9000. Towards the extreme the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation
west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging of the surface is the basin of Lake Chad a flat-shored, shallow
point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the lake filled principally by the Shari coming from the south-east.
elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third river of Africa,
The area between the east and west coast highlands, which which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source
th of 17 N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by
iy other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however the
through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the Benue comes from the south-east. These four river-basins
curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and
the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered
bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea. only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of
The arid region, the Sahara the largest desert in the world, the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the Orange, in the
covering 3,500,000 sq. m. extends from the Atlantic to the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on
Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza,
mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft. Bordered N.W. Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coast highlands of the
by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and
from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal
east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the for over 1000 m. of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic.
desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses,
north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas
landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m. mountains.
broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis Of the rive'rs flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining
:e a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose
desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main
The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the stream has its rise in 11 21' 3" S. 24 22' E. at an elevation of
ief mountains and lakes of the continent: 5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance
Mountains. Ft. Lakes. Ft. before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including
Rungwe (Nyasa) .
10,400 Chad 850
1
the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern
Drakensberg 11,700' Leopold II IIOO
Lereko or Sattima 2 slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the
I3.2I4 Rudolf 1250
(Aberdare Range) 2 continent in 10 to 12 S. In the south-west the Zambezi
Nyasa I645
Cameroon 13.370 Albert Nyanza 2028' system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from
Elgon 14,152" Tanganyika 2624* which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water
Karissimbi (Mfum- Ngami 2950 of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is
I4.683 Mweru
2
biro) .
3000
Meru 2 lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred
I4,955 Albert Edward
Tagharat (Atlas) .
l
I5,ooo Bangweulu. 3700 in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south the Limpopo
1
Simen Mountains, I5.I6O Victoria Nyanza 3720* drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the
Abyssinia Abai 4200
2 bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its
Ruwenzori i6,6i9 Kivu 4829*
Kenya 17,007* Tsana
source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli
5690
Kilimanjaro .
19,321* Naivasha principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands,
The Hydrographic Systems. From the outer margin of the the last named losing itself in the sands in dose proximity to
rican plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the
omparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long Abyssinian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the
1
Estimated. Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and
2
See the calculations of Capt. T. T. Behrens, Geoe. Journal, vol Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the
(1907). centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the
I. ii
322 AFRICA [GEOGRAPHY
lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the Omo, north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes,
which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of
down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of volcanic origin.
Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths Climate and Health. Lying almost entirely within the tropics,
or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not
these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is ex-
network of navigable waters of vast extent. perienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa,
The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence
made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night,
and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the
Basin of the Atlantic
Mediterranean
....
pp. 184-186) gives the following general results:

. .
4,070,000 sq. m.
1,680,000
.
air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature
Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther
in the
Indian Ocean . . 2,086,000
.

Inland drainage area 3,452,000 ,,

south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture
The areas of individual river-basins are: brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large
Congo (length over 3000 m.) ..
1,425,000 sq. m. part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of
l
Nile ( fully 4000 m.) . i,o82,ooo
.

2
temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea
Niger ( about 2600 m.) . .8o8,ooo coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm
Zambezi ( 2000 m.) ,.
513,5
temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter
.

Lake Chad 394.ooo

Orange (length about 1300 m.) .
370,500"
. and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the
,, (actual drainage area) ..
172,500 ,, continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the
The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other surrounding ocean is more The most important climatic
felt.

river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage differences are due to variations amount of rainfall. The
in the
area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the
corresponding area is 4,900,000 sq. m. corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an ex-
The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the ceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from
description of the East African plateau, but some of the pheno- the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the
mena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the
here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the
rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise
with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of
latter of which has depths of 430 fathoms. Others, however, summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is
are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the
the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction
north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat
eastern Lakes of the broad type are of moderate
rift-valley. deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern
depth, the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and
50 fathoms. Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most those of the south northwards along the west. Within the
equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of
of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive the
desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, tending to Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified
the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a drying up has rainfall,but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of
been in progress during long geologic ages, but doubt exists as the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coast-
to its practical importance at the present time. The periodic land west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual
fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such that its rainfall of about 390 in. as compared with a mean of 458 in.
outflow is intermittent. Besides the East African lakes the at Cherrapunji, in Assam. The two distinct rainy seasons of
principal are: Lake Chad, in the northern area of inland the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly
drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction
of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba), of the tropics, where the suii is overhead but once. Snow falls
within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate
are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are
altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand,
Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as
of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called
geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably
hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that
cold
dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was
under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from
in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based the Kalahari in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons
on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the south-east
type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c., hurricanes are occasionally experienced.
and were at first considered to form an isolated group found While the climate of the north and south, especially the south,
in no other of the African lakes; but this supposition has been is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara
is

proved to be erroneous. salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a whole
Islands. With one exception Madagascar the African is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion
of the world.
islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m., This isespecially the case in the lower and moister regions, such
is, after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the
world. as the west coast, where malarial fever is very prevalent and
It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is with
deadly; the most unfavourable factors being humidity
separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. wide at its absence of climatic variation (daily or seasonal). The higher
but
narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora plateaus, where not only is the average temperature lower,
and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern such variations are more extensive, are more healthy; and in
Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia and parts of British East Africa)
and Reunion. Sokotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the find the climate suitable for permanent residence.
Europeans
1
The estimate of Capt. H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. m. On tablelands over 6500 ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon
2
Including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin. at night, even in places directly under the equator.
 FLORA AND FAUNA] AFRICA 323
acclimatization of white men in tropical Africa generally is Fauna. The fauna again shows the effect of the character-
dependent largely on the successful treatment of tropical diseases. istics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of
Districts which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to
were rendered comparatively healthy after the discovery, in Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of rhinoceros;
1899, of the species of mosquito which propagates malarial and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyaena, &c. The
fever, and the measures thereafter taken for its destruction and okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense
the filling up of swamps. The rate of mortality among the forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas
natives from tropical diseases is also high, one of the most fatal region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though
being that known as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters)

disease, which also attacks Europeans, reached alarming pro- is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being

portions between 1893 and 1907, and in the last-named year otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the
an international conference was held in London to consider chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few excep-
measures to combat it.) When removed to colder regions natives tions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel as a
of the equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints. domestic animal is especially characteristic of the northern
Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population. deserts and steppes.
Flora. The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the dis- The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and
tribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The. vast
temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa,
generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Medi- have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the
terranean are groves of oranges and olive trees, evergreen oaks, interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in
cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somali-
and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas range the conditions land, &c., while measures for the protection of wild animals
alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, were laid down in an international convention signed in May
consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Charac- 1900.
teristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, which flourishes where The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance
other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which
semi-desert regions the acacia (whence is obtained gum-arabic) does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediter-
is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation ranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the
dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of ostrich and thesecretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed,
temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The
and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension secretary-bird is common The weaver birds and
in the south.
towards the upper Nile and savanna interspersed with trees on
;
their allies, including the long-tailedwhydahs, are abundant, as
the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are are, among game-birds, the francolin and guinea-fowl. Many of
approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, the parrots
&c. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges and halcyons, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted
up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and
is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous
character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition serpents, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical
to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two palms, the Elaeis countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has
guincensis (oil-palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo-palm), not many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the pro-
found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. The bombax verbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites
or silk-cotton tree attains gigantic proportions in the forests, or white ants are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by
which are the home of the indiarubber-producing plants and of means of mosquitoes has already been mentioned. The tsetse fly,
many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many
excelsa), ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) African teak or
, districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found
oak (Oldfieldia africa.no) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The nowhere outside Africa. (E. HE.; F. R. C.)
climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant
and the undergrowth or " bush " is extremely dense. In the
II. GEOLOGY
savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree In shape and general geological structure Africa bears a close
or baobab (Adansonia digitala), doom palm (Hyphaene) and resemblance to India. Both possess a meridional extension with
euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely a broad east and west folded region in the north. In both a
separated places as Liberia and southern Abyssinia. The higher successive series of continental deposits, ranging from the Car-
mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over boniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an older base of crystalline
wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain rocks. In the words of Professor Suess, " India and Africa are
flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo- true plateau countries."
China (cf. A. Engler, fiber die Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain. Both on
1892). the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends parallel
rfrika,
In the swamp regions of north-east Africa the papyrus and with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated plateau of
associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in the interior. Occasionally the crystalline belt comes to the coast,
immense quantities and little else is found in the way of but it is usually reached by two steps known as the coastal belt
vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in and foot-plateau. On the flanks of the primitive western axis
the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, certain ancient sedimentary strata are thrown into folds which
and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted were completed before the commencement of the mesozoic period.
species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succu- In the south, the later palaeozoic rocks are also thrown into acute
lent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable folds by a movement acting from the south, and which ceased
timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus elongatus), towards the close of the mesozoic period. In northern Africa the
stink wood (Ocolea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile) folded region of the Atlas belongs to the comparatively recent
and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found date of the Alpine system. None of these earth movements
in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater affected the interior, for here the continental mesozoic deposits
part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very rest, undisturbed by folding, on the primary sedimentary and
prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the crystalline rocks. The crystalline massif, therefore, presents a
plateaus of the Atlas range. solid block which has remained elevated since early palaeozoic

I
324 AFRICA [GEOLOGY

times, and against which earth waves of several geological periods par excellence the African formation, and covers immense areas
have broken. in South Africa and the Congo basin, with detached portions in
The formations older than the mesozoic are remarkably un- East Africa. During the whole of the time Carboniferous to
fossiliferous, so that thedetermination of their age is frequently Rhaetic that this great accumulation of freshwater beds was
a matter of speculation, and in the following table the European taking place, the interior of the continent must have been
equivalents of the pre- Karroo formations in many regions must undergoing depression. The commencement of the period was
be regarded as subject to considerable revision. marked by one of the most wonderful episodes in the geological
Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in history of Africa. Preserved in the formation known as the
West and East Africa and across the Sahara. Along the coastal Dwyka Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the
margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the greater portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glacia-
deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them bare. tion, while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India
The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and schists. In the
central regions the predominant strike of the foliae is north and TABLE OF FORMATIONS
south. The rocks, for convenience classed as pre-Cambrian, Sedimentary. Igneous.
occur as several unconformable groups, chiefly developed in Recent. Alluvium ; travertine ;

the south where alone their stratigraphy has been determined. coral; sand dunes; con- I Some volcanic islands;
are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of undoubted tinental dunes. Gener- rift- valley volcanoes.
They
ally distributed.
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa they may be Pleistocene. Ancient alluviums and
regarded as of older date than any of these formations. The gravels travertine.
;

Generally distributed. A long-continued suc-

Pliocene. N. Africa; Madagascar. cession in the cen-
Scale. 1
185,000.000 tral and northern
English Miles
> 500 Miocene. N. Africa. regions and among
the island groups.
Oligocene. N. Africa. Doubtfully repre-
sented south of the
Zambezi.
Eocene. N. Africa, along east and
west coasts; Madagas-
car.
Cretaceous. Extensively developed in Diamond pipes of S.
N. Africa; along coast Africa ; Kaptian
and foot-plateaus in east fissure eruptions;
and west Madagascar. ; Ashangi traps of
Abyssinia.
(Jurassic. N. Africa; E. Africa;
Madagascar; Stormberg
in S.
^Chief volcanic period
period (Rhaetic) in S. Africa.
Africa.
Trias. Beaufort Series in S.
Africa Congo basin
; ;

Recent depot/ft Central Africa; Algeria;

(Slot* * Sard Ontrtt) Tunis.
.Permian. Ecca Series in S. Africa. Feebly, if anywhere
Cretaceous & Tertiary -
developed.
Congo Sandstones (A) Carboniferous. N. Africa; Sabaki Shales
in E. Africa; Dwyka
Karroo & Jurassic (B) and Witteberg Series in
S. Africa.
Palaeozoic
Pre-Pataeoioic Devonian. N. Africa; Angola; Bokke-'i M .

Uurtenburg. 4 Suiazi Schilts. Komi BftJS

veld
Not recorded
Series [n S. Africa,
Katanga. Karayu* $*nl<oli Schists) f
Silurian. Table Mountain Sandstone
Cnsist. granite, Scnistl
in S. Africa, Silurian(P).
Igneous Ordovician. Doubtfully represented Klipriversberg an
inN. Africa, French Ventersdorp Series
Cambrian. Congo, Angola, and by of the Transvaal (?).
general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks is of interest, as Vaal River and Water-
these are always present in the ancient pressure-altered sedi- berg Series in S. Africa.
Pre-Cambrian. Quartzites, conglomerates,
mentary formations of America and Europe. Some unfossili- phyllites, jasper-bearing S. Africa and gener-
ferous conglomerates, sandstones and dolomites in South Africa rocks and schists. Gener- ally.
and on the west coast are considered to belong to the Cambrian, ally distributed.
Ordovician and Silurian formations, but merely from their Archean. Gneisses and schists of the Igneous complex of
continental platform. sheared igneous
occurrence beneath strata yielding Devonian fossils. In Cape
rocks; granites.
Colony the Silurian age of the Table Mountain Sandstone is
based on such evidence. and Australia. At the close of the Karroo period there was
The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well repre- a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which again
sented in the north and south and in northern Angola. has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India.
Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present
of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but confines has not been determined. To the east it reached India.
the absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central In the south all that can be said is that it extended to the south
Africa points to there being land in this direction. In late Car- of Worcester in Cape Colony. The Crystal Mountains of Angola
boniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to may represent its western boundary; while the absence of
form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land. In each mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks of the mid-Sahara
country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland had here reached
the same specialized orders of reptiles roamedandwere entombed. its most northerly extension. Towards the close of the Karroo
The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land was period, possibly about the middle, the southern rim of the great
occupied by several large lakes in which an immense thickness central depression became ridged up to form the folded regions
amounting to over 18,000 ft. in South Africa of sandstones of the Zwaarteberg, Cedarberg and Langeberg mountains in
and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid down. This is Cape Colony. This folded belt gives Africa its abrupt southern
ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 325
termination, and may be regarded as an embryonic indication of place along the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though
its present outline. The exact date of the maximum develop- feebly manifested has not entirely passed away. In northern
ment of this folding is unknown, but it had done its work and Africa a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place
some 10,000 ft. of strata had been removed before the com- from Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is
mencement of the Cretaceous period. It appears to approximate doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous.

in time to the similar earth movement and denudation at the During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements
close of the palaeozoic period in Europe. It was doubtless were in progress. In the north the chief movements gave rise
connected with the disruption of Gondwana Land, since it is and faulting of the Moroccan
to the system of latitudinal folding
known that this great alteration of geographical outline com- and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented by the
menced in Jurassic times. formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline and the
The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar.
to have been caused by a series of blocks of country being let Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East African
down by faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal rifts extending
Ocean. Other blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the from Nyasaland to Egypt. The depressed areas contain the
island of Madagascar affording a striking example. In the long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East Africa. The
African portion Ruwenzori is regarded by some geologists to be Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough.
a block mountain or horst. Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal
In Jurassic times the sea gained access to East Africa north regions, the Barbary coast and along the east coast. (W. G.*)
of Mozambique, but does not appear to have reached far beyond
he foot-plateau except in Abyssinia. III. ETHNOLOGY
The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central In attempting a review of the races and tribes which inhabit
Saharan regions, age have been discovered in
for fossils of this movements and culture, it is advisable
Africa, their distribution,
the interior. On
the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend con- that three points be borne in mind. The first of these is the
tinuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco. From here they are comparative absence of natural barriers in the interior, owing to
absent up to the Gabun river, where they commence to form a which intercommunication between tribes, the dissemination of
narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain culture and tribal migration have been considerably facilitated.
by recent deposits. They are again absent up to the Sunday river Hence the student must be prepared to find that, for the most
in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long con- part, there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the
sidered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met various races composing the population, but that the number of
with. Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and what may be termed " transitional " peoples is unusually large.
Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show The second point is that Africa, with the exception of the lower
an intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having Euro- Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa (see AFRICA,
pean affinities. In Mozambique and in German East Africa, ROMAN), is, so far as its native inhabitants are concerned, a
Cretaceous rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of continent practically without a history, and possessing no records
iver 100 m. from which such a history might be reconstructed. The early
Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only occur movements of tribes, the routes by which they reached their
a few isolated patches on the east and west coasts. In northern present abodes, and the origin of such forms of culture as may be
they are well developed and of much interest. They
rica distinguished in the general mass of customs, beliefs, &c., are
well-known nummulitic limestone of Eocene age,
intain the largely matters of conjecture. The negro is essentially the child
hich has been traced from Egypt across Asia to China. The of the moment; and his memory, both tribal and individual, is
pper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded primeval types very short. The third point is that many theories which have
if the Proboscidea and other mammalia. Evidences for the been formulated with respect to such matters are unsatisfactory
greater extension of the Eocene seas than was formerly con- owing to the small amount of information concerning many of
sidered to be the case have been discovered around Sokoto. the tribes in the interior.
During Miocene times Passarge considers that the region of the Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various
mbezi underwent extreme desiccation. parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of India
The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern introduced by them (see section History below), the
frica by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider exten- population of Africa consists of the following elements: AMcaa
on of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, and the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, races.
the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara. the Libyan and the Semite, from the intermingling
"
The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be of which in various proportions a vast number of transi-
"
found in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape tional tribes has arisen. The Bushmen (?..), a race
peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses of short yellowish-brown nomad hunters, inhabited, in the
and schists of Central Africa. The Ventersdorp boulder beds earliest times of which there is historic knowledge, the land
the Transvaal be of early palaeozoic age; but as a whole
may adjoining the southern and eastern borders of the Kalahari
was remarkably free from volcanic
e palaeozoic period in Africa desert, into which they were gradually being forced by the
igneous disturbances. The close of the Stormberg period encroachment of the Hottentots and Bantu tribes. But signs of
haetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South Africa, their former presence are not wanting as far north as Lake
ilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations were being
Tanganyika, and even, it is rumoured, still farther north. With
laid down in North Africa and around the margins of the rest them may be classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral
the continent, Africa received its last great accumulation of people of medium and yellowish-brown complexion, who
stature
ta and at the same time underwent a consecutive series of in early times shared with theBushmen the whole of what is now
rth-movements. The additional strata consist of the immense Cape Colony. Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have
lantities of volcanic material on the plateau of East Africa, been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is that
e basalt flows of West Africa and possibly those of the Zambezi they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic
in. The exact period of the commencement of volcanic elements. Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern fringe
tivity is unknown. In Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are cer- of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to the Cape, with
inly post-Oolitic. In East Africa the fissure eruptions are con- the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and Somali-lands, is peopled
" "
idered to belong to the Cretaceous. These early eruptions were by Negroes and the transitional tribes to which their ad-
illowed by those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani, mixture with Libyans on the north, and Semites (Arabs) and
id theseby the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and Hamites on the north-east and east, has given rise. A slight
16
Kyulu Mountains. The last phase of vulcanicity took qualification of the last statement is necessary, in so far as, among
326 AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY
the Fula in the western Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, &c., of the connected by a vertical strip of grassy highland lying mainly
Victoria Nyanza, Libyan and Hamitic elements are respectively to the east of the chain of great lakes. The third zone is a vast
stronger than the Negroid. Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is region of forest and rivers in the west centre, comprising the
inhabited mainly by Semito-Hamites (though a fairly strong greater part of the basin of the Congo and the Guinea coast.
negroid element can be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by The which also has an important bearing upor the
rainfall,
Hamites. North of the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the culture of peoples, will be found on the whole to be greatest in
Libyans (Berbers, <?..), a distinctively white people, who have in the third zone and also in the eastern highlands, and of course
certain respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence. In least in the desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway
the north-east the brown-skinned Karaite and the Semite mingle between the two. As might be expected these variations are
in varied proportions. The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the accompanied by certain variations in culture. In the best-
vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by watered districts agriculture is naturally of the greatest import-
Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to ance, except where the density of the forest renders the work
the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from the of clearing too arduous. The main portion therefore of the
Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the inhabitants of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the
bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to nomad Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest
Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the coast. and support themselves by hunting the game, with which it

North of this line are the Negroes proper, south are the Bantu. abounds. Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands,
The division is primarily philological. Among the true Negroes and throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna
the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for instance, in certain region of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter.
parts of Nigeria it is possible to find half-a-dozen villages within In fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the
a comparatively small area speaking, not different dialects, but Ova-Herero of German South- West Africa, whose purely pastoral
different languages, a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they in-
political administration. To the south of the line the condition habit. But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding the
of affairs is entirely different; here the entire population speaks forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, and there are
one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v.). As said few tribes who do not take advantage of the fact. At the same
before, the division is primarily linguistic and, especially upon the time a natural check is imposed upon the desire for cattle,
border line, does not always correspond with the variations of which is so characteristic of the Bantu peoples. This is con-
physical type. At the same time it is extremely convenient stituted by the tsetse fly, which renders a pastoral life absolutely
and to a certain extent justifiable on physical and psycho- impossible throughout large tracts in central and southern
logical grounds; and it may be said roughly that while the Africa. In the northern zone this check is absent, and the
linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is accompanied by great number of more essentially pastoral peoples, such as the eastern
variation of physical type, the converse is in the main true of the Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, &c., correspondingly greater.
Negro proper, especially where least affected by Libyan and The desert regions yield support only to nomadic peoples, such
Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea coast. The variation of as the Tuareg, Tibbu, Bedouins and Bushmen, though the
type among the Bantu is due probably to a varying admixture of presence of numerous oases in the north renders the condition
alien blood, which is more apparent as the east coast is approached. of life easier for the inhabitants. Upon geographical conditions
This foreign element cannot be identified with certainty, but likewise depend to a large extent the political conditions pre-
since the Bantu seem to approach the Hamites in those points vailing among the various tribes. Thus among the wandering
where they differ from the Negro proper, and since the physical tribes of the desert and of the heart of the forests, where large
characteristics of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems communities are impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with
probable that the last two races have entered into the composi- the family as the unit. Where the forest is less dense and small
tion of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic agricultural communities begin to make their appearance, the
influence should have permeated any distance from the east coast. unit expands to the village with its headman. Where the forest
An extremely interesting section of the population not hitherto thins to the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier,
" "
mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes inhabiting the are found the larger kingdoms and empires such as, in the
densely forested regions along the equator from Uganda to the north those established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi,
Gabun and living the life of nomadic hunters. The affinities of Ba-Hima, &c., and in the south the states of Lunda, Kazembe,
this little people are undecided, owing to the small amount of the Ba-Rotse, &c.
knowledge concerning them. The theories which connected them But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of
with the Bushmen do not seem to be correct. It is more probable large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies
that they are to be classed among the Negroids, with whom they nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture which, at
it, it is,

appear to have intermingled to a certain extent in the upper basin fostered, in so far as the absence of natural boundaries
first, it
of the Ituri, and perhaps elsewhere. As far as is known they renders invasion easy. A
good example of this is furnished by
speak no language peculiar to themselves but adopt that of the the history of the western Sudan and particularly of East and
nearest agricultural tribe. They are of a dark brown complexion, South-East Africa. From its geographical position Africa looks
with very broad noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but naturally to the east, and it is on this side that it has been most
usually sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated affected by external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic
owing to insufficiency of food. Another peculiar tribe, also of peninsula) and by sea. Though a certain amount of Indonesian
short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region of the north and even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African
Transvaal. Practically nothing is known of them except that ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious
they are said to be very dark in colour and live in holes in the ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the
ground, and under rock shelters. Arabs. This is particularly the case in East Africa, where the
Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees systematic slave raids organized by them and carried out with
of purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed, the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced vast regions
it remains to consider them in greater detail, particu- to a state of desolation. In the north and west of Africa, how-
ethttoiogi-
larlv from the cultural standpoint. This is hardly ever, the Arab has had a less destructive but more extensive
cat zone*, possible without drawing attention to the main physical and permanent influence in spreading the Mahommedan religion
characters of the continent, as far as they affect throughout the whole of the Sudan.
the inhabitants. For ethnological purposes three principal zones The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer
may be distinguished; the first two are respectively a natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed
large region of steppes and desert in the north, and a smaller to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture most
region of steppes and desert in the south. These two zones are characteristically African must be sought on the other side.
 ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 327
It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among the lagoons Semitic; here are found both cylindrical and bee-hive huts,
and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this earlier culture will the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the south),
The char- most probably be found. That there is a culture the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic tribes)
acteristic distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic and the head-rest. Circumcision is practically universal.
African ]j ne dividing the Bantu from the Negro proper, has As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back
now been
recognized. Its main features may be but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower Nile
summed as follows: a purely agricultural life, with the plan- valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records
tain, yam and manioc (the last two of American origin) as the exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very recent
staple food; cannibalism common; rectangular houses with events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch the main
ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; clothing of bark-cloth or palm-fibre; outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless,
occasional chipping or extraction of upper incisors; bows with owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone imple-
strings of cane, as the principal weapons, shields of wood or ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically
wickerwork; religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the Zambezi, in Cape Colony
belief that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies, and the northern portions of the Congo Free State, as well as
the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden in Algeria and Tunisia; but the localities are far too few and
gongs. With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu too widely separated to warrant the inference that they are to
peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in addition, be in any way connected. Moreover, where stone implements
where possible, great cattle-breeders, whose staple food is millet are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually on, the
and milk. These are distinguished by circular huts with domed surface of the earth; nothing occurs resembling the regular
or conical roofs; clothing of skin or leather; occasional chipping stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based
or extraction of lower incisors; spears as- the principal weapons, on geological grounds is possible.
bows, where found, with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather; The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint
religion, ancestor-worship with belief in the power of the implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes,
magicians as rain-makers. Though this difference in culture not only on the surface of the ground, which for several thousand
may well be explained on the supposition that the first is the years has been desert owing to the contraction of the river-bed,
older of Africa, this theory must not
and more representative but also in stratified gravel of an older date. References to a
be pushed too far. Many
of the distinguishing characteristics number of papers bearing on the discussion to which theii
of the two regions are doubtless due simply to environment, discovery has given rise may be found in an article by Mr H. R.
even the difference in religion. Ancestor-worship occurs most Hall in Man, 1905, No. 19. The Egyptian and also the Somali-
naturally among a people where tribal organization has reached land finds appear to be true palaeoliths in type and remarkably
a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural outcome of patriotic similar to those found in Europe. But evidence bearing on the
reverence for a successful chief and his councillors. Rain-making, Stone age in Africa, if the latter existed apart from the localities
too, is of little importance in a well-watered region, but a matter mentioned, is so slight that little can be said save that from the
of vital interest to an agricultural people where the rainfall available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone can
is slightand irregular. with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote period of
Within the eastern and southern Bantu area certain cultural antiquity, and that the chips scattered over Mashonaland and
variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu- the regions occupied within historic times by Bushmen are
Xosa and Herero, giving place among the Bechuana to the the most recent; since it has been shown that the stone flakes
cylindrical variety with conical roof, a type which, with few were used by the medieval Makalanga to engrave their hard
exceptions, extends north to Abyssinia. The tanged spear- pottery and the Bushmen were still using stone implements in
head characteristic of the south is replaced by the socketed the igth century. Other early remains, but of equally uncertain
variety towards the north. Circumcision, characteristic of the date, are the stone circles of Algeria, the Cross river and the
Zulu-Xosa and Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther Gambia. The large system of ruined forts and " cities " in
north; tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, is absent among the Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, concerning which so
more southern tribes. The lip-plug is found in the eastern area, many ingenious theories have been woven, have been proved to
especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the south. The date from medieval times.
head-rest common in the south-east and the southern fringe of Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age, divided into periods
the forest area is not found far north of Tanganyika until the according to various types of implement disposed in geological
Horn of Africa is reached. strata, and followed in orderly succession by the ages origin ana
In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true spread of
proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of culture Stone age and practically no Bronze at all. The reason the racial
*
outweigh the differences. Here the type of hut
cylindrical is not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is

prevails; clothing is but is very scanty; iron

of skin or leather found distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so
ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not feathered; rich that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble
shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are found and also and by the simplest methods. Iron has been worked from
fighting bracelets. Certain small differences appear between time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes
the eastern and western portions, the dividing line being formed are found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging
by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland. Characteristic of the metal. Under such conditions, questions relating to the
of the east are the harp and the throwing-club and throwing- origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the population
knife, the last of which has penetrated into the forest area. of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; at best only a
Typical of the west are the bow and the dagger with the ring certain amount of probability can be attained.
hilt. The upper Nile are somewhat specialized,
tribes of the Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman,
though here, too, are found the cylindrical hut, iron ornaments, Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related
fighting bracelets, &c., characteristic of the Sudanese tribes. through some common ancestor. Of these the honour of being
Here the removal of the lower incisors is common, and circum- considered the most truly African belongs to the two first. It
cision entirely absent. is true that people of Negroid type are found
I
elsewhere, princi-
Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Semitic culture pally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion with the
introduced by the Arabized Libyan. Circumcision, as is usual African Negro is little more than theoretical, and for the present
among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation purposes it need not be considered.
absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has pene- The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be
trated to the northern portion of the forest area. The culture conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion of
prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly Hamito- the continent. The original home of the Negro, at first an
328 AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY

agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu blood
of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe of the began to press north, spreading destruction in their wake. Of
Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands southward. these the principal were the Matabele and Angoni. The move-
Northerly expansion was prevented by the early occupation ment continued as far as the Victoria Nyanza. Here, on the
of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the Mediterranean, border-line of Negro, Bantu and Hamite, important changes
but there seems no doubt that the population of ancient Egypt had taken place. Certain of the Negro tribes had retired to
contained a distinct Negroid element. The question as to the the swamps of the Nile, and had become somewhat specialized,
ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians is still unsolved; both physically and culturally (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi,
but they may be regarded as, in the main, Hamitic, though it is &c.). These had blended with the Hamites to produce such
a question how far it is just to apply a name which implies a races as the Masai and kindred tribes. The old Kitwara empire,
definite specialization in what may be comparatively modern which comprised the plateau land between the Ruwenzori
times to a people of such antiquity. range and Kavirondo, had broken up into small states, usually
The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) aristocracy. The more
which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which the name Zanzibar
applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of expan- (Zanguebar) is a lasting memorial, extending along the sea-board
sion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the latter. These from Somaliland to the Zambezi, was also extinct. The Arabs
emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic pastoral culture, had established themselves firmly on the coast, and thence made
and with a strain of Hamitic blood in their veins, passed rapidly continual slave-raids into the interior, penetrating later to the
down the open tract in the east, doubtless exterminating their Congo. The Swahili, inhabiting the coast-line from the equator
predecessors, except such few as took refuge in the mountains to about 16 S., are a somewhat heterogeneous mixture of Bantu
and swamps. The advance-guard of this wave of pastoral with a tinge of Arab blood.
Negroids, in fact primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite,
and produced the Hottentots. The penetration of the forest Bantu, Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact,
area must certainly have taken longer and was probably accom- the ethnic relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not
plished as much from the south-east, up the Zambezi valley, under a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann
as from any other quarter. It was a more peaceful process, into the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara,
since natural obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of Waseguha, Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later
large bodies of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent Immigration (Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita,
the spread of language and culture. A
modern parallel to the Wachaga, &c.), who are more strongly Hamitized and in many
spread of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language, cases have adopted Masai customs. These peoples, from the
which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the western Victoria Nyanza to the Zambezi, may conveniently be termed
"
and central Sudan. Thus those qualities, physical and otherwise, the Eastern Bantu."
in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually fade as we Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba and
proceed westward through the Congo basin, while in the east, Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the continent,
among the tribes to the" west of Tanganyika and on the upper the latter, from at any rate the end of the i6th century until the
"
Zambezi, transitional forms of culture are found. In later close of the igth century, more or less united under a single ruler,
times this gradual pressure from the south-east became greater, styled Muata Yanvo. These seem to have been the most recent
and resulted, at a comparatively recent date, in the irruption of immigrants from the south-east, and to exhibit certain affinities
theFang into the Gabun. with the Barotse on the upper Zambezi. Among the western
The earlier stages of the southern movement must have been Baluba, or Bashilange, a remarkable politico-religious revolution
accompanied by a similar movement westward between the took place at a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret
"
Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same time, or even society termed Bena Riamba or Sons of Hemp," and resulted
earlier, theLibyans crossing the desert had begun to press upon in the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in
the primitive Negroes from the north. In this way were produced accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves
the Fula, who mingled further with the Negro to give birth to brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c., is acknow-
the Mandingo, Wolof and Tukulor. It would appear that either ledged. North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, are the
Libyan (Fula) or, less probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the Balolo, &c., the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; and westward,
composition of the Zandeh peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed. on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number of tribes as yet
"
These Libyans or Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his Mediter- imperfectly known. Farther west are the tribes of Angola, many
of whom were included within the old
"
ranean Race," were active on the north coast of Africa in very Congo empire," of which
early times, and had relations with the Egyptians from a pre- the kingdom of Loango was an offshoot. North of the latter lies
historic period. For long these movements continued, always the Gabun, with a large number of small tribes dominated by the
in the same direction, from north to south and from east to Fang who are recent arrivals from the Congo. Farther to the
west; though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the north are the Bali and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom
open country, especially in the great eastern highway from many primitive Negroid elements begin to appear. Eastward
north to south, than in the forest area. Large states arose in are the Zandeh peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids
the western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the yth century A.D., with a Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain), with whom the
Melle in the nth, Songhai in the i4th, and Bornu in the i6th. Dor tribe of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain affinities;
Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the while to the west along the coast are the Guinea Negroes of
Bechuana, which was probably .spread over a considerable primitive type. Here, amidst great linguistic confusion, may be
period. Later than they, but proceeding faster, came the distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech in the Niger delta and
Zulu-Xosa (" Kaffir ") peoples, who followed a line nearer the the east portion of the Slave Coast; those of Ewe speech, in the
coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the south. western portion of the latter; and those of Ga and Tshi speech,
Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion in South on the Gold Coast. Among the last two groups respectively may
Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up and disappeared; be mentioned the Dahomi and Ashanti. Similar tribes are found
but ere this the culture represented by the ruins in Rhodesia along the coast to the Bissagos Islands, though the introduction
had waxed and waned. It is uncertain who were the builders of in Sierra Leone and Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves
"
the forts and cities," but it is not improbable that they may be from the American plantations has in those places modified the
found to have been early Bechuana. The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana original ethnic distribution. Leaving the forest zone and entering
and Herero together form a group which may conveniently be the more open country there are, on the north from the Niger
"
termed Southern Bantu." to the Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan
Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the blood and professing the Mahommedan religion. Such are the
 ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 329
Mandingo, the Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagirmi HA MITES continued
Kanembu, and the peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few
(East Sudan and Horn of Africa) continued
aborigines who persist, on the southern fringe of the Chad basin,
are imperfectly known. Galla
Somali
The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent, Danakil (Afar)
still remains for discussion. Here the ethnological conditions are Ba-Hima, including
Peculiar Before the French occupation the dominant
peculiar. Wa-Tussi
conditions people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people
Wa-Hha
la Mada- Wa-Rundi
who must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the Wa- Ruanda
gascar.
adjacent islands. The date of their immigration has been HA MITO-SEMITES
the subject of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that
Fellahin (Egypt)
their arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy
Abyssinians (with Negroid admixture)
ech, which is the language of the island, is principally Malayo-
Polynesian in origin, and contains no traces of Sanskrit. Such HAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL
traces, introduced with Hinduism, are present in all the cultivated
Masai
Wa-Kuafi
languages'of Malaysia at the present day. The Hova occupy the
able-land of Imerina and form the first of the three main groups NEGROID TRIBES
a to which the population of Madagascar may be divided. They West Sudan Central Sudan Eastern
are short, of an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or Tukulor Songhai Fur Kargo
On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in Wolof Hausa Dago Kulfan
"lintly wavy hair.
Serer Bagirmi Kunjara
physical characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the Kolaji
Leybu Kanembu Tegele Tumali
akalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the island Mandingo, including- Kanuri Nuba
ind displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics. Kassonke Tama
Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to sea- Yallonke Maba Zandeh Tribes
Sonink6 Birkit
iring, thecontrary is the case respecting the Negroid population, (Akin to Nilotics, but
Bambara Massalit
id the presence of the latter in the island has been explained by Vei probably with Fula
Korunga element)
supposition that they were imported by the Hova. Other Susu Kabbaga Azandeh (Niam Niam)
authorities assign less antiquity to the Hova immigration and Soli ma &c. Makaraka
Malinke Mundu
elieve that they found the Negroid tribes already in occupation
r
the island. Mangbettu
Probably also Ababwa
As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar con- Mossi
Mege
ains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian. The first of Borgu Abisanga
hese two shows certain affinities with the culture characteristic Tombo -c
c
.tJ
Gurma
of the western area of Africa, such as rectangular huts, --
clothing of Gurunga
Dagomba .^S
bark and palm- fibre, fetishism, &c., but cattle-breeding is found S
Allied are
as well as agriculture. However, the Negroid tribes are more and Mampursi Banziri
^ Languassi
more adopting the customs and mode of life of the Hova, among Gonja S Ndris Wia-Wia
&c. j Awaka
whom are found pile-houses, the sarong, fadi or tabu applied to Togbo
&c.
food, a non-African form of bellows, &c., all characteristic of
their original home. The Hova, during the igth century, em- NEGROES
braced Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old West African Tribes
animistic beliefs; their original social organization in three Tribes of Tshi and Ga Tribes of Yoruba
classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and andevo or slaves, speech, including speech, including
has been modified by the French, who have abolished kingship Khabunke
Balanta Ashanti Yoruba
and slavery. An Arab infusion is also to be noticed, especially on
Bagnori Safwi Ibadan
he north-east and south-east coasts. Bagnum Denkera Ketu
Itimpossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting
is Felup, including Bekwai Egba
Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored. Ayamat Nkoranza Jebu
Adansi
Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic "pla
igush Assin Ode
relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities. "aca Wassaw Hlorin
The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tenta- Joat Ahanta Ijesa
:ive, and liable to correction in the light of fuller information:
Karon Fanti Ondo
Banyum Agona Mahin
AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION Banjar Akwapim Bini
Fulum Akim Kakanda
LIBYANS Bayot Akwamu Wan
&c. Kwao Ibo
(North Africa, excluding Egypt)
Bujagos Ga. Efik
Berbers, including Biafare Andoni
Kabyles Landuman Tribes of Elbe speech, Kwa
Mzab Nalu including Ibibio
Shawia Baga Ekoi
Tuareg Sape Dahomi Inokun
Bulam Eweawo Akunakuna
LIBYO-NEGROW TRANSITIONAL Mendi Agotine Munshi
Fula (West Sudan) Limba Krepi Ikwe
Tibbu (Central Sudan) allina Avenor
Timni Awuna
HA MITES Pessi Agbosomi
ola Aflao
(East Sudan and Horn of Africa)
Kondo Ataklu
Beja, including 3assa Krikor
Ababda Kru
Hadendoa Geng
rebo Attakpami
Bisharin Awekwom
Beni-Amer Aja
Agni Ewemi
Ham ran Juiu Appa
330 AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY
NEGROES continued BANTU NEGROIDS continued

Central Negroes Eastern Negroes Western Central

Bolo Pure Nilotic* Ba-Nunu
Yako Shilluk Ba-Loi
Tangala Nuer Ba-Teke
Kali Dinka Wa-Pfuru
Mishi Jur (Diur) Wa-Mbundu
Doma Mittu Wa-Mfumu
Mosgu, including Jibbeh Ba-Nsinik
Mandara Madi Ma-Wumba
Margi Lendu Ma-Yakalla
Logon Alur (Lur) &c.
Gamergu Acholi
Keribina Lango
Yedina Abaka
Kuri Golo
&c.
Nilotics with affinity
Nilptics
with affinity with Masai
with Zandeh tribes Latuka
Dor (Bongo) Bari

NEGRO-BANTU NILOTIC-BANTU
TRANSITIONAL TRANSITIONAL
Bali Ba-Kwiri Ja-Luo
Ba-Kossi Abo
Ba-Ngwa Dualla
Ba-Nyang Bassa PYGMY TRIBES
Ngolo Ba-Noko (Central Africa)
Ba-Fo Ba-Puko Akka
Ba-Kundu Ba-Koko
Ba-Mbute
Isubu
Ba-Bongo
Ashango
&c.
HISTORY] AFRICA
by the Vandals in the sth century; the passing of the supreme
IV. HISTORY
power in the following century to the Byzantine empire all
The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are these events are told fully elsewhere.
discussed elsewhere (see AFRICA, ROMAN). The word Africa was In the 7th century of the Christian era occurred an event
applied originally to the country in the immediate neighbour- destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent.
hood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known to the Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers Nortll
Romans, and it was subsequently extended with their increas- in the new faith of Mahommed, conquered the whole Africa
ing knowledge, till it came at last to include all that they knew country from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried conquered
of the continent. The Arabs still confine the name Ifrikia to the the Crescent into Spain. Throughout North Africa
^*"
territory of Tunisia. Christianity well-nigh disappeared, save in Egypt
The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest antiquity (where the Coptic Church was suffered to exist), and Upper
of a civilized race. Egyptian culture had, however, remarkably Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the Moslems.
Phoenician little direct influence on the rest of the continent, a In the Sth, o,th and loth centuries the Arabs in Africa were
and Greek result due in large measure to the fact that Egypt is numerically weak; they held the countries they had conquered
by the sword only, but in the nth century there was a great
coiooiza- s h ut o g landwards by immense deserts. If ancient

Egypt and Ethiopia (q.v.) be excluded, the story of Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of Berber
Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic and blood. Evenbefore this the Berbers had very generally adopted
European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and
only state which throughout historic times has maintained its the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly stamped on
independence. The countries bordering the Mediterranean were northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the
first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest settlements Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern
were made before 1000 B.C. Carthage, founded about 800 B.C., sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing
speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean, colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala, playing a r61e,
and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber tribes, who then as maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier
now formed the bulk of the population, became masters of all centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern sea-board. Of
the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis, these eastern cities and states both Europe and the Arabs of
and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Both North Africa were long ignorant.
Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the un- The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the
known parts of the continent by sea. Herodotus relates that an caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty founded by
expedition under Phoenician navigators, employed by Necho, Aghlab, one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the
king of Egypt, c. 600 B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red Sth century ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early
Sea to the Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accom- in the roth century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in
plished in three years. Apart from the reported circumnaviga- Egypt, where Cairo had been founded A.D. 968, and from there
tion of the continent, the west coast was well known to the Later still arose other dynasties
ruled as far west as the Atlantic.
Phoenicians as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Cartha- such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually
ginian, explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin, the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, an o7<Ae
certainly as far as Sierra Leone. A vague knowledge of the and had seized Egypt in 1 5 1 7 established the regencies Turks.
,

Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians. of Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli (between 1519 and
Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves 1551), Morocco remaining an independent Arabized Berber state
in Africa. At the point where the continent approaches nearest under the Sharifan dynasty, which had its beginnings at the end
the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 631 B.C.). of the 1 3th century. Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or
Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in Moorish culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while
on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers
inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the
in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes continent. This was rendered more easy by their use of the
itsfoundation (332 B.C.), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of camel (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of
the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and Egypt), .which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert. In
in this way was obtained some knowledge of Abyssinia. Neither this way Senegambia and the middle Niger regions fell under

Cyrenaica nor Egypt was a serious rival to the Carthaginians, the influence of the Arabs and Berbers, but it was not until 1591
but all three powers were eventually supplanted by the Romans. that Timbuktu a city founded in the nth century became
After centuries of rivalry for supremacy
1
the struggle was Moslem. That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab
ended by the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more traveller Ibn Batuta, to whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa
than a century from that date Egypt and Cyrene had become (Kilwa) was due the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing
incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled Moslem cities on the east African sea-boards. Except along this
portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain sea-board, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress
was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest which,
them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of ioN.,
barrier. Nubia and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition barred their advance as effectually as had the Sahara that of
sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile their predecessors, and cut them off from knowledge of the
ended in failure. The utmost extent of geographical knowledge Guinea coast and of all Africa beyond. One of the regions which
of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century came latest under Arab control was that of Nubia, where a
A.D.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake Christian civilization and state existed up to the I4th century.
reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river Niger. Still For a time the Moslem conquests in South Europe had virtually
Africa for the civilized world remained simply the countries made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in
bordering the Mediterranean. The continual struggle between the nth century of the Saracens from Sicily and southern Italy
Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity by the Normans was followed by descents of the conquerors on
and the glories and sufferings of the Egyptian and African Tunisia and Tripoli. Somewhat later a busy trade with the
Churches; the invasion and conquest of the African provinces African coast-lands, and especially with Egypt, was developed

Rome were made

by Venice, Pisa, Genoa and other cities of North Italy. By the
1
Commercial treaties between Carthage and
end of the isth century Spain had completely thrown off the
in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The first armed conflict between
the rival powers, begun in 264 B.C., was a contest for the possession Moslem yoke, but even while the Moors were still in Granada,
of Sicily. Portugal was strong enough to carry the' war into Africa.
332 AFRICA [HISTORY
In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of Ceuta on the than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples
Moorish coast. From that time onward Portugal repeatedly between Sofala and Cape Guardafui. By 15 20 all these Moslem
Morocco, while Spain ac- sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique
s aiaand interfered in the affairs of
The
Portugai quired ports in Algeria and Tunisia.
many Portugal, being chosen as the chief city of her East African Portuguese
invade thehowever, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at al Kasr possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to in
al Kebir> the Moors bein S led bv Abd el Mal ek I. of the coast-lands. The lower and middle Zambezi valley
the then recently established Sharifan dynasty. By that was explored (i6th and i7th centuries), and here the
time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions. Portuguese found semi-civilized Bantu-Negro tribes, who had
The Barbary states, primarily from the example of the Moors been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous
expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modem

pirates,and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce Rhodesia) known to them as the kingdom or empire of Monomo-
declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the tapa, where gold had been worked by the natives from about the
i6th century to the third decade of the ipth century is largely 1 2th century A.D., and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese

made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the i6th century.
reprisals on the other. In Algiers, Tunis and other cities were Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward
thousands of Christian slaves. and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's
But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the
to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was I7th century, and in the middle of the i8th century ceased with
"
one, Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district.
J onn !> w h was fired with the ambition to acquire At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a
for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his strong influence in Abyssinia also. In the ruler of Abyssinia (to
Coast inspiration and direction was begun that series of whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before
Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined
^e slave vova Ses f exploration which resulted in the circum-
trade. navigation of Africa and the establishment of Portu- they had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and
guese sovereignty over large areas of the coast-lands. when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the
Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by Christian religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan
1480 the whole Guinea coast was known. In 1482 Diogo Cam invaders, the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christo-
or Cao discovered the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good pher da Gama during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favour of
Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and in 1498 Abyssinia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-
Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted
coast, touched at Sofala and Malindi, and went thence to India. to Abyssinia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the
Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive
claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the ex- knowledge of the country. Pedro Paez in 1615, and, ten years
treme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the first dis- later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue Nile.
covered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were
forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portu-
Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482. The chief commodities guese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before the
dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The discovery of power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1 730 no point on the east
America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave coast north of Cape Delgado was held by Portugal.
trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the
trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan Africa. The southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of
lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to
gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea
coast. English mariners went thither as early as 1553, and they
India, and mariners of other nations who followed in ^
their wake used Table Bay only as a convenient spot at Table
Dutch

were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the Bay Cape
adventurers. Much of Senegambia was made known as a result beginning of the i7th century the bay was much re- /J^^d
" "
of quests during the i6th century for the hills of gold in sorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch
Bambuk and the fabled wealth of Timbuktu, but the middle vessels. In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two
Niger was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in officers of the East India Contpany, on their own initiative,
the 1 7th century from Portugal to Holland and from Holland took possession of Table Bay in the name of King James, fearing
"
in the i8th and igth centuries to France and England. The otherwise that English ships would be frustrated of watering
whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and but by license." Their action was not approved in London
" "
factories of rival powers, and this international patchwork and the proclamation they issued remained without effect.
persists though all the hinterland has become either French or The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the English. On the
British territory. advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the
Southward from the mouth of the Congo 1 to the inhospit- Netherlands East India Company, in 1651, sent out a fleet of three
able region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, small vessels under Jan van Riebeek which reached Table Bay on
acquired influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the the 6th of April 1652, when, 164 years after its discovery, the
early part of the i6th century through their efforts Christianity first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa. The
was largely adopted in the native kingdom of Congo. An irrup- Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not
tion of cannibals from the interior later in the same century broke in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was
the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity content to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to
was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao Paulo de the East. 2 In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not
Loanda being founded in 1 576. The sovereignty of Portugal over intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the
this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, has been most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. Nevertheless,
once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640- despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers,
1648, when the Dutch held the seaports. the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of European
Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and Holland,
regions of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually spread northward,
1
This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire. They
appear
1
France acquired, as stations for her ships on the voyage to and
to have made no from India, settlements in Madagascar and the neighbouring islands.
attempt to trace its course beyond the rapids which
stop navigation from the sea. The first settlement was made in 1642.
 HISTORY] AFRICA 333
stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South illegal for Britishsubjects in 1807 and abolished by all other
Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow. European powers by 1836. To West Africa Britain devoted
During the i8th century there is little to record in the history much attention. The slave trade abolitionists had already,
of Africa. The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the in 1788, formed a settlement at Sierra
Leone, on the Guinea
Waning century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for coast, for freed slaves, and from this establishment grew the
and supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent colony of Sierra Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly
revival of lost their interest in the continent. "
Only on the west climate, as The White Man's Grave." 3 Farther east the
Interest
coast was there keen rivalry, and here the motive was establishments on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the
in Africa.
the securance of trade rather than territorial acqui- politics of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi,
sitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest de- despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate
velopment, the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small over the maritime tribes heretofore governed
by the Ashanti.
in comparison. In the interior of the continent Portugal's An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its
energy being expended no interest was shown, the nations with mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar
establishments on the coast " taking no further notice of the the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better
inhabitants or their land than to obtain at the easiest rate what results were obtained. In 1823 three English travellers, Walter
they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to carry them off Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached Lake
for slaves to their plantations in America " (Encyclopaedia Britan- Chad from Tripoli the first white men to reach that lake. The
nica, 3rd Even the scanty knowledge acquired by the
ed., 1797). partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states by Clapperton,
ancients and the Arabs was in the main forgotten or disbelieved. which followed, revealed the existence of large and
nourishing
It was the period when cities and a semi-civilized people in a
region hitherto unknown.
Geographers, in Afric maps, The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger
by Clapperton's
With savage pictures filled their gaps, servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded
And unhabitable downs
o'er by the
Placed elephants for want of towns. journeys of Major A. G. Laing (1826) and Rene Caillie (1827) to
(Poetry, a Rhapsody. By Jonathan Swift.) Timbuktu, and was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of
The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in the the Benue affluent of the Niger by
MacGregor Laird. In 1841
third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that " the Gambia a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white
colony on the
lower Niger, an expedition (largely
and Senega] rivers are only branches of the Niger." But the philanthropic and anti-
closing years of the i8th century, which witnessed the partial slavery in its inception) which ended in utter failure. Never-
theless from that time British traders remained on the lower
awakening of the public conscience of Europe to the iniquities
of the slave trade, weie also notable for the revival of interest Niger, their continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisi-
in inner Africa. A society, the African Association, 1 was formed tion of political rights over the delta and the Hausa states
by
in London in 1788 for the Great Britain. 4 Another endeavour by the British government
exploration of the interior of the
The era of great discoveries had begun a little earlier to open up commercial relations with the
continent. Niger countries resulted
in the famous in the addition of a vast amount of information
journey (1770-1772) of James Bruce through concerning the
Abyssinia and Sennar, during which he determined the course countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours
of Heinrich Earth (1850-1855),
of the Blue Nile. But it was through the agents of the African originally a subordinate, but the
Association that knowledge was gained of the only surviving member of the expedition sent out.
Niger regions.
The Niger itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts
of the continent, the most notable
by way of the Gambia, in 1795. Park, on a second journey in being the occupation of
1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the
he lost his life, having just failed to solve the piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued
question as to where
the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent
solved by Richard Lander and his brother in additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment
1830.) The first
of independent states
South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de Lacerda,
scientific explorer of (Orange Free State and the Transvaal)
a Portuguese, also lost his life in that
country. Lacerda travelled
by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape
up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards Lake Mweru, near Colony. Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made
which he died in 1798. The first recorded crossing of Africa was a British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to
acquire it
accomplished between the years 1802 and 1811 by two half-caste being frustrated. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that
Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptista and A. Jose, who passed from name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, rapidly attained
Angola eastward to the Zambezi. importance, and Arabs began to penetrate to the great lakes of
Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of East Africa, 6 concerning which little more was known (and less
Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless believed) than in the time of Ptolemy. Accounts of a vast inland
exercised great influence on the future of the con- sea, and the discovery in 1848-1849, by the missionaries Ludwig
Effects
ofthe tinent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupa- Krapf and J. Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kili-
Napoieoaic tion of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then manjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further
by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to inowledge.
BriMn At this period, the middle of the ipth century, Protestant
seizes the re S a in direct control
over that country, 2 followed in
Cape. 1811 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea
almost independent state, and the extension of coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions.
Egyp-
tian rule over the eastern Sudan
(from 1820 onward). In South
Their work, largely beneficent,was conducted Theera
being
Africa the struggle with n regions and among peoples little known, and in
Napoleon caused Great Britain to explorers.
take possession of the Dutch settlements at the nany instances missionaries turned explorers and
Cape, and in 1814
Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British secame pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to
troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. ittempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was
The close of the European conflicts with the battle of Waterloo David Livingstone, who had been engaged since 1 840 in
missionary
was followed by vigorous efforts on the work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the
part of the British govern-
ment to become better acquainted with Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake
Africa, and to substitute Ngami.
3
olonization and legitimate trade for the slave traffic, declared In imitation of the British example, an American
society
6 Association ' in I8 T ounded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia.
3 ' was merged in the Royal Geographical 4
The first territorial acquisition made by Great Britain in this
SocieT
T
The Mamelukes whom egion was in 1851, when Lagos Island was annexed.
the Turks had overthrown in the l6th 6
As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzibar journeying across the
u
ury, had regained practically independent
power. continent had arrived at Benguella.
334 AFRICA [HISTORY

and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the
west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often
Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of
November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the Germany, France, Great Britain and other powers. Railways
queen of England. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to civilized
and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having occupation, and from ancient Egypt to the Zambezi the continent
been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva was startled into new life.

Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who Before 1875 the only powers with any considerable interest
crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from Benguella to the mouth of in Africa were Britain, Portugal and France. Between 1815
the Rovuma. While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government
more northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, to
Richard Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain
Victoria Nyanza. Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant, had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, disease,
Speke reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes
Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant
distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the Nile. Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless trouble. The
In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered the visions once entertained of vigorous negro communities at once
Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the river. In 1866 civilized and Christian faded away; to the hot fit of philan-

Livingstone began his last great journey, in which he made known thropy succeeded the cold fit of indifference and a disinclination
Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered the Lualaba (the to bear the burden of empire. The low-water mark of British
upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) before he had been interest in South Africa was reached in 1854 when independence
able to demonstrate its ultimate course, believing indeed that was forced on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind
the Lualaba belonged to the Nile system. Livingstone's lonely of the nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution
death in the heart of Africa evoked a keener desire than ever of a representative House of Commons committee: 2 "that all
to complete the work he left undone. H. M. Stanley, who had further extension of territory or assumption of government, or
in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would be
again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in the most memorable of all inexpedient." For nearly twenty years the spirit of that resolu-
exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza tion paralysed British action in Africa, although many circum-
and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba, stances the absence of any serious European rival, the in-
followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean reached in evitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the activity
August 1877 and proved it to be the Congo. Stanley had been of missionary and trader conspired to make British influence
preceded, in 1874, at Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on dominant in large areas of the continent over which the govern-
the Lualaba, by Lovett Cameron, who was, however, unable ment exercised no definite authority. The freedom with which
farther to explore its course, making his way to the west coast blood and treasure were spent to enforce respect for the British
by a route south of the Congo. flag or to succour British subjects in distress, as in the Abyssinian
While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved campaign of 1867-68 and the Ashanti war of 1873, tended further
explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. to enhance the reputation of Great Britain among African races,
Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed while, as an inevitable result of the possession of India, British
in many and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs,
directions between 1860 officials exercised considerable power at the court of Zanzibar,
Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers which indeed owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord
not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but Canning, the governor-general of India, in 1861 recognizing the
obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages division of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of
and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. 1 Muscat.
Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival.
the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a pygmy On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and
race. But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in
Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district Sumatra. But Portugal still held, both in the east and west
of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first of Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and
meeting with the Pygmies; du Chaillu having previously, as it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration

the result of journeys in the Gabun country between 1855 and of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa Bay,
1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence to the southern part of which England also laid claim by virtue
of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Cartha- of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 1823. The
ginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the ipth century, only other European power which at the period under considera-
was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle. tion had considerable possessions in Africa was France. Besides
In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded apace. Algeria, France had settlements on the Senegal, where in 1854
The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in the valley of the the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor marked the
Vaal river, near its confluence with the Orange, caused a rush beginning of a policy of expansion; she had also various posts
of emigrants to that district, and led to conflicts between the on the upper Guinea coast, had taken the estuary of the Gabun
Dutch and British authorities and the extension of British as a station for her navy, and had acquired (1862) Obok at the
authority northward. In 1871 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe southern entrance to the Red Sea.
in Mashonaland, the chief fortress and distributing centre of In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct
the race which in medieval times worked the goldfields of South- control of Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay
East Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch. In the following though retaining its independence. The most remarkable
year F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa, change was in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced
which continued for more than twenty years and extended over a somewhat fantastic imitation of European civilization. In
every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.) addition Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the
Somali ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power
V. PARTITION AMONG EUROPEAN POWERS southward to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reach-
In the last quarter of the igth
century the map of Africa was ing the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a
transformed. After the discovery of the Congo the story of great influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt
1
Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route.
spentthegreaterpartof the period 1875-1886 in theeastcentralSudan. !
Specially appointed to consider West African affairs.
 HISTORY] AFRICA 335
Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought
nations in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II., king of the
as tne corn piler of statistics rejects or accepts the Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others
Tbedlvl-
sionotthe vague claims of Portugal to sovereignty over the had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in
continenthinterland of her coast possessions. At that period western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class,
wiS7a.
O ther European nations with the occasional excep- which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial develop-
tion of Great Britain were indifferent to Portugal's preten- ment, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which
sions, and her estimate of her African empire as covering beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of savages to
over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged. But the area under
1
Christianize and civilize. The possibility of utilizing both these
effective control of Portugal at that time did not exceed 40,000 classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the
sq. m. Great Britain then held some 250,000 sq. m., France chief, formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley
about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. m. The area of the had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it
independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal and Orange Free proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project
State) was some 150,000 sq. m., so that the total area of Africa understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France
ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 sq. m.; roughly and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun.
one-tenth of the continent. This estimate, as it admits the full
extent of Portuguese claims and does not include Madagascar,
Scale, 1
185, 000,000
in reality considerably overstates the case. English Miles
9 500
Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were
subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan of
Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of organized
governments, the three principal independent states, Morocco,
Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of Liberia.
There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one half of
Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited by a multitude
of tribes and peoples living under various forms of govern-
ment and subject to frequent changes in respect of political
organization. In this region were the negro states of Ashanti,
Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the Mahommedan
sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number of negro kingdoms
in the east central and south central regions. Of these Uganda
on the north-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and
Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be mentioned. The two last-
named kingdoms occupied respectively the south-eastern and
south-western parts of the Congo basin. In all this vast region
the Negro and Negro-Bantu races predominated, for the most
part untouched by Mahommedanism or Christian influences. Portuguest
They lacked political cohesion, and possessed neither the means
P.iH Italian
nor the inclination to extend their influence beyond their own
borders. The exploitation of Africa continued to be entirely Spanish
the work of alien races.
The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be
considered. They are to be found in the economic and political
Causes state ofwestern Europe at the time. Germany,
which led strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian EmtryW.lktric.

to par- War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent events,
new markets for her growing industries, and with to set forth the designs then entertained by the European powers
the markets, colonies. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was that participated in the struggle for Africa. Portugal Conflict^
... .. i * .111*
of slow growth in Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at
length was striving to retain as large a share as possible of ambl. lag
acted Africa was the only field left to exploit, South America her shadowy empire, and particularly to establish her tions of
claims to the Zambezi region, so as to secure a belt of ihe
being protected from interference by the known determination
of the United States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while territory across Africa from Mozambique to Angola,
fowe
Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of danger,
already held most of the other regions of the world where coloniza- put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the Niger, but
tion was possible. For different reasons the war of 1870 was her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an unbroken
also the starting-point for France in the building
up of a new line of British possessions and spheres of influence from south to
colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost north of the continent, from Cape Colony to Egypt. Germany's
in that war France had to look
beyond To the two
Europe. ambition can be easily described. It was to secure as much as
causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and possible, so as to make up for lost opportunities. Italy coveted
Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred Tripoli, but that province could not be seized without risking
themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become war. For the rest Italy's territorial ambitions were confined
an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action to North-East Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating
too late to secure predominance in all the regions where
formerly influence over Abyssinia. French ambitions, apart from Mada-
hers was the only European influence. She had to contend not gascar, were confined to the northern and central portions of
only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, the continent. To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean
but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa,
every
European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her in-
alone acted throughout in cordial fluence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first
co-operation with Great
Britain. ambition. But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and the
It wasnot, however, the action of any of the great powers impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley of the
'See the tables in Behm and Wagner's upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to the French
Bevolkerung der Erde
(Gotha, 1872).
government none other than the establishment of French
 AFRICA [HISTORY

influence over a broad belt of territory stretching across the and lawlessness and the cruel barter of slaves shall be overcome."
continent from west to east, from Senegal on the Atlantic coast The irony of human
aspirations was never perhaps more plainly
to the Gulf of Aden. The fact that France possessed a small demonstrated than in the contrast between the ideal thus set
part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this design. But these before themselves by those who employed Stanley, and the actual
conflicting ambitions could not all be realized, and Germany results of their intervention in Africa. Stanley founded his first
succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous station at Vivi, between the mouth of the Congo and the rapids
band of British territory from south to north, while Great Britain, that obstruct its course where it breaks over the western edge
by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the of the central continental plateau. Above the rapids he estab-
French dream of an empire from west to east. lished a station on Stanley Pool and named it Leopoldville,

King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The founding other stations on the main stream in the direction of
part of the continent to which from the first he directed his the falls that bear his name.
energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took Meanwhile de Brazza was far from
idle. He had returned to
what may be described as the first definite step in the modern Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King
partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the
at Brussels representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France, southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate were equally busy on the northern bank. De Brazza was sent
on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and out to Africa by the French committee of the International
civilization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the African Association, which provided him with the funds for the
continent to commerce and industry. The conference was expedition. His avowed object was to explore the region
entirely unofficial. delegates who attended neither repre-
The between the Gabun and Lake Chad. But his real object was to
sented nor pledged their
respective governments. Their anticipate Stanley on the Congo. The international character of
deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation the association founded by King Leopold was never more than
" a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and the
of The International African Association," with its head-
quarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish Belgians on the Congo was soon open, if not avowed. In October
national committees in the various countries represented, which 1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on the north
should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority extended
Association. The central idea appears to have been to put the over a large area, including territory on the southern bank of
exploration and development of Africa upon an international the river. As soon as this chief had accepted French protection,
footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an de Brazza crossed over to the south of the river, and founded
unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working a station close to the present site of Leopoldville. The discovery
independently of the International Association, and the Associa- by Stanley of the French station annoyed King Leopold's agent,
tion itself passed through a succession of stages until it became and he promptly challenged the rights of the chief who purported
purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the Congo to have placed the country under French protection, and him-
Free State, under the personal sovereignty of King Leopold. self founded a Belgian station close to the site selected by
At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions de Brazza. In the result, the French station was withdrawn
to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more to the northern side of Stanley Pool, where it is now known
or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it as Brazzaville.
was not until the return of Stanley, in January 1878, from his The
activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had
great journey down the Congo, that its ruling spirit, King not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government
Leopold, definitely turned his thoughts towards the Congo. In saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never ceased
June of that year, Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in to put forward on the west coast were not to go by default.
the following November a private conference was held, and a At varying periods during the igth century Portugal had put
committee was appointed for the investigation of the upper forward claims to the whole of the West African coast, between
Congo. 5 12' and 8 south. North of the Congo mouth she claimed the
Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other territories of Kabinda and Molemba, alleging that they had been

capitals than Brussels. France had always taken a keen interest in her possession since 1484. Great Britain had never, however,
The in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to
itmggie de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz.
for the
t jj e Qgow6 river to the south of the Gabun. De Brazza In 1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by force
determined that the Ogow6 did not offer that great any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that place.
waterway into the interior of which he was in search, and he But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their claims,
returned to Europe without having heard of the discoveries and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the British
of Stanley farther south. Naturally, however, Stanley's dis- government for recognition of Portuguese rights over both
coveries were keenly followed in France. In Portugal, too, the banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance inland.
discovery of the Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway Into the details of the negotiations, which were conducted for
of more than a thousand miles into the heart of the continent, Great Britain by the and Earl Granville, who was then secretary
served to revive the languid energies of the Portuguese, who for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; they resulted
promptly began to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a treaty, by which
ratio to their validity. Claims, annexations and occupations Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of the king of Portugal
"
were in the air, and when in January 1879 Stanley left Europe over that part of the west coast of Africa, situated between
as the accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo com- 8 and 5 12' south latitude," and inland as far as Noki, on the
mittee, the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and south bank of the Congo, below Vivi. The navigation of the
intentions. The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding up Congo was to be controlled by an Anglo-Portuguese commission.
the Congoto assist the Belgian expedition which had entered The publication of this treaty evoked immediate protests, not
from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to Zanzibar. only on the continent but in Great Britain. In face of the
But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at Banana disapproval aroused by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself
Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has written, unable to ratify it. The protests had not been confined to France
" the novel mission of and the king of the Belgians. Germany had not yet acquired
sowing along its .banks civilized settlements
to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould it in harmony formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the spring
with modern ideas into national states, within whose limits the prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince Bismarck
European merchant shall go hand in hand with the dark African had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections entertained
trader, and justice and law and order shall prevail, and murder by Germany to the Anglo-Portuguese treaty.
HISTORY] AFRICA 337
For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general a protectorate was not formally declared until the following
conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were January.
interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place
" on the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the
as to the rules of the game," and to define their respective
interests so far as that was practicable. Lord Granville's ill- Portuguese province of Mossamedes. It must be sufficient here
fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation
to hold an international conference on African affairs. But of the colony of German South- West Africa. For many years
before discussing the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be before 1884 German missionaries had settled among the Damaras
well to see what was the position, on the eve of the conference, (Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading opera-
in other parts of the African continent. In the southern section tions with their missionary work. From time to time trouble
of Africa, south of the Zambezi, important events had been arose between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals

happening. In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement were made to the German government for protection.
with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of The German government in its turn begged the British
British
Influence frontiers, the result of which was to leave the Kimberley government to say whether it assumed responsibility
consoli- diamond fields in British territory, in exchange for for the protection of Europeans in Damaraland and
dated In a payment of 90,000 to the Orange Free State. On Namaqualand. The position of the British government was
South
the 1 2th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone had intelligible, if not very intelligent. It did not desire to see any
Africa.
issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal the other European power in these countries, and it did not want to
South African Republic, as it was officially designated to be assume the responsibility and incur the expense of protecting the
British territory (see TRANSVAAL). In December 1880 war few Europeans settled there. Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of
broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace the Cape (1877-1880), had foreseen that this attitude portended
was signed. This treaty of peace was followed by a convention, trouble, and had urged that the whole of the unoccupied coast-
signed in August of the same year, under which complete self- line, up to the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under

government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the Transvaal, British protection. But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as
subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon certain terms something of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British
and conditions and'subject to certain reservations and limitations. flag was hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent
No sooner was the convention signed than it became the object land declared to be British. The fact appears to be that British
of the Boers to obtain a modification of the conditions and limita- statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over
tions imposed, and in February 1884 a fresh convention was Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never
signed, amending the convention of 1881. Article IV. of the new give his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to the
" German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed in
convention provided that The South African Republic will
conclude no treaty or engagement with any state or nation Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were
other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to sent. Meanwhile the various colonial societies established in
the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, and, more
been approved by Her Majesty the Queen." The precise effect important still, they had convinced the great chancellor.
of the two conventions has been the occasion for interminable Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. Liideritz, a
discussions, but as the subject is now one of merely academic Bremen merchant, informed the German government of his
interest, it is sufficient to say that when the Berlin conference intention to establish a factory on the coast between the Orange
held its first meeting in 1884 the Transvaal was practically river and the Little Fash river, and asked if he might rely on the
independent, so far as its internal administration was con- protection of his government in case of need, he met with no
cerned, while its foreign relations were subject to the control discouragement from Prince Bismarck. In February 1883 the
just quoted. German ambassador in London informed Lord Granville of
"
But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 1875 Luderitz's design, and asked whether Her Majesty's government
and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British exercise any authority in that locality." It was intimated that
influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi had if Her Majesty's government did not, the German government

been steadily extended. To the west of the Orange Free State, would extend to Luderitz's factory " the same measure of pro-
Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, while to the tection which they give to their subjects in remote parts of the
east the territories beyond the Kei river were included in Cape world, but without having the least design to establish any foot-
Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the latter year, with ing in South Africa." An inconclusive reply was sent, and on
the exception of Pondoland, the whole of South-East Africa was the gth of April Luderitz's agent landed at Angra Pequena, and
in one form or another under British control. North of Natal, after a short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by
Zululand was not actually annexed until 1887, although since which some 215 square miles around Angra Pequena were ceded
1879, when the military power of the Zulus was broken up, to Liideritz. In England and at the Cape irritation at the news
British influence had been admittedly supreme. In December was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated that
1884 St Lucia Bay upon which Germany was casting covetous Liideritz would be disavowed by his government. But for this
eyes had been taken possession of in virtue of its cession to belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of the unoccupied
Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, an<^ three years later coast-line would have been promptly declared under British
an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers made by Great protection. Still Prince Bismarck was slow to act. In November
Britain with the regent and paramount chief of Tongaland the German ambassador again inquired if Great Britain made
completed the chain of British possessions on the coast of South any claim over this coast, and Lord Granville replied that Her
Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river on the west to Kosi Majesty exercised sovereignty only over certain parts of the
Bay and the Portuguese -frontier on the east. In the interior coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested that arrangements might
of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that be made by which Germany might assist in the settlement of
final stage of the British advance towards the north which was
Angra Pequena. By this time Liideritz had extended his acquisi-
to extend British influence from the Cape to the southern shores tions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared
of Lake Tanganyika. The activity of the Germans on the west, by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape
and of the Boer republic on the east, had brought home to both Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized
the imperial and colonial authorities the impossibility of relying that Germany had broken away from her former purely con-
on vague traditional claims. In May 1884 treaties were made tinental policy, and, when too late, the Cape parliament showed
with native chiefs by which the whole of the country north great eagerness to acquire the territory which had lain so long at
of Cape Colony, west of the Transvaal, south of 22 S. and its very doors, to be had for the taking. It is not necessary to
east of 20 E., was placed under British protection, though follow the course of the subsequent negotiations. On the 1 5th
338 AFRICA [HISTORY
of August 1884 an official note was addressed by the German months. In this fashion France was pushing on towards
consul at Capetown to the high commissioner, intimating that Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the policy which resulted in
"
the German emperor had by proclamation taken the territory surrounding all the old British possessions in West Africa with
belonging to Mr A. Luderitz on the west coast of Africa under the a continuous band of French territory. There was, however,
direct protection of His Majesty." This proclamation covered one region on the west coast where, notwithstanding the lethargy
the coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26 S. of the British government, British interests were being vigorously
"
latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including the pushed, protected and consolidated. This was on the lower
islands belonging thereto by the law of nations." On the 8th Niger, and the leading spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie
of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her Taubman (afterwards Sir George Taubman Goldie). In 1877
"
Majesty's government that the west coast of Africa from 26 Sir George Goldie visited the Niger and conceived the idea of
S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had been placed establishing a settled government in that region. Through
under the protection of the German emperor." Thus, before the his efforts the various trading firms en the lower Niger formed
end of the year 1884, the foundations of Germany's colonial themselves in 1879 into the " United African Company," and
empire had been laid in South- West Africa. the foundations were laid of something like settled administra-
In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British tion. An application was made to the British government for a
government, through the German charge d'affaires in London, charter in 1881, and the capital of the company increased to a
"
Nachtigai's
that the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has million sterling. Henceforth the company was known as the
mission to been "
commissioned by my government to visit the west National African Company," and it was acknowledged that
coast of Africa in the course of the next few months, its object was not only
to develop the trade of the lower Niger,
in order to complete the information now in the posses- but to extend operations to the middle reaches of the river,
its
sion of the Foreign Office at Berlin, on the state of German com- and to open up direct relations with the great Fula empire of
merce on that coast. With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly Sokoto and the smaller states associated with Sokoto under a
embark at Lisbon, on board the gunboat Mowe.'
'
He will put somewhat loosely defined suzerainty. The great development
himself into communication with the authorities in the British of trade which followed the combination of British interests
possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on carried out under Goldie's skilful guidance did not pass unnoticed
behalf of the imperial government, negotiations connected with in France, and, encouraged by Gambetta, French traders made a
certain questions. I venture," the official communication proceeds, bold bid for a position on the river. Two French companies,
"
in accordance with instructions, to beg your excellency to be
my with ample capital, were formed, and various stations were
so good as to cause the authorities in the British possessions in established on the lower Niger. Goldie realized at once the
West Africa to be furnished with suitable recommendations." seriousness of the situation, and lost no time in declaring com-
Although at the date of this communication it must have been mercial war on the newcomers. His bold tactics were entirely
apparent, from what was happening in South Africa, that successful, and a few days before the meeting of the Berlin
Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of colonial expansion, conference he had the satisfaction of announcing that he had
and although the wording of the letter was studiously vague, it bought out the whole of the French interests on the river, and
does not seem to have occurred to the British government that that Great Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower
the real object of Gustav Nachtigai's journey was to make other Niger.
annexations on the west coast. Yet such was indeed his mission. To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at
German traders and missionaries had been particularly active of the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to
late years on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. German factories refer briefly to the course of events in North and East The
posi-
were dotted all along the coast in districts under British protec- Africa since 1875. In 1881 a French army entered tloa la
tion, under French protection and under the definite protection Tunisia, and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing
of no European power at all. It was to these latter places that that country under French protection. The sultan of
Nachtigal turned his attention. The net result of his operations Turkey formally protested against this invasion of Ottoman
was that on the 5th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the rights, but the great powers took no action, and France was
king of Togo, placing his country under German protection, and left in undisturbed possession of her newly acquired territory.
that just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed In Egypt the extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to 'ie
over the Cameroon district. Before either of these events had establishment in 1879, in the interests of European bond-
occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that she could holders, of a Dual Control exercised by France and Great Britain.
no longer dally with the subject, if she desired to consolidate her France had, however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppres-
possessions in West Africa. The British government had again sion of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished
and again refused to accord native chiefs the protection they unaided. As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished
demanded. The Cameroon chiefs had several times asked for in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army
British protection, and always in vain. But at last it became quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position
apparent, even to the official mind, that rapid changes were being in Egyptian affairs (see EGYPT). In East Africa, north of the
effected in Africa, and on the i6th of May Edward Hyde Hewett, Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was the
British consul, received instructions to return to the west coast most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly
and to make arrangements for extending British protection over preparing the foundations of her present colony of German
certain regions. He arrived too late to save either Togoland or East Africa. But no overt act had warned Europe of what
Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King Bell and was impending. The story of the foundation of German East
the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with Nachtigal. Africa is one of the romances of the continent. Early in 1884
But the British consul was in time to secure the delta of the river the Society for German Colonization was founded, with the
Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending from Rio del Rey avowed object of furthering the newly awakened colonial
where aspirations of the German people.
1
to the Lagos frontier, for a long period British traders It was a society inspired
had held almost a monopoly of the trade. and controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884,
Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making. While eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three
the British government still remained under the spell of the young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar. They
prenc/I afl</ fatal resolution of 1865, the French government was were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters,
British strenuously endeavouring to extend France's influence the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count Pfeil,
rivalry laj n West
Africa, in the countries lying behind the coast- and Dr Jiihlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of a number
AMca. line During the year 1884 no fewer than forty-two
-
1
In 1887 this society united with the German Colonial Society,
treaties were concluded with native chiefs, an even an organization founded in 1882. The united society took the title
larger number having been concluded in the previous twelve of the German Colonial Company.
HISTORY] AFRICA 339
of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms. They must be effective. It is also noteworthy that the first reference
and an international act to the obligations attaching to " spheres
proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar,
in
"
to conclude treaties in the back country with native of influence is contained in the Berlin Act.
German chiefs placing under German pro-
their territories be remembered that when the conference assembled,
It will
fiag raised tection. The enterprise was frowned upon by the the International Association of the Congo had only been recog-
In Bast German government; but, encouraged by German nized as a sovereign state by the United States and
Africa.
res idents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed Germany. But King Leopold and his agents had tioifofthe
to the mainland, and on the igth of November, while the diplo- taken full advantage of the opportunity which the c
g$l
matists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules conference afforded, and before the General Act was
" "
which were to govern the game of partition, the first treaty signed the Association had been recognized by all the signatory
was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first powers, with the not very important exception of Turkey, and
time in East Africa. the fact communicated to the conference by Colonel Strauch.
Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent It was not, however, until two months later, in April 1885, that
before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino King Leopold, with the sanction of the Belgian legislature,
Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of formally assumed the headship of the new state; and on the
Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that it was ist of August in the same year His Majesty notified the powers
" "
declared an Italian colony. This was followed by the conclusion that from that date the Independent State of the Congo
" "
of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the Danakil, signed declared that it shall be perpetually neutral in conformity
on the 1 5th of March 1883, and subsequently approved by the with the provisions of the Berlin Act. Thus was finally consti-
king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the cession of part of Ablis tuted the Congo Free State, under the sovereignty of King
(Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy undertaking to protect with her Leopold, though the boundaries claimed for it. at that time were
fleet the Danakil littoral. considerably modified by subsequent agreements.
One other event must be recorded as happening before the From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with
meeting of the Berlin conference. The king of the Belgians had renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the
been driven to the conclusion that, if his African century the work of partition, so far as international The
ono/<Ae enterprise was to obtain any measure of permanent agreements were concerned, was practically completed. cn ie f
Inter- success, its international status must be recognized. To attempt to follow the process of acquisition year partition
national treaties.
To this end negotiations were opened with various by year would involve a constant shifting of attention
Associa- "
tion. governments. The first government to recognize from one part of the continent to another, inasmuch as the
the flag of the International Association of the Congo scramble was proceeding simultaneously all over Africa. It will
"
as the flag of a friendly government was that of the United therefore be the most convenient plan to deal with the continent
States, its declaration to that effect bearing date the 22nd of in sections. Before doing so, however, the international agree-
April 1884. There were, however, difficulties in the way of ments which determined in the main the limits of the possessions
obtaining the recognition of the European powers, and in order of the various powers may be set forth. They are :

to obtain that of France, King Leopold, on the 23rd of April I. The agreement of the ist of July 1890 between Great

1884, while labouring under tha feelings of annoyance which Britain and Germany defining their spheres of influence in East,
had been aroused by the Anglo-Portuguese treaty concluded by West and South-West Africa. This agreement was the most
" "
Lord Granville in February, authorized Colonel Strauch, presi- comprehensive of all the deals in African territory, and in-
dent of the International Association, to engage to give France cluded in return for the recognition of a British protectorate
"
the right of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances, over Zanzibar the cession of Heligoland to Germany.
the Association were compelled to sell its possessions." France's II. The Anglo-French declaration of the 5th of August 1890,
formal recognition of the Association as a government was, which recognized a French protectorate over Madagascar,
however, delayed by the discussion of boundary questions until French influence in the Sahara, and British influence between
the following February, and in the meantime Germany, Great the Niger and Lake Chad.
Britain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Holland and Spain had all recog- III. The Anglo-Portuguese treaty of the nth of June 1891,
nized the Association; though Germany alone had done so on whereby the Portuguese possessions on the west and east coasts
the 8th of November before the assembling of the conference. were separated by a broad belt of British territory, extending
The conference assembled at Berlin on the i5th of November north to Lake Tanganyika.
"
1884, and after protracted deliberations the General Act of IV. The Franco-German convention of the isth of March
"
The the Berlin Conference was signed by the representa- 1894, by which the Central Sudan was left to France (this region
Berlin tives of all the powers attending the conference, on by an Anglo-German agreement of the isth of November 1893
Confer- the 26th of February 1885. The powers represented having been recognized as in the German sphere). By this
ence of
were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, convention France was able to effect a territorial junction of
1884-85.
Spain, the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, her possessions in North and West Africa with those in the Congo
Holland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Turkey, region.
to name them in the alphabetical order adopted in the preamble V. Protocols of the 24th of March and the isth of April 1891,
to the French text of the General Act. Ratifications were for the demarcation of the Anglo-Italian spheres in East Africa.
deposited by all the signatory powers with the exception of the VI. The Anglo-French convention of the i4th of June 1898,
United States. It is unnecessary to examine in detail the for the delimitation of the possessions of the two countries west
results of the labours of the conference. The General Act dealt of Lake Chad, with the supplementary declaration of the 2 ist
with six specific subjects: (i) freedom of trade in the basin of of March 1899 whereby France recognized the upper Nile valley
the Congo, (2) the slave trade, (3) neutrality of territories in the as in the British sphere of influence.
basin of the Congo, (4) navigation of the Congo, (5) navigation Coming now to a more detailed consideration of the operations
of the Niger, (6) rules for future occupation on the coasts of the of the powers, the growth of the Congo Free State, which occu-
African continent. It will be seen that the act dealt with other pied, geographically, a central position, may serve as The
matters than the political partition of Africa; but, so far as the starting-point for the story of the partition after growth of
they concern the present purpose, the results effected by the the Berlin conference. In the notification to the taeCoago
Berlin Act may be summed up as follows. The signatory powers powers of the ist of August 1885, the boundaries of the
undertook that any fresh act of taking possession on any portion Free State were set out in considerable detail. The limits thus
of the African coast must be notified
by the power taking posses- determined resulted partly from agreements made with France,
sion, or assuming a protectorate, to the other signatory powers. Germany and Portugal, and partly from treaties with native
It was further provided that any such occupation to be valid chiefs. The state acquired the north bank of the Congo from
340 AFRICA [HISTORY
its mouth to a point in the unnavigable reaches, and in the secured to French influence, and the left bank to the Congo Free
interior the major part of the Congo basin. In the north-east State. The desire of France to secure a footing in the upper
the northern limit was 4 N. up to 30 E., which formed the Nile valley was partly due, as has been seen, to her anxiety to
eastern boundary of the state. The south-eastern frontier extend a French zone across Africa, but it was also and to a large
claimed by King Leopold extended to Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru extent attributable to the belief, widely entertained The
and Bangweulu, but it was not until some years later that it in France, that by establishing herself on the upper contest
was recognized and defined by the agreement of May 1894 with Nile France could regain the position in Egyptian * r "'<!
"
Great Britain. The international character of King Leopold's affairs which she had sacrificed in 1882. With these pper
enterprise had not long been maintained, and his recognition as strong inducements France set steadily to work to consolidate
sovereign of the Free State confirmed the distinctive character her position on the tributary streams of the upper Congo basin,
which the Association had assumed, even before that event. preparatory to crossing into the valley of ^he upper Nile. Mean-
In April 1887 France was informed that the right of pre- while a similar advance was being made from the Congo Free
emption accorded to her in 1884 had not been intended by King State northwards and eastwards. King Leopold had two objects
Leopold to prejudice Belgium's right to acquire the Congo State, in view to obtain control of the rich province of the Bahr-el-
and in reply the French minister at Brussels took note of the Ghazal and to secure an outlet on the Nile. Stations were
"
explanation, in so far as this interpretation is not contrary to established on the Welle river, and in February 1891 Captain
pre-existing international engagements." By his will, dated the van Kerckhoven left Leopoldville for the upper Welle with the
2nd of August 1889, King Leopold made Belgium formally heir to most powerful expedition which had, up to that time, been
the sovereign rights of the Congo Free State. In 1895 an annexa- organized by the Free State. After some heavy fighting the
tion bill was introduced into the Belgian parliament, but at that expedition reached the Nile in September 1892, and opened up
time Belgium had no desire to assume responsibility for the communications with the remains of the old Egyptian garrison
Congo State, and the bill was withdrawn. In 1901, by the terms at Wadelai. Other expeditions under Belgian officers penetrated
of a loan granted in 1890, Belgium had again an opportunity of into the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and it was apparent that King Leopold
annexing the Congo State, but a bill in favour of annexation was proposed to rely on effective occupation as an answer to any
opposed by the government and was withdrawn after King claims which might be advanced by either Great Britain or
Leopold had declared that the time was not ripe for the transfer. France. The news of what was happening in this remote region
Concessionaire companies and a Domaine de la Couronne had been of Africa filtered through to Europe very slowly, but King
created in the state, from which the sovereign derived consider- Leopold was warned on several occasions that Great Britain
able revenues facts which helped to explain the altered attitude would not recognize any claims by the Congo Free State on the
of Leopold II. The agitation in Great Britain and America Bahr-el-Ghazal. The difficulty was, however, that neither from
against the Congo system of government, and the admissions of Egypt, whence the road was barred by the khalifa (the successor
an commission of inquiry concerning its maladministra-
official of the mahdi), nor from Uganda, which was far too remote from
tion, strengthened, however, the movement in favour of transfer. the coast to serve as the base of a large expedition, could a
Nevertheless in June 1906 the king again declared himself British force be despatched to take effective occupation of the
opposed to immediate annexation. But under pressure of public upper Nile valley. There was, therefore, danger lest the French
opinion the Congo government concluded, 2th of November should succeed in establishing themselves on the upper Nile
1907, a new annexation treaty. As it stipulated for the continued before the preparations which were being made in Egypt for
existence of the crown domain the treaty provoked vehement " "
smashing the khalifa were completed.
opposition. Leopold II. was forced to yield, and an additional In these circumstances Lord Rosebery, who was then British
act was signed, sth of March 1908, providing for the suppression foreign minister, began, and his successor, the ist earl of
of the domain in return for financial subsidies. The treaty, as Kimberley, completed, negotiations with King Leopold The Aagi .
amended, was approved by the Belgian parliament in the session which resulted in the conclusion of the Anglo- Congolese Congolese
of 1908. Thus the Congo state, after an existence of 24 years agreement of 1 2th May 1894. By this agreement King agreement
otl894 -
as an independent power, became a Belgian colony. (See Leopold recognized the British sphere of influence
CONGO FREE STATE.) as laid down in the Anglo-German agreement of July 1890,
The area of the Free State, vast as it was, did not suffice to and Great Britain granted a lease to King Leopold of certain
satisfy theambition of its sovereign. King Leopold maintained territories in the western basin of the upper Nile, extending on
that the Free State enjoyed equally with any other state the the Nile from a point on Lake Albert to Fashoda, and westwards
right to extend its frontiers. His ambition involved the state in to the Congo-Nile watershed. The practical effect of this agree -
the struggle between Great Britain and France for the upper ment was to give the Congo Free State a lease, during its
Nile. To understand the situation it is necessary to remember sovereign's lifetime, of the old Bahr-el-Ghazal province, and to
the condition of the Egyptian Sudan at that time. The mahdi, secure after His Majesty's death as much of that territory as
Mahommed Ahmed, had preached a holy war against the lay west of the 3oth meridian, together with access to a port on
Egyptians, and, after the capture of Khartum and the death of Lake Albert, to his successor. At the same time the Congo Free
General C. G. Gordon, the Sudan was abandoned to the dervishes. State leased to Great Britain a strip of territory, is|m. in
The Egyptian frontier was withdrawn to Wadi Haifa, and the breadth, between the north end of Lake Tanganyika and the
vast provinces of Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were south end of Lake Albert Edward. This agreement was hailed
given over to dervish tyranny and misrule. It was obvious that as a notable triumph for British diplomacy. But the triumph
Egypt would sooner or later seek to recover her position in the was short-lived. By the agreement of July 1890 with Germany,
Sudan, as the command of the upper Nile was recognized as Great Britain had been reluctantly compelled to abandon her
essential to her continued prosperity. But the international hopes of through communication between the British spheres
position of the abandoned provinces was by no means clear. in the northern and southern parts of the continent, and to
The British government, by the Anglo-German agreement of consent to the boundary of German East Africa marching with
July 1890, had secured the assent of Germany to the statement the eastern frontier of the Congo Free State. Germany frankly
that the British sphere of influence in East Africa was bounded avowed that she did not wish to have a powerful neighbour
on the west by the Congo Free State and by " the western water- interposed between herself and the Congo Free State. It was
shed of the basin of the upper Nile "; but this claim was not obvious that the new agreement would effect precisely what
recognized either by France or by the Congo Free State. From Germany had declined to agree to in 1890. Accordingly Germany
her base on the Congo, France was busily engaged pushing protested in such vigorous terms that, on the 22nd of June 1894,
forward along the northern tributaries of the great river. On the offending article was withdrawn by an exchange of notes
the 27th of April 1887 an agreement was signed with the Congo between Great Britain and the Congo Free State. Opinion in
Free State by which the right bank of the Ubangi river was France was equally excited by the new agreement. It was
HISTORY] AFRICA 34 1
obvious that the lease to the Congo Free State was intended was to prevail west of this line, British influence to the east.

to exclude France from the Nile by placing the Congo Free State .
Wadai was thus definitely assigned to France.
as a barrier across her path. Pressure was brought to bear on When, by the declaration of the 2 ist of March 1899, France

King Leopold, from Paris, to renounce the rights acquired under renounced ambitioHS in the upper Nile basin, King
all territorial

the agreement, and on the I4th of August 1894 King Leopold Leopold revived his claims to the Bahr-el-Ghazal
signed an agreement with France by which, in exchange
for province under the terms of the lease granted by
France's acknowledgment of the Mbomu river as his northern Article 2 of the Anglo-Congolese agreement of 1894. el-ohazal.

frontier, His Majesty renounced all occupation and all exercise This step he was encouraged to take by the assertion
of political influence west of 30 E., and north of a line drawn of Lord Salisbury,
in his capacity as secretary of state for foreign
from that meridian to the Nile along 5 30' N. affairsduring the negotiations with France concerning Fashoda,
This left the way still open for France to the Nile, and in that the lease to King Leopold was still in full force. But the
June i8g6 Captain J. Marchand left France with secret instruc- assertion was made simply as a declaration of British right to
tions to lead an expedition into the Nile valley. On the ist of dispose of the territory, and the sovereign of the Congo State
March in the following year he left Brazzaville, and began a found that there was no disposition in Great Britain to allow
journey which all but plunged Great Britain and France into the Bahr-el-Ghazal to fall into his hands. Long and fruitless
war. The difficulties which Captain Marchand had to overcome negotiations ensued. The king at length (1904) sought to force
were mainly those connected with transport. In October 1897 a settlement by sending armed forces into the province. Diplo-
the expedition.reached the banks of the Sue, the waters of which matic representations having failed to secure the withdrawal of
eventually flow into the Nile. Here a post was established and these forces, the Sudan government issued a proclamation
" which had the effect of cutting off the Congo stations from
the Faidherbe," a steamer which had been carried across the
Congo-Nile watershed in sections, was put together and launched. communication with the Nile, and finally King Leopold con-
On May 1898 Marchand started on the final stage of
the ist of sented to an agreement, signed in London on the gih of May
his journey, and reached Fashoda on the loth of July, having 1906, whereby the 1894 lease was formally annulled. The
established a chain of posts en route. At Fashoda the French Bahr-el-Ghazal thenceforth became undisputedly an integral
" "
flag was at once raised, and a treaty made with the local part of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. King Leopold had, however,
chief. Meanwhile other expeditions had been concentrating on by virtue of the 1894 agreement administered the comparatively
Fashoda a mud-flat situated in a swamp, round small portion of the leased area in which his presence was not
wnich for many months raged the angry passions of resented by France. This territory, including part of the west
Fashoda. two great peoples. French expeditions, with a certain bank of the Nile and known as the Lado Enclave, the 1906
"
amount of assistance from the emperor Menelek of agreement allowed King Leopold to continue during his reign
Abyssinia, had been striving to reach the Nile from the east, so to occupy." Provision was made that within six months of
as to join hands with Marchand and complete the line of posts the termination of His Majesty's reign the enclave should be
into the Abyssinian frontier. In this, however, they were un- handed over to the Sudan government (see CONGO FKEE STATE).
successful. No
better success attended the expedition under In this manner ended the long struggle for supremacy on the
Colonel (afterwards Sir) Ronald Macdonald, R.E., sent by the upper Nile, Great Britain securing the withdrawal of all European
British government from Uganda to anticipate the French in the rivals.

occupation of the upper Nile. It was from the north that The course of events in the southern half of the continent
claimants arrived to dispute with the French their right to may now be traced. By the convention of the i4th of February
Fashoda, and all that the occupation of that dismal post implied. 1885, in which Portugal recognized the sovereignty of portugaFs
In 1896 an Anglo-Egyptian army, under the direction of Sir the Congo Free State, and by a further convention trans-
Herbert (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, had begun to advance concluded with France in 1886, Portugal secured At
southwards for the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan. On the
f^
recognition of her claim to the territory known as
2nd of September 1898 Khartum was captured, and the khalifa's the Kabinda enclave, lying north of the Congo, but not to the
army dispersed. It was then that news reached the Anglo- northern bank of the river. By the same convention of 1885
Egyptian commander, from native sources, that there were Portugal's claim to the southern bank of the river as far as Noki
white men flying a strange flag at Fashoda. The sirdar at once (the limit of navigation from the sea) had been admitted. Thus
proceeded in a steamer up the Nile, and courteously but firmly Portuguese possessions on the west coast extended from the
requested Captain Marchand to remove the French flag. On Congo to the mouth of the Kunene river. In the interior the
his refusal the Egyptian flag was raised close to the French flag, boundary with the Free -State was settled as far as the Kwango
and the dispute was referred to Europe for adjustment between river, but disputes arose as to the right to the country of Lunda,
the British and French governments. A critical situation ensued. otherwise known as the territory of the Muato Yanvo. On the
Neither government was inclined to give way, and for a time 25th of May 1891 a treaty was signed at Lisbon, by which this
war seemed imminent. Happily Lord Salisbury was able to large territory was divided between Portugal and the Free State.
announce, on the 4th of November, that France was willing to The interior limits of the Portuguese possessions in Africa south
recognize the British claims, and the incident was finally closed of the equator gave rise, however, to much more serious discus-
on the 2 ist of March 1899, when an Anglo-French declaration sions than were involved in the dispute as to the Muato Yanvo's
was signed, by the terms of which France withdrew from the kingdom. Portugal, as has been stated, claimed all the territories
Nile valley and accepted a boundary line which satisfied her between Angola and Mozambique, and she succeeded in inducing
earlier ambition by uniting the whole of her territories in North, both France and Germany, in 1886, to recognize the king of
West and Central Africa into a homogeneous whole, while effectu- "
Portugal's right to exercise his sovereign and civilizing influence
ally preventing the realization of her dream of a transcontinental in the territories which separate the Portuguese possessions of
empire from west to east. By this declaration it was agreed Angola and Mozambique." The publication of the treaties
that the dividing line between the British and French spheres, containing this declaration, together with a map showing
north of the Congo Free State, should follow the Congo-Nile Portuguese claims extending over the whole of the Zambezi
water-parting up to its intersection with the nth parallel of valley, and over Matabeleland to the south and the greater part
"
north latitude, from which point it was to be drawn as far of Lake Nyasa to the north, immediately provoked a formal
as the 1 5th parallel in such a manner as to separate in principle protest from the British government. On the i3th of August
the kingdom of Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the province 1887 the British charge d'affaires at Lisbon transmitted to the
of Darfur," but in no case was it to be drawn west of the 2 ist Portuguese minister for foreign affairs a memorandum from
"
degree of east longitude, or east of the 23rd degree. From the Lord Salisbury, in which the latter formally protested against
1 5th
parallel the line was continued north and north-west to the any claims not founded on occupation," and contended that the
intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with 16 E. French influence doctrine of effective occupation had been admitted in principle
 342 AFRICA [HISTORY
by all the parties to the Act of Berlin. Lord Salisbury further of these settlements. Portugal does not occupy, and has never occu-
" pied, any portion of the lake, nor of the Shir6; she has neither
stated that Her Majesty's government cannot recognize
authority nor influence beyond the confluence of the Shire and
Portuguese sovereignty in territory not occupied by her in Zambesi, where her interior custom-house, now withdrawn, was
to enable her to maintain order, protect
sufficient strength placed by the terms of the Mozambique Tariff of 1877.
foreigners and control the natives." To this Portugal replied
that the doctrine of effective occupation was expressly confined In 1889 it became known to the British government that a
by the Berlin Act to the African coast, but at the same time considerable Portuguese expedition was being organized under
expeditions were hastily despatched up the Zambezi and some the command of Major Serpa Pinto, for operating in the Zambezi
of its tributaries to discover traces of former Portuguese occu- region. In answer to inquiries addressed to the Portuguese
pation. Matabeleland and the districts of Lake Nyasa were government, the foreign minister stated that the object of the
specially mentioned in the British protest as countries in which expedition was to visit the Portuguese settlements on the upper
Her Majesty's government took a special interest. As a matter Zambezi. The British government was, even so late as 1889,
of fact the extension of British influence northwards to the averse from declaring a formal protectorate over the Nyasa
Zambezi had engaged the attention of the British authorities region; but early in that year H. H. (afterwards Sir Harry)
ever since the appearance of Germany in South- West Africa Johnston was sent out to Mozambique as British consul, with
and the declaration of a British protectorate over Bechuanaland. instructions to travel in the interior and report on the troubles
There were rumours of German activity in Matabeleland, and that had arisen with the Arabs on Lake Nyasa and with the
Rhodesia f a Boer trek north of the
Limpopo. Hunters and Portuguese. The discovery by D. J. Rankin in 1889 of a navi-
secured for explorers had reported in eulogistic terms on the rich gable mouth of the Zambezi the Chinde and the offer by
goldfields and healthy plateau lands of Matabeleland Cecil Rhodes of a subsidy of 10,000 a year from the British
Britain
and Mashonaland, over both of which countries a South Africa Company, removed some of the objections to
powerful chief, Lobengula, claimed authority. There were many a protectorate entertained by the British government; but
suitors for Lobengula's favours; but on the nth of February Johnston's instructions were not to proclaim a protectorate
1888 he signed a treaty with J. S. Moffat, the assistant commis- unless circumstances compelled him to take that course. To
sioner in Bechuanaland, the effect of which was to place all his his surprise Johnston learnt on his arrival at the Zambezi that
territory under British protection. Both the Portuguese and Major Serpa Pinto's expedition had been suddenly deflected to
the Transvaal Boers were chagrined at this extension of British the north. Hurrying forward, Johnston overtook the Portu-
influence. A number of Boers attempted unsuccessfully to guese expedition and warned its leader that any attempt to
trek into the country, and Portugal opposed her ancient claims establish political influence north of the Ruo river would compel
to the new treaty. She contended that Lobengula's authority him to take steps to protect British interests. On arrival at the
did not extend over Mashonaland, which she claimed as part of Ruo, Major Serpa Pinto returned to Mozambique for instruc-
the Portuguese province of Sofala. tions, and in his absence Lieutenant Coutinho crossed the river,
Meanwhile preparations were being actively made by British attacked the Makololo chiefs and sought to obtain possession of
capitalists for the exploitation of the mineral and other resources the Shire highlands by a coup de main. John Buchanan, the
of Lobengula's territories. Two rival syndicates obtained, or British vice-consul, lost no time in declaring the country under
claimed to have obtained, concessions from Lobengula; but in British protection, and his action was subsequently confirmed
the summer of 1889 Cecil Rhodes succeeded in amalgamating by Johnston on his return from a treaty-making expedition on
the conflicting interests, and on the zgth of October of that year Lake Nyasa. On the news of these events reaching Europe the
the British government granted a charter to the British South British government addressed an ultimatum to Portugal, as the
Africa Company (see RHODESIA) The first article of the charter
. result of which Lieutenant Coutinho's action was disavowed,
"
declared that the principal field of the operations " of the and he was ordered to withdraw the Portuguese forces south
"
company shall be the region of South Africa lying immediately of the Ruo. After prolonged negotiations, a convention was
to the north of British Bechuanaland, and to the north and west signed between Great Britain and Portugal on the zoth of August
of the South African Republic, and to the west of the Portuguese 1890, by which Great Britain obtained a broad belt of territory
dominions." No time was lost in making preparations for north of the Zambezi, stretching from Lake Nyasa on the east,
effective occupation. On the advice of F. C. Selous it was deter- the southern end of Tanganyika on the north, and the Kabompo
mined to despatch an expedition to eastern Mashonaland by a tributary of the Zambezi on the west; while south of the Zambezi
new route, which would avoid the Matabele country. This plan Portugal retained the right bank of the river from a point ten
was carried out in the summer of 1890, and, thanks to the rapidity miles above Zumbo, and the western boundary of her territory
with which the column moved and Selous's intimate knowledge south of the river was made to coincide roughly with the 33rd
on the i ith of September,
of the country, the British flag was, degree of east longitude. The publication of the convention
hoisted at a spot on the Makubusi river, where the town of aroused deep resentment in Portugal, and the government,
Salisbury now stands, and the country taken possession of in unable to obtain its ratification by the chamber of deputies,
the name of Queen Victoria. Disputes with the Portuguese resigned. In October the abandonment of the convention was
ensued, and there were several frontier incidents which for a accepted by the new Portuguese ministry as a fait accompli ;

time embittered the relations between the two countries. but on the i4th of November the two governments signed an
Meanwhile, north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese were agreement for a modus vivendi, by which they engaged to recog-
making desperate but futile attempts to repair the neglect nize the territorial limits indicated in the convention of .zoth
"
An lo-
^ centur ' es
by hastily organized expeditions and the August in so far that from the date of the present agreement
Portu- hoisting of flags. In 1888 an attempt to close the to the termination thereof neither Power will make
BrlUsh
guete dis- Zambezi to British vessels was frustrated by the firm- treaties, accept protectorates, nor exercise any act of
ness f Lord Salisbur y- In a despatch to the British sovereignty within the spheres of influence assigned
"central
AM. minister at Lisbon, dated the 25th of June 1888, Lord to the other party by the said convention." The
Salisbury, after brushing aside the Portuguese claims breathing-space thus gained enabled feeling inPortugal
founded on doubtful discoveries three centuries old, stated the to cool down, and on the nth of June 1891 another treaty was
British case in a few sentences: signed, the ratifications being exchanged on the 3rd of July.
It is (he wrote) an undisputed point that the recent discoveries As already stated, this is the main treaty defining the British
of the English traveller, Livingstone, were followed by organized and Portuguese spheres both south and north of the Zambezi.
attempts on the part of English religious and commercial bodies to It contained many other provisions relating to trade and naviga-
open up and civilize the districts surrounding and
adjoining the lake.
Many British settlements have been established, the access to which tion, providing, inter alia, a maximum transit duty of 3%
from the sea is by the rivers Zambesi and Shir. Her Majesty's on imports and exports crossing Portuguese territories on the
government and the British public are much interested in the welfare east coast to the British sphere, freedom of navigation of the
HISTORY] AFRICA 343
Zambezi and Shire for the ships of all nations, and stipula- near its northern termination was to give Germany access by her
tions as to the making of railways, roads and telegraphs. The own territory to the upper waters of the Zambezi, and it was
territorial readjustment effected was slightly more favourable declared that this strip of territory was at no part to be less than
to Portugal than that agreed upon by the 1890 convention. 20 English miles in width.
Portugal was given both banks of the Zambezi to a point ten To complete the survey of the political partition of Africa south
miles west of Zumbo the farthest settlement of the Portuguese of the Zambezi, it is necessary briefly to refer to the events con-
on the river. South of the Zambezi the frontier takes a south nected with the South African Republic and the Orange
and then an east course till it reaches the edge of the continental Free State. In October 1886 the British government
plateau, thence running, roughly, along the line of 33 E. south- made an agreement with the New Republic, a small Republics.
ward to the north-eastern frontier of the Transvaal. Thus by community of Boer farmers who had in 1884-85 seized
Portugal was left in the possession of the coast-lands,
this treaty part of Zululand and set up a government of their own, defining
while Great Britain maintained her right to Matabele and the frontier between the New Republic and Zululand; but in
Mashona The boundary between the Portuguese sphere
lands. July 1888 the New Republic was incorporated in the South
on the west coast and the British sphere of influence
of influence African Republic. In a convention of July- August 1890 the
north of the Zambezi was only vaguely indicated; but it was British government and the government of the South African
to be drawn in such a manner as to leave the Barotse country Republic confirmed the independence of Swaziland, and on the
within the British sphere, Lewanika, the paramount chief of 8th of November 1893 another convention was signed with the
the Marotse, claiming that his territory extended much farther same object; but on the igth of December 1894 the British
to the west than was admitted by the Portuguese. In August government agreed to the South African Republic exercising
1903 the question what were the limits of the Barotse kingdom "all rights and powers of protection, legislation, jurisdiction
was referred to the arbitration of the king of Italy. By his and administration over Swaziland and the inhabitants thereof,"
award, delivered in June 1905, the western limit of the British subject to certain conditions and provisions, and to the non-
sphere runs from the northern frontier of German South-West incorporation of Swaziland in the Republic. In the previous
Africa up the Kwando river to 22 E., follows that meridian north September Pondoland had been annexed to Cape Colony; on the
to 13 S., then runs due east to 24 E., and then north again to 23rd of April 1895 Tongaland was declared by proclamation to
the frontier of the Congo State. be added to the dominions of Queen Victoria, and in December
Before the conclusion of the treaty of June 1891 with Portugal, 1897 Zululand and Tongaland, or Amatongaland, were incor-
the British government had made certain arrangements for the porated with the colony of Natal. The history of the events that
administration of the large area north of the Zambezi reserved led up to the Boer War of 1 899-1 902 cannot be recounted here (see
to British influence. On the ist of February Sir Harry Johnston TRANSVAAL, History), but in October 1899 the South African
was appointed imperial commissioner in Nyasaland, and a fort- Republic and the Orange Free State addressed an ultimatum to
night later the British South Africa Company intimated a Great Britain and invaded Natal and Cape Colony. As a result
desire to extend its operations north of the Zambezi. Negotia- of the military operations that followed, the Orange Free State
tions followed, and the field of operations of the Chartered was, on the 28th of May 1900, proclaimed by Lord Roberts a
"
Company was, on the 2nd of April 1891, extended so as to cover British colony under the name Orange River Colony," and the
(with the exception of Nyasaland) the whole of the British South African Republic was on the 25th of October 1900 incor-
"
sphere of influence north of the Zambezi (now known as Northern porated in the British empire as the Transvaal Colony." In
Rhodesia). On the i4th of May a formal protectorate was January 1903 the districts of Vryheid (formerly the New Re-
declared over Nyasaland, including the Shire highlands and a public), Utrecht and part of the Wakkerstroom district, a tract
belt of territory extending along the whole of the western shore of territory comprising in all about 7000 sq. m., were transferred
of Lake Nyasa. The name was changed in 1893 to that of the from the Transvaal colony to Natal. In 1907 both the Transvaal
British Central Africa Protectorate, for which designation was and Orange River Colony were granted responsible government.
substituted in 1907 the more appropriate title of Nyasaland On the east coast the two great rivals were Germany and Great
Protectorate. Britain. Germany on the 3oth of December 1886, and Great
At the date of the assembling of the Berlin conference the Britain on the nth of June 1891, formally recognized Aaxi .
German government had notified that the coast-line on the the Rovuma river as the northern boundary of the German
south-west of the continent, from the Orange river to Portuguese sphere of influence on that coast; but it rivalry
la
Germany's
share of Cape Frio, had been placed under German protection. was to the north of that river, over the vast area of ^^M
South On the i3th of April 1885 the German South-West East or East Central Africa in which the sultan of
Africa Company was constituted under an order of the Zanzibar claimed to exercise suzerainty, that the struggle be-
imperial cabinet with the rights of state sovereignty, including tween the two rival powers was most acute. The independence
mining royalties and rights, and a railway and telegraph mono- of the sultans of Zanzibar had been recognized by the govern-
poly. In that and the following years the Germans vigorously ments of Great Britain and France in 1862, and the sultan's
pursued the business of treaty-making with the native chiefs in authority extended almost uninterruptedly along the coast of the
the interior; and when, in July 1890, the British and German mainland, from Cape Delgado in the south to Warsheik on the
governments came to an agreement as to the limits of their north a stretch of coast more than a thousand miles long
respective spheres of influence in various parts of Africa, the though to the north the sultan's authority was confined to certain
boundaries of German South-West Africa were fixed in their ports. In Zanzibar itself, where Sir John Kirk, Livingstone's
present position. By Article III. of this agreement the north companion in his second expedition, was British consul-general,
bank of the Orange river up to the point of its intersection by the British influence was, when the Berlin conference met, practically
2oth degree of east longitude was made the southern boundary supreme, though German traders had established themselves on
of theGerman sphere of influence. The eastern boundary fol- the island and created considerable commercial interests. Away
lowed the 20th degree of east longitude to its intersection by the from the coasts the limits and extent of the sultan's authority
22nd parallel of south latitude, then ran eastwards along that were far from being clearly defined. The sultan himself claimed
parallel to the point of its intersection
by the 2ist degree of east that it extended as far as Lake Tanganyika, but the claim did not
longitude. From that point it ran northwards along the last- rest on any verysolid ground of effective occupation. The little-
named meridian to the point of its intersection by the i8th known region of the Great Lakes had for some time attracted the
parallel of south latitude, thence eastwards along that parallel to attention of the men who were directing the colonial movement
the river Chobe or Kwando, and along the main channel of that in Germany; and, as has been stated, a small band of pioneers
river to its junction with the Zambezi, where it terminated. The actually landed on the mainland opposite Zanzibar in November
" "
northern frontier marched with the southern boundary of Portu- 1884, and made their first treaty with the chief of Mbuzini
guese West Africa. The object of deflecting the eastern boundary on the igth of that month. Pushing up the Wami river the three
344 AFRICA [HISTORY

adventurers reached the Usagara country, and concluded more north of the Tana river, whose ruler claimed to be independent
" On the
treaties," the net result being that when, in the middle of of Zanzibar. sth of May 1885 the sultan of Witu executed
December, Karl Peters returned to the coast he brought back a deed of sale and cession to a German subject of certain tracts
with him documents which were claimed to concede some 60,000 of land on the coast, and later in the same year other treaties
sq. m. of country to the German Colonization Society. Peters or sales of territory were effected, by which German subjects
hurried back to Berlin, and on the zyth of February 1885 the acquired rights on the coast-line claimed by the sultan. Inland,
" " treaties had been concluded on behalf of Germany with the chiefs
German emperor issued a Charter of Protection by which
His Majesty accepted the suzerainty of the newly-acquired of the Kilimanjaro region, and an intimation to that effect made
" to the British government. But before this occurred the German
territory, and placed under our Imperial protection the
territories in question." The conclusion of these treaties was, government had succeeded in extracting an acknowledgment
on the 6th of March, notified to the British government and to of the validity of the earlier treaties from the sultan of Zanzibar.
the sultan of Zanzibar. Immediately on receipt of the notifica- Early in August a powerful German squadron appeared off
tion the sultan telegraphed an energetic protest to Berlin, alleging Zanzibar, and on the I4th of that month the sultan yielded to
that the places placed under German protection had belonged to the inevitable, acknowledged the German protectorate over
the sultanate of Zanzibar from the time of his fathers. The Usagara and Witu, and undertook to withdraw his soldiers.
German consul-general refused to admit the sultan's claims, and Meanwhile negotiations had been opened for the appointment
"
meanwhile agents of the German society were energetically of an international commission, for the purpose of inquiring

pursuing the task of treaty-making. The sultan (Seyyid Bargash) into the claims of the sultans of Zanzibar to sovereignty
partition
despatched a small force to the disputed territory, which was over certain territories on the east coast of Africa, of the
subsequently withdrawn, and in May sent a more imposing and of ascertaining their precise limits." The govern- sultanate

expedition under the command of General Lloyd Mathews, the ments to be represented were Great Britain, France J
Zanzibar,
, _, .

commander-in-chief of the Zanzibar army, to the Kilimanjaro and Germany, and towards the end of 1885 commis-
district, in order to anticipate the action of German agents. sioners were appointed. The commissioners reported on the
Meanwhile Lord Granville, then at the British Foreign Office, had gth of June 1886, and assigned to the sultan the islands of Zan-
taken up an extremely friendly attitude towards the zibar, Pemba, Lamu, Mafia and a number of other small islands.
aaa- German claims. Before these events the sultan of On the mainland they recognized as belonging to the sultan a
vine's Zanzibar had, on more than one occasion, practically continuous strip of territory, 10 sea-miles in depth, from the
compials- invited Great Britain to assume a protectorate over south bank of the Minengani river, a stream a short distance
*" s dominions. But the invitations had been declined. south of the Rovuma, to Kipini, at the mouth of the Tana river,
"towards
Germany. Egyptian affairs were, in the year 1885, causing con- some 600 m. in length. North of Kipini the commissioners
siderable anxiety to the British government, and the recognized as belonging to the sultan the stations of Kismayu,
fact was not without influence on the attitude of the British Brava, Marka and Mukdishu, with radii landwards of 10 sea-
foreign secretary. On the 2$th of May 1885, in a despatch to the miles, and of Warsheik with a radius of 5 sea-miles. By an
British ambassador at Berlin, Lord Granville instructed Sir E. exchange of notes in October-November 1886 the governments
Malet to communicate the' views of the British cabinet to Prince of Great Britain and Germany accepted the reports of the de-
Bismarck: limitation commissioners, to which the sultan adhered on the
I have to request your Excellency to state that the supposition
4th of the following December. But the British and German
that Her Majesty's Government have no intention of opposing the
German scheme of colonization in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar governments did more than determine what territories were to
is absolutely correct. Her Majesty's Government, on the contrary, be assigned to the sultanate of Zanzibar. They agreed to a
view with favour these schemes, the realization of which will entail delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in East
the civilization of large tracts over which hitherto no European Africa. The territory to be affected by this arrangement was
influence has been exercised, the co-operation of Germany with to be bounded on the south by the Rovuma river, " and on the
Great Britain in the work of the suppression of the slave gangs, and
the encouragement of the efforts of the Sultan both in the extinc- north by a line which, starting from the mouth of the Tana river,
tion of the slave trade and in the commercial development of his follows the course of that river or its affluents to the point of
dominions. intersection of the equator and the 38th degree of east longitude,
In the same despatch Lord Granville instructed Sir E. Malet thence strikes direct to the point of intersection of the ist degree
to intimate to the German government that some prominent of north latitude with the 37th degree of east longitude, where
capitalists had originated a plan for a British settlement in the the line terminates." The line of demarcation between the
country between the coast and the lakes, which are the sources British and the German spheres was to start from
of influence
of the White Nile,
"
and for its connexion with the coast by a the mouth of the river Wanga or Umba
(which enters the ocean
railway." But Her Majesty's government would not accord opposite Pemba Island to the north of Zanzibar), and running
to these prominent capitalists the support they had called for, north-west was to skirt the northern base of the Kilimanjaro
"
unless they were fully satisfied that every precaution was range, and thence to be drawn direct to the point on the eastern
taken to ensure that it should in no way conflict with the interests side of Victoria Nyanza intersected by the ist degree of south
of the territory that has been taken under German protectorate," latitude. South of this line German influence was to prevail;
and Prince Bismarck was practically invited to say whether north of the line was the British sphere. The sultan's dominions
British capitalists were or were not to receive the protection of
having been thus truncated, Germany associated herself with
the British government. The reference in Lord Granville's des- " "
the recognition of the independence of Zanzibar in which
patch was to a proposal made by a number of British merchants France and Great Britain had joined in 1862. The effect of
and others who had long been interested in Zanzibar, and who this agreement was to define the spheres of influence of the two
saw in the rapid advance of Germany a menace to the interests countries as far as Victoria Nyanza, but it provided no limit
which had hitherto been regarded as paramount in the sultanate. westwards, and left the country north of the Tana river, in which
In 1884 H. H. Johnston had concluded treaties with the chief
Germany had already acquired some interests near the coast,
of Taveta in the Kilimanjaro district, and had transferred these open for fresh annexations. The conclusion of the agreement
treaties to John Hutton of Manchester. Hutton, with Mr (after- immediately stimulated the enterprise both of the German East
wards Sir William) Mackinnon, was one of the founders of what African Company, to which Peters's earlier treaties had been
subsequently became the Imperial British East Africa Company. transferred, and of the British capitalists to whom reference
But in the early stages the champions of British interests in East had been made in Lord Granville's despatch. The German East
Africa received no support from their own government, while African Company was incorporated by imperial charter in March
Germany was pushing her advantage with the energy of a recent 1887, and the British capitalists formed themselves into the
convert to colonial expansion, and had even, on the coast, opened British East Africa Association, and on the 24th of May 1887
negotiations with the sultan of Witu, a small territory situated obtained, through the good offices of Sir William Mackinnon,
HISTORY] AFRICA 345
a concession of the 10- miles strip of coast from the Umba river Africa. In return for the cession of Heligoland, Lord Salisbury
in the south to Kipini in the north. The British association obtained from Germany the recognition of a British protectorate
further sought to extend its rights in the sphere reserved to over the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, including the
British influence by making treaties with the native chiefs be- islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, but excluding the strip leased to
hind the coast strip, and for this purpose various expeditions Germany, which was subsequently ceded absolutely to Germany.
were sent into the interior. When they had obtained conces- Germany further agreed to withdraw the protectorate declared
sions over the country for some 200 m. inland the associated over Witu and the adjoining coast up to Kismayu in favour of
Formation capitalists applied to the British government for a Great Britain, and to recognize as within the British sphere of
of British charter, which was granted on the 3rd of September influence the vast area bounded, on the south by the frontier
1888, and the association became the Imperial British line laid down in the agreement of 1886, which was to be extended
Africa.
East Africa Company (see BRITISH EAST AFRICA). along the first parallel of south latitude across Victoria Nyanza
The example set by the British company in obtaining a lease to the frontiers of the Congo Free State, on the west by the
of the coast strip between the British sphere of influence and the Congo Free State and the western watershed of the Nile, and on
sea was quickly followed by the German association, which, on the north by a line commencing on the coast at the north bank of
the 28th of April 1888, concluded an agreement with the sultan the mouth of the river Juba, then ascending that bank of the
Khalifa, who had succeeded his brother Bargash, by which the river until it reached the territory at that time regarded as
association leased the strip of Zanzibar territory between the reserved to the influence of Italy 1 in Gallaland and Abyssinia,
German sphere and the sea. It was not, however, until August when it followed the frontier of the Italian sphere to the confines
that the German
officials took over the administration, and their of Egypt. To the south-west of the German sphere in East
want and ignorance of native administration almost
of tact Africa the boundary was formed by the eastern and northern
immediately provoked a rebellion of so serious a character that shore of Lake Nyasa, and round the western shore to the mouth
it was not suppressed until the imperial authorities had taken of the Songwe river, from which point it crossed the Nyasa-
the matter in hand. Shortly after its suppression the administra- Tanganyika plateau to the southern end of the last-named lake,
tion was entrusted to an imperial officer, and the sultan's rights leaving the Stevenson Road on the British side of the _/mfts of
on the mainland strip were bought outright by Germany for boundary. The effect of this treaty was to remove German
four millions of marks (200,000). all serious causes of dispute about territory between Bast
Events of great importance had been happening, meanwhile, Germany and Great Britain in East Africa. It ren- ^Serf
in the country to the west and north of the British sphere of dered quite valueless Peters's treaty with Mwanga
influence. The British company had sent caravans into the and his promenade along the Tana; it freed Great Britain from
interior to survey the country, to make treaties with the native any fear of German competition to the northwards, and recog-
chiefs and to report on the commercial and agricultural possi- nized that her influence extended to the western limits of the
bilities. One of these had gone up the Tana river. But another Nile valley. But, on the other hand, Great Britain had to relin-
and a rival expedition was proceeding along the northern bank quish the ambition of connecting her sphere of influence in the
same river. Karl Peters, whose energy cannot be denied,
of this Nile valley with her possessions in Central and South Africa. On
whatever may be thought of his methods, set out with an armed this point Germany was quite obdurate; and, as already stated,
caravan up the Tana on the pretext of leading an expedition to an attempt subsequently made (May 1894) to secure this object
Emin Pasha, the governor of the equatorial province
the relief of by the lease of a strip of territory from the Congo Free State was
of the Egyptian Sudan, then reported to be hemmed in by the frustrated by German opposition.
dervishes at Wadelai. His expedition was not sanctioned by Uganda having thus been assigned to the British sphere of
the German government, and the British naval commander had influence by the only European power in a position to contest
orders to prevent his landing. But Peters succeeded in evading its possession with her, the subsequent history of that region,
the British vessels and proceeded up the river, planting German and of the country between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast,
flags and fighting the natives who opposed his progress. Early must be traced in the articles on BRITISH EAST AFRICA and
in 1890 he reached Kavirondo, and there found letters from UGANDA, but it may be well briefly to record here the following
Mwanga, king of Uganda, addressed to F. J. Jackson, the facts: The Imperial British East Africa Company, finding the
leader of an expedition sent out by the British East Africa burden of administration too heavy for its financial resources,
Uganda Company, imploring the company's representative and not receiving the assistance it felt itself entitled to receive
secured by to come to his assistance and offering to accept the from the imperial authorities, intimated that it would be com-
Great To
Britain.
British flag. previous letters, less plainly couched, pelled to withdraw at the end of the year 1892. Funds were
from the king, Jackson had returned the answer that raised to enable the company to continue its administration until
his instructions were not to enter Uganda, but that he would the end of March 1893, and a strong public protest against
do so in case of need. The letters that fell into Peters's hands evacuation compelled the government to determine in favour
were in reply to those from Jackson. Peters did not hesitate of the retention of the country. In January 1893 Sir Gerald
to open the letters, and on reading them he at once proceeded Portal left the coast as a special commissioner to inquire into the
to Uganda, where, with the assistance of the French Roman " best means of
dealing with the country, whether through
Catholic priests, he succeeded in inducing Mwanga to sign a Zanzibar or otherwise." On the 3ist of March the union jack
loosely worded treaty intended to place him under German was raised, and on the 2gth of May a fresh treaty was concluded
protection. On hearing of this Jackson at once set out for with King Mwanga placing his country under British protection.
Uganda, but Peters did not wait for his arrival, leaving for the A formal protectorate was declared over Uganda proper on the
south of Victoria Nyanza some days before Jackson arrived igth of June 1894, which was subsequently extended so as to
at Mengo, Mwanga's capital. As Mwanga would not agree to include the countries westwards towards the Congo Free State,
Jackson's proposals, Jackson returned to the coast, leaving a eastwards to the British East Africa protectorate and Abyssinia,
representative at Mengo to protect the company's interests. and northwards to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The British
Captain (afterwards Sir) F. D. Lugard, who had recently entered East Africa protectorate was constituted in June 1895, when
the company's employment, was at once ordered to proceed to the Imperial British East Africa Company relinquished all its
Uganda. But in the meantime an event of great importance rights in exchange for a money payment, and the administration
had taken place, the conclusion of the agreement between Great was assumed by the imperial authorities. On the ist of April
Britain and Germany with reference to their different 1902 the eastern province of the Uganda protectorate was
spheres of
influence in various parts of Africa. transferred to the British East Africa protectorate, which thus
The Anglo-German agreement -of the ist of July 1890 has secured control of the whole length of the so-called Uganda
already been referred to and its importance insisted upon. 1
At this period negotiations between Great Britain and
Here we have to deal with the provisions in reference to East Italy
had begun but were not concluded.
 AFRICA [HISTORY

railway, and at the same time obtained access to the Victoria defeated. the subsequent treaty of Adis Ababa, concluded
By
Nyanza. on the 26th October 1896, the whole of the country to the
of
Early in the 'eighties, as already seen, Italy had obtained her south of the Mareb, Belesa and Muna rivers was
first formal footing on the African coast at the Bay of Assab restored to Abyssinia, and Italy acknowledged the
(Aussa) on the Red Sea. In 1885 the troubles in absolute independence of Abyssinia. The effect of of
which Egypt found herself involved compelled the this was practically to destroy the value of the Abyssinia
Africa. khedive and his advisers to loosen their hold on Anglo-Italian agreement as to the boundaries to the
the Red Sea littoral, and, with the tacit approval south and west of Abyssinia; and negotiations were
of Great Britain, Italy took possession of Massawa and afterwards set on foot between the emperor Menelek and his
other ports on that coast. By 1888 Italian influence had European neighbours with the object of determining the
been extended from Ras Kasar on the north to the northern Abyssinian frontiers. Italian Somaliland, bordering on the
frontier of the French colony of Obok on the south, a distance south-eastern frontier of Abyssinia, became limited to a
of some 650 m. The interior limits of Italian influence were belt of territory with a depth inland from the Indian
but ill defined, and the negus Johannes (King John) of Abyssinia Ocean of from 180 to 250 m. The negotiations concerning
viewed with anything but a favourable eye the approach of the the frontier lasted until 1908, being protracted over the
Italians towards the Abyssinian highlands. In January 1887 an question as to the possession of Lugh, a town on the Juba,
Italian force was almost annihilated at Dogali, but the check which eventually fell to Italy. After the battle of Adowa the
only served to spur on the Italian government to fresh efforts. Italian government handed over the administration of the
The Italians occupied Keren and Asmara in the highlands, and southern part of the country to the Benadir Company, but in
eventually, in May 1889, concluded a treaty of peace and friend- January 1905 the government resumed control and at the same
ship with the negus Menelek, who had seized the throne on the time transformed the leasehold rights it held from the sultan of
death of Johannes, killed in battle with the dervishes in March Zanzibar into sovereign rights by the payment to the sultan of
of the same year. This agreement, known as the treaty of 144,000. To facilitate her communications with the interior,
Uccialli, settled the frontiers between Abyssinia and the Italian Italy also secured from the British government the lease of a
sphere, and contained the following article: small area of land immediately to the north of Kismayu. In
XVII. His Majesty the King of Kings of Ethiopia consents to British Somaliland the frontier fixed by agreement with Italy in
avail himself of the Italian government for any negotiations which 1894 was modified, in so far as it marched with Abyssinian terri-
he may enter into with the other powers or governments. Rodd concluded with
tory, by an agreement which Sir Rennell
In Italy and by other European governments this article the emperor Menelek in 1897. The effect of this agreement was
was generally regarded as establishing an Italian protectorate to reduce the area of British Somaliland from 75,000 to 68,000
over Abyssinia; but this interpretation was never accepted by sq. m. In the same year France concluded an agreement
the emperor Menelek, and at no time did Italy succeed in with the emperor, which is known to have fixed the frontier of
establishing any very effective control over Abyssinian affairs. the French Somali Coast protectorate at a distance of 90
North of the Italian coast sphere the Red Sea littoral was still kilometres (56 m.) from the coast. The determination of the
under Egyptian rule, while immediately to the south a small northern, western and southern limits of Abyssinia proved a
stretch of coast on the Gulf of Tajura constituted the sole more difficult matter. A treaty of July 1900 followed by an
French possession on the East African mainland (see SOMALI- agreement of November 1901 defined the boundaries of Eritrea
LAND). Moreover, when Egyptian claims to the Somali coast on the side of Abyssinia and the Sudan respectively. In certain
were withdrawn, Great Britain took the opportunity to establish details the boundaries thus laid down were modified by an Anglo-
her influence on the northern Somali coast, opposite Aden. Italian- Abyssinian treaty signed at Adis Ababa on the isth of
Between the ist of May 1884 and the isth of March 1886 ten May 1902. On the same day another treaty was signed at the
treaties were concluded, placing under British influence the Abyssinian capital by Sir John Harrington, the British minister
northern Somali coast from Ras Jibuti on the west to Bandar plenipotentiary, and the emperor Menelek, whereby the western,
Ziada on the east. In the meantime Italy, not content with her or Sudan-Abyssinian, frontier was defined as far south as the
acquisitions on the Red Sea, had been concluding treaties with intersection of 6 N. and 35 E. Within the British sphere
the Somali chiefs on the east coast. The first treaty was made were the Atbara up to Gallabat, the Blue Nile up to Famaka
left
with the sultan of Obbia on the 8th of February 1889. Later and the Sobat up to the junction of the Baro and Pibor. While
in the same year the British East Africa Company transferred not satisfying Abyssinian claims to their full extent, the frontier
to Italy the transference being subsequently approved by the laid down was on the whole more favourable to Abyssinia than
sultan of Zanzibar the ports of Brava, Marka, Mukdishu and was the line fixed in the Anglo-Italian agreement of 1891. On
Warsheik, leased from Zanzibar. On the 24th of March 1891 the other hand, Menelek gave important economic guarantees
an agreement between Italy and Great Britain fixed the northern and concessions to the Sudan government.
bank of the Juba up to latitude 6 N. as the southern boundary In Egypt the result of the abolition of the Dual Control was
of Italian influence in Somaliland, the boundary being provision- to make British influence virtually predominant, though theo-
ally prolonged along lines of latitude and longitude to the inter- retically Turkey remained the suzerain power; and after the
section of the Blue Nile with 35 E. longitude. On the isth of reconquest of the Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army a con-
April 1891 a further agreement fixed the northern limit of the vention between the British and Egyptian governments was
Italian sphere from Ras Kasar on the Red Sea to the point on signed at Cairo on the igth of January 1899, which, inter alia,
the Blue Nile just mentioned. By this agreement Italy was to provided for the joint use of the British and Egyptian flags in
have the right temporarily to occupy Kassala, which was left the territories south of the 22nd parallel of north latitude.
in the Anglo-Egyptian sphere, in trust for Egypt a right of From the international point of view the British position in
which she availed herself in 1894. To complete the work of Egypt was strengthened by the Anglo-French declaration of
delimitation the British and Italian governments, on the 5th of the 8th of April 1904. For some time previously there had been
May 1894, fixed the boundary of the British sphere of influence a movement on both sides of the Channel in favour of
nf
in Somaliland from the Anglo-French boundary, which had been the settlement of a number of important questions Aagi .
settled in February 1888. in which British and French interests were involved. French
But while Great Britain was thus lending her sanction to The movement was no doubt strengthened by the
Italy's ambitious schemes, the Abyssinian emperor was becoming desire to reduce to their least dimensions the possible
more and more incensed at Italy's pretensions to exercise a causes of trouble between the two countries at a time
protectorate over Ethiopia. In 1893 Menelek denounced the when the outbreak of hostilities between Russia (the ally of
treaty of Uccialli, and eventually, in a great battle, fought at France) and Japan (the ally of Great Britain) rendered the
Adowa on the ist of March 1896, the Italians were disastrously European situation peculiarly delicate. On the 8th of April
HISTORY] AFRICA 347
1904 there was signed in London by the British foreign secretary, Mediterranean. In regard to these interests the French govern-
the marquess of Lansdowne, and the French ambassador, M. Paul ment will come to an understanding with the Spanish govern-
Cambon, a series of agreements relating to several parts of the ment." The understanding thus foreshadowed was reached
globe. Here we are concerned only with the joint declaration later in the same year, Spain securing a sphere of interest on the

respecting Egypt and Morocco and a convention relating, in part, Mediterranean coast. In pursuance of the policy marked out in
to British and French frontiers in West Africa. The latter we the Anglo-French declaration, France was seeking to strengthen
shall have occasion to refer to later. The former, notwithstand- her influence in Morocco when in 1905 the attitude of Germany
"
ing the declarations embodied in it that there was no intention seriously affected her position. On the 8th of July France
"
of altering the political status either of Egypt or of Morocco, secured from the German government formal " recognition of
cannot be ignored in any account of the partition in Africa. the situation created for France in Morocco by the contiguity of
"
With regard to Egypt the French government declared that a vast extent of territory of Algeria and the Sharifan empire, and
they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country by the special relations resulting therefrom between the two
by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation adjacent countries, as well as by the specia!4 interest for France,
or in any other manner." France also assented as did sub- due to this fact, that order should reign in the Sharifan Empire."
sequently the other powers interested to a khedivial decree Finally, in January- April 1906, a conference of the powers was
simplifying the international control exercised by the Caisse de held at Algeciras to devise, by invitation of the sultan, a scheme
la Dette over the finances of Egypt. of reforms to be introduced into Morocco (q.v.). French capital
In order to appreciate aright that portion of the declaration was allotted a larger share than that of any other power in the
relating to Morocco it is necessary to say a few words about the Moorish state bank which it was decided to institute, and French
course of French policy in North- West Africa. In Tunisia the and Spanish officers were entrusted with the organization of a
work of strengthening the protectorate established in 1881 had police force for the maintenance of order in the principal coast
gone steadily forward; but it was in Algeria that the extension towns. The new regime had not been fully inaugurated, however,
of French influence had been most marked. The movement of when a series of outrages led, in 1907, to the military occupation
expansion southwards was inevitable. With the progress of by France of Udja, a town near the Algerian frontier, and of the
exploration it became increasingly evident that the Sahara con- port of Casablanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.
stituted no insurmountable barrier between the French posses- It only remains to be noted, in connexion with the story of
sions inNorth and West Central Africa. But France had not only French activity in North- West Africa, that with such energy was
the hope of placing Algeria in touch with the Sudan to spur her the penetration of the Sahara pursued that in April 1904 flying
forward. To consolidate her position in North- West Africa she columns from Insalah and Timbuktu met by arrangement in
desired to make French influence supreme in Morocco. The re- mid-desert, and in the following year it was deemed advisable to
lations between the two countries did not favour the realization of indicate on the maps the boundary between the Algerian and
that ambition. The advance southwards of the French forces of French West African territories.
occupation evoked loud protests from the Moorish government, Brief reference must be made to the position of Tripoli. While
particularly with regard to the occupation in 1900-1901 of the Egypt was brought under British control and Tunisia became a
Tuat Oases. Under the Franco-Moorish treaty of 1845 the frontier French protectorate, Tripoli remained a province of the Turkish
between Algeria and Morocco was defined from the Mediterranean empire with undefined frontiers in the hinterland, a state of
coast as far south as the pass of Teniet el Sassi, in about 34 N.; affairs which more than once threatened to lead to trouble with
beyond that came a zone in which no frontier was defined, but France during the expansion of the latter's influence in the
in which the tribes and desert villages (ksurs) belonging to the Sahara. As already stated, Italy early gave evidence that it was
respective spheres of influence were named; while south of the her ambition to succeed to the province, and, not only by the
desert villages the treaty stated that in view of the character of sultan of Turkey but in Italy also, the Anglo-French declaration
"
the country the delimitation of it would be superfluous." of March 1899, respecting the limits of the British and French
Though the frontier was thus left undefined, the sultan main- spheres of influence in north Central Africa, was viewed with
tained that in her advance southwards France had trespassed some concern. By means of a series of public utterances on the
on 'territories that unmistakably belonged to Morocco. After part of French and Italian statesmen in the winter 1901-1902 it
some negotiation, however, a protocol was signed in Paris on was made known that the two powers had come to an
France's the 2oth of July 1901, and commissioners appointed to understanding with regard to their interests in North
privileged devise measures for the co-operation of the French and Africa, and in May 1902 Signor Prinetti, then Italian Tripoli.
position la Moorish authorities in the maintenance of minister for foreign affairs, speaking in parliament in
peaceful
conditions in the frontier region. It was reported that reply to an interpellation on the subject of Tripoli, declared that
in April 1902 the commissioners signed an agreement whereby
"
if the status quo in the Mediterranean were ever disturbed, Italy
the Sharifan government undertook to consolidate its authority would be sure of finding no one to bar the way to her legitimate
on the Moorish side of the frontier as far south as Figig. The aspirations."
"
agreement continued: Le Gouvernement fraitQais, en raison de At the opening of the Berlin conference Spain had established
son voisinage, lui pretera son appui, en cas de besoin. Le Gouverne- no formal claim to any part of the coast to the south of Morocco;
ment franfais etablira son autorite et la paix dans les regions du but while the conference was sitting, on the gth of January 1885,
Sahara, el le Gouvernement marocain, son voisin, lui aidera de the Spanish government intimated that in view of the importance
' '
tout son pouvoir. Meanwhile in the northern districts of Morocco of the Spanish settlements on the Rio de Oro, at Angra de Cintra,
the conditions of unrest under the rule of the young sultan, Abd and at Western Bay (Cape Blanco), and of the docu-
el Aziz IV., were attracting an increasing amount of attention in ments signed with the independent tribes on that
Europe and were calling forth demands for their suppression. coast, the king of Spain had taken under his protection
It was in these circumstances that in the Anglo-French declara- "
the territories of the western coast of Africa comprised between
"
tion of April 1904 the British government recognized that it the fore-mentioned Western Bay and Cape Bojador." The in-
appertains to France, more particularly as a power whose terior limits of the Spanish sphere were defined by an agreement
dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of concluded in 1900 with France. By this document some 70,000
Morocco, to preserve order in that country, and to provide sq. m. of the western Sahara were recognized as Spanish.
assistance for the purpose of all administrative, economic, The same agreement settled a long-standing dispute between
financial and military reforms which it may require." Both Spain and France as to the ownership of the district around the
"
parties to the declaration, inspired by their feeling of sincere Muni river to be south of Cameroon, Spain securing a block of
friendship for Spain, take into special consideration the interests territory with a coast-line from the Campo river on the north to
which that country derives from her geographical position and the Muni river on the south. The northern frontier is formed by
from her territorial possessions on the Moorish coast of the the German Cameroon colony, the eastern by 11 20' E., and the
 348 AFRICA 'HISTORY

southern by the first parallel of north latitude to its point of inter- entered into relations. The limit of Germany's possible extension
section with the Muni river. eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and Darfur,
Apart from this small block of Spanish territory south of Kordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were to be excluded irom
Cameroon, the stretch of coast between Cape Blanco and the her sphere of influence. The object of Great Britain in making
mouth of the Congo is partitioned among four European the sacrifice she did was two-fold. By satisfying Germany's
S
wers~~ Great Brit! n, France, Germany and Portugal desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on French designs
tne' (Mnea P
'

coast. an d tne negro republic of Liberia. Following the on the Benue region, while by recognizing the central Sudan
coast southwards from Cape Blanco is first the French (Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier was interposed
colony of Senegal, which is indented, along the Gambia river, by to the advance of France from the Congo to the Nile. This
the small British colony of that name, and then the comparatively last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany in coming
small territory of Portuguese Guinea, all that remains on this to terms with France as to the southern and eastern limits of
coast to represent Portugal's share in the scramble in a region Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central Sudan. She had
where she once played so conspicuous a part. To the south of already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed a protocol with
Portuguese Guinea is the French Guinea colony, and still going France fixing her southern frontier, where it was coterminous
south and east are the British colony of Sierra Leone, the republic with the French Congo colony. But to the east German explorers
of Liberia, the French colony of the Ivory coast, the British Gold were crossing the track of French explorers from the northern
Coast, German Togoland, French Dahomey, the British colony bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an agreement was obvious.
(formerly known as the Lagos colony) and protectorate of Accordingly, on the 4th of February 1894, a protocol which,
Southern Nigeria, the German colony of Cameroon, the Spanish some weeks later, was confirmed by a convention was signed
settlements on the Muni river, the French Congo colony, and the at Berlin, by which France accepted the presence of Germany
small Portuguese enclave north of the Congo to which reference on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and effected the best bargain
has already been made, which is administratively part of the she could by making the left bank of the Shari river, from its
Angola colony. When the General Act of the Berlin conference outlet into Lake Chad to the loth parallel of north latitude,
was signed the whole of this coast-line had not been formally the eastern limit of German extension. From this point the
claimed; but no time was lost by the powers interested in boundary line went due west some 230 m., then turned south,
notifying claims to the unappropriated sections, and the con- and with various indentations joined the south-eastern frontier,
flicting claims put forward necessitated frequent adjustments by which had been slightly extended so as to give Germany access
international agreements. By a Franco-Portuguese agreement to the Sanga river a tributary of the Congo. Thus, early in
of the 1 2th of May 1886 the limits of Portuguese Guinea sur- 1894, the German Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite
rounded landwards by French territory were defined, and by limits. In 1908 another convention, modifying the frontier,
agreements with Great Britain in 1885 and France in 1892 and gave Germany a larger share of the Sanga, while France, among
1907 the Liberian republic was confined to an area of about other advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to 10 40' N.
43,000 sq. m. The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip
The real struggle in West Africa was between France and of the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in
Great Britain, and France played the dominant part, the ex- between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey. At
haustion of Portugal, the apathy of the British government first France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little
and the late appearance of Germany in the field being all elements Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French
that favoured the success of French policy. Before tracing the government acknowledged the German protectorate over these
steps in the historic contest between France and Great Britain places, and the boundary between French and German _
it is necessary, however, to deal briefly with the part played territory, which runs north from the coast to the nth /
by Germany. She naturally could not be disposed of by the degree of latitude, was laid down by the Franco- Germany
chief rivals as easily as were Portugal and Liberia. It will be German convention of the izth of July 1897. The f m the
remembered that Dr Nachtigal, while the proposals for the fixing of the nth parallel as the northern boundary
Berlin conference were under discussion, had planted the German of German expansion towards the interior was not accomplished
flag on the coast of Togo and in Cameroon in the month of July without some sacrifice of German ambitions. Having secured
1884. In Cameroon Germany found herself with Great Britain an opening on Lake Chad for her Cameroon colony, Germany
for a neighbour to the north, and with France as her southern was anxious to obtain a footing on the middle Niger for Togoland.
neighbour on the Gabun river. The utmost activity was dis- German expeditions reached Gando, one of the tributary states
played in making treaties with native chiefs, and in securing of the Sokoto empire on the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding
as wide a range of coast for German enterprise as was possible. the existence of prior treaties with Great Britain, sought to con-
After various provisional agreements had been concluded between clude agreements with the sultan of that country. But this
" "
Great Britain and Germany, a provisional line of demarcation German ambition conflicted both with the British and the French
was adopted in the famous agreement of the ist of July 1890, designs in West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content
starting from the head of the Rio del Rey creek and going to with the nth parallel as her northern frontier. On the west
" "
the point, about 9 8' E., marked rapids on the British the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by
Admiralty chart. By a further agreement of the i4th of April British and German commissioners at i 10' E. longitude, and
1893, the right bank of the Rio del Rey was made the boundary its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance.
between the Oil Rivers Protectorate (now Southern Nigeria) and A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the
Cameroon. In the following November (1893) the boundary establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither power
was continued from the " rapids " before mentioned, on the was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence.
Calabar or Cross river, in a straight line towards the centre of It was not until November 1899 that, as part of the Samoa
the town of Yola, on the Benue river. Yola itself, with a radius settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between the two
^ some 3 m -> w &s left in the British
Germany sphere, and the powers and the frontier extended to the nth parallel.
la west German boundary followed the circle eastwards from The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain
Central the point of intersection as it neared Yola until it in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the
met the Benue river. From that point it crossed the first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second deal-
^otto-
river to the intersection of the I3th degree of longitude with ing with the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake French
the loth degree of north latitude, and then made direct for a Chad. As regards the Coast colonies, France was rivalry la
"
point on the southern shore of Lake Chad situated 35 minutes wholly successful in her design of isolating all Great j^J,
east of the meridian of Kuka." By this agreement the British Britain's separate possessions in that region, and of
government withdrew from a considerable section of the upper securing for herself undisputed possession of the upper Niger
waters of the Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had and of the countries lying within the great bend of that river.
 HISTORY] AFRICA 349
When the British government awoke to the consciousness of of Sokoto and Gando. But it was impossible to keep his inten-
what was at stake France had obtained too great a start. tions entirely secret, and the (British) National African Company
French governors of the Senegal had succeeded, before the Berlin had no desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so
conference, in establishing forts on the upper Niger, and the much difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even
advantage thus gained was steadily pursued. Every winter season more troublesome German. Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the
French posts were pushed farther and farther along the river, or young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had the
in the vast regions watered by the southern tributaries of the Sene- satisfaction of concluding on the ist of June 1885 a treaty with
"
gal and Niger rivers. This ceaseless activity met with its reward. Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and Sultan of
Great Britain found herself compelled to acknowledge accom- Sokoto," which practically secured the whole of the trading
plished facts and to conclude agreements with France, which rights and the control of the sultan's foreign relations to the
left her colonies mere coast patches, with a very limited extension British company. Thomson concluded a similar treaty with
towards the interior. On the loth of August 1889 an agreement the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the possibility of
was signed by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was itsbeing alleged that Gando was an independent state and not
confined to a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of Sokoto. As Thomson
for about 200 m. from the sea. In June 1882 and in August descended the river with his treaties, he met Flegel going up the
1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the river, with bundles of German flags and presents for the chiefs.
western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners The German government continued its efforts to secure a footing
were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon on the lower Niger until the fall of Prince Bismarck from power
by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree, in March
1890, when opposition ceased, and on the failure of the
and on the 2ist of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made, half-hearted attempt made later to establish relations with Gando
the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission. from Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the
Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of western Sudan and left the field to France and Great j-Ae
Niger
about 1 80 m. and a maximum extension towards the interior Britain. After its first great success the National Company
of some 200 m. African Company renewed its efforts to obtain a granted a
chttrter-
At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of charter from the British government, and on the loth
Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became
under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the i3th of "
The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June
January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed
into two separate colonies Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos
of the former being changed in February 1906 to the colony of frontier, and as already stated, on the I3th of January 1886 the
Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and
colony were declared to extend from 5 W. to 2 E., but these erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state
limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France here that the western boundary of Lagos with French territory
and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier (Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of
of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been the loth of August 1889, " as far as the gth degree of north
stated in connexion with German Togoland. On the western latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast
frontier it marches with the French colony of the Ivory Coast, hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a door was left wide open
and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful attempt to achieve the to the north of the gth parallel.
same end by an agreement concluded in 1889, the frontier was Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance
defined from the neighbourhood of the Tano lagoon and river down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego
of the same name, to the gth degree of north latitude. In on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu,
August 1896, following the destruction of the Ashanti power until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British
and the deportation of King Prempeh, as a result of the second influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger
Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate was declared over the Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall
whole of the Ashanti territories and a resident was installed at her. It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the
Kumasi. But no northern limit had been fixed by the 1893 French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement
agreement beyond the gth parallel, and the countries to the of the sth of August 1890, by which Great Britain recognized
north Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and Gurma were entered from France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article:
all sides by rival British, French and German expeditions. The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere
The of influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions
conflicting claims established by these rival expeditions
up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn
may, however, best be considered in connexion with the struggle in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the Niger
for supremacy on the middle Niger and in the Chad region, to Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto; the line
which it is now necessary to turn. to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed.
A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir The commissioners never were in fact appointed, and the
George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French interests proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently
on the lower Niger. The British company's influence had at became a subject of bitter controversy between the two countries.
that date been extended by treaties with the native chiefs up the An examination of the map of West Africa will show what possi-
main Niger stream to its junction with the Benue, and some bilities of trouble were left open at the end of 1890 by the various

distance along this latter river. But the great Fula states of agreements concluded up to that date. From Say on the Niger
the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this to where the Lagos frontier came to an abrupt stop in 9 N.
fact did not escape attention in Germany. German merchants there was no boundary line between the French and British
had been settled for some years on the coast and one of them,
; spheres of influence. To the north of the Gold Coast and of the
E. R. Flegel, had displayed great interest in, and activity on, French Ivory Coast colony the way was equally open to Great
the river. He recognized that in the densely populated states Britain and to France, while the vagueness of the Say-Barrua
of the middle Niger, Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west line left an opening of which France was quick to avail herself.
of Lake Chad, there was a magnificent field for Germany's new- Captain P. L. Monteil, who was despatched by the French govern-
born colonizing zeal. The German African Company 1 and the ment to West Africa in 1890, immediately after the conclusion of
German Colonial Society listened eagerly to Flegel's proposals, the August agreement, did not hesitate to pass well to the south
and in April 1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states of the Say-Barrua line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with

'This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations chiefs who were, beyond all question, within the British sphere.
Still farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions
primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in
1891. of Lieutenant Mizon in 1890 and 1892 failed to do any real
350 AFRICA [HISTORY
harm to British interests. In 1892 an event happened which and in Paris, and in the latter capital a commission sat for many
had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute. months to adjust the conflicting claims. Fortunately, by the tact
After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of and forbearance of the officers on both sides, no local incident
i ye state of Dahomey, France annexed some occurred to precipitate a collision, and on the I4th of June 1898
advance to tne nat
Timbuktu, portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and a convention was signed by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G.
declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom. Hanotaux which practically completed the partition of this part
Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time of the continent.
prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her The settlement effected was in the nature of a compromise.
possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier line
Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from west of the Niger being drawn from the gth parallel to a point
all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was ten miles, as the crow flies, above Giri, the port of Illo. France
occupied in the last days of 1893. was thus shut out from the navigable portion of the middle and
In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes Great Britain
that, for the development of the vast regions which she was agreed to lease to France two small plots of land on the river
placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely the one on the right bank between Leaba and the mouth of the
desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable Moshi river, the other at one of the mouths of the Niger. By
portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki and a great
excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank, part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to France. East
where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement. of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified in favour of
In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and Bornu where
river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically im- they meet the southern edge of the Sahara. In the Gold Coast
possible, except in small boats and at considerable risk. Below hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great Britain
these rapids France had no foothold on the river, both banks abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of the latter
from Bussa to the sea being within the British sphere. In 1890 country, together with a further extensive area in the territory
the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty with the emir assigned to both powers, was declared to be equally free, so far
and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French declared that as trade and navigation were concerned, to the subjects and
the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the king of Bussa, protected persons of both nationalities. The western boundary
but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions were despatched of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the Black Volta as far
in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under French protection. as latitude 11 N., and this parallel was followed with slight de-
Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be baffled. While flexions to the Togoland frontier. In consequence of the acute
maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty with Bussa, he crisis which shortly afterwards occurred between France and

despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. D. Lugard to Great Britain on the upper Nile, the ratification of this agreement
Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing all his French was delayed until after the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement
competitors by several days, reaching Nikki on the 5th of of March 1899 already referred to. In 1900 the two patches on
November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the king and the Niger leased to France were selected by commissioners
chiefs. The French expeditions, which were in great strength, representing the two countries, and in the same year the Anglo-
did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute French frontier from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was
fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession delimited.
they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898,
aggression was committed. On the I3th of February 1895 a failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to Lake
French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to which
of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was
there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore Further
to the British government against this invasion of their territory. question in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line con-
Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made more to the south. The new boundary was described ces lons
^
inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant at some length, but provision was made for its modifica-
"
Toutee was a private traveller." Eventually Commandant tion in points of detail on the return of the commissioners engaged
Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied in surveying the frontier region. In 1906 an agreement was
by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee reached on all points, and the frontier at last definitely settled,
subsequently published the official instructions from the French sixteen years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed. This
government under which he had acted. It was thought that the revision of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent
recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of the only territorial compensation received by France in West
Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland
France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable question. By the same convention of April 1904 the British
portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal
renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that and the Gambia colony " so as to give to France Yarbutenda
year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was and the lands and landing-places belonging to that locality,"
quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands
the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands.
on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left
chartered company that for some time before these occurrences both the British and the French governments free to devote
the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region increased attention to the subdivision and control of their West
The by the imperial authorities had been practically de- African possessions. On the ist of January 1900 the imperial
Praaco- cided on; and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to authorities assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the
British the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a territories of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth
eat
o"/S9S
local force * n P re P aration for tne contemplated change. a purely commercial undertaking. The Lagos protectorate was
The advance of the French forces from the south and extended northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise
west was the signal for an advance of British troops from the with extended frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the
Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast protectorate. The greater part of the territories formerly administered by the
situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and company were constituted into the protectorate of Northern
French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the Nigeria all three administrations being directly under the
same village. Meanwhile the diplomatists were busy in London Colonial Office. In February 1906 the administration of the
HISTORY] AFRICA
Southern Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos gresses. Much labour is necessary before the actual area of
at the same time as the name of the latter was changed to the Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately determined, but in
Colony of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual the following table the figures are at least approximately correct.
amalgamation of all three dependencies under one Large areas of the spheres assigned to different European
Organize- governor or governor-general. In French West Africa powers have still to be brought under European control; but
tion of the
changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous this work is advancing by rapid strides.
and important. The coast colonies have all been in-
French
pro-
creased in size at the expense of the French Sudan,
which has vanished from the maps as an administrative
BRITISH
Cape Colony .... Sq.
276-995
m.

tectorates.
ent ; tv There are carved out of the territories com-
Natal and Zululand
Basutoland ....
Bechuanaland Protectorate
.
35,371
10,293
prised in what is officially known as French West Africa five 225,000
.

Transvaal and Swaziland 117,732

colonies Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey
Orange River Colony 50,392
and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last being entirely cut off Rhodesia 450,000
from the sea and the civil territory of Mauritania. To the col- Nvasaland Protectorate .
43,608
British East Africa Protectorate
ony of the Upper Senegal and Niger is attached the military 240,000
Uganda Protectorate 125,00*
territory of the Niger, embracing the French Sahara up to the limit Zanzibar Protectorate 1,020
of the Algerian sphere of influence. Not only are all these divisions Somaliland 68,000
of French West Africa connected territorially, but administra- Northern Nigeria 258,000
tively they are united under a governor-general. Similarly the
French Congo territories have been divided into three colonies
Gold Coast and hinterland
Sierre
....
Southern Nigeria (colony and protectorate)

Leone (colony and protectorate)

80,000
82,000
34,000
the Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad all Gambia . . . .
-

4,000
united administratively under a commissioner-general.
Total British Africa 2,101,411
There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of
islands, which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the
The majority of these African
Egypt and Libyan Desert
Anglo- Egyptian Sudan
.... 650,000
950,000
Ownership African mainland.
of the islands were occupied by one or other of the European i ,600,000
African
Islands.
powers long before the period of continental partition.
The Madeira Islands to the west of Morocco, the FRENCH
and Algerian Sahara
Bissagos Islands, off the Guinea coast, and Prince's Island and Algeria 945,000
Tunisia 51,000
St Thomas' Island, in the Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese posses-
French West Africa
sions of old standing; while in the Canary Islands and Fernando Senegal 74,000
Po Spain possesses remnants of her ancient colonial empire which French Guinea 107,000
are a more valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent
times on the mainland. St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius
Ivory Coast
Dahomey . . ...
Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur-
129,000
40,000
and some small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, itania (including French West
are British possessions acquired long before the opening of the African Sahara) . . .
1,581,000 i ,93 1 ,000
last quarter of the igth century. Zanzibar, Pemba and some French Congo 700,000
French Somaliland 12,000
smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, as
Madagascar 227,950
has already been stated, placed under British protection in 1890,
" Total French Africa
and the island of Sokotra was placed under the gracious favour 3,866,950
"
and protection of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 1886.
France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the iyth century,
GERMAN
East Africa 364,000
but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French protec- South-West Africa 322,450
tion until April 1886. None of these islands, with the exception Cameroon . .
190,000
of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the Togoland .
33.700
partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the Total German Africa 910,150
table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar
stands in a different category, both on account of its size and ITALIAN
because it was during the period under review that it passed Eritrea 60,000
Italian Somaliland 140,000
through the various stages which led to its becoming a French
colony. The first step was the placing of the foreign relations of Total Italian Africa 200,000
the island under French control, which was effected by the treaty
of the i7th of December 1885, after the Franco-Malagasy war
PORTUGUESE
Guinea 14,000
that had broken out in 1883. In 1890 Great Britain and Germany West Africa 480,000
recognized a French protectorate over the island, but the Hova East Africa 293,500
government declined to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895 Total Portuguese Africa 787,500
France sent an expedition to enforce her claims. The capital was
occupied on the 3oth of September in the same year, and on the SPANISH
day following Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recogniz- Rio de Oro 70,000
Muni River Settlements 9,800
ing the French protectorate. In January 1896 the island was
declared a French possession, and on the 6th of August was Total Spanish Africa 79,800
declared to be a French colony. In February 1897 the last
BELGIAN
vestige of ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of
Congo State 900,000
the queen.
Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun and TURKISH
ended in the short space of a quarter of a century. There are Tripoli and Benghazi 400,000
still finishing touches to be put to the structure.
many The SEPARATE STATES
southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain undefined, Liberia 43,000
while the mathematical lines by which the spheres of influence Morocco . 220,000
of the powers were separated one from the other are being Abyssinia . 350,000
variously modified on the do ut des principle as they come to be Total Independent Africa 613,000
surveyed and as the effective occupation of the continent pro-
352 AFRICA [EXPLORATION
" "
Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the scramble In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of
has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows: the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo.

Sq. m.
The first new journey of importance on this side was
British Africa . 2,101,411 made (1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex-
Egyptian Africa ploration Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the
i ,600,000
Africa.
French Africa .
3,866,950 death of his leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from
German Africa 910,150
the coast to the north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, on
Italian Africa . 200,000
Portuguese Africa 787,500 both sides of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end
Spanish Africa 79,800 of Lake Rukwa on the east. In 1882-1884 the French naval
Belgian Africa 900,000 lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to
Turkish Africa 400,000
Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map.
Independent Africa 613,000
North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route alargeareaof new ground
11,458,811 was opened in 1883-1884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed
the whole length of the Masai country to Lake Baringo and
(J. S. K.) Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light on the great East
African rift- valley and neighbouring highlands, including Mounts
VI. EXPLORATION AND SURVEY SINCE 1875
Kenya and Elgon. A great advance in the region between
In giving the history of the partition of the continent, the later Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the
work of exploration, except where, as in the case of de Brazza's Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and Lieut. Ludwig von Hohnel,
expeditions, it had direct political consequences, has of necessity who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake
not been told. The results achieved during and after the period Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu.
of partition may now be indicated. Stanley's great journey down At this time Somaliland was being opened up by English and
the Congo in 1875-1876 initiated a new era in African explora- Italian travellers. In 1883 the brothers F. L. and W. D. James
tion. The numbers of travellers soon became so great that the penetrated from Berbera to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio
once marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea Bottego (afterwards murdered in the Abyssinian highlands)
became common. With increased knowledge and much ampler started from Berbera and reached the upper Juba, which he
means of communication trans-African travel now presents few explored to its source. The first person, however, to cross from
difficulties. While d' Anville and other cartographers of the i8th the Gulf of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American,
century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had left a great A. Donaldson Smith, who in 1894-1895 explored the head-
blank on the map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it streams of the Webi Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the
with authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high feeder of Lake Rudolf.
accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of In the -region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest
exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley
became impossible save in the eastern Sahara, where the in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin Pasha.
absence of water and boundless wastes of sand render exploration The expedition set out in 1887 by way of the Congo to carry
more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe. supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial province.
Within their respective spheres of influence each power undertook The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal tributary of the
detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to Congo from the north-east, by which the expedition made its way,
knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working encountering immense difficulties, through the great equatorial
colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it forest, the character and extent of which were thus for the first
is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines time brought to light. The return was made to the east coast,
record only the more obvious achievements. and resulted in the discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwen-
The relations of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river zori or Runsoro, and the confirmation of the existence of a third

systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers. Nile lake discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the
In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu- Semliki river. Afurther discovery was that of a large bay,
guese government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto hitherto unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the
Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola. Victoria Nyanza.
Work la The firs( name(j ma(j e his way by the head-streams of
.

Great activity was also displayed in completing the work

the Kubango to the upper Zambezi, which he descended North and West Africa. Morocco was in
of earlier explorers in
to the Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria 1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by Expealm
and Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their attention to the de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, tlons /
south-west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of crossed and re-crossed the Atlas and supplied the North and
West
Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region first trustworthy information as to the orography of
since the i6th century. In a later journey (i884-i885)Capello and many parts of the chain. In 1887-1889 Louis Gustave
Ivens crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the Binger, a French officer, made a great journey through the coun tries
Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border- enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil
lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More went from St Louis to Say, on the Niger, thence through Sokoto
important results were obtained by the German travellers Paul to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence he crossed the Sahara to
Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed Tripoli. Meantime explorers had been busy in the region
through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo. The
kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence Sanga, one of the principal northern tributaries of the Congo,
Wissmann made his way to the east coast. In 1884-1885 a was reached from the north by Lieut. Louis Mizon, a French
German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important naval officer, who drew the first line of communication between
geographical problem relating to the southern Congo basin by the Benue and the Congo (1890-1892). In 1890 Paul Crampel,
descending the Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, con- who in the previous year had explored north of the Ogow6,
trary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other undertook a great expedition from the Ubangi to the Shari,
streams before joining the main river. Further additions to the but was attacked and killed, with several of his companions, on
knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at the same time by the borders of the Bagirmi. Several other expeditions followed,
the Rev. George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied and in 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer
in 1885 by K. von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer on its waters and pushed on to Lake Chad. Early in 1900 Lake
"
Peace," especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, who
the lower course of the Welle, discovered in 1 8 70 by Sch weinf urth. had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the
EXPLORATION] AFRICA 353
Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert from had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the
Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder. century. In 1903 a French officer, Capt. E. Lenfant, succeeded
The last ten years of the ipth century also witnessed many in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and

interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western
Lakes and P^ha, accompanied by
Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch
mountains way south of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile of that river.
ofBqua- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed
western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also (1901-1902) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the
ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over lake, R. Kandt making a special study of Kivu and the
,

13,000 In the same year Dr 0. Baumann, who had already

ft. Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of
done good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more 1902-1904 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the
extended journey through the region of steppes between Kili- exact position of Albert Edward Nyanza. Much new information
manjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head- concerning the border-lands of British East Africa and Abyssinia
streams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the Nile. In the between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the
steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara survey executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, Captain P.
and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley system. Maud.
This region was again traversed in 1893-1894 by Count von While requirements led to the exact determination
political
Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake Kivu, north of frontiers,administrative needs forced the governments
of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke over thirty years concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under
before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first their protection. Before the close of the first decade of the
time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he 2oth century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the
ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a German colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the
new route to the Congo and the west coast. Valuable scientific Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by
work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. Gregory, who ascended military officers. A British naval officer, Commander B.
Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft. In 1893-1894 Scott Whitehouse, mapped the entire coast-line of Victoria Nyanza.
Elliot reached Ruwenzori by way of Uganda, returning by Government and railway surveys apart, the chief points of
Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the interest for explorers during 1904-1906 were the Ruwenzori range
circuit ofthe great mountain 'Elgon, north-east of Victoria and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and
Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its summit Congo systems. Lieut. Boyd Alexander was the leader of a
by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount party which during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a
Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans Meyer, who considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via
first directed his attention to it in 1887. the Shari, the Ubangi and the Nile. Two members of the party,
The region south ofAbyssinia proper and north of Lake Capt. Claud Alexander and Capt. G. B. Gosling, died during the
.udolf, being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile, expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source
,s traversed by several explorers, among whom may be men- of attraction. Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond
oned Capt. M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain the snow-line to 14,800 ft. ;in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached
small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft.; and
.udolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the in the same year Capt. T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German
iwer Sobat. Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at
ile by Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin com- 16,619 ft. During 1904-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were
anded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan at work in the region. That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the
id Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members
rica, the Barotse country had been partly made known by the of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches
issionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the 17,000 ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed.
iddle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored Major Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done
id mapped by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905-
1895-1896 and 1898-1900. In the same period the Congo- 1906 in a detailed examination of the Lado enclave and the
mbezi watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C. country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes.
:maire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological
e Kasai. knowledge.
In the early years of the igth century the first recorded Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas
ing of Africa took place. That crossing and all subsequent Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719-1731, by James
sings had been made either from west to east or east to west. Bruce's exploration, 1765-1767, of the ruins in Barbary, and by
ie first journey
through the whole length of the continent the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, has been systematically
'as accomplished in the two last years of the century when a carried out in North Africa since the middle of the igth century
oung Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape Town (see EGYPT and AFRICA, ROMAN). In South Africa the first
ached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central thorough examination of the ruins in Rhodesia was made in
.e of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's 1905, when Randall-Maclver demonstrated that the great
>tsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons. Zimbabwe and similar buildings were of medieval or post-
Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about medieval origin. (F. R. C.)
onwards by the international commissions which traced
the frontiers of the protectorates of the European VII. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Vorkof
iter- powers. On several occasions the labours of the Theeagerness with which the nations of western Europe
ational commissions disclosed errors of importance in the partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, more
amis-
maps upon which international agreements had been to the necessities of commerce than to mere land hunger. Yet,
oas and
based. Among those which yielded valuable results except in the north and south temperate regions, the commercial
veylng
artles. were the Anglo-French commission which in 1903 intercourse of the continent with the rest of the world had been
traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake until the closing years of the igth century of insignificant pro-
'had, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904 portions. In addition to slaves, furnished by the continent from
:ed the Cameroon
boundary between Yola, on the Benue, and the earliest times, a certain amount of gold and ivory was ex-
Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same ported from the tropical regions, but no other product supplied
ion during 1902-1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad the material for a flourishing trade with those parts. To their
I. 12 5:
354 AFRICA [ECONOMICS
Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many not below an agreed-on minimum. 1 An elaborate series of rules
creature comforts the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by sea, the
cane, the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and conditions on which European powers were to grant to natives
many other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, and regulating the
animals but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led procedure connected with the right of search on vessels flying a
to little development of commerce. The continent continued foreign flag. The Brussels Act was in effect a joint declaration
in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the by the signatory powers of their joint and several responsibility
world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in towards the African native, and notwithstanding the fact that
natural resources, as to the special circumstances which many of its articles have proved difficult, if not impossible, of
likewise caused so large a part of the continent to enforcement, the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face*
remain so long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may of the world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on
be summarized as: (i) the absence of means of communication the action of several of the powers. Moreover, with the increase
with the interior; (2) the unhealthiness of the coast-lands; (3) of means of communication and the extension of effective
the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largely checked
slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being thus given
causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture.
being the third; the negro races finding the means of existence Other important factors in the economic as well as the social
easy have little incentive to toil. The first drawback has almost conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made by the
disappeared, and the building of railways and the placing of natives in several regions and the increase of the areas found
steamers on the rivers and lakes a work continually progressing suitable for white colonization. The advance in civilization
renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of
come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape Colony,
in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy, leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce
improved sanitation and the destruction of the malarial mosquito increases in a much greater degree when new countries e.g.
have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious Rhodesia and British East Africa become the homes of Euro-
for their deadly climate. peans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the
At various periods since the partition of the continent began, commercial development of the continent, note must be taken of
united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the the sparsity of the population over the greater part of Africa, and
interests of African trade. The Berlin conference of 1884-1885 the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in-
decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers
Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like in various districts of Indian coolies in Natal and elsewhere, and

privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal.
enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa the conventional The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of:
basin of the Congo there should be complete freedom of trade, a (i) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal pro-
freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most
chlef
State and French Congo by the granting to various companies important are india-rubber and palm-oil, which in economic
proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the soil. More
.

tropical Africa supply by far the largest items m

the resources,
important in their effect on the economic condition of the con- export list. The rubber-producing plants are found
tinent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the throughout the whole tropical belt, and the most important are
measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave creepers of the order Apocynaceae, especially various species of
trade. The British government had for long borne the greater Landolphia (with which genus Vahea is now united). In East
part of the burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies the largest amount,
of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions though various other species are known. Forms.of apparently
which resulted from the appearance of other European powers in wider distribution are L. hendelotii, which is found in the Bahr-el-
Africa induced Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address, Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to Senegambia;
in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety

to take the initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at L. florida, has the widest distribution of the species, occurring
all
" in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the
Brussels to concert measures for the gradual suppression of the
s l ave trade on the continent of Africa, and the im- east coast, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. In parts of
Suppres-
sion <>f mediate closing of all the external markets which it East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber vine. In
the slave still supplies." The conference assembled in November Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous
1889, and on the 2nd of July 1890 a general act was tree, Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various
signed subject to the ratification of the various governments species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East
represented, ratification taking place subsequently at different Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of

dates, and in the case of France with certain reservations. The South America, but due to careless methods of
this is largely

general act began with a declaration of the means which the preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by
powers were of opinion might be most effectually adopted for native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some
"
putting an end to the crimes and devastations engendered by districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and
'
the traffic in African slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. This has been done in
populations of Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments
benefits of peace and civilization." It proceeded to lay down have been made in the introduction of South American rubber
certain rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the
suggested. The act covers a wide field, and includes no fewer plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of
than a hundred separate articles. It established a zone "between soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from
the 2oth parallel of north latitude, and the 22nd parallel of south a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm
latitude, and extending westward to the Atlantic and eastward is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from 10 N.

to the Indian Ocean and its dependencies, comprising the islands to 10 S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast
adjacent to the coast as far as 100 nautical miles from the shore," districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply,
within which the importation of firearms and ammunition \fas
1
Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were
forbidden except in certain specified cases, and within which also
held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In both instances conventions
the powers undertook either to prohibit altogether the importa- were signed by the powers, raising the minimum duty on imported
tion and manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties spirituous liquors.
ECONOMICS] AFRICA 355
equal to any market demand, could easily be obtained. A third Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become
valuable product is the timber supplied by the forest regions, naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also culti-

principally in West Africa. It includes African teak or oak vated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical
(Oldfieldia africana), excellent for shipbuilding; the
durable cultivation is the labour question, which has already been
odum Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa) African mahogany
of the ;
referred to.

(Khaya ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood

senegalensis) ;
Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the
(Baphia nitida) and many other ornamental and dye woods.
; largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The
The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of
since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this
East Africa the Podocarpus milanjianus, a conifer, is economically export. Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior
important. Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including of West and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported
Africa,
the yellow wood (Podocarpus), stinkwood (Ocotea) sneezewood or
,
in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the wool and

Cape ebony (Ended) and ironwood. hair of the merino sheep and Angora goat. Both hides and wool
Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arabic, are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from
obtained from various species of acacia (especially A. Senegal), Abyssinia and Somaliland. Ostrich feathers are produced
the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also
steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c.) gum copal, a ;
obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan.
valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle
best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming from the from Morocco.
East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also found in The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts,
a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced chiefly in the the resources of the continent in this respect being largely
coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae undeveloped. Since the discovery of gold in the
(Kola acuminata); archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding lichen Transvaal, particularly in the district known as the wealth.
(Rocclla tincloriaand triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in Rand (1885), the output has grown enormously, so
East Africa, the Congo basin, &c. cork, the bark of the cork oak,
;
that in 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater
which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manu- than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-Boer
facture (Machrochloa lenacissima) growing in great abundance
,
War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by
on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which 1905 the output in that year over 20,800,000 was greater
attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin, than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa
irived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucalli. is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding
The cultivated products include those of the tropical and formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold
warm temperate zones. Of the former, coffee is perhaps the Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and
most valuable indigenous plant. It grows wild in many parts, since the close of the igth century the industry has developed
the home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold
uth of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found
iffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world. in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the
i!ultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results, western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large
and attention has been given to this in various European colonies. quantities in a series of beds known as the Kimberley shales,
Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds
East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c. are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest
Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied chiefly diamond mines in the world the Premier is situated in
* Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground- the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 80% of the world's pro-
nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are duction of diamonds comes from South Africa. Copper is found
grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from in the west of Cape Colony, in German South- West Africa, and
Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voand- in the Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast
zeia subterranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of
Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and Pemba copper in the Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia. It
ids, Pemba
being the chief source of the world's supply of also occurs in Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich
ives. The drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations
chief tin deposits have been found in the southern Congo basin and
the yield of the trees, and the risk of over-production in good in Northern Rhodesia. Iron is found in Morocco, Algeria
seasons. (whence there is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and
Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is
Cc worked by the natives, in the tropical zone. But the deposits
expo rted in small quantities in the raw state; but the main are generally not rich. Coal is worked, principally for home con-
export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's sumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River
sources of supply of the article. It is also cultivated in West Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi.
Africa the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake
.eveloped since the beginning of the 2oth century and in the Nyasa. Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia.
glo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, zinc, lead
ptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the staple crop of and antimony are found in Algeria, lead and manganese in Cape
auritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is also produced in Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone.
atal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly
grown in Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Tafilet; of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the
iaize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone; development of the different countries in civilization. In
heat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia; Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the
ice in Madagascar. Wine is largely exported from Algeria, necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured cotton
and a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; fruit and
in and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place,
vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and miscellaneous
scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally
important article of export, though plantations have been where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports
established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of consists as a rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a
cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and constant native demand.
ither colonies, and in various districts the tea
plant is cultivated. No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of
 AFRICA [COMMUNICATIONS
communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction
^ tne^ tn century tnat decided steps were taken to
J of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still
Develo -

meaoi remedy these defects. The African rivers, with the incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines
means of exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to
common/- tne noddle course of the three other chief rivers, are Tunis had been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by
generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout the lines to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In
the tropical region almost the sole routes have been native foot- Senegal the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced
paths, admitting the passage of a single file of porters, on whose and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the
heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also
of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented, constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where
and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior. in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood
In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next

camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the advent of decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town to
railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port
trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been
or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond
rule' there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper Ladysmith. The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of the
Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the partition of the continent was followed by many projects for
peoples of the Sudan from direct access to the sea, and from the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence of
Timbuktu to Darfur the great trade routes were either west to the various powers by the building of railways; several of these
east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan schemes being carried through in a comparatively short time.
routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco The building of railways was undertaken by the governments
and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In
and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to
Bengazi to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle
Great Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and upper
equator the principal long-established routes are those from courses of the river were linked by the opening of a line past
Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo was rendered
Bih6 to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across easily accessible tocommercial enterprise. In North Africa
the Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely extended, and
Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been proposals were made for a great trunk-line from Tangier to
superseded by the improved communications introduced by Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south-
Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction ward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan line having
of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland occupied the attention of French engineers since 1 880. In French
in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the West Africa railway communication between the upper Senegal
obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert and the upper Niger was completed in 1904; from the Guinea
Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General coast at Konakry another line runs north-east to the upper
C. G. Gordon (1871-1876); on the middle Congo and its affluents Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to the Niger at Garu.
to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, In the British colonies on the same coast the building of railways
as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and on Lake was begun in 1896. A line to Kumasi was completed in 1903,
Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel and the line from Lagos to the lower Niger had reached Illorin in
was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1896 by a British mercantile 1908. Thence the railway was continued to the Niger at Jebba.
firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in From Baro, a port on the lower Niger which can be reached by
November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the steamers all the year round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes
navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close via Bida, Zungeru and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400
of the ipth century. However, the shallowness of the water in miles. A line from Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with
the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only the Lagos railway.
to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic But the greatest development of the railway systems was in
are few. The first attempt at road-making in Central Africa the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa a
on a large scale was that of Sir T. Powell Buxton and Mr (after- survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was
wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first section of a made in 1892. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line
track leading into the interior from Dar-es-Salaam (1879). A reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been
"
still more important undertaking was the Stevenson road," a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from Cape
begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa Bay
Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, the centre

Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes Company a company of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project was that
which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The identified with the name Rhodes, namely, the extension
of Cecil
Stevenson road forms a link in the "Lakes route" into the northward of the railway from Kimberley with the object of
heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to
Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897.
since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good (Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east coast by
roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon another line, completed in 1902, which goes through Portuguese
and in Madagascar. territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north-
Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi being
interior of the continent, were for many years after their first bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From
introduction to Africa almpst entirely confined to the extreme this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the
north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal). Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the
Apart from short lines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening
Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 without a railway in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to Khartum. A line
system. In Egypt the Alexandria and Cairo railway dates from of greater economic importance than the last named is the
1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about noo miles, railway (completed in 1905) fro*i Port Sudan on the Red Sea
and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the delta, the to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the Anglo-
 BIBLIOGRAPHY] AFRICA 357
Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, el
Egyptian Sudan within easy reach markets of the world.
of the Angola (Milan, 1690)
A west to east connexion across the continent by rail and steamer, (account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries and their
"
observations on the country and people); J. Barbot, Description
from the mouth of the Congo to Port Sudan, was arranged in of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of Ethiopia Inferior,"
1906 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. Bosman, A New . . .

Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on Description of the Coasts of Guinea, &c., 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat,
Nouvelle relation de I'Afrique occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728) Idem,
the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway starting ;

Relation historique de I'Ethiopie occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris,

from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of consider- (b) Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire cone, les rivieres
1732).
de I'interteur
able importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden to Harrar, de I'Afrique (Paris, n.d.) M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville's
;

giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia. fiir seine kritische Karte von Afrika ( Munich, 1904) C. Ritter, Die
;
" "
Besides the railways, mentioned there are several others of Erdkunde, i. Theil, I. Buch, Afrika (Berlin, 1822); J. M'Queen,
Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa
less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of
(Edinburgh, 1821) Idem, Geographical Survey of Africa (1840) ;W. D.
;

Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and Cooley, Inner Africa laid open (1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geo- ,

Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the raphie universelle, vols. x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa
in Stanford's Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907) F. Hahn
great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake ;
.

and W. Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and

Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and various lines A. Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XX' siecle (Paris, 1906) Sir C. P. ;

have been built by the French in Madagascar. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vols. iii. and iv.
All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British (Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J. Herbertson, Descriptive
West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan a'nd in Egypt south Geographies from Original Sources: Africa (1902) British Africa (The ;

British Empire Series, vol. ii., 1899); Journal

of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The main lines in Lower Egypt of the African Society;
Comite de I'Afrique franfaise, Bulletin, Pans Mitteilungen der
;

and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 85 in. gauge. Elsewhere afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1879-1889); Mittei-
as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of metre lungen . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten (Berlin) H. Schirmer,
. .
;

Le Sahara (Paris, 1893); Mary H. Kingsley, West African Studies,

(3-28 gauge.
ft.)
2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (1897);
The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol. ii. is
that of the railways, the newer European possessions having in devoted to anthropology) E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa(i<)O2).
;

most cases been provided with telegraph lines before railway II. Geography (Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and Fauna.
"
projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt and Cape (For Descriptive Geogr. see I.) G. Giirich, Oberblick iiber den
geolog. Bau des afr. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. Knox,
Colony the systems date back to the middle of the ipth century, Notes on the Geology of the Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a
before the end of which the lines had in each country reached
bibliography) L. von Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess,
;

some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of Beitrage zur geologischen Kenntniss des ostlichen Afrika (Vienna, 1891) ;

French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika
(Munich, 1896); I. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte unserer Tage:
begun in 1862, were the first to be fully developed, lines having "
Die mittlere Hone
Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. Heidrich,
been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and Afrikas," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift-
Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north- Valley (1896); H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile
west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey. and its Basin (Cairo, 1906); S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch
einer physischgeogr. Darstellung des sudafr. Beckens (Berlin,
The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria "
. . .

1904) Idem,
; Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika," Naturw.
was surveyed in 1905. The Congo region is furnished with
Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyika
several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth Problem (1903); W. H. Hudleston, " On the Origin of the Marine
of the river to Lake Tanganyika. From Ujiji on the east coast (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika," Journ. of Trans. Victoria
of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole question of the geological
"
history of equatorial Africa) E. Stromer, ; 1st der Tanganyika ein
Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town. Relikten-See?" Peterm. Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter,
The last-named line is the longest link in the trans-continental "
Die . .Arbeiten der Pendelexpedition ... in Deutsch-Ost-Afrika,"
.

line first suggested in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and Verh. Deuts. Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet,
afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from "La geologic du bassin du Congo," Bull. Soc. Beige geol., 1898;
"
E. G. Ravenstein, "The Climatology of Africa (ten reports),
Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganda, Reports Brit. Association, 1892-1901; Idem,
"
Climatological
while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa. " "
At the Observations ... I.
Tropical
Africa (1904) H. G. Lyons,
; On
principal seaports the inland systems are connected with sub- the Relations between Variations of Atmospheric Pressure and . . .

marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication the Nile Flood," Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A, vol. Ixxvi., 1905; P.
"
Reichard, Zur Frage der Austrocknung Afrikas," Geogr. Zeitschrift,
with the rest of the world. "
1895; J. Hoffmann, Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hoch-
Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany, "
landlern," &c., Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, Studien iiber
France and other countries to the African seaports, the journey die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents," Peterm.
from any place in western Europe to any port on the African Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Flora of

coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K. Oschatz, Anordnung
der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen, 1900); A. Engler, Hochgebirgs-
weeks. (E. HE., F. R. C.) Idem, Die Pfllanzenwelt
flora des tropischen Afrika (Berlin, 1892) ;

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Authoritative works dealing with Africa as a Ostafrikas und der Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895); Idem,
whole in any of its aspects are comparatively rare. Besides such Beitrage zur Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan. Jahrbiicher, 14
volumes the following list includes therefore books vols. &c.) W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr
;
containing
valuable information concerning large or typical sections of the Friedrich Welwitschin 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896^-1901) R. Schlechter, ;

continent : Westafrikanische Kautschuk- Expedition (Berlin, 1900) H. Baum, ;

1. General
Descriptions. (o) Ancient and Medieval. Herodo- Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) (largely concerned with
"
tus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vols.
1
(1880); Ptolemy's " Geographia, ed. botany) W. L. Sclater,
; Geography of Mammals, No. iv. The
'..
Miiller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn Haukal, Description de Ethiopian Region," Geog. Journal, March 1896; H. A. Bryden
" and others, Great and Small Game of Africa (1899) F. C. Setous,
1'Afrique" (transl. McG. de Slane), Nouv. Journal asiatique, 1842; ;

"
Edrisi, Geographic (transl. Taubert), Rec. de voyages . Soc. de
. . African Nature Notes and Reminiscences (1908); E. N. Buxton, Two
Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographic (transl. Reinaud African Trips: with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation
M. A. P. d'Avezac, Description de in Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals) G.
a_nd Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883);
;

I'Afrique ancienne (Paris, 1845); L. de Marmol, Description general Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle^ in Equatorial East Africa (1906) ;

de Africa (Granada, 1573) L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice,

;
Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking collection of photographs of
1588) F. Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597)
;
;
living wild animals) Exploration scientifique de I'Algerie:
; Histoire
Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (transl. J. Pory, naturelle, 14 vols. and 4 atlases, Paris (1846-1850); Annales du
ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper,
Naukeurige beschrijvinge Musee du Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c.). The
der afrikaensche gewesten, &c. (Amsterdam, 1668)
(also English
latest results of
geographical research and a bibliography of current
version by Ogilvy, 1670, and French version, Amsterdam, 1686) literature are given in the Geographical Journal, published monthly
" ;

Tellez, Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia," A New Collection by the Royal Geographical Society.
of Voyages, vol. vii. (1710); G. A. Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica III. Ethnology. H. Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas (Leipzig,
1
1879); B. Ankermann, ". Kulturkreise in Afrika, Zeit. f. Eth.,
Where no place of publication is given, London is to be under- vol. xxxvii. p. 54; Idem," Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Ethno-
stood.
graphic der Sudhalfte Afrikas," Arch.f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Ser. i.
 358 AFRICA, ROMAN
"
Antropologia della stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J. Deniker, Dis- 2 vols. (1878)Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2 vols. (1890) G. Nachtigal,
; ;

tribution geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains," La Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1879-1889); P. S. de Brazza, Les
Geographic, Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. Stow and G. M. Voyages de .
(1875-1882), Paris, 1884; J. Thomson, Through
. .

Theal, The Native Races of South Africa (1905) K. Barthel, Volker- ; Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann, Unter Deutscher Flagge
bewegungen auf der Sudhdlfte des afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 1889); Idem, My Second Journey
A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast (1887) Idem, ; through Equatorial Africa (1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa
The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The 1875-1886, 3 vols. (1890-1892); L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe
Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling Roth, de Guinee, &c. (Paris, 1892) O. Baumann, Durch Masailand zur ;

Great Benin, its Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903) H. Frobenius, Die ; Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894); R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904); C. A.
Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan (Berlin, 1893) Herbert Spencer i
von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896) L. Vanu- ;

and D. Duncan, Descriptive Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); telli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bbttego: L'Omo (Milan,
1899) I

A. de Preville, Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald, F. Foureau, D

Alger au Congo par le Tchad (Paris, 1902) C. Lemaire, ;

Africans; or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882) L. Fro- ,

Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: Journal de route, I vol., Resultats
benius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen (Der Ursprung der des observations, 16 parts (Brussels, 1902) A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa ;
"
Kultur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898); Idem, Die Masken und Geheim- from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904); E. Lenfant,
bunde Afrikas," Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad. La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) Boyd Alexander, From the ;

Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Artes africanae: Niger to the Nile, 2 vols. (1907).
Illustrations and Descriptions of industrial Arts, &c. (in German
. . . VI. Historical and Political. H. Schurtz, Africa(World' s History,
and English) (Leipzig, 1875) F. Ratzel, Die afrikanischen Bogen
;
vol. 3, part 3) (1903) Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization
;

. . eine anthrop.-geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. Weule,

. of Africa"by Alien Races (Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional
Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899) H. Frobenius, Afrikanische ; chapter Latest Developments," 1905) A. H. L. Heeren, Reflec- ;

Bautypen (Dauchau bei Miinchen, 1894); H. Schurtz, Die afrikan. tions on the Politics-, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations
Geiverbe (Leipzig, 1900) E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the
; of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient
Negro Race (1887); James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, Egypt (1881) A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902) J. de Barros, Asia:
; ;

or Africa and its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903) W. H. J. ;

Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J. Strandes, Die Portu-
Bleek, Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts giesenzeitvon Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) R. Schiick, Brandenburg-
. . .
;

(1862-1869); Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo Marques, Preussens Kolonial-Politik 1641-1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1889);
. . .

&c., &c. (1900) R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa,

; G. M'Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of the
2 vols. (1883); F. W. Kolbe, A Language Study based on Bantu Zambesi . .
to7/p5, 3 vols.(i9o8-
.
),a.nd History of South Africa
(1888) J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalis (1885) J. Torrend,
; ;
since September 179$ (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, Records of
Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891) ;
South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 18981903; Lady Lugard, A Tropical
S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, fc. (1905);
der Suaheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c., &c. (1901) (narra- Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Africa by Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909) ;

tives taken down from the mouths of natives) A. Vierkandt, ; J. S. Keltic, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) F. Van Ortroy, ;

Volksgedichteimwestlichen Central-Afrika (Leipzig, 1895). For latest Conventions internationales definissant les limites en Afrigue . . .

information the following periodicals should be consulted: (Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885;
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and The Surveys and Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports,
Ireland; Man (same publishers) Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie; Archiv
;
No. 500) (1906), and annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard,
f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie. The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, Les
IV. Archaeology and Art. Publications of the Egyptian Ex- colonies frangaises, 2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904) E. Rouard de Card, ;

ploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of upper Egypt Les Traites de protectorat conclus par la France en Afrique, 18701895
(1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. Maspero, (Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises d' Afrique
"
L' Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus (Lisbon, 1900) B.Trognitz, Neue Arealbestimmung des Continents
;

Agypten und Athwpien ., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A.

. . Afrika," Petermanns Mitt., 1893, 220-221; A. Supan, "Die Be-
Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia illustrating the Antiquities of the
. . .
volkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Mitt. Erganzungsh. 146 (Gotha,
Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being 1904) (deals with areas as well as population).
English Translations of . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
. VII. Commerce and Economics. A. Silva White, The Develop-
"
12(1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892); D. Randall- ment of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. Dove, Grundziigc einer Wirt-
Maclver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) (archaeology and schaftsgeographie Afrikas," Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18;
ethnology of North Africa) G. Boissier, L' Afrique romaine: Pro-
;
E. Hahn, Die Stellung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels,"
menades archeologiques en Algerie et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1901) ; Verhandl. II. Deutsch. Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896);
D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) Prisse d'Avennes, ;
L. de Launay, Les Richesses minerales de I' Afrique (Paris, 1903) ;

Histoire de I'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris, K. Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion
"
1879); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, (Berlin, 1894) P- Reichard, Das afrikan. Elfenbcin und sein
'<

2 vols. (1883); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900); C. H. Read Handel," Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir A. Moloney,
and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); Dewevre, "Les
parts of West Africa (1899). Caoutchoucs africains," Ann. Soc. Set. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F.
V. Travel and Exploration. Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce Buxton, The African Slave Trade and_ its Remedy (1840); C. M. A.
and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean Lavigerie, L'Esclavage africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les
Sea (1807) G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest
;
Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1903-1905);
of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1896, 1899); R. H. "Major, Life of H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902);
"
Prince Henry the Navigator (1868) E. G. Ravenstein, The Voyages
;
G. Grenfell, The Upper Congo as a Waterway," Geogr. Journ.,
of .Diogo Cao and Earth. Diaz," Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig, Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, The Nile and Zambezi "Systems as
"
Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas," Mitt. Waterways," Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901; K. Lent, " Verkehrs-
Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H. Murray, Historical mittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 1894; Trade of
Account of Discoveries, &c., 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch, the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1898-1902,''
Account of the Discoveries o/ the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual
and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke, Guide to Health in Africa
"
afrikan. Continents (Vienna, 1880) A. Supan, Ein Jahrhundert; (1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases
der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The Story of in Africa (1895).
Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); Sir Harry Johnston, The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay,
The Nile Quest (1903) James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of
; Bibliographie des ouyrages relatifs d. I Afrique, &c. (San Remo, 1875) ;

the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika- Literatur von 1500 bis 1750 (Vienne,
Association for ..
Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790-
. 1882); Catalogue of the Colonial Office Library, vol. 3, Africa
1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa (specially for government publications). (E. HE.)
(1799) Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815) Capt. J. K. Tuckey,
; ;
AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to
Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire or Congo in
that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya (Ai/3fo)).
1816 (1818); D. Denham and H. Clapperton, Narrative of Travels
and Discoveries in N. and Cent. Africa (1826) R. Caillie, Journal d'un ;
It comprised the whole of the portion of the African continent
voyage a Temboctu et a Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830) D. Livingstone, ;
known to the ancients, except Egypt and Ethiopia. But besides
Missionary Travels in South Africa (1857); The Last Journals
. . .
this general sense, which occurs in Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius
of David Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. Waller (1874); H. Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the official and administrative
Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols.
('857); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, &c., in Eastern Africa language used the word Africa in a narrower sense, which is
(1860) Sir R. F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols.
;
noticed below. The term was certainly borrowed by the Romans
(1860) J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile
; from the language of the natives. In Latin literature it was
(1863); Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); G.
Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. Cameron,
employed for the first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the
Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The Gold Regions of South- interval between the First- and Second Punic Wars (Ann. vi.;
Eastern Africa (1877) Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent,
;
Sat. iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of
 AFRICA, ROMAN 359
Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the of the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and
Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made the two tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable
as to the etymology of the term Africa ('A<pi/ci7) may be quoted boundary between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east
that which derives it from the Semitic radical ine (" separate "), (Tissot ii. 261). In the partition of the government of the
Africa being considered, in this connexion, as a Phoenician provinces of the Roman empire between the senate and the
" "
settlement separated from the mother country, Asiatic emperor, Africa fell to the senate, and was henceforth ad-
Phoenicia. It has also been held that the word Africa comes ministered by a proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati
from friqi, farikia (the country of fruit). The best hypothesis pro consule, who were placed at the head of districts called
in the writer's opinion is that maintained by Charles Tissot, dioceses. At first there were only three dioceses: Cartha-
" "
who sees in the word Africa the name of the great Berber tribe, giniensis, Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now
the Aourigha (whose name would have been pronounced Afarika), Bizerta), and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine).
the modern Aouraghen, now driven back into the Sahara, but At a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and perhaps
in ancient times the principal indigenous element of the African at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana.
empire of Carthage (Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa The province of Africa was the only senatorial province whose
was originally, in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, governor had originally been invested with military powers.
the country inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of the legio III.
called Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in A.D. 37 Caligula de-
then excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west. prived the proconsul of his military powers and gave them to the
At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Cartha- imperial legate (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Africae),
ginians was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It who was nominated directly by the emperor, and whose special
comprised the territory bounded by a vague line running from duty it was to guard the frontier zone (Tacitus, Hist. iv. 48;
the mouth of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of Dio Cass. lix. 20). The headquarters of the imperial legate were
Tabraca (Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the originally at Cirta and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa).
mouth of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into The military posts were drawn up in echelon along the frontier
the hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans. of the desert, especially along the southern slopes of the Aures,
After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this territory as far as Ad Majores (Besseriani), and on the Tripoli tan frontier
was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, the fossa regia, as far as Cydamus (Ghadames), forming an immense arc extend-
was dug to mark the boundary of the Roman province of Africa ing from Cyrenaica to Mauretania. A network of military routes,
and the dominions of the Numidian princes. There have been constructed and kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa
discovered (1907) the remains of this ditch protected by a low in all directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as Leptis
wall or a stone dyke; some of the boundary stones which marked Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa) Thenae and Tacape (Gabes).
,

its course, and inscriptions mentioning it, have also been found. The powers of the proconsul, however, extended scarcely beyond
From Testur on the Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the littoral. Towards
these indications for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid. 194 Septimius Severus completed the reform of Caligula by
The ditch ran northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina. detaching from the province of Africa the greater partof Numidia
The importance of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch to constitute a special province governed by a procurator, sub-
which in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and ordinate to the imperial legate and resident at Cirta (Tissot
Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the boun- ii. 34). This province was called Numidia Cirtensis, as opposed
"
dary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, Le fosse des fron- to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia.
tieres romaines
"
in M flanges Boissier, 1905, p. 227; L. Poinssot In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of
in Comples rendus de I'Acad. des Inscript. et Belles Lettres, 1907, the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of
p. 466; Classical Review, 1907, December, p. 255). The govern- Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province
ment of the Roman province thus delimited was entrusted to of Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six
a praetor or propraetor, of whom several are now known, provinces: Zeugitana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum,
e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor Africae, according to coins of now Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana
Hadrumetum of the year 94 B.C. The towns which had fought (Tripolis), Mauretania and Mauretania
Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif),
on the side of the Romans during the Third Punic War were Caesariensis (Caesarea, now These provinces were
Cherchel).
and became exceedingly prosperous.
declared civitates liberae, administered, according to circumstances, by a praeses of sena-
They were Utica (Bu Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus torial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or a vir clarissimus consularis.
(Dimas), Leptis Minor (Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about Some changes were eventually necessitated by the wars with the
ii m. from Utica) and Theudalis. Those towns, however, Moors and the Vandals. By a treaty concluded in 476, the
which had remained faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like emperor Zeno recognized Genseric as master of all Africa. Re-
Carthage itself. conquered by Belisarius in 534, Africa formed, under the name
After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio Tripoli- of praefeclura Africae, one of the great administrative districts
tana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata, of the Byzantine empire. It was subdivided into six provinces,
and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, appears to which were placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect
have been annexed to the Roman province in a more or less of Africa. These provinces were Zeugitana (the former Pro-
regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus in 46 consularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and
made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the spheres Mauretania. The government was carried on by consulares
civil
of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia -was con- or praesides, while the military government was in the hands of
verted into a new province called " Africa Nova," and of this four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to drive out the
province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and in- barbarians. The country was studded thickly with burgi(smaM
vested with the imperium. From that time the old province of forts) and clausurae (long walls), the ruins of which still subsist.
Africa was known as " Africa Vetus " or " Africa Propria." In 647 the Arabs penetrated into Tfrikia, which was destined to
This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time.
In fall for ever out of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage
31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King was taken.
Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably
Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia, composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes,
which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, how- the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman
ever, no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by
to the old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province their common spoken language and by the comparatively
of Africa comprised the whole of the
region between the mouth numerous Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore
36 AFRICA, ROMAN
in ancient times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The country is
and Moors or Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each of these
of these tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny, ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have copied in-
there were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the scriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, porticos,
Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of mausoleums and the other monuments which are still standing,
Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of collected statues or other antiquities; and in many cases they
Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcel - have actually excavated. The results of all these labours have
linus, Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, and, indeed,
further names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of almost from day to day, in various scientific periodicals. Among
Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars against the principal of these are: Memoires de la Socittt archeologique
the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the Maces, the de Constantine, Bulletin de la Societe geographique et archeologique
Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani or Musulamii d'Oran, Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the
(whence the name Mussulman) the Massyli and the Massaesyli in
,
Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions scien-
the E., who were neighbours of the Moors. The non-nomads of tifiques and the Bulletin archeologique du Comite des travaux
these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts made of stakes supporting historiques and the Melanges of the French School at Rome. In
plaited mats of rush or asphodel. These dwellings, which were all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia museums have been founded
called mapalia, are the modern gourbis. African epigraphy has for storing the antiquities of the region; the most important of
revealed the names of some of their deities: deus inmctus Aulisva; these are the museums of St Louis, Carthage and the palace of
the god Motmanius, associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus; Bardo (musee Alaoui) near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine,
Baldir Augustus; Kautus paler; the goddess Gilva, identified Lambessa, Timgad, Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran.
with Tellus, and Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486). The Johannis of Under the title of Musics et collections archeologiques de I' Algerie
Corippus mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction publishes from
and Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal time to time illustrated descriptions of all these archaeological
districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing treasures. In this collection have already appeared descriptions
native divinities are rare, and give only very summary representa- of the museums of Algiers by G. Doublet; of Constantine by
tions. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers in Tunisia G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; of Oran by R. de La Blanchere;
and the province of Constantine. Tumuli, too, are found through- of Cherchel by P. Gauckler; of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of
out northern Africa, thejmost celebrated being that near Cherchel, Philippeville by S. Gsell and Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La
the Kubr-er-Rumia (" tomb of the Christian lady "), which was Blanchere and P. Gauckler; of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of
regarded by Pomponius Mela as the royal burying-place of the Tebessa by S. Gsell; of Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by
kings of Numidia. R. Cagnat and A. Ballu.
During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoe- The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with
nician origin and the bastard population termed by ancient the expansion of French dominion. From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre
authors Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably published his Exploration archeologique de I' Algerie, in collabora-
formed the predominant population of the towns on the littoral, tion with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renier was officially
and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the instructed to collect all the inscriptions in Algeria which should
Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of be found by the military expeditionary columns. This scholar
su/etes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain towns the examined first the ruins of Lambessa, an account of which he
Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua Punica, since published in 1854 in his Melanges d'epigraphie; subsequently he
it was the only language that the people understood. Neverthe- made his important collection of Inscriptions romaines de I' Algerie
less, the Roman functionaries, the army and the colonists from (1855-1858) which formed the groundwork of the volume of the
Italy soon brought the Latin element into Africa, where it Corpus Inscr. Lot. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman
flourished with such vigour that, in the 3rd century, Carthage Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his Collection
became the centre of a Romano-African civilization of extra- complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870). Apart from the
ordinary literary brilliancy, which numbered among its leaders province of Constantine, Algeria is less rich in Roman remains
such men as Apuleius, Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine than Tunisia; mention must, however, be made of the excava-
and many others. tions of Victor Waille at Cherchel, where were found fine statues
Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under Augustus, in the Greek style of the time of King Juba II. of P. Gavault at
;

when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the town. Utica Tigzirt (Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at
became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the civitates liberae, Tipasa (basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif
municipia, pagi and turres were peopled with Latins.
castella, and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum). In the depart-
The towns of the ancient province of Africa which received ment of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains,
coloniae were very numerous: Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba), Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de
Bisica Lucana (Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage, Villefosse. who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, a
Cuina, Curubis (Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the gate
or Zarytus (Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades, of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins fade into
Rades orGades),Neapolis(Nabel,Nebeul), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata insignificance in comparison with the majestic grandeur of those
(Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape of Timgad which are almost entirely laid bare; they are de-
(Gabes),Thaenae or Thenae (Tina), Thelepte(Medinet Kedima), scribed in Timgad, une cite africaine sous I'empire remain, by
Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem), R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu.
Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median). Of the municipia may be In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeo-
mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium Bure logical investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by
(Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin). Napoleon in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum
The of Numidia was at first colonized principally by of Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins;
province
the military settlements of the Romans. Cirta (Constantine) and the Dane Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de
Bulla Regia (Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received coloniae Sainte-Marie and others also have carried out researches; for
of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste (Tebessa) and more than twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of
Thamugas (Timgad). The fine ruins which have been discovered Carthage (q.v.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of
at the last-mentioned place have earned for it the surname of the Tunisia, the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor
African Pompeii (see below). Guerin in 1860; his results are contained in his remarkable
Archaeology. Roman Africa has been the subject of innumer- Voyage archeologique dans la Regence de Tunis (1862, 2 vols.).
able historical and archaeological researches, especially since the A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the sites of the
 AFRICAN LILY AFRIDI 361
ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus (Dimas) But
. AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveller and
it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881 which historian of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and
really gave the impetus to modern investigations in this district may have served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians
of ruined cities. They were put on a solid foundation by the in A.D. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except that

publication of the Geographic compares of Charles Tissot (1884). he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the
Trained scholars were sent there annually by the French govern-
'
emperor Heliogabalus to ask for the restoration of the town,
ment: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, La Blanchere, S. Reinach, which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded, and Emmaus
E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, spe- was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius bar-Salibi
randieu, Gauckler, Merlin, Homo and many others, to say makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a presbyter.
nothing of German scholars, such as Willmans and Schulten, He wrote a history of theworld(Xpoco7pa$i<u, in five books)from
and especially of a great number of enthusiastic officers of the the creation to the year A.D. 221, a period, according to his
army of occupation, who explored all the ancient sites, and in computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the period between
many cases excavated with great success (for their results see the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated
the works quoted above). It would be impossible to enumerate the latter event by three years. This method of reckoning
here all the monographs describing, for example, the ruins of became known as the Alexandrian era, and was adopted by
Carthage, those of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, almost all the eastern churches. The history, which had an
the amphitheatre of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but copious extracts from it
the royal tomb and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, who used it ex-
bridge of Chemtu (Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of tensively in compiling the early episcopal lists. There are also
Tebursuk and Medeina (Althiburus) the rich villa of the
, fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and the Paschale Chronicon.
Laberii at Wadna (Uthina), the sanctuary of Saturn Balcara- Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf. vi. 31) gives some extracts from his
nensis on the hill called Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of letter to one Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy
Enfida (Aphrodisium, Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis between Matthew and Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a
minor (Lemta), of Thenae (near Sfax), those of the island of reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to marry
Meninx (Jerba), of the peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter died without
(Sufetula), Gigthis (Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca issue. His terse and pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the
Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c. authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's
From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence wordy and uncritical answer, are both extant. The ascription
as to the history and more especially the internal administration to Africanus of an encyclopaedic work entitled Keorot (em-
of Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular broidered girdles), treating of agriculture, natural history,
we know how rural life was there developed, and with what care military science, &c., has been needlessly disputed on account
the water necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere of its secular and often credulous character. Neander suggests
provided. Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial that it was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself
and of minor importance; the only exceptions are certain to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work see
statues found at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff.
Mauretanian kings. AUTHORITIES. Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509;
translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 125-140.
AUTHORITIES. Among general works on the subject may be
See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus* und die byzant. Chronographie,
mentioned: Morcelli, Africa Christiana (1816); Gustave Boissiere,
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1880-1885) G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature,
L'Algerie romaine (and ed., 1883); E. Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique
;

248-253; A. Harnack, Altchristl. Lift. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70.

septentrionale (1888); Charles Tissot, Geographic comparee de la
province romaine d'Afrique (1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint- AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the
Martin, LeNord de I'Afrique dans I'antiqulte grecque et romaine (1883) Peshawar border of the North- West Frontier province of India.
Gaston Boissier, L'Afrique romaine (1895); Cl. Pallu de Lessert, The Afridis are the most powerful and independent tribe on the
Pastes des provinces africaines (Proconsulate, Nuntidie, Mauretanie)
sous la domination romaine (18961901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee border, and the largest with the exception of the Waziris. Their
romaine d'Afrique (1892); A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dans special country is the lower and easternmost spurs of the Safed
le Zeugis et le Byzacium (1869) ; Ludwig Muller, Numismatique de Koh range, to the west and south of the Peshawar district, in-
I'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl,
cluding the Bazar and Bara valleys. On their east they are
L'Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches archeo- bounded by British districts, on the north by the Mohmands,
logiques en Afrique (1893); Paul Monceaux, Histoire litteraire de
I'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905) J. Toutain, Les Cites romaines de
;
on the west by the Shinwaris and on the south by the Orakzai
la Tunisie (1895); Atlas archeologique de la Tunisie, published by and Bangash tribes. Their origin is obscure, but they are said
the Ministry of Public Instruction (1895 foil.); Atlas archeologique to have Israelitish blood in their veins, and they have a decidedly
de I'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foil.); Toulotte,
Semitic cast of features. They are possibly the Aparytai of
Geographie de I'Afrique chretienne (1892-1894) Corpus inscriptionum
;

latinarum, vol. viii. and Supplement (1881). Cf. also articles Herodotus, the names and positions being identical. If this
CARTHAGE.NUMIDIA, &c., JuouRTHA.and articles relating to Roman theory is correct, they were then a powerful people, and held
History. (E. B.*) a large tract of country, but have been gradually driven back
AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus) , a member of the by the encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into
natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, the following eight clans: Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar
whence it was introduced at the close of the i7th century. It is Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the
a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy in the south of most turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first
England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. It has a seven clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate
short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves, \ to to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting
2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less
umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. The plants are migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a fine,
easy to cultivate, and are generally grown in large pots or tubs tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, high nose and
which can be protected from frost in winter. During the summer cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own hillside he is
they require plenty of water, and are very effective on the one of the finest skirmishers in the world, and in the Indian
margins of lakes or running streams, where they thrive admirably. army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is apt to be home-sick
They increase by offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the when removed from the air of his native mountains. In character
root-stock in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are the Afridi has obtained an evil name for ferocity, craft and
known in cultivation; such are albidtts, with white flowers, treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert Warburton, who lived eighteen
aureus, with leaves striped with yellow, and variegalus, with years in charge of the Khyber Pass and knew the Afridi better
leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are than any other Englishman, says: " The Afridi lad from his
also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms. 1
So Eusebius. Syncellus says Alexander Severus.
362 AFTERGLOW AGA KHAN I.

earliest childhood taught by the circumstances of his existence

is After this both the Khyber and Kohat Passes were put on a
and life mankind, and very often his near relations,
to distrust all stable footing, and no further trouble of any consequence occurred
heirs to his small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his in either down to the time of the frontier risings of 1897, when
deadliest enemies. Distrust of allmankind, and readiness to the Afridis attacked the Khyber Pass, which was defended by
strike the first blow
for the safety of his own life, have therefore Afridi levies.
become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see TLRAH CAMPAIGN.
(8)
mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by a In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel
(9)
great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you like again* made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James
to give him except abuse." In short the Afridi has the vices Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the
and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The fighting following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands,
strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this estimate is the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan.
excessive, judged by the number and size of their villages. They See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884) War- ;

derive their importance from which

their geographical position, burton's Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.)

gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat roads, and the AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light
history of the British connexion with them has been almost appearing occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in
entirely with reference to these two passes. the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snow-
There have been several British expeditions against the fields inmountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon
separate clans: isdue to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions
(1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the
Colin Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa
Khel Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation in 1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the
of the Peshawar and Kohat districts. Following the example world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly
of all previous rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and
the tribe a subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents.
Afridis attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born
killing twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they at Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher of
disliked the making of a road which would lay open their fast- oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator
nesses to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on the west coast
was despatched, which traversed the country and punished them. of Africa, and in 1797-1798 acted as secretary of the Swedish
(2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he founded the
in 1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 1812 became
1850, the Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; professor of materia medica at the university. He died at Upsala
but they turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force in 1837. I n addition to various botanical writings, he published
of 1700 British traversed their country and destroyed their the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823.
stronghold at Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam His brother, JOHAN AFZELIUS (i7S3-i837),known as ARVIDSON,
Khel, who inhabit the country lying between the Kohat Pass was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother,
and the river Indus. PER AF (i 760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala
(3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel in 1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner.
Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding themselves AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor,
admitted to a share of the allowances of the Kohat Pass, com- poet, historianand mythologist, was born on the 8th of October
menced a series of raids on the Peshawar border and attacked a 1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871
British camp. An expedition of 1500 troops entered the country he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a
and inflicted severe punishment on the tribe, who made their collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in the
submission and paid a fine. great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor fran
(4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published also
Mocatta in 1877. In that year the government proposed to translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga, and a
reduce the Jowaki allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German transla-
the tribesmen resented this by cutting the telegraph wire and tion was published in 1842), as well as original poems.
Taiding into British territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated AGA, or AGHA, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying
their country in three columns, and did considerable damage a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the chief
by way of punishment. of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, cavalry
(5)Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier- and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the seraglio. It
General Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the is also employed generally as a term of respect in addressing
previous expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c.
of the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British AGA1AMBO, or AGAUMBU, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers in
territory went on. A
much stronger force, therefore, of 7400 British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual report
British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed their for 1904 the acting administrator of British New
Guinea stated
principal villages and occupied their country for some time, that on a visit he paid to their district he saw six males and four
until the tribe submitted and accepted government terms. The females. The Agaiambo
live in huts erected on piles in the lakes
Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed. and marshes. Dwarfish in stature but broadly built, they are
(6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar remarkable for the shortness of their legs. They live almost
" "
Valley under Brigadier-General Tytler in 1878. At the time of entirely in their dug-outs or canoes, or actually wading in
the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan the water. Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water-
War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked lily and fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly
their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed their numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the
country, and the tribesmen made their submission. raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features,
(7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans.
Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the AGA KHANI., His HIGHNESS THE (1800-1881), the title

previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued accorded by general consent to HASAN ALI SHAH (born in Persia,
to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan War, 1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under the
so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their country, protection of the British government. He was believed to have
and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made their submission. descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the daughter
 AGALMATOLITE AGAMEMNON 363
of the Prophet Mahomet. All's son, Hosain, having married by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The dis-
a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of tinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was con-
Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal ferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received like
house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the
His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs of the Beni- sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates.
Fatimites for a number of years, at a period coeval with the See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan
Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was (1903). (M. M. BH.)
appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be governor-general AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. &ya\na, statue, and Xi0os,
of the extensive and important province of Kerman. His rule stone), a soft species of mineral, also called pagodite, used by the
was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, Chinese for carving, especially into grotesque figures (whence
"
and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and called figure-stone ").
confidence of his master the shah, although his career was beset AGAMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orcho-
with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and menus in Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother
court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, Trophonius as a wonderful architect, the constructor of under-
1

the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, ground shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure.
and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He When building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed
fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, one of the stonesin the wall so that they could remove it whenever

preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the
his headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes was
its height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his brother's
the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus, and swal-
to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the lowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On this spot
British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; those
services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help was who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of a ram and
utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story is told of
a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121). According to Pindar (apud
their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great Plutarch), the brothers built the temple of Apollo at Delphi;
esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political when they asked for a reward, the god promised them one in
acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan seven days;' on the seventh day they died.
reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ~ad Apollonium, 14;
by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 47.
the British government, and when he finally settled down in AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek
India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah section of heroes, was the son
of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope,
Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the govern- grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of
ment, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes
a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga (the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's
Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus (<?..), who
citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to dis- took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly
charge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers with his father Thyestes. During this period Agamemnon and
in India, but towards the more numerous communities which Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose
acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and
Afghanistan, Khorasan, Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even Helen they respectively married. By Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon
distant Syria and Morocco. He remained throughout unflinch- had three daughters, Iphigeneia (Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice),
ingly loyal to the British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned Chrysothemis, and ason, Orestes. Menelaus succeededTyndareus,
influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of and Agamemnon,with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus
India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended
of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince
expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of in Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried off
India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the country and
more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, which in times called upon them to unite in a war of revenge against the Trojans.
of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape He himself furnished 100 ships, and was chosen commander-in-
of religious or political riots. chief of the combined forces. The fleet, numbering 1 200 ships,
He was succeeded by his eldest son, AGA KHAN II. This prince assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia. But Agamemnon had
continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that offended the goddess Artemis by slaying a hind sacred to her, and
won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him boasting himself a better hunter. The army was visited by a
the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the Indian Empire plague, and the fleet was prevented from sailing by the total
and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. absence of wind. Calchas announced that the wrath of the
AGA KHAN III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia
foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became the (q.v.). The fleet then set sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon
head of the family and its devotees. He was born in 1877, and, until his quarrel with Achilles (q.v.). After the capture of Troy,
under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution
Persia, was given not only that religious and oriental education of the prizes of war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he
which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailiahs made landed in Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval
indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to had seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at
his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put to
education produced the happy result of fitting this Moslem chief death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given by
in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife
appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties of alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown
a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to dis- over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the sacrifice of
charge by virtue of that position. He travelled in distant parts Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been
of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the the motives of her crime. The murder of Agamemnon was
object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare avenged by his son Orestes (q.v.). Although not the equal of
364 AGAPE
Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon a dignified representative
is with the sign of the cross and thus give thanks We thank thee,
:
'

of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summons the our Father, for thy holy resurrection; for through Jesus thy
princes to the council and leads the army in battle. He takes the servant thou hast shewn it unto us. And as this bread on this
field himself, and performs many heroic deeds until he is wounded table was scattered, but has been brought together and become
and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault is his over- one, so may thy church be brought together into thy kingdom.
weening haughtiness, due to an over-exalted opinion of his For thine is the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen.'
position, which leads him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby This prayer as you break the bread, and are about to eat, you
bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. But his family had been must say. And when you lay it on the table and desire to eat it,
marked out for misfortune from the outset. His kingly office had '
repeat the Our Father entire. But after dinner (or breakfast),
'

come to him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of and v/hen we rise from table, we use the prayer given above, viz.
Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality '
Blessed be God, who hath pity and nourished! us from our
which explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The infancy, who giveth food to all flesh. Fill our hearts with joy
fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous and gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we
tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the may "superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord,
Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamem- &c.' The writer then enjoins that, " if two or three other virgins
non was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and are present, they also shall give thanks over the bread set out,
in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen be found at the
His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at table, she shall not be suffered to join with the full believers in
their prayers, nor shall the latter sit with her to eat the morsel
"
Amyclae.
In works of art there "
is considerable resemblance between the (\l/uifj.bv, used specially of the sanctified bread). Nor shall
representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king they sit with frivolous and joking women, if they can help it,
of men. He is generally characterized by the sceptre and diadem, for they are sanctified to God, and their food and drink have
the usual attributes of kings. been hallowed by the prayers and holy words used over them.
See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopiidie and Roscher's . .. If a rich woman sits down with them at table, and they
Lexikon der Mythoiogie. see a poor woman, they shall invite her also to eat with them,
AGAPE (Gr. &y&Tnj, " Love "), the early Christian love- and not put her to shame because of the rich one." The last
feast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the epistle of words echo i Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that
"
Jude 12: These are they who are hidden rocks in your love- which the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic
feasts when they banquet with you." But this is not certain, rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century a
for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading airarais Lord's supper, which like the one described in i Cor. x. is agape
(" deceits ") for 6.yairais, and the oldest MSS. hesitate. The and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private house and not
history of the agape coincides, until the end of the 2nd century, in church, and the celebrants are holy women!
with that of the eucharist (q.v.), and it is doubtful whether the The historian Socrates (Hist. Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the
following detailed account of the agape given in Tertullian's survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts
Apology (c. 39) is to be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying and eucharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid,
"
eucharist: It is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other
that is criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament). For after
name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love (i.e. holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of all kinds,
agape). Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear gain that it is they at eventide make the offering (irpoa^opo.) and partake of it.
incurred on the score of piety, seeing that we succour the poorest So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about the year 350, records
by such entertainments (refrigerio) We do not lie down at table
. that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, celebrated the communion in
until prayer has been offered to God, as it were a first taste. We their own houses, and partook of the sacrament by themselves
eat only to appease our hunger, we drink only so much as it is whenever they chose. In the old Egyptian church order, known
good for temperate persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites, as the Canons of Hippolytus, there are numerous directions for
we do so without forgetting that throughout the night we must the service of the agape, held on Sundays, saints' days or at
say our prayers to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge commemorations of the dead. The 74th canon of the council
that the Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting of Trullo (A.D. 692) forbade the holding of symposia known as
the lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, either agapes in church. In his 54th homily (torn. v. p. 365) Chrysos-
taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So we prove tom describes how after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the
him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends, as it began, faithful remained in church, while the rich brought out meats
the banquet; and we break up not in bands of brigands, nor in and drink from their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished
" common
groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out into debauchery. . . .
tables, common banquets, common symposia in the
This meeting of Christians we admit deserves to be made illicit, church itself." The council of Gangra (A.D. 355) anathematized
"
if it resembles illicit acts; it deserves to be condemned, if any the over-ascetic people who despised the agapes based on
complain of it on the same score on which complaints are levelled faith." Only a few years later, however, the council of Laodicea
at factious meetings. But to do harm to whom do we ever thus forbade the holding of agapes in churches. The 42nd canon of
come together?" the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise forbade them,
The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt but these were only local councils. In the age of Chrysostom
about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his and Augustine the agape was frequent.
"
Pedagogus (ii. i) condemns the little suppers which were called, In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches,
not without presumption, agape." This word, he complains, respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in
should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable feast alone, and their tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under
the Lord never used it of mere junketings. Clement wished the Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of a
name to be reserved for the eucharist, because the love-feasts pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given
of the church had degenerated, as Tertullian too discovered, sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and
as soon as he turned Motanist. For in his tract on fasting deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his per-
(ch. xvii.) he complains that the young men misbehaved with the quisite. In Armenia the Greek word agape has been used ever
sisters afterthe agape. since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial meals, which
Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract either began or ended with a eucharistic celebration. The
entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how the sisters earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed in the two following
"
after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 P.M.) are to dine: When rules recorded against them by a renegade Armenian prelate
you sit down at a table and come to break bread, seal it thrice named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over to the Byzantine
 AGAPEMONITES
" "
church: Christ did not hand down to us the teaching to Key of Truth and art. on The Survival of Animal
(Oxford, 1898),
"
Sacrifices American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903)
in the
celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread in church, but
;

F. X. Funk, Didascalia et Constitutions Apostolorum (Paderborn,

in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common table. So then
1906); V. Ermoni, L' Agape (Paris, 1904); G. Horner, The Statutes
let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in churches. It was of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and Arabic MSS. (London,
after supper, when his disciples were thoroughly sated, that 1904) Thefr. Drescher, Diss. de vet. Christianorum
;
" Agapis (Giesse, "
Christ gave them of his own body to eat. Therefore let them 1824); L. A. Muratori, Anecdota Graeca, De agapis sublatis
(Patavii, 1709); I. A. Fabricius, Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter,
first eat meats and be sated, and then let them partake of the Primord. Eccl. Afr. p. 1 1 1 Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles. capita
;

mysteries." These old canons are adduced by way of ridiculing 18, 19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani, xxxi. ;Paulini
the Armenians, yet they reflect old usage. They are given in Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.)
the Historia Monothelitarum of Combefisius, col. 317. Older AGAPEMONITES, or COMMUNITY OF THE SON OF MAN. This
MSS. of the Greek Euchologion contain numerous prayers to be sect,based upon the theories of various German religious mystics,
offered over animals sacrificed; and in the form of agape such and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the
sacrifices were common in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry
of a saint, and Paulinus of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his James Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (1811-1899).
Latin poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail. Gregory the Great He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 and was
sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of sacrificing appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in Bath, his
bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th century. native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon his profession,
In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean (xx. 4), the he entered himself in 1837 as a student at St. David's Theo-
latter taxes the Catholics with having turned the sacrifices of the logical College, Lampeter, where he gathered about him a band
heathen into agapes, their idols into martyrs, whom they worship of earnest religious enthusiasts,known as the Lampeter Brethren,
with similar rites.
"
You appease," he says, " the shades of and was eventually ordained to the curacy of Charlinch in
the dead with wines and banquets, you celebrate the feast-days Somerset, where he had sole charge in the illness and absence
of the heathen along with them . ; . in their way of living of the rector, the Rev. Samuel Starkey. By that time he had
"
you have certainly changed nothing." This was true enough, contracted his first spiritual marriage," and had persuaded
but there is truth also in the remark of Prof. Sanday (" Eucha- himself that he had been absorbed into the personality of God
"
rist in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) that Providence even and had become a visible embodiment of the Holy Spirit. D uring
in its revolutions is conservative. The world could only be his illness Mr. Starkey read one of his curate's sermons and was
" "
christianized on condition that old holy days and customs were not only cured forthwith, but embraced his strange aoctrines,
continued. The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation and together they procured many conversions in the countryside
to the older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted. and the neighbouring towns. In the end the rector was deprived
The association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with of his living and Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with
the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the a few disciples they started the Cbarlinch Free Church, which
eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the had a very brief existence. Prince shortly afterwards became
year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday curate of Stoke in Suffolk, where, however, the character of
the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an his revivalist zeal caused his .departure at the end of twelve
eucharist. The 4ist canon of the council of Carthage enacted months. It was now decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister
that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting, Prince had married as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis
except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear Prince should leave the Church of England and preach their
that at an earlier date the agape preceded the eucharist. own gospel; Prince opened Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and
Pagan Analogues. In ancient states common meals called Starkey established himself at Weymouth. The chief success
sussitia (o-ixrcrma.) were instituted, particularly in the Doric lay in the latter town, and thither Prince soon migrated. A
states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete. Plato advocated them, number of followers, estimated by Prince at 500, but by his
and perhaps the later Jews imitated the Spartan community. critics at one-fifth of the number, were got together, and it was
" "
Trade and other gilds in antiquity held subscription suppers or given out by Beloved or
"
The Lamb " the names by which
Zpavoi, similar to those of the early Corinthian church, usually the Agapemonites designated their leader that his disciples
to support the needs of the poorer members. These hetairiae must divest themselves of their possessions and throw them
or clubs were forbidden (except in cities formally allied to Rome) into the common stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill-
by Trajan and other emperors, as being likely to be centres of furnished, all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the
disaffection; and on this ground Pliny forbade the agape of the present dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder
Bithynian churches, Christianity not being a lawful religion of this world, to live in common, and, while not
repudiating
licensed for such gatherings. The custom which most resembles earthly ties, to treat them as purely spiritual. With the money
the eucharist and agape was that known as charistia described thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the
by "
Valerius Maximus ii. 1.8. It was a solemn feast attended only Abode of Love," was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and
by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled three sisters, who contributed 6000 each, were immediately
were at the sacrament of the table (apua sacra mensae) reconciled. married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the
It was held on the zoth of February. Ovid in his Fasti, ii. purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view
617, alludes to it of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and when
Proxima cognati dixere charistia cari, the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was brought
Et ad socios turba propinqua deos.
venit which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's right to its
"
AUTHORITIES. The Canons of Hippolytus," in Duchesne's custody. The circumstance in which a fourth sister who joined
Origines du culte Chretien (Paris, 1898); A. Allen, Christian Insti- the community was abducted by her brothers led to an inquiry
tutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol, Etudes d'histoire (Paris,
1902
and 1905) F. X. Funk, " L' Agape," in the Revue de I'histoire ecclesi-
;
in lunacy and to her final settlement at Spaxton. A few years
after the establishment of the " Abode of Love," a
"
astique (Louvain, Jan. 1903) Ad. Harnack, ; Brod und Wasser " peculiarly
(Texte und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, The gross scandal, in which Prince and one of his female followers
Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901); F. X. Kraus, arts.
" " " " were involved, led to the secession of some of his most faithful
Agapen and Mahle in the Realencyklop. d. christl. Altertumer;
friends, who were unable any longer to endure what they regarded
" "
P. Ladeuze, L'Eucharistie et les repas communs in the Revue de
V orient Chretien, No. 3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the as the amazing mixture of blasphemy and immorality offered
Roman Empire (London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und for their acceptance. The most prominent of those who remained
Litteratur (Gottingen, 1893) E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in altesten
;
received such titles as the "Anointed Ones," the "Angel of
Chnstianheit (Leipzig, 1901); F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual
of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897) T. Zahn, art.
" " the Last Trumpet," the " Seven Witnesses " and so forth. In
Agapen "
Brother Prince " sent " to the kings and people of the
;

" Hauck's Realencyklop.; F. C. 1862

Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum
(Oxford, 1905; it contains the oldest Latin and Greek forms), The " "
earth letters making known to all men that flesh is saved
 3 66 AGAPETAE AGASSIZ
from death." At that period the Agapemonites counted their son of Marozia, was governing the independent republic of
adherents at 600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them Rome under the title of " prince and senator of the Romans."*
when their deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899, Agapetus, a man of some force of character, did his best to put
four years after he had opened a branch church at Clapton, a stop to the degradation into which the papacy had fallen,
"
London, which is said to have cost 20,000. This church, the so-called Pornocracy," which lasted from the accession
"
decorated with elaborate symbolism, was styled the Ark of of Sergius III. in 904 to the deposition of John XII. in 963. His
the Covenant," and in it the elect were to await the coming of appeal to Otto the Great to intervene in Rome remained without
the Lord. immediate effect, since Alberic's position was too strong to be
On the death of " Brother " Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth- attacked, but it bore fruit after his death. Agapetus died on
"
Pigott, pastor of the Ark," became the acknowledged head the 8th of November 955.
of the sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county AGAPETUS, a deacon of the church of St Sophia at Constan-
family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor before tinople. He
presented to the emperor Justinian, on his ac-
the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church of England cession in 527, awork entitled Scheda regia sive de officio regis,
and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted about which contained advice on the duties of a Christian prince. The
1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after this he was work was often reprinted and is included in Dom Anselme
not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7th of September ~Ba.nduri'sImperium Orientate (Paris, 1711). There is an English
1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the Ark of the translation by Thomas Paynell (1550) and a French trans-
Covenant for service, found the communion table replaced by lation, executed in 1612 from a Latin version by Louis XIII.,
a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself and proclaimed with the assistance of his tutor, David Rivault.
"
himself as the Messiah with the words, God is no longer there," AGARDE, ARTHUR (1540-1615), English antiquary, was
"
pointing upwards, but here," pointing to himself. This aston- born at Foston, Derbyshire, in 1 540. He was trained as a lawyer,
ishing announcement was followed by an excellent sermon on but entered the exchequer as a clerk. On the authority of
Christian love. Pigott's claim was at once admitted by the Anthony a Wood it has been stated that he was appointed by
members of his sect, including even his own wife, as the ful- Sir Nicholas Throckmorton to be deputy-chamberlain in 1570,
filment of the promise of Christ to appear in due time in the and that he held this office for forty-five years. His patent of
"Ark." By the outside world the affair was greeted with mingled appointment, however, preserved in the Rolls Office, proves that
ridicule and indignation, and the new Messiah had to be pro- he succeeded one Thomas Reve in the post on the nth of July
tected by the police from the violence of an angry mob. After 1603. With his friends, Sir Robert Cotton and Camden, he was
" "
providing copy for the newspapers for a few days, however, one of the original members of the Society of Antiquaries. He
the whole thing was forgotten. Pigott retired to the head- spent much labour in cataloguing the records and state papers,
"
quarters of the sect, the Abode of Love " in Somerset, and all and made a special study of the Domesday Book, preparing an
efforts to interview him or to obtain details of the life of the explanation of its more obscure terms. Thomas Hearne, in his
community were abortive. At last, in August 1905, the long Collection of Curious Discourses written by Eminent Antiquaries
and mysterious silence was broken by the announcement that (Oxford, 1720), includes six by Agarde on such subjects as the
"
a son had been born to Pigott by his spiritual wife," Miss Ruth origin of parliament, the antiquity of shires, the authority and
Preece, an inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means privileges of heralds, &c. Agarde died on the 22nd of August
disconcerted the believers, who saw in it only another manifesta- 1615 and was buried in the cloister of Westminster Abbey, on
tion of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as
"
an earnest of his tomb being inscribed "Recordorum regiorum hie prope
the total redemption of man." The child was registered as depositorum diligens scrutator." He bequeathed to the exchequer
"
Glory," and, at the christening service in the chapel of the all his papers relating to that court, and to his friend Sir Robert

Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in a jewelled Cotton his other manuscripts, amounting to twenty volumes,
cradle in the chancel. Another child by Miss Preece, christened most of which are now in the British Museum.
"
Power," was born on the 2oth of August 1908. The publicity AGAS, RADULPH, or RALPH (c. 1540-1621), English land-
given to this event renewed the scandal, and in November an surveyor, was born at Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk, about 1540,
"
attempt to tar and feather " Mr
Pigott resulted in two men and entered upon the practice of his profession in 1566. Letters
being sent to prison. Later in the month proceedings were which he wrote to Lord Burghley, describing the methods of
instituted against him by the bishop of Bath and Wells under surveying, are extant, and a kind of advertising prospectus of
the Clergy Discipline Act. his abilities, in which he describes himself as clever at arithmetic
One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone and " skilled in writing smaule, after the skantelinge & pro-
deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the origin of
the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes Read, a resident portion of copiynge the Oulde & New Testamentes seven tymes
at the Agapemone and director of the V. V. Bread Company, was in one skinne of partchmente without anie woorde abreviate

requested by his fellow-directors to resign, on the ground that his or contracted, which maie also serve for drawinge discriptions
connexion with the sect was damaging the business of the company. of contries into volumes portable in verie little cases." He is
He denied this to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious best known for his maps of Oxford (1578), Cambridge (1592)
liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the concern. On
the I3th of September 1905, a meeting of the shareholders of the and London. Copies of the first two are preserved in the Bodleian
"
company was held, and Read asked them to believe that it was not Library. Of the map of London and Westminster, which was
in the interests of the company, but because he knew that the Lord
probably prepared about 1591, two copies have been preserved,
Jesus Christ had come again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone, one by the Corporation of London and the other in the Pepysian
that he was thus cast out by his colleagues." The motion calling on
him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 votes to collection at Magdalene College, Cambridge. The map is over
2 953- (See The Times, I4th of September 1905.) six feet long, printed from wooden blocks, and gives a valuable
"
AGAPETAE, a class of virgins " who, in the church of the picture of the London of Elizabeth's time. Agas died on the
early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks to whom 26th of November 1621.
they were said to be united by spiritual love. The practice was AGASIAS. There were two Greek sculptors of this name.
suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139. Agasias, son of Dositheus, has signed the remarkable statue
AGAPETUS, the name of two popes: called the Borghese Warrior, in the Louvre. Agasias, son of
AGAPETUS I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened Menophilus, is the author of another striking figure of a warrior
pontiffand collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome in the museum of Athens. Both belonged to the school of
a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad sent him Ephesus and flourished about 100 B.C.
on an embassy to Constantinople, where he died, after having See E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture, ii. p. 475.
deposed Anthimus, the monophysite bishop of that town, and AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-1910), American
ordained Menas his successor. man of science, son of J. L. R. Agassiz, was born in Neuchatel,
AGAPETUS II., pope from 946 to 955, at the time when Alberic, Switzerland, on the i?th of December 1835. He came to the
 AGASSIZ
United States with his father in 1846; graduated at Harvard appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843 [1844]. They
fossiles
in 1855, subsequently studying engineering and chemistry, and were magnificently illustrated, chiefly through the labours of
taking the degree of bachelor of science at the Lawrence scien- Joseph Dinkel, an artist of remarkable power in delineating
tific school of the same institution in 1857; and in 1859 became natural objects. In gathering materials for this great work
an assistant in the United States Coast Survey. Thenceforward Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting
he became a specialist in marine ichthyology, but devoted much Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance
time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of from him.
mines, being superintendent of the Calumet and Hecla copper Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours rendered
mines, Lake Superior, from 1866 to 1869, and afterwards, as a necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils
stockholder, acquiring a fortune, out of which he gave to rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fishes. They
Harvard, for the museum of comparative zoology and other consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones
purposes, some $500,000. In 1875 he surveyed Lake Titicaca, being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He
Peru, examined the copper mines of Peru and Chile, and made therefore adopted his well-known classification, which divided
a collection of Peruvian antiquities for that museum, of which fishes into four groups viz. Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and
he was curator from 1874 to 1885. He assisted Sir Wyville Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal
Thomson in the examination and classification of the collections appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on
" "
of the Challenger exploring expedition, and wrote the a scientific basis, his classification has not been found to meet
Review of the Echini (2 vols., 1872-1874) in the reports. Between the requirements of modern research. As remarked by Dr A.
1877 and 1880 he took part in the three dredging expeditions of Smith Woodward, he sought to interpret the past structures
"
the steamer Blake," of the United States Coast Survey, and by too rigorous a comparison with those of living forms. (See
presented a full account of them in two volumes (1888). Of his Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Natural History Museum.}
other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the As the important descriptive wo<k of Agassiz proceeded, it
bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; became obvious that it would over-tax his resources, unless
but he published in 1865 (with Elizabeth Gary Agassiz, his step- assistance could be afforded. The British Association came to
mother) Seaside Studies in Natural History, a work at once exact his aid, and the earl of Ellesmere then Lord Francis Egerton
and stimulating, and in 1871 Marine Animals of Massachusetts gave him yet more efficient help. The original drawings made for
Bay. the work, chiefly by Dinkel, amounted to 1 290 in number. These
AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (180^1873), Swiss were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geo-
naturalist and geologist, was the son of the Protestant pastor logical Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston medal was
of the parish of Metier, on the north-eastern shore of the Lake awarded by the council of that society to Agassiz for his work
of Morat (Murten See), and not far from the eastern extremity on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign
of the Lake of Neuchatel. Agassiz was born at this retired place member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile the invertebrate
on the 28th of May 1807. Educated first at home, then spending animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Pro-
four years at the gymnasium of Bienne, he completed his ele- drome " of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata,
mentary studies at the academy of Lausanne. Having adopted the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he
medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the uni- published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of
versities of Zurich, Heidelberg and Munich; and he availed Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he issued his Etudes critiques sur
himself of the advantages afforded by these universities for les mollusques fossiles.

extending his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany. Subsequently to his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of
After completing his academical course, he took in 1829 his Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable
degree of doctor of philosophy at Erlangen, and in 1830 that of fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the north-east of Scotland.
doctor of medicine at Munich. The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other
Up to this time he had paid no special attention to the study genera were then made known to geologists for the first time.
of ichthyology, which soon afterwards became the great occu- They naturally were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the
pation of his life. Agassiz always declared that he was led into subject ot a special monograph by him published in 1844-1845:
ichthyological pursuits through the following circumstances: Monographic des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou
In 1819-1820, J. B. Spix and C. F. P. von Martius were engaged in Systeme Dcvonien (Old Red Sandstone) des lies Britanniques et de
their celebrated Brazilian tour, and on their return to Europe, Russie.
amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home The year 1836 witnessed the inauguration of a new investiga-
an important set of the freshwater fishes of Brazil, and especially tion, which proved to be of the utmost importance to geological
of the Amazon river. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live long science. Previously to this date de Saussure, Venetz, Char-
enough to work out the history of these fishes; and Agassiz, pentier and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects
though little more than a youth just liberated from his academic of special study, and Charpentier had even arrived at the
studies, was selected by Prof. Martius for this purpose. He at conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over
once threw himself into the work with that earnestness of spirit the slopes and summits of the Jura mountains had been conveyed
which characterized him to the end of his busy and the task
life, thither by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention
of describing and figuring the Brazilian fishes was completed of Agassiz, he not only made successive journeys to the alpine
and published in 1829. This was followed by an elaborate re- regions in company with Charpentier, but he had a hut con-
search into the history of the fishes found in the Lake of Neuchatel. structed of the Aar glaciers, which for a time he made
upon one
Enlarging his plans, he issued in 1830 a prospectus of a History his in order to investigate thoroughly the structure and
home,
of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe. It was only in 1839, movements of the ice. These labours resulted in the publication
however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it of hisgrand work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers,
was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor 1840. Therein he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their
of natural history in the university of Neuchatel. Having moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over
become a professed ichthyologist, it was impossible that the which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches
fossil fishes should fail to attract his attention. The rich stores moutonnSes with which we are now so familiar. He not only
furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte accepted Charpentier's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had
Bolca were already well known; but very little had been accom- extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar
plished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early and the Rhone, and thus landed parts of their remains upon the
as 1829, with his wonted enthusiasm, planned the publication of uplands of the jura, but he went still farther. He concluded that,
the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his at a period geologically recent, Switzerland had been another
world-wide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the
3 68 AGATE
areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher only handed over to Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzard's
Alps, had extended over the entire valley of north-western Bay, on the east coast, but also presented him with $50,000
Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, wherewith permanently to endow it as a practical school of
which, though they checked and deflected its further extension, natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine
did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the zoology. Unfortunately he did not long survive the establish-
summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh ment of this institution. The disease with which he had struggled
impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the for some years proved fatal on the i4th of December 1873.
world. He was buried at Mount Auburn. His monument is a boulder
Thus familiarized with the phenomena attendant on the move- selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site
ments of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery of the old Hotel des Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where
which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland. his hut once stood; and the pine-trees which shelter his grave
These two savants visited the mountains of Scotland together, and were sent from his old home in Switzerland. His extensive
found in different localities clear evidence of ancient glacial knowledge of natural history makes it somewhat remarkable
action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society to find that from first to last he steadily rejected the doctrine
of London in successive communications from the two distin- of evolution, and affirmed his belief in independent creations.
guished observers. The mountainous districts of England and When studying the superficial deposits of the Brazilian plains iii
Wales and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres 1865, his vivid imagination covered even that wide tropical area,
" that
for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked as it had covered Switzerland before, with one vast glacier,
great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, extending from the Andes to the sea. This view, however,
once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel has not been generally accepted. His daring conceptions were
(boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general pro- only equalled by the unwearied industry and genuine en-
duced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent thusiasm with which he worked them out; and if in details
surface, &c." his labours were somewhat defective, it was only because he
In 1 84 2- 1 846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologitus, a classified had ventured to attempt what was too much for any one man
list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera to accomplish.
and groups a work of great labour and research. With the It may be interesting to mention that the charming verses
"
aid of a grant of money from the king of Prussia, Agassiz, written by Longfellow on The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz "
in the autumn of 1846, crossed the Atlantic, with the twofold were read by the author at a dinner given to Agassiz by the
design of investigating the natural history and geology of the Saturday Club in Cambridge, Mass., in 1857.
United States and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by Louis Agassiz was twice married, and by his first wife he had
invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute at Boston; an only son, Alexander Agassiz (q.i>.~), born in 1835; in 1850,
the tempting advantages, pecuniary and scientific, presented to after her death, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Cabot
him in the New World induced him to settle in the United Gary of Boston, Mass., afterwards well known as a writer and
States, where he remained to the end of his life. He was ap- as an active promoter of educational work in connexion with
pointed professor of zoology and geology in Harvard University, Radcliffe College (see an article on Radcliffe College, by Helen
Cambridge, U.S., in 1847. I n !&5 2 he accepted a medical pro- Leah Reed in the New England Magazine for January 1895).
fessorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, but this he AUTHORITIES. L.Agassiz,His Life and Correspondence, '2 vols., by
E. C. (Mrs) Agassiz (London, 1885) Louis Agassiz, His Life and Work,
resigned in two years. ;

The transfer to a new field and the association w'th fresh objects by C. F. Holder (New York and London, 1893). (H. B. Wo.)
of interest gave his energies an increased stimulus. Volume AGATE, a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but
after volume now proceeded from his pen: some of his writings to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly Chalcedony
were popular, but most of them dealt with the higher departments (q.v.). According to Theophrastus the agate (dxarijs) was
of scientific research. His work on Lake Superior, and his four named from the river Achates, now the Drillo, in Sicily, where
volumes of Contributions to the Natural History of the United the stone was originally found. Most agates occur as nodules
States, 1857-1862, were of this latter character. We must not in eruptive rocks, or ancient lavas, where they represent cavities
overlook the valuable service he rendered to science by the originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the
formation, for his own use, of a catalogue of scientific memoirs molten mass, and since filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous
an extraordinary work for a man whose hands were already so matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates,
full. This catalogue, edited and materially enlarged by the late when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines,
Hugh E. Strickland, was published by the Ray Society under the often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the
title of Bibliographia Zoologiae el Geologiae, in 4 vols., 1848-1854. section, whence such stones are known as banded agate, riband
Nor must we forget that he was building up another magnificent agate and striped agate. Certain agates also occur, to a limited
monument of his industry in the Museum of Natural History, extent, in veins, of which a notable example is the beautiful
which rose under his fostering'care, at Cambridge. But at length brecciated agate of Schlottwitz, near Wesenstein in Saxony
the great strain on his physical powers began to tell. His early a stone mostly composed of angular fragments of agate cemented
labours among the fishes of Brazil had often caused him to cast with amethystine quartz.
a longing glance towards that country, and he now resolved to In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that
combine the pursuit of health with the gratification of his long- waters containing silica in solution derived, perhaps, from the
cherished desires. In April 1865 he started for Brazil, with decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself per-
his wife and class of qualified assistants. An interesting account colated through the rock, and deposited a siliceous coating on
of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil (1868), was the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character
published by Mrs Agassiz and himself after they returned home of the solution, or in the conditions of deposit, may have caused
in August 1866. corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands
In 1871 he made a second excursion, visiting the southern of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz,
shores of the North American continent, both on its Atlantic and occasionally of opaline silica. By movement of the lava,
and its Pacific sea-boards. He had for many years yearned after when originally viscous, the vesicles were in many cases drawn
the establishment of a permanent school where zoological science out and compressed, whence the mineral matter with which
could be pursued amidst the haunts of the living subjects of they became filled assumed an elongated form, having the longer
study. The last, and possibly the most influential, of the labours axis in the direction inwhich the magma flowed. From the fact
of his life was the establishment of such an institution, which that these kernels are more or less almond-shaped they are called
he was enabled to effect through the liberality of Mr John amygdales, whilst the rock which encloses them is known as
Anderson, a citizen of New York. That gentleman, in 1873, not an amygdaloid. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the
 AGATE 369
rock is viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may become cut and polished at the present time, are found mostly as boulders
the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode, in the beds of rivers.
lined with amethyst, of the weight of 35 tons, was exhibited An enormous trade in agate-working is carried on in a small
at the Dusseldorf Exhibition of 1902. district in Germany, around Oberstein on the Nahe, a tributary
" "
The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the skin of the Rhine at Bingen. Here the industry was located many
of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, centuries ago, in consequence of the abundant occurrence of
"
like celadonite, delessite or green earth," which are hydrous agates in the amygdaloidal melaphyre of the district, notably
silicates rich in iron, derived probably from the decomposition in the Galgenberg, or Steinkaulenberg, overlooking the village
of the augite in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give of Idar, on the Idar Bach, about two miles from Oberstein.
rise by alteration to a brown oxide of iron (limonite), producing The abundant water-power in the neighbourhood had also a
a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The share in the determination of the industrial site. At the present
outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted time, however, steam power and even electricity are employed
and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the in the mills of the Oberstein district. Although the agate-
original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the industry is still carried on there, especially at Idar, the stones
"
cavity has been called the priming," and upon this basis operated on are not of indigenous origin, but are imported mostly
zeolitic mineralsmay be deposited, as was pointed out by Dr from Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul) and from Uruguay, where they
M. F. Heddle. Chalcedony is generally one of the earlier deposits were discovered in 1827. Agate-working is also carried on to
and crystallized quartz one of later formation. Tubular channels, a limited extent at Waldkirch in the Black Forest.
usually choked with siliceous deposits, are often visible in Most commercial agate is artificially stained, so that stones
sections of agate, and were formerly regarded, especially by naturally unattractive by their dull grey tints come to be valuable
L. von Buch and J. Noggerath, as inlets of infiltration, by which forornamental purposes. The art of staining the stone is believed
the siliceous solutions gained access to the interior of the amyg- to be very ancient. Possibly referred to by Pliny (bk. xxxvii.
daloidal cavity. It seems likely, however, that the solution cap. 75), it was certainly practised at an early date by the Italian
transuded through the walls generally, penetrating the chalce- cameo-workers, and from Italy a knowledge of the art long
donic layers,'as Heddle maintained, by osmotic action. Much of kept secret and practised traditionally passed in the early
the chalcedony in an agate is known, from the method of arti- part of the igth century to the agate- workers in Germany,
ficially staining the stone, to be readily permeable. It was by whom it has since been greatly developed. The colouring
argued by E. Reusch that the cavities were alternately filled matter is absorbed by the porosity of the stone, but different
and emptied by means of intermittent hot springs carrying stones and even different layers in the same stone exhibit great
silica; while G. Lange, of Idar, suggested that the tension of variation in absorptive power. The Brazilian agates lend them-
the confined steam might pierce an outlet through some weak selves readily to coloration, while the German agates are much
point in the coating of gelatinous silica, deposited on the walls, less receptive.
so that the tubes would be channels of egress rather than of To produce a dark brown or black colour, the stone is kept
ingress a view supported by Heddle, who described them as perhaps for two or three weeks in a saccharine solution, or in
"
tubes of escape." olive oil, at a moderate temperature. After removal from this
It sometimes happens that horizontal deposits, or strata medium, the agate is well washed and then digested for a short
usually opaline in character, are formed on the floor of a cavity time in sulphuric acid, which entering the pores chars or carbonizes
after the walls have been lined with successive layers of chalce- the absorbed sugar or oil. Certain layers of chalcedony are
dony. Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not pro- practically impermeable, and these consequently remain un-
ceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last coloured, so that an alternation of dark and white bands is
deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethystine, having obtained, thus giving rise to an onyx. If stained too dark, the
"
the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space, so as colour may be drawn," or lightened, by the action of nitric
to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode. acid.
When the deposits in an agate have been formed on a crop Agate is stained red, so as to form carnelian and sardonyx,
of crystals, or on a rugose base, the cross-section presents a by means of ferric oxide. This may be derived from any iron
zigzag pattern, rather like the plan of a fortress with salient compound naturally present in the stone, especially from
"
limonite
"
and retiring angles, whence the stone is termed fortification by dehydration on baking. Some stones are burnt by mere
agate. If the section shows concentric circles, due either to exposure to the heat of the sun, whereby the brown colour
stalactitic growth or to deposition in the form of bosses and beads passes to red. Usually, however, an iron-salt, like ferrous
on the floor, the stone is known as ring agate or eye agate. A sulphate, is artificially introduced in solution and then decom-
Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name posed by heat, so as to form in the pores a rich red pigment.
"
of cyclops." Included matter of a green colour, like fragments A blue colour, supposed to render the agate rather like lapis
"
of green earth," embedded in the chalcedony and disposed lazuli, isproduced by using first an iron salt and then a solution
in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, of ferrocyanide or ferricyanide of potassium; a green colour,
gives rise to moss agate. These inorganic enclosures in the agate like that of chrysoprase, is obtained by means of salts of nickel
have been sometimes described, even after microscopic examina- or of chromium; and a yellow tint is developed by the action
tion, as true vegetable structures. Dendritic markings of black of hydrochloric acid.
or brown colour, due to infiltration of oxides of manganese and Among the uses to which agate is applied may be mentioned
iron,produce the variety of agate known as Mocha stone. Agates the formation of knife-edges of delicate balances, small mortars
of exceptional beauty often pass in trade under the name of and pestles for chemical work, burnishers and writing styles,
Oriental agate. Certain stones, when examined in thin sections umbrella-handles, paper-knives, seals, brooches and other
by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum, due to trivial ornaments. Most of these are cut and polished in the
the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are Oberstein district, at a very cheap rate, from South American
termed rainbow agates. stones.
On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are Numerous localities in the United States and Canada yield
embedded, they are set free, and, being by their siliceous nature agates, as described by Dr G. F. Kunz. They are abundant
extremely resistant to the action of air and water, remain as in the trap rocks of the Lake Superior region, some of the finest
nodules in the soil and gravel, or become rolled as pebbles in coming from Michipicoten Island, Ontario. A locality on the
the streams. Such is the origin of the " Scotch pebbles," used shore of the lake is called Agate Bay. Wood agate, or agatized
as ornamental stones. They are agates derived from the andesitic wood, is not infrequently found in Colorado, California and
lavas of Old Red Sandstone age, chiefly in the Ochils and the elsewhere in the West, the most notable locality being the famous
" "
Sidlaws. In like manner, the South American agates, so largely silicified forest known as Chalcedony Park, in Apache county,
 370 AGATHA AGATHOCLES
Arizona. Here there are vast numbers of water-rolled logs of writers know nothing of canvas scenes; the background painted
wood, in rocks of Triassic age, but only a small quantity
silicified
by Agatharchus was the wooden front of the stage building, and
of the wood is fine enough for ornamental purposes. The cellular it was painted, not with reference to
any particular play, but as
tissue of the vegetable matter is filled, or even replaced, by a permanent decorative background, representing no doubt a
various siliceous minerals like chalcedony, jasper, crystalline
palace or temple. Agatharchus is said to have been seized by
quartz and semi-opal, the silica having probably been introduced Alcibiades and compelled by him to paint the interior of his
by thermal waters. Some of the agate shows the microscopic house, which shows that at the time (about 435 B.C.) decorative
structure of araucarian wood. The agatized wood is sometimes painting of rooms was the fashion.
known by the Indian name of shinarump. AGATHIAS (c. A.D. 536-582), of Myrina in Aeolis, Greek poet
In India agates occur abundantly in the amygdaloidal varieties and historian. He studied law at Alexandria, completed his
of the Deccan and Rajmahal traps, and as pebbles in the detritus
training at Constantinople and practised as an advocate (scholas-
derived from these rocks. Some of the finest are found in the ticus) in the courts. Literature, however, was his favourite
agate-gravels near Ratanpur, in Rajpipla. The trade in agates pursuit. He wrote a number of short love-poems in epic metre,
has been carried on from early times at Cambay, where the stones called Daphniaca. He next put together a kind of anthology,
are cut and polished. Agates are also worked at Jubbulpore. containing epigrams by earlier and contemporary poets and him-
In many parts of New South Wales,
agates, resulting from self, under the title of a Cycle of New Epigrams. About a hundred
the disintegration of trap rocks, are common in the river-beds epigrams by Agathias have been preserved in the Greek Antho-
and old drifts. They occur also in Queensland, as at Agate Creek, logy and show considerable taste and elegance. After the death
running into the Gilbert river. South Africa likewise yields of Justinian (565), some of Agathias's friends persuaded him to
numerous agates, especially in the gravels of the Orange and write the history of his own times. This work, in five books,
Vaal rivers. begins where Procopius ends, and is the chief authority for the
It should be noted that in England agates are found not only
period 552-558. It deals chiefly with the struggles of the Byzan-
in old lavas, like the andesites of the Cheviots, but also to a tine army, under the command of the eunuch Narses,
against
limited extent in the Dolomitic Conglomerate, an old beach- the Goths, Vandals, Franks and Persians. The author prides
deposit of Triassic age in the Mendips and the neighbourhood himself on his honesty and impartiality, but he is lacking in
of Bristol. They are also found as weathered pebbles in the judgment and knowledge of facts; the work, however, is valuable
drift of Lichfield in Staffordshire. from the importance of the events of which it treats. Gibbon
"
For Scottish agates see M. F. Heddle, On the Structure of contrasts Agathias as " a poet and rhetorician " with Procopius
Agates," Trans. Geolog. Soc. Glasgow, vol. xi. part ii., 1900, p. 153; "
a statesman and soldier."
and Mineralogy of Scotland (1901), vol. i. p. 58; J. G. Good-
child, Proc, Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xiv., 1899, p. 191. For the AUTHORITIES. Editio princeps, by B. Vulcanius (1594); in the
Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Byz. Hist., by B. G. Niebuhr (1828); in
agate-industry see G. Lange, Die Halbedelsteine (Kreuznach, 1868).
For American agates, G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxviii.; L. Dindorf, Historici Graeci
"
Minores (1871); W. S. Teuffel, Agathias von Myrine," in Philo-
of North America (1890), p. 128. For agates in general see
Max Bauer's Precious Stones, translated by L. J. Spencer (London, logus (i. 1846); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (2nd ed.
1904). (F. W. R.*) 1897).
AGATHA, SAINT, the patron saint of Catania, Sicily, where AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily. He is
her festival is celebrated on the sth of February. The legend noteworthy as the pope who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored to
is that she was a native of Sicily (probably of Catania, though his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease payment
Palermo also claims her), of noble birth and great beauty. She of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the emperor at Con-
repelled the advances of the Roman prefect sent by the emperor stantinople. It was during his pontificate that the 6th oecumenical
Decius to govern Sicily, and was by his orders. brutally tortured council was held at Constantinople, to which he sent his legates
and finally sent to the stake. As soon as the fire was lighted, and those from a Roman council held in 679. Agatho died on
an earthquake occurred, and the people insisted on her release. the zoth of January 68 1.
She died in prison on the 5th of February 251. The rescue of AGATHOCLES (361-289 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, was born at
Catania from during an eruption of
fire Mount Etna was later Thermae Himeraeae (mod. Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son
attributed to St Agatha's veil. of a potter who had removed to Syracuse, he learned his father's
AGATHANGELUS, AGATHANGE or AKATHANKELOS, Armenian trade, but afterwards entered the army. In 333 he married the
historian, lived during the 4th century, and wrote a History widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen.
of the Reign of Dertad, or Tiridates, and of the Preaching of He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligar-
Si Gregory the Illuminator. The text of this history has been chical party in Syracuse (?.?'.); in 317 he returned with an army
considerably altered, but it has always been in high favour with of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic
the Armenians. It has been translated into several languages, constitution which was then set up. Having banished or
and Greek and Latin translations are found in thereto Sanctorum murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master
Bollandistarum, tome viii. As known to us the history consists of of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the
three parts, a history of St Gregory and his companions, the doc- greater part of Sicily. War with Carthage followed. In 310
trine of Gregory, and the conversion of Armenia to Christianity. Agathocles, defeated and besieged in Syracuse, took the desperate
See V. Langlois, Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de resolve of breaking through the blockade and attacking the
I'Armenie (Paris, 1868).
nemy in Africa. After several victories he was at last completely
AGATHARCHIDES, or AGATHARCHUS, of Cnidus, Greek his- defeated (306) and fled secretly to Sicily. After concluding peace
torian and geographer, lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor with Carthage, Agathocles styled, himself king of Sicily, and
(181-146 B.C.) and his successors. Amongst other works, he established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly
wrote treatises on Asia, Europe and The Red Sea. Interesting :han ever. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless
extracts from the last, of some length, are preserved in Photius
:nergy, and is said to have been meditating a fresh attack on
(cod. 213), who praises the style of the author, which was Carthage at the time of his death. His last years were harassed
modelled on that of Thucydides.
ay ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at
See H. Leopold!, De Agatharchide Cnidio Dissertatio (1892) C. W.
; whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to
M tiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii., and Geographi Graeci
others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercen-
Minores, i. E. H. Bunbury, Hist, of Ancient Geography, ii. (1879).
;

aries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his
AGATHARCHUS, an Athenian painter of the sth century B.C.
He is said by Vitruvius to have been the first to paint a scene for ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular "tyrant."
See Justin xxii., xxiii.; Diodorus Siculus xix., xxi., xxii. (follows
the acting of tragedies. Hence some writers, such as Karl
jenerally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles) ;

Woermann, have supposed that he introduced perspective and 3

olybius ix. 23; Schubert, Geschichte des Agathokles (1887) Grote,
;

illusion into painting. This is a mistaken view, for ancient History of Greece, ch. 97 also SICILY, History.
;
 AGATHODAEMON AGDE
" "
AGATHODAEMON, in Greek mythology, the good spirit escence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flower-
of cornfields and vineyards. It was the custom of the Greeks to stalk. In the case of A. americana and other species this is used
drink a cup of pure wine in his honour at the end of each meal by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the
(Aristophanes, Equites,io6). He was also regarded as the protect- flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently
ing spirit of the state and of individuals. He was often accom- fermented. By distillation a spirit called mescal is prepared.
panied by 'A70.01J Tuxi (good fortune), and in this aspect may be The leaves of several species yield fibre, as for instance, A rigida .

compared with the Roman Bonus Eventus (Pliny, Nat Hist. var. sisalana, sisal hemp (q.v.), A. decipiens, false sisal hemp;
xxxvi. 23), and Genius. He is represented in works of art in the A. americana the source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre
is

form of a serpent, or of a young man with a cornucopia and a plant in Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe. The
bowl in one hand, and a poppy and ears of corn in the other. flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms
See Gerhard, Uber Agathodamon und Bona Dea (Berlin, 1849).
AGATHODAEMON, of Alexandria, map designer, probably
lived in the2nd century A.D. Some MSS. of the Geography of
Ptolemy contain twenty-seven maps, which are stated to have
"
been drawn by Agathodaemon of Alexandria, who delineated
the whole world according to the eight books of Ptolemy's
geography." As Ptolemy speaks of Iliwuces to accompany his
treatise, these maps were probably the work of a contemporary
acting under his instructions. About 1470 Nicolaus Doris, a
Benedictine monk, brought out a revised edition of them, the
names being inserted in Latin instead of Greek.
See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, ii.
AGATHON (c. 448-400 B.C.), Athenian tragic poet, friend of
Euripides and Plato, best known from his mention by Aristo-
phanes (Thesmophoriazusae) and in Plato's Symposium, which
describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for
a tragedy (416). He probably died at the court of Archelaus,
king of Macedonia. He introduced certain innovations, and
Aristotle (Poetica, 9) tells us that the plot of his "Ai/0os was
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects.
See Aristophanes, Thesmoph. 59, 106, Eccles. 100; Plato, Symp.
198 c; Plutarch, Symp. 3; Aelian, For. Hist. xiv. 13; Kitsch,
Opuscula, i. fragments in Nauck, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta.
;

AGATHYRSI, a people of Thracian origin, who in the earliest

occupied the plain of the Maris (Maros), in the
historical times
region now knownas Transylvania. Thyrsi is supposed to be a
Scythian form of Tpavaoi (Trausi), a Thracian tribe mentioned
by Stephanus of Byzantium. They are described by Herodotus
(iv. 104) as of luxurious habits, wearing gold ornaments (the
and having wives in common. They r
district is still auriferous) Agave americana, Century plant or American aloe. About 4 nat.
tattooed their bodies (picti, Aeneid iv. 136), degrees of rank size. I, Flower; 2, same flower split open above the ovary; 3, ovary
cut across; I, 2, and 3, about i'nat. size.
being indicated by the manner in which this was done, and
From the Botanical Magazine, by permission of Lovcll Reeve and Co.
coloured their hair dark blue. Like the Gallic Druids, they
recited their laws in a kind of sing-song to prevent their being
natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will
forgotten, a practice still in existence in the days of Aristotle lather in water like soap. In the Madras Presidency the plant
(Problemata, xix. 28). Valerius Flaccus (Argonautica, vi. 135) isextensively used for hedges along railroads. Agave americana,
calls them Thyrsagetae, probably in reference to their cele-
century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of
bration of orgiastic rites in honour of some divinity akin to the
the 1 6th century and is now widely cultivated for its handsome
Thracian Dionysus. In later times the Agathyrsi were driven
appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or
farther north, and their name was unknown to the Romans in
yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the
their original home.
leaves unfold from the centre of the rosette the impression of the
See Ammianus Marcellinus xxxi. 2. 17; Pliny, Nat. Hist. iv. \2
"
[26]. 88; Ppmponius Mela ii. I. 10; W. Tomaschek, Die alten marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger
Thraker," in Sitzungsber. der philosophisch-hislorischen Klasse der leaves. The plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in
kaiserl. Akad. der Wiss. cxxviii. (Vienna, 1893). the summer months, but in the winter require to be protected
AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amarylli- from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering,
daceae, chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the
western United States and in central and tropical South America. stem.
The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally AGDE, a town of southern France, in the department of
ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem Herault, on the left bank of the river of that name, 25 m. from
is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root. the Mediterranean Sea and 32 m. S.W. of Montpellier on the
They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of years, Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 7146. The town lies at the foot
when a tall stem or " mast " grows from the centre of the leaf- of an extinct volcano, the Montagne St Loup, and is built of
rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers. black volcanic basalt, which gives it a gloomy appearance.
Vfter development of fruit the plant dies down, but suckers are Overlooking the river is the church of St Andrd, which dates
frequently produced from the base of the stem which become partly from the i2th century, and, till the Revolution, was a
new plants. The most familiar species is Agave americana (see cathedral. It is a plain and massive structure with crenelated
fig.), a native of tropical America, the so-called century plant walls, and has the aspect of a fortress rather than of a church.
or American aloe (the maguey of Mexico). The number of years The exterior is diversified by arched recesses forming machicola-
before flowering occurs depends on the vigour of the individual, tions, and the same architectural feature is reproduced in the
the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the square tower which rises like a donjon above the building.
plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for The Canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, uniting the Garonne
the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflor- with the Mediterranean, passes under the walls of the town,
372 AGE
and the mouth of the Herault forms a harbour which- is protected the Middle Ages, the Age of Steam. Such isolated periods, with
by a fort. The maritime commerce of the town has declined, no continuity or necessary connexion of any kind, are obviously
owing partly to the neighbourhood of Cette, partly to the shallow- quite distinct from the ages or organically related periods into
ness of the Herault. The fishing industry is, however, still which philosophers have divided the whole course of human
active. The chief public institutions are the tribunal of history. Auguste Comte, for instance, distinguishes three ages
commerce and the communal college. according to the state of knowledge in each, and he supposes that
Agde is a place of great antiquity and said to have been
is we are now entering upon the third of these. In the first age of
founded under the name of ayadri (Good City) by the
iroXis his scheme knowledge is supernatural or fictitious; in the second
Phocaeans. The bishopric was established about the year 400 it is metaphysical or abstract; in the third it is positive or
and was suppressed in 1 790. scientific. Schemes somewhat similar have been proposed by
SYNOD OF AGDE (Concilium Agathense). With the permission other philosophers, chiefly of France and Germany, and seem to
of the West Goth Alaric II. thirty-five bishops of southern Gaul be regarded by them as essential to any complete science of
assembled in person or sent deputies to Agde on the nth of history.
September 506. Caesarius, bishop of Aries, presided. The .
(3)subject of the duration of human and animal life does
The
forty-seven genuine canons of the synod deal with discipline, not within the scope of this article, and the reader is referred
fall
" "
church life, the alienation of ecclesiastical property and the to LONGEVITY. But the word age has been used by physio-
treatment of Jews. While favouring sacerdotal celibacy the logists tp express certain natural divisions in human development
council laid rather rigid restrictions on monasticism. It com- and decay. These are usually regarded as numbering five, viz.
manded that the laity communicate at Christmas, Easter and infancy, lasting to the seventh year; childhood to the fourteenth;
Whitsuntide. The canons of Agde are based in part on earlier youth to the twenty-first; adult life till fifty; and old age.
Gallic, African and Spanish legislation; and some of them were (4) The division of human life into periods for legal purposes is
re-enacted by later councils, and found their way into collections naturally more sharp and definite than in physiology. It would
such as the Hispana,' Pseudo-Isidore and Gratian. be unscientific in the physiologist to name any precise year for
See Mansi viii. 319 ff. Hefe'.e, Conciliengeschichte, and edition,
;
the transition from one of his stages to another, inasmuch as that
ii. 649 ff. (English translation, iv. 76 ff.); Herzog-Hauck, Real- differs very considerably among different nations, and even to
encyklopddie, i. 242. some extent among different individuals of the same nation. But
AGE (Fr. Age, through late Lat. aetalicum, from aetas), a term the law must necessarily be fixed and uniform, and even where it
used (i) of the divisions into which it is suggested that human professes to proceed according to nature, must be more precise
history may be divided, whether regarded from the geological, than nature. The Roman law divided human life for its purposes
cultural or moral aspects, e.g. the palaeolithic age, the bronze into four chief periods, which had their subdivisions (i) in-
age, the dark ages; (2) of an historic epoch or generation; (3) of fanlia, lasting till the close of the seventh year; (2) the period
any period or stage in the physical life of a person, animal or between infantia and pubertas, males becoming puberes at four-
thing; (4) of that time of life at which the law attributes full teen and females at twelve; (3) adolescentia, the period between
responsibility for his or her acts to the individual. puberty and majority; and (4) the period after the twenty-fifth
(1) From the earliest times there would appear to have been the year, when males became majores. The first period was one of
and of mankind falls naturally
belief that the history of the earth total legal incapacity; in the second period a person could
into periods or ages. Classical mythology popularized the idea. lawfully do certain specified acts, but only with the sanction of
Hesiod, for example, in his poem Works and Days, describes his tutor or guardian; in the third the restrictions were fewer,
minutely five successive ages, during each of which the earth was males being permitted to manage their own property, contract
peopled by an entirely distinct race. The first or golden race marriage and make a will; but majority was not reached until
lived in perfect happiness on the fruits of the untilled earth, the age of twenty-five. By English law there are two great
suffered from no bodily infirmity, passed away in a gentle sleep, periods into which life is divided infancy, which lasts in both
and became after death guardian daemons of this world. The sexes until the twenty-first year, and manhood or womanhood The
second or silver race was degenerate, and refusing to worship the period of infancy, again, is divided into several stages, marked by
immortal gods, was buried by Jove in the earth. The third or the growing development both of rights and obligations. Thus
brazen race, still more degraded, was warlike and cruel, and at twelve years of age a male may take the oath of allegiance; at
perished at last by internal violence. The fourth or heroic race fourteen both sexes are held to have arrived at years of discretion,
was a marked advance upon the preceding, its members being the and may therefore choose guardians, give evidence and consent
heroes or demi-gods who fought at Troy and Thebes, and who or disagree to a marriage. A female has the last privilege from
were rewarded after death by being permitted to reap thrice a the twelfth year, but the marriage cannot be celebrated until the
year the free produce of the earth. The fifth or iron race, to majority of the parties without the consent of parents or
which the poet supposes himself to belong, is the most degenerate guardians. At fourteen, too, both sexes are fully responsible to
of all, sunk so low in every vice that any new change must be for the criminal law. Between seven and fourteen there is responsi-
the better. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, follows Hesiod exactly bility only if the accused be proved doli capax, capable of discern-
as to nomenclature and very closely as to substance. He makes ing between right and wrong, the principle in that case being that
the degeneracy continuous, however, by omitting the heroic race malitia supplet aetatem. At twenty-one both males and females
or age, which, as Grote points out, was probably introduced by obtain their full legal rights, and become liable to all legal
Hesiod, not as part of his didactic plan, but from a desire to obligations. A seat in the British parliament may be taken at
conciliate popular feeling by including in his poem the chief myths twenty-one. Certain professions, however, demand as a qualifi-
that were already current among the Greeks. Varro recognized cation in entrants a more advanced age than that of legal man-
three ages: (i) from the beginning of mankind to the Deluge, a hood. In the Church of England a candidate for deacon's orders
quite indefinite period; (2) from the Deluge to the First Olym- must be twenty-three (in the Roman Catholic Church, twenty-
piad, called the Mythical Period; (3) from the First Olympiad to two) and for priest's orders twenty-four years of age; and no
his own time, called the Historic Period. Lucretius divided man's clergyman is eligible for a bishopric under thirty. In Scotland
history into three cultural periods: (i) the Age of Stone; (2) the infancy is not a legal term. The time previous to majority,
Age of Bronze; (3) the Age of Iron. He thus anticipated the which, as in England, is reached by both sexes at twenty-one, is
conclusions of some of the greatest of modern archaeologists. divided into two stages: pupilage lasts until the attainment of
(2) A
definite period in history, distinguished by some special puberty, which the law fixes at fourteen in males and twelve in
characteristic, such as great literary activity, is generally styled, females; minority lasts from these ages respectively until twenty-
with some appropriate epithet, an age. It is usual, for example, one. Minority obviously corresponds in some degree to the
to speak of the Age of Pericles, the Augustan, the Elizabethan or English years of discretion, but a Scottish minor has more personal
the Victorian Ages; of the Age of the Crusades, the Dark Ages, rights than an English infant in the last stage of his infancy, e.g.
 AGELADAS AGENT 373
he may dispose by will of movable property, make contracts, commerce are fattened poultry, prunes (pruneaux d'Agen) and
carry on trade, and, as a necessary consequence, is liable to be other fruit, cork, wine, vegetables and cattle. Manufactures
declared a bankrupt. In France the year of majority is twenty- include flour, dried plums, pale de foie gras and other delicacies,
one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and fifteen for females, hardware, manures, brooms, drugs, woven goods tiles.

with a restriction as to the consent of guardians. Age qualifica- Agen (Aginnum) was the capital of the Celtic tribe of the
tion for the chamber of deputies is twenty-five and for the senate Nitiobroges, and the discovery of extensive ruins attests its
forty years. In Germany, majority is reached at twenty-one, the importance under the Romans. In later times it was the capital
nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females, subject to of the Agenais. Its bishopric was founded in the 4th century.
the consent of parents. Without the consent of parents, the age Agen changed hands more than once in the course of the Albi-
is twenty-five for males and twenty-four for females. The age gensian wars, and at their close a tribunal of inquisition was
qualification for the Reichstag is twenty-five. In Austria the age established in the town and inflicted cruel persecution on the
of majority is twenty-four, and the nubile age fourteen for either heretics. During the religious wars of the i6th century Agen
sex, subject to the consent of the parents. In Denmark, qualified took the part of the Catholics and openly joined the League in
majority reached at eighteen and full majority at twenty-five.
is 1589.
The nubile age is twenty for males and sixteen for females. In See Labenazie, Histoire de la mile d'Agen et pays d'Agenois, ed. by
A.-G. de Dampierre (1888) A. Ducom, La Commune d'Agen: essai
is reached at twenty-three; the nubile ;
majority age is
Spain, sur son histoire et son organisation depuis son origins jusqu'au traite
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In Greece the age de Bretigny (1892).
of majority is twenty-one, and the nubile age sixteen for males
AGENAIS, or AGENOIS, a former province of France. In
and fourteen for females. In Holland the age of majority is ancient Gaul was the country of the Nitiobroges with Aginnum
it
twenty-one, and the nubile age eighteen for males and sixteen for its capital, and in the 4th century it was the Citiitas Agennen-
for females. In Italy, majority is reached at twenty-one; the
sium which was a part of Aquitania Secunda and which formed
nubile age is eighteen for males and fifteen for females. In
the diocese of Agen. Having in general shared the fortunes of
Switzerland the age of majority is twenty, and the nubile age is
Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Carolingian periods,
eighteen for males and sixteen for females. In the United States
Agenais next became an hereditary countship in the part of the
the age qualification for a president is thirty-five, for a senator
country now called Gascony (Vasconia). In 1038 this count-
thirty and for a representative twenty-five.
ship was purchased by the dukes of Aquitaine and counts of
AGELADAS, or (as the name is spelt in an inscription) Poitiers. The marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine with Henry
AGELAIDAS, a great Argive sculptor, who flourished in the latter
Plantagenet in 1152 brought it under the sway of England;
part of the 6th and the early part of the sth century B.C. He but when Richard Cceur-de-Lion married his sister Joan to
was specially noted for his statues of Olympic victors (of 520,
Raymund VI., count of Toulouse, in 1196, Agenais formed part
516, 508 B.C.); also for a statue at Messene of Zeus, copied on of the princess's dowry; and with the other estates of the last
the coins of that city. Ageladas was said to have been the independent count of Toulouse it lapsed to the crown of France
teacher of Myron, Phidias and Polyclitus; this tradition is a
in 1271. This, however, was not for long; the king of France
testimony to his wide fame, though, historically doubtful. We had to recognize the prior rights of the king of England to the
have no work of Ageladas surviving; but we have an inscription
possession of the countship, and restored it to him in 1279.
hich contains the name of his son Argeiadas.
During the wars between the English and the French in the I4th
AGEN, a city of south-western France, capital of the depart- and i5th centuries, Agenais was frequently taken and retaken,
ment of Lot-et-Garonne, 84 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the Southern the final retreat of the English in 1453 at last leaving the king
railway between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) 18,640. of France in peaceable possession. Thenceforth Agenais was
It is skirted on the west by the Garonne itself, and on the north
no more than an administrative term. At the end of the ancien
by its lateral canal. The river is crossed by a stone bridge, by "
Gouvernement " of Guienne, and
regime it formed part of the
a suspension bridge for foot-passengers, and by a fine canal- at the Revolution it was incorporated in the department of Lot-
bridge, carrying the lateral. canal. Pleasant promenades stretch The
et-Garonne, of which it constitutes nearly the whole. title
for some distance along the right bank. The town is a medley of count of Agenais, which the kings of England had allowed
of old narrow streets contrasting with the wide modern boule- to fall into desuetude, was revived by the kings of France, and
vards which cross it at intervals. The chief building in Agen in 1789 was held by the family of the dukes of Richelieu.
is the cathedral of St Caprais, the most interesting portion of
There is no good history of Agenais; that published by Jules
which is the apse of the I2th century with its three apse-chapels; Andrieu in 1893 (Histoire de
I' Agenais, 2 vols.) being quite inade-

the transept dates from the I2th and I3th centuries, the nave quate. The Bibliographie generate de I' Agenais, by the same author
from the I4th to the i6th centuries; the tower flanking the (1886-1891, 3 vols.), may be found useful. (C. B.*)
south facade is modern. The interior is decorated with modern AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act), a name applied generally to
tings and frescoes. There are several other churches, among any person who acts for another. It has probably been adopted
.em the church of the Jacobins, a brick building of the i3th from France, as its function in modern civil law was otherwise
tury, and the church of St Hilaire of the i6th century, which expressed in Roman jurisprudence. Ducange (s.v. Agentes)
has a modern tower. In the prefecture, a building of the i8th tellsus that in the later Roman empire the officers who collected
century, once the bishop's palace, is a collection of historical the grain in the provinces for the troops and the household, and
portraits. The h&tel de ville occupies the former Hotel du afterwards extended their functions so as to include those of
Presidial, an obsolete tribunal, and contains the municipal government postmasters or spies, came to be called agentes in
library. Two houses of the i6th century, the H6tel d'Estrades name having been frumentarii. In law an
rebus, their earlier
and the Hotel de Vaurs, are used as the museum, which has a rich agent a person authorized, expressedly or impliedly, to act
is

collection of fossils, prehistoric and Roman remains, and other for another, who is thence called the principal, and who is, in
tiquities and curiosities. The poet Jacques Jasmin was a consequence of, and to the extent of, the authority delegated
tive of the town, which has erected a statue to him. Through by him, bound by the acts of his agent. (See PRINCIPAL AND
excellent water communication it affords an outlet for the AGENT; FACTOR, &c.)
iculturalproduce of the district, and forms an entrepdt of In Scotland the procurators or solicitors who act in the pre-
trade between Bordeaux and Toulouse. Agen is the seat of a paration of cases in the various law-courts are called agents.
bishop. It is the seat of a cour.t of appeal and a court of assizes, (See SOLICITOR.)
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a In France the agents de change were formerly the class gener-
chamber of commerce. There are also ecclesiastical seminaries, ally'licensed for conducting all negotiations, as they were termed,
lycees for boys and girls, training-colleges, a school of commerce whether in commerce or the money market. The term has,
and industry, and a branch of the Bank of France. Agen is however, become practically limited to those who conduct
the market for a rich agricultural region. The chief articles of transactions in public stock. The laws and regulations as to
 374 AGENT-GENERALAGGLOMERATE
whose functions were more distinctly confined
courtiers, or those spending the winter in organizing a cavalry force, he made a
to transactions in merchandise,have been mixed up with those successful incursion into Lydia in the spring of 395. Tithraustes
applicable to agents de change. Down to the year 1572 both was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who
paid with his
functions were free; but at that period, partly for financial life for his continued failure. An armistice was concluded
reasons, a system of licensing was adopted at the suggestion between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy
of the chancellor, 1'Hdpital. Among the other revolutionary and again invaded Phrygia, which he ravaged until the following
measures of the year 1791, the professions of agent and courtier spring. He then came to an agreement with the satrap Pharna-
were again opened to the public. Many of the financial con- bazus and once more turned southward. It was said that he
.vulsions of the ensuing years, which were due to more serious was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on
causes, were attributed to this indiscriminate removal of re- Artaxerxes himself, when he was recalled to Greece owing to
strictions,and they were reimposed in 1801. From that period the war between Sparta and the combined forces of Athens,
regulations have been made from time to time as to the quali- Thebes, Corinth, Argos and several minor states. A rapid march
fications of agents, the security to be found by them and the through Thrace and Macedonia brought him to Thessaly, where
like. They are now regarded as public officers, appointed, with he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him.
certain privileges and duties, by the government to act as Reinforced by Phocian and Orchomenian troops and a Spartan
intermediaries in negotiating transfers of public funds and com- army, he met the confederate forces at Coronea in Boeotia,
mercial stocks and for dealing in metallic currency. (See STOCK and in a hotly contested battle was technically victorious, but
EXCHANGE: France.) the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of
" "
In diplomacy the term agent was originally applied to all Delphi to the Peloponnese. Shortly before this battle the
"
diplomatic agents," including ambassadors. With the evolu- Spartan navy, of which he had received the supreme command,
tion of the diplomatic hierarchy, however, the term gradually was totally defeated off Cnidus by a powerful Persian fleet under
sank until it was technically applied only to the lowest class Conon and Pharnabazus.
"
of diplomatic agents," without a representative character and Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the
of a status and character so dubious that, by the regulation Corinthian war, making several successful expeditions into
of the congress of Vienna, they were wholly excluded from the Corinthian territory and capturing Lechaeum and Piraeum.
immunities of the diplomatic service. (See DIPLOMACY.) The loss, however, of a mora, which was destroyed by Iphicrates,
AGENT-GENERAL, the term given to a representative in neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta.
England of one of the self-governing British colonies. Agents- In 389 he conducted a campaign in Acarnania, but two years
general may be said to hold a position mid-way between agents later the Peace of Antalcidas, which was warmly supported by
of provinces and ambassadors of foreign countries. They are Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities. When war broke out afresh
appointed, and their expenses and salaries provided, by the with Thebes the king twice invaded Boeotia (378, 377), and it
governments of the colonies they represent, viz. Cape of Good was on his advice that Cleombrotus was ordered to march against
Hope, Natal, the Transvaal, New South Wales, Queensland, Thebes in 371. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, New Spartan supremacy overthrown. In 370 Agesilaus tried to
Zealand and Canada (whose representatives are termed high restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of Mantinean territory,
commissioners). Their duties are to look after the political and and prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies,
his
economic interests of their colonies in London, to assist in all led by Epaminondas, penetrated Laconia that same year, and
financial and commercial matters in which their colonies may be again in 362 when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by
concerned, such as shipping arrangements and rates of freight, a rapid and unexpected march. The battle of Man tinea (362),
cable communications and rates, tenders for public works, &c., in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace:
and to make known the products of their colonies. Those colonies Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her
which are not under responsible government are represented supremacy. In order to gain money for prosecuting the war
in London by crown agents. Agesilaus had supported the revolted satraps, and in 361 he
AGESANDER, a Rhodian sculptor, whose title to fame is went to Egypt at the head of a mercenary force to aid Tachos
that he is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 37) as author against Persia. He soon transferred his services to Tachos's
(with Polydorus and Athenodorus) of the group of the Laocoon. cousin and rival Nectanabis, who, in return for his help, gave
Inscriptions recently found at Lindus in Rhodes date Agesander him a sum of over 200 talents. On his way home Agesilaus died
and Athenodorus to the period 42-21 B.C. The date of the at the age of 84, after a reign of some 41 years.
Laocoon seems thus finally settled, after long controversy. It A man of small stature and unimpressive appearance, he was
represents the culmination of a sentimental or pathetic tendency somewhat lame from birth, a fact w"hich was used as an argument
in art, which is prominent in the somewhat earlier sculpture of against his succession, an oracle having warned Sparta against
"
Pergamum. (See GREEK
ART.) a lame reign." He was a successful leader in guerilla warfare,
AGESILAUS king of Sparta, of the Eurypontid family,
II., alert and quick, yet cautious a man, moreover, whose personal
was the son of Archidamus II. and Eupolia, and younger step- bravery was unquestioned. As a statesman he won himself
brother of Agis II., whom he succeeded about 401 B.C. Agis had, both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his
indeed, a son Leotychides, but he was set aside as illegitimate, patriotism there can be no doubt. He lived in the most frugal
current rumour representing him as the son of Alcibiades. style alike athome and in the field, and though his campaigns
Agesilaus' success was
largely due to Lysander, who hoped to were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to
find in him a willing tool for .the furtherance of his political enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had
designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed, set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable
and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall. hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the battle of Leuctra and
In 396 Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neoda- Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy.
modes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the Greek See lives of Agesilaus by Xenophon (the panegyric of a friend),
cities against a Persian attack. On the eve of sailing from Aulis Cornelius Nepos and Plutarch Xenophon's Hellenica and Diodorus
;

he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as Agamemnon had done before

xiv., xv. Among modern authorities, besides the general histories of
Greece, J. C. F. Manso, Sparta, iii. 39 ff. G. F. Hertzberg, Das Leben
;
the Trojan expedition, but the Thebans intervened to prevent
des Konigs Agesilaos II. von Sparta (1856); Buttmann, Agesilaus
it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival Sohn des Archidamus (1872); C. Haupt, Agesilaus in Asien (1874);
at Ephesus a three months' truce was concluded with Tissa- E. von Stern, Geschichte der spartanischen und thebanischen Hege-
phernes, the satrap of Lydia and Caria, but negotiations con-
monie (1884). (M. N. T.)
ducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination AGGLOMERATE (from the Lat. agglomerare, to form into a
Agesilaus raided Phrygia, where he easily won immense booty glomus, glomeris), a term used in botany, meaning crowded
ball,
since Tissaphernes had concentrated his troops in Caria. After in a close cluster or head, and, in geology, applied to the
 AGGLUTINATION AGINCOURT 375
accumulations of coarse volcanic ejectamenta such as frequently for the method of word-formation by which two significant
occur near extinct or active volcanoes. Agglomerates in the words or roots are joined together in a single word to express
a combination of the two meanings each of which retains its
geological sense, with which this article is concerned,
consist

typically of blocks of various igneous rocks, mixed

often with force. This juxtaposition or conjoining of roots is characteristic
nore or less material of rudimentary origin and embedded in a of languages such as the Turkish and Japanese, which are there-

Sner-grained matrix, similar in nature to the coarser fragments. fore known as agglutinative, as opposed to others, known
Vs distinguished from ordinary ash beds or tuffs, they are generically as inflexional, in which differences of termination or
ssentially coarser, less frequently well-bedded;' they are less combinations in which all separate identity disappears are
persistent and tend to occur locally, but may attain a very great predominant.
tiickness. Showers of fine ash may be distributed over a wide The term was also formerly used by associationist philosophers
rea of country and will form thin layers of great extent, for those mental associations which were regarded as peculiarly
hoarser accumulations gather only near the actual foci of close. Combination in its simplest form has been called
ruption (craters, fissures, &c.). When the activity of a volcanic Agglutination by W. Wundt.
vent comes to an end, the orifice often choked by masses of
is AGGRAVATION (from Lat. ad, increasing, and gravis,
ebris, which will in time become compacted into firm agglomer- heavy), the making anything graver or more serious, especially
"
ates. Hence rocks of this type very commonly mark the sites of offences; also used as synonymous with irritation." In
" "
of necks, the remains of once-active volcanic craters. In this the canon law aggravation was a form 01 ecclesiastical
onnexion they are of especial interest to geologists, as it is always censure, threatening excommunication after three disregarded
nportant to be able to locate the exact points at which volcanic admonitions.
products, such as lavas and ash-beds, were emitted. AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect
The blocks in agglomerates vary greatly in size. Some are together), in physics, a collective term for the forms or states
dirty or forty feet in diameter, and weigh many tons; these
,
in which matter exists. Three primary " states of aggregation "
re usually pieces of the strata through which the volcano has are recognized gaseous, liquid and solid. Generally, if a solid
orced an outlet. are never far from the crater; most of
They be heated to a certain temperature, it melts or fuses, assuming
hem, in fact, lie within its boundaries, and cases are known in the liquid condition (see FUSION); if the heating be continued
vhich enormous masses of this kind (half an acre in area) have the liquid boils and becomes a vapour (see VAPORIZATION). On
en found in such situations. They are masses which have the other hand, if a gas be sufficiently cooled and compressed, it
een dislodged, by fissures and landslides, from the crater's liquefies; this transition is treated theoretically in the article
vails and have tumbled into the cavity. Pieces of sandstone, CONDENSATION OF GASES, and experimentally in the article
nestone and shale occur in the agglomerates mixed with LIQUID GASES.
olcanic materials, and very often have been baked and partly AGGTELEK, a village of Hungary, in the county of Gomor,
ecrystallized by contact with the hot igneous rocks and the situated to the south of Rozsnyo, on the road from Budapest
ases discharged by the volcano. At Vesuvius such blocks of to Dobsina. Pop. (1900) 557. In the neighbourhood is the
Itered limestone are rich in new minerals and are well known celebrated Aggtelek or Baradla cavern, one of the largest and
i
collectors. most remarkable stalactite grottos in Europe. It has a length,

Agglomerates also are usually full of volcanic bombs. These together with its ramifications, of over 5 miles, and is formed
re spongy globular masses of lava which have been shot from of two caverns one known for several centuries, and another
he crater at a time when liquid molten lava was exposed in it, discovered by the naturalist Adolf Schmidl in 1856. Two
nd was frequently shattered by the sudden outbursts of steam. entrances give access to the grotto, an old one extremely narrow,
These bombs were more or less viscous at the moment of ejection and a new one, made in 1890, through which the exploration
nd by rotation in the air acquired their spheroidal form. They of the cavern can be made in about 8 hours, half the time it took
ire commonly one or two feet in diameter, but specimens as before. The cavern is composed of a labyrinth of passages
arge as nine or twelve feet have been observed. There is less and large and small halls, and is traversed by a stream. In these
variety in their composition at any volcanic centre than in the caverns there are numerous stalactite structures, which, from
se of the foreign blocks above described. They correspond in their curious and fantastic shapes, have received such names as
iture to the lava which at the time fills the crater of the volcano, the Image of the Virgin, the Mosaic Altar, &c. The principal
ad as this varies only very slowly the bombs belong mostly parts are the Paradies with the finest stalactites, the Astro-
.

i
only a few kinds of rock and are similar in composition to the nomical Tower and the Beinhaus. Rats, frogs and bats form
ava flows. actually the only animal life in the caves, but a great number
Crystalline masses of a different kind occur in some numbers of antediluvian animal bones have been found here, as well
certain agglomerates. They consist of volcanic minerals as human bones and numerous remains of prehistoric human
very much the same as those formed in the lavas, but exhibiting settlements.
ertain peculiarities which indicate that they have formed slowly AGINCOURT (AZINCOURT), a village of northern France in the
under pressure at considerable depths. Hence they bear a department of Pas de Calais, 14 m. N.W. of St Pol by road,
esemblance to plutonic igneous rocks, but are more correctly famous on account of the victory, on the 2sth of October 1415, of
be regarded as agglomerations of crystals formed within the Henry V. ofEngland over the French. The battle was fought in
liquid lava as it slowly rose towards the surface, and at a sub- the defile formed by the wood of Agincourt and that of Trame-
equent period cast out by violent steam explosions. The court, at the northern exit of which the army under d'Albret,
inidinites of the Eifel belong to this group. At Vesuvius, constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to
Vscension, St Vincent and many other volcanoes, they form Calais against the English forces which had been campaigning on
not inconsiderable part -of the coarser ash-beds. Their the Somme. The night of the 24th of October was spent by the
commonest minerals are olivine, anorthite, hornblende, augite, two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter
biotite and leucite. from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, St Crispin's
Agglomerates occur wherever volcanoes are known. In many day, Henry arrayed his little army (about 1000 men-at-arms,
arts of Britain they attain a great development either in beds 6000 archers, and a few thousands of other foot). It is probable
" "
Iternating with lavas or as the material occupying necks. In the that the usual three battles were drawn up in line, each with
alter case they are often penetrated by dikes. They also show a its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the

steep, angular, funnel-shaped dip (e.g. Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), centre; the archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped
and may contain thin layers of clay or ashy sand-stone, which salients, almost exactly as at Crecy (q.v.). The French, on the
ithered in the crater during intervals of repose. (J. S. F.) other hand, were drawn up in three lines, each line formed in deep
AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to masses. They were at least four times more numerous than the
fasten together with glue), a term used technically in philology English, but restricted by the nature of the ground to the same
 AGIO AGIS
extent of front, they were unable to use their full weight (cf. amount of debt in a foreign state, they would be received
only at
Bannockburn) further, the deep mud prevented their artillery
; their intrinsic value of 95, the additional 5 constituting the
from taking part, and the crossbowmen were as usual relegated to agio. Where the state keeps its coinage up to a standard value
the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. All were dismounted no agio is required.
save a few knights and men-at-arms on the flanks, who were AGIRA (formerly SAN FILIPPO D'ARGIRO), a town of the
intended to charge the archers of the enemy. For three hours province of Catania, Sicily, with a railway station 4^ m. to the
after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the south of the town, 35 m. W. of Catania. Pop. (1901) 17,738. It
French would not advance, moved his army farther into the occupies the site of Agyrion, an ancient Sicel city which was ruled
defile. The archers fixed the pointed stakes, which they carried by tyrants, one of whom, Agyris, was the most powerful ruler in
to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with the centre of Sicily. He was a contemporary of Dionysius I. and ,

flights of arrows. The chivalry of France, undisciplined and with him successfully resisted the Carthaginians when they
careless of the lesson of Crecy and Poitiers, was quickly stung invaded the territory of Agyrium in 392 B.C. Agira was not
into action, and the French mounted men charged, only to be colonized by the Greeks until Timoleon drove out the last tyrant
driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the in 339 B.C. and erected various splendid buildings of which no
leading line of dismounted men-at-arms; weighted with their traces remain. Agyrion was the birthplace of the historian
armour, and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they yet Diodorus Siculus.
reached and engaged the English men-at-arms; for a time the AGIS, the name of four Spartan kings:
fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was borne (1) Son of Eurysthenes, founder of the royal house of the
back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at Agiadae (Pausanias iii. 2.1). His genealogy was traced through
this moment the archers, taking their hatchets, swords or other Aristodemus, Aristomachus, Cleodaeus and Hyllus to Heracles
weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who (Herodotus vii. 204), and he belongs rather to mythology than
could not move to cope with their unarrnoured assailants, and to history. Tradition ascribed to him the capture of the maritime
were slaughtered or taken prisoners to a man. The second line town of Helos, which resisted his attempt to curtail its guaranteed
of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the melee; its rights, and the institution of the class of serfs called Helots (q.v.).
leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or taken, and the Ephorus ap. Strabo, viii. p. 365.

commanders of the third sought and found their death in the (2) Son of Archidamus II., Eurypontid, commonly called

battle, while their menrode off to safety. The closing scene of Agis I. Hesucceeded his father, probably in 427 B.C., and from
the battle was a half-hearted attack made by a body of fugitives, his first invasion of Attica in 425 down to the close of the
Pelopon-
which led merely to the slaughter of the French prisoners, which nesian war was the chief leader of the Spartan operations on
was ordered by Henry because he had not enough men both to land. After the conclusion of the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.)
he marched against the Argives in defence of Epidaurus, and
guard them and to meet the attack. The slaughter ceased when
the assailants drew off. The total loss of the English is stated at after skilful manoeuvring surrounded the Argive army, and
thirteen men-at-arms (including the duke of York, grandson of seemed to have victory within his grasp when he unaccountably
Edward III.) and about 100 of the foot. The French lost 5000 of concluded a four months' truce and withdrew his forces. The
noble birth killed, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts and Spartans were indignant, and when the Argives and their allies,
in flagrant disregard of the truce, took Arcadian Orchomenus
90 barons; 1000 more were taken prisoners, amongst them the
duke of Orleans (the Charles d'Orleans of literature). and prepared to march on Tegea, their fury* knew no bounds,
See Sir Harris Nicolas, Battle of Agincourt; Fortescue, History and Agis escaped having his house razed and a fine of 100,000
.
of
the British Army, vol. i.; and H. B. George, Battles of English drachmae imposed only by promising to atone for his error by
History. a signal victory. This promise he brilliantly fulfilled by routing
AGIO (Ital. aggio, exchange, discount, premium), a term used the forces of the Argive confederacy at the battle of Mantinea
in commerce in three slightly different connexions, (a) The (418), the moral effect of which was out of all proportion to the
variations from fixed pars or rates of exchange in the currencies losses inflicted on the enemy. In the winter 417-416 a further
of different countries. For example, in most of the gold-standard expedition to Argos resulted in the destruction of the half-
countries, the standard coin is kept up to a uniform point of finished Long Walls and the capture of Hysiae. In 413, on the
fineness, so that an English sovereign fresh from the mint will suggestion of Alcibiades, he fortified Decelea in Attica, where he
bear the following constant relation to coins of other countries in remained directing operations until, after the battle of Aegospo-
a similar condition: i=frcs. 25-221 =mks. 20-429 = $4-867, tami (405), he took the leading part in the blockade of Athens,
&c. This is what is known as the mint par of exchange. But which was ended in spring 404 by the surrender of the city.
the mint par of exchange, say, between France and England is Subsequently he invaded and ravaged Elis, forcing the Eleans
not necessarily the market value of French currency in England, to acknowledge the freedom of their perioeci and to allow
or English currency in France. The balance of trade between the Spartans to take part in the Olympic games and sacrifices. He
various countries is the factor determining the rate of exchange. fell ill on his return from Delphi, where he had gone to dedicate

Should the balance of trade (q.v.) be against England, money must a tithe of the spoils, and, probably in 401, died at Sparta, where
be remitted to France in payment of the indebtedness, but owing he was buried with unparalleled solemnity and pomp.
to the cost for, the transmission of specie there will be a demand Thuc. iii. 89, iv. 2. 6, v., vii. 19. 27, viii.; Xenophon, Hettenica,
i. I, ii. 2. 3, iii. 2. 3; Diodorus xh.
for bills drawn on Paris as a cheaper and more expeditious 35, xiii. 72, 73, 107; Pausanias
method of sending money, and it therefore will be necessary, in iii. 8. 3-8; Plutarch, Lysander ix.
14. 22, Alcibiades 23-25, Lycurgus
12, Agesilaus i. 3, de Tranquill.Anim.6. (See PELOPONNESIAN WAR.)
order to procure the one of the higher current value, to pay a
(3) Son of Archidamus III., of the Eurypontid line, commonly
premium for it, called the agio. (6) The term is also used to called Agis II. He succeeded his father in 338 B.C., on the very
denote the difference in exchange between two currencies in the
day of the battle of Chaeronea. During Alexander's Asiatic
same country; where silver coinage is the legal tender, agio is
campaign he revolted against Macedonia (333 B.C.) and, with
sometimes allowed for payment in the more convenient form of
theTaid of Persian money and ships and a force of 8000 Greek
gold, or where the paper currency of a country is reduced below
mercenaries, gained considerable successes in Crete. In the
the bullion which it professes to represent, an agio is payable on
Peloponnese he routed a force under Corragus and, although
the appreciated currency, (c) Lastly, in some states the coinage Athens held aloof, he was joined by Elis, Achaea (except Pellene)
is so debased, owing to the wear of
circulation, that the real is and Arcadia, with the exception of Megalopolis, which the allies
greatly reduced below the nominal value. Supposing that this besieged. Antipater marched rapidly to its relief at the head
reduction amounts to 5%, then if 100 sovereigns were offered as
of a large army, and the
allied force was defeated after a desperate
payment of a debt in England while such sovereigns were current struggle (331) and Agis was slain.
there at their nominal value, they would be received as just
Pausanias iii. 10. 5; Diodorus xvii. 48, 62, 63; Justin xii. i;
payment; but if they were offered as payment of the same 2uintus Curtius iv. I, 39, vi. i; Arrian, Anabasis, ii.
13.
 AGISTMENT AGNES, SAINT 377
(4) Son of Eudamidas II., of the Eurypontid family, commonly was confused with " adjutant," often called " agitant," a title
called Agis III. He succeeded his father probably in 245 B.C., familiar to the soldiers, and thus the form " adjutator " came
in his twentieth year. At this time the state had been brought into use. Early in 1647 the Long Parliament wished either to
to the brink of ruin by the growth of avarice and luxury; there disband send them to Ireland. The
many of the regiments or to
was a glaring inequality in the distribution of land and wealth, soldiers, whose pay was largely in arrear, refused to accept
and the number of full citizens had sunk to 700, of whom about either alternative, and eight of the cavalry regiments elected
100 practically monopolized the land. Though reared in the agitators, called at first commissioners, who laid their grievances
height of luxury he at once determined to restore the traditional before the three generals, and whose letter was read in the House
institutions of Lycurgus, with the aid of Lysander, a descendant of Commons on the 3oth of April 1647. The other regiments
of the victor of Aegospotami, and Mandrocleidas, a man of noted followed the example of the cavalry, and the agitators, who
prudence and courage; even his mother, the wealthy Agesistrata, belonged to the lower ranks of the army, were supported by
threw herself heartily into the cause. A powerful but not many of the officers, who showed their sympathy by signing
disinterested ally was found in the king's uncle, Agesilaus, the Declaration of the army. Cromwell and other generals suc-
vho hoped to rid himself of his debts without losing his vast ceeded to some extent in pacifying the troops by promising the
estates. Lysander as ephor proposed on behalf of Agis that all payment of arrears for eight weeks at once; but before the return
debts sbould be cancelled and that Laconia should be divided of the generals to London parliament had again decided to
into 19,500 lots, of which 4500 should be given to Spartiates, disband the army, and soon afterwards fixed the ist of June
whose number was to be recruited from the best of the perioeci as the date on which this process was to begin. Again alarmed,
and foreigners, and the remaining 15,000 to perioeci who could the agitators decided to resist; a mutiny occurred in one
bear arms. The Agiad king Leonidas having prevailed on the regiment and the attempt at disbandment failed. Then
council to reject this measure, though by a majority of only one, followed the seizure of the king by Cornet Joyce, Cromwell's
was deposed in favour of his son-in-law Cleombrotus, who assisted definite adherence to the policy of the army, the signing of the
Agis in bearing down opposition by the threat of force. The manifestoes, a Humble Representation and a Solemn Engagement
abolition of debts was carried into effect, but the land distribu- and the establishment of the army council composed of officers
tion was put off by Agesilaus on various pretexts. At this point and agitators. Having, at an assembly on Thriplow Heath,
Vratus appealed to Sparta to help the Achaeans in repelling near Royston, virtually refused the offers made by parliament,
in expected Aetolian attack, and Agis was sent to the Isthmus the agitators demanded a march towards London and the
" "
it the head of an army. In his absence the open violence and purging of the House of Commons. Subsequent events are
xtortion of Agesilaus, combined with the popular disappoint- part of the general history of England. Gradually the agitators
nent at the failure of the agrarian scheme, brought about the ceased to exist, but many of their ideas were adopted by the
restoration of Leonidas and the deposition of Cleombrotus, who Levellers (?..), who may perhaps be regarded as their successors.
ook refuge at the temple of Apollo at Taenarum and escaped Gardiner says of them, " Little as it was intended at the time,
leath only at the entreaty of his wife, Leonidas's daughter nothing was more calculated than the existence of this elected
Thilonis. On his return Agis fled to the temple of Athene body of agitators to give to the army that distinctive political
Chalcioecus at Sparta, but soon afterwards he was treacherously and religious character which it ultimately bore."
nduced to leave his asylum and, after a mockery of a trial, was See S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv.
strangled in prison, his mother and grandmother sharing the (London, 1905).
ime fate (241). Though too weak and good-natured to cope AGLIARDI, ANTONIO (1832- ), papal diplomatist, was
vith the problem which confronted him, Agis was characterized born at Cologno (Bergamo), Italy, on the 4th of September 1832.
by a sincerity of purpose and a blend of youthful modesty with He studied theology and canon law, and, after acting as parish
oyal dignity, which render him perhaps the most attractive priest in his native diocese for twelve years, was sent by the pope
ure in the whole of Spartan history. to Canada as a bishop's chaplain. On his return he was ap-
See Plutarch's biography. Pausanias" accounts (ii. 8. 5, vii. 7. 3, pointed secretary to the Propaganda. In 1884 he was created
viii. 10. 5-8, 27. 13) of his attack on Megalopolis, his seizure of
by Leo XIII. archbishop of Caesarea in partibus and sent to
Pellene and his death at Mantinea fighting against the Arcadians,
India to report on the establishment of the hierarchy there. In
\chaeans and Sicyonians are without foundation (J. C. F. Manso,
Sparta, iii. 2. 123-127). See also Manso, op. cit. iii. I. 276-302; 1887 he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the con-
B. Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, ii. cordat arranged with Portugal. The same year he was appointed
299-303- (M. N. T.) secretary to the Congregation super negotiis ecdesiae extraordi-
AGISTMENT. To " agist " (from O. Fr. agister, derived from nariis, in 1889 became papal nuncio at Munich and in 1892
gesir Lat. jacere to lie) is, in law, to take cattle to graze, at Vienna. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical
"
for a remuneration. Agistment," in the first instance, referred disputes by which Hungary was divided in 1895, he was made
nore particularly to the proceeds of pasturage in the king's the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government
forests, but now means either (a) the contract for taking in and and in 1896 was recalled. His services were rewarded by a
iing horses or other cattle on pasture land, for the considera- cardinalate and the archbishopric of Ferrara. In 1903 he was
tion of a weekly payment of money, or (b) the profit derived named vice-chancellor of the Roman Church.
rom such pasturing. Agistment is a contract of bailment, and AGNANO, LAGO DI, a circular lake, 5 m. W. of Naples, Italy.
he bailer is bound to take reasonable care of the animals entrusted It was apparently not formed until the middle ages, as it is not
him; he is responsible for damages and injury which result mentioned by ancient writers; it was drained in 1870. It
from ordinary casualties, if it be proved that such might have occupied the crater of an extinct volcano, 4 m. in circumference.
been prevented by the exercise of great care. There is no lien On the south bank are the Stufe di S. Germano, natural sul-
on the cattle for the price of the agistment, unless by express
phureous vapour baths, and close by is the Grotta del Cane, from
greement. Under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, agisted the floor of which warm carbonic acid gas constantly rises to a
cattle cannot be distrained on for rent if there be other sufficient
height of 18 in., the fumes of which render a dog insensible in
stress to be found, and if such other distress be not found, and a few seconds. It is mentioned by Pliny (Nat. Hist. ii. 93).
he cattle be distrained, the owner may redeem them on pay- Remains of an extensive Roman building and some statues
the price of their agistment. The tithe of agistment or have been discovered close by.
"
tithe of cattle and other produce of grass lands," was formally AGNATES (Agnati), in Roman law, persons related through
abolished by the act of union in 1707, on a motion submitted males only, as opposed to cognates. Agnation was founded on
with a view to defeat that measure. the idea of the family held together by the patria potestas;
AGITATORS, or ADJUTATORS, the name given to representa- cognatio involves simply the modern idea of kindred.
tives elected in 1647 by the different regiments of the English AGNES, SAINT, a virgin martyr of the Catholic Church. The
Parliamentary army. The word really means an agent, but it legend of St Agnes is that she was a Roman maid, by birth a
378 AGNES OF MERAN AGNOSTICISM
Christian, who suffered martyrdom when but thirteen during In 1750, on the illness of her father, she was appointed by Pope
the reign of the emperor Diocletian, on the 2ist of January 304. Benedict XIV. to the chair of mathematics and natural philo-
The prefect Sempronius wished her to marry his son, and on her sophy at Bologna. After the death of her father in 1752 she
refusal condemned her to be outraged before her execution, but carried out a long-cherished purpose by giving herself to the
her honour was miraculously preserved. When led out to die study of theology, and especially of the Fathers. After holding
she was tied to a stake, but the faggots would not burn, where- for some years the office of directress of the Hospice Trivulzio
upon the officer in charge of the troops drew his sword and for Blue Nuns at Milan, she herself joined the sisterhood, and in
struck off her head. St Agnes is the patron saint of young girls, this austere order ended her days on the gth of January 1799.
who, in rural districts, formerly indulged in all sorts of quaint Her sister, MARIA TERESA AGNESI (1724-1780), a well-known
country magic on St Agnes' Eve (2oth-2ist January) with a Italian pianist and composer, was born at Milan in 1724. She
view to discovering their future husbands. This superstition composed several cantatas, two pianoforte concertos and five
"
has been immortalized in Keats's poem, The Eve of St Agnes." operas, Sofonisbe, Giro in Armenia, Nitocri, II Re Pastore and
St Agnes's bones are supposed to rest in the church of her name Ihsubria consolala.
at Rome, originally built by Constantine and repaired by Pope See Antonio Francesco Frisi, f.loge historique de Mademoiselle
Honorius in the yth century. Here on her festival (2ist of Agnesi, translated by Boulard (Paris, 1807) Milesi-Mojon, Vita
;

di M. G. Agnesi (Milan, 1836); J. Boyer, "La Mathematicienne

January) two lambs are specially blessed after pontifical high Agnesi," in the Revue Catholique des revues franfaises et etrangeres
mass, and their wool is later woven into pallia (see PALLIUM). (Paris, 1897).
AGNES OF MERAN 1201), queen of France, was the
(d. AGNEW, DAVID HAYES (1818-1892),American surgeon,
daughter of Bertold IV., duke of Meran in Tirol. She is called was born in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of
Marie by some of the chroniclers. In June 1196 she married November 1818. He graduated from the medical department
Philip II., king of France, who had repudiated Ingeborg of of the university of Pennsylvania in 1838, and a few years later
Denmark in 1193. The pope espoused the cause of Ingeborg; set up in practice at Philadelphia and became a lecturer at the
but Philip did not submit until 1200, when, interdict having Philadelphia School of Anatomy. He was appointed surgeon
been added to excommunication, he consented to a separation at the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its
from Agnes. She died in July of the next year, at the castle pathological museum. For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he was
of Poissy, and was buried in the church of St Corentin, near connected with the medical faculty of the university of Penn-
Nantes. Her two children by Philip II., Philip, count of Cler- sylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery in 1870
mont (d. 1234), and Mary, who married Philip, count of Namur, and professor of the principles and practice of surgery in the
were legitimized by Innocent III. in 1201 on the demand of the following year. From 1865 to 1884 except for a brief interval
king* Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania Hospital. During the
remarkable influence which she exercised over Philip II. She American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower
has been made the heroine of a tragedy by Francois Ponsard, Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired considerable
Agnes de Meranie. reputation for his operations in cases of gun-shot wounds. He
See the notes of Robert Davidsohn in Philipp. II. August von attended as operating surgeon when President Garfield was
Frankreich und Ingeborg (Stuttgart, 1888). A genealogical notice is
fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881. He was
furnished
by the Chronicon of the monk Alberic (Aubry) of Trois- the author of several works, the most important being The
Fontaines, (Albcricus Trium Pentium) in Pertz, Scriptores, vol. xxiii.
pp. 872 f., and by the Genealogia Wettinensis, ibid. p. 229. Principles and Practice of Surgery (1878-1883). He died at
AGNESI, MARIA GAETANA (1718-1799), Italian mathe- Philadelphia on the 22nd of March 1892.
matician, linguist and philosopher, was born at Milan on the i6th AGNI, the Hindu God of Fire, second only to Indra in the
of May 1718, her father being professor of mathematics in the power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology.
university of Bologna. When only nine years old she had such His name is the first word of the first hymn of the Rig-veda:
"
command of Latin as to be able to publish an elaborate address Agni, I entreat, divine appointed priest of sacrifice." The
in that language, maintaining that the pursuit of liberal studies sacrifices made to Agni pass to the gods, for Agni is a messenger
was not improper for her sex. By her thirteenth year she had from and to the gods; but, at the same time, he is more than a
acquired Greek, Hebrew, French, Spanish, German and other mere messenger, he is an immortal, for another hymn runs:
"
languages. Two years later her father began to assemble in his No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the
house at stated intervals a circle of the most learned men in mighty One. ..." He is a god who lives among men, mira-
Bologna, before whom she read and maintained a series of theses culously reborn each day by the fire-drill, by the friction of the
on the most abstruse philosophical questions. Records of these two sticks which are regarded as his parents; he is the supreme
meetings are given in de Brosse's Letlres sur I'ltalie and in the director of religious ceremonies and duties,and even has the power
Propositions PhUosophicae, which her father caused to be of influencing the lot of man in the future world. He is wor-
published in 1738. These displays, being probably not alto- shipped under a threefold form, fire on earth, lightning and the
gether congenial to Maria, who was of a retiring disposition, sun. His cult survived the metamorphosis of the ancient Vedic
ceased in her twentieth year, and it is even said that she had nature-worship into modern Hinduism, and there still are in
at that age a strong desire to enter a convent. Though the wish India fire-priests (agnihotri) whose duty is to superintend his
was not gratified, she lived from that time in a retirement worship. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by
almost conventual, avoiding all society and devoting herself friction symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth is still used.
entirely to the study of mathematics. The most valuable result In pictorial art Agni is always represented as red, two-faced,
of her labours was the Instituzioni analitiche ad uso della suggesting his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with
giovenlu ilaliana, a work of great merit, which was published three legs and seven arms.
at Milan in 1748. The first volume treats of the analysis of See W. J. Wilkins, Hindu Mythology (London, 1900); A. A.
finite quantities, and the second of the analysis of infinitesimals. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).
A French translation of the second volume by P. T. d'Antelmy, AGNOETAE (Gr. b-yvoiu, to be ignorant of), a monophysite
with additions by Charles Bossut (1730-1814), appeared at sect who maintained that Christ's human nature was like other
Paris in 1775; and an English translation of the whole work men's in all respects, including limited knowledge. Its founder
by John Colson (1680-1760), the Lucasian professor of mathe- was Themistius, a deacon in Alexandria in the 6th century.
matics at Cambridge, was published in 1801 at the expense of The sect was anathematized by Gregory the Great.
Baron Maseres. Madame Agnesi also wrote a commentary AGNOIOLOGY (from Gr. K-fvoia., ignorance), the science or
on the Trait6 analylique des sections coniques of the marquis de study of ignorance, which determines its quality and conditions.
I'H&pital, which, though highly praised by those who saw it in AGNOSTICISM. The term " agnostic " was invented by
manuscript, was never published. She invented and discussed Huxley in 1869 to describe the philosophical and religious
"
the curve known as the witch of Agnesi " (q.v.) or versiera. attitude of those who hold that we can have scientific or real
 AGNOSTICISM 379
knowledge of phenomena only, and that so far as what may lie Hutton in the Spectator and became a fashionable label for
behind phenomena is concerned God, immortality, &c. there contemporary unbelief in Christian dogma. Hutton himself
"
is no evidence which entitles us either to deny or affirm anything. frequently misrepresented the doctrine by describing it as belief
The attitude itself is as old as Scepticism (q.v.) but the expres-
;
in an unknown and unknowable God "; but agnosticism as
"
sions
"
agnostic and " agnosticism " were applied by Huxley defined by Huxley meant not belief, but absence of belief, as much
to sum up his deductions from those contemporary developments distinct from belief on the one hand as from disbelief on the other;
of metaphysics with which the names of Hamilton (" the Un- it was the half-way house
between, the two, where all questions
conditioned ") and Herbert Spencer (" the Unknowable ") were were " open." All that Huxley asked for was evidence, either
associated; and it is important, therefore, to fix precisely his for or against; but this he believed it impossible to get. Occa-
own intellectual standpoint in the matter. Though Huxley only sionally he too mis-stated the meaning of the word he had
" " "
began to use the term agnostic in 1869, his opinions had taken invented, and described agnosticism as meaning that a man
shape some time before that date. In a letter to Charles shall not say he knows or believes what he has no scientific
Kingsley (September 23, 1860) he wrote very fully concerning ground for professing to know or believe." But as the late Rev.
A. W. Momerie "
his beliefs: remarked,this would merely be a definition
"
neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man.
I I see no reason of honesty; in that sense we ought allto be agnostics."
for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disprov- Agnosticism really rests on the doctrine of the Unknowable,
ing it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who the assertion that concerning certain objects among them the
has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about " "
a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in Deity we never can have any scientific ground for belief.
This way of solving, or passing over, the ultimate problems of
believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not?
It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the inde- thought has had many followers in cultured circles imbued with
structibility of matter. . . .
the new physical science of the day, and with disgust for the
"
It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know
what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and dogmatic creeds of contemporary orthodoxy; and its outspoken
I will not rest my life and my hopes upon' weaker convictions. . . .
and even aggressive vindication by physicists of the eminence of
"
That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But Huxley had a potent influence upon the attitude taken towards
the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties.
metaphysics, and upon the form which subsequent Christian
I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego,
noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know apologetics adopted. As a nickname the term " agnostic " was
that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human in- soon misused to cover any and every variation of scepticism, and
tellect flounders at once out of its depth." just as popular preachers confused it with atheism (q.v.) in their
And again, to the same correspondent, the 5th of May 1863: denunciations, so the callow freethinker following Tennyson's
" " "
have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons
I path of honest doubt classed himself with the agnostics,
against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest even while he combined an instinctively Christian theism with a
possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Neverthe- facile rejection of the historical evidences for
less I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian
Christianity.
would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and
The term is now less fashionable, though the state of mind
infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great persists. Huxley's agnosticism was a natural consequence of
unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the 'sixties, when
in the relation of a Father loves us and cares for us as Christianity clerical intolerance was trying to excommunicate scientific dis-
asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, im-
mortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what
covery because it appeared to clash with the book of Genesis.
can I who am compelled perforce to believe in the But as the theory of evolution was accepted, a new spirit was
possible objection
immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very un- gradually introduced into Christian theology, which has turned
mistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds the controversies between religion and science into other channels
have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am
and removed the temptation to flaunt a disagreement. A
ready to jump at them."
similar effect has been produced by the philosophical reaction
Of the origin of the name " agnostic " to cover this attitude,
against Herbert Spencer, and by the perception that the canons
Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account: of evidence required in physical science must not be exalted into
"
When I reached intellectual maturity, and began to ask myself universal rules of thought. It does not follow that justification
whether I was an atheist, a theist or a pantheist, a materialist or an
idealist, a Christian or a freethinker, I found that the more I learned
by faith must be eliminated in spiritual matters where sight
and reflected, the less ready was the answer. The one thing on which cannot follow, because the physicist's duty and success lie in
most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which pinning belief solely on verification by physical phenomena, when
I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a
certain gnosis
' '

had more or less successfully solved the problem they alone are in question; and for mankind generally, though
of existence; while I was quite sure that I had not, and had a pretty possibly not for an exceptional man like Huxley, an impotent
strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. This was my suspension of judgment on such issues as a future life or the Being
situation when I had the good fortune to find a place among the of God is both unsatisfying and demoralizing.
members of that remarkable confraternity of antagonists, the Meta- It is impossible here to do more than indicate the path out of
physical Society. Every variety of philosophical and theological the difficulties raised by Huxley in the letter to Kingsley quoted
opinion was represented there; most of my colleagues were -ists of
one sort or another; and I, the man without a rag of a belief to cover above. They involve an elaborate discussion, not only of
himself with, could not fail to have some of the uneasy feelings which Christian evidences, but of the entire subject-matter alike of
must have beset the historical fox when, after leaving the trap in Ethics and Metaphysics, of Philosophy as a whole, and of the
which his tail remained, he presented himself to his normally elon-
gated companions. So I took thought, and invented what I conceived philosophies of individual writers who have dealt in their different
to be the appropriate title of agnostic.'
'

It came into my head

' '
ways with the problems of existence and epistemology. It is,
as suggestively antithetic to the gnostic of Church history, who however, permissible to point out that, as has been exhaustively
to know so much about the very things of which I was
professed
To my great satisfaction the term took." argued by Professor J. Ward in his Gifford lectures for 1896-1898
ignorant.
(Naturalism and Agnosticism, 1899), Huxley's challenge ("I
This accountconfirmed by R. H. Hutton, who in 1881 wrote
is know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse
"
that the word was suggested by Huxley at a meeting held squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker
previous to the formation of the now defunct Metaphysical convictions ") is one which a spiritualistic philosophy need not
Society at Mr Knowles's house on Clapham Common in 1869, in shrink from accepting at the hands of naturalistic agnosticism.
my hearing. He took it from St Paul's mention of the altar to If, as Huxley admits, even putting it with unnecessary force
the Unknown God." Hutton here gives a variant etymology for against himself," the immortality of man is not half so wonderful
the word, which may be therefore taken as partly derived from as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter,"
a-yi/ajoros (the "unknown" God), and partly from an antithesis the question then is, how far a critical analysis of our belief in
"
to gnostic "; but the meaning remains the same in either case. the last-named doctrines will leave us in a position to regard
The "
name, as Huxley said, took "; it was constantly used by them as the last stage in systematic thinking. It is the pitfall
3 8o AGNUS DEI AGORA
of physical science, immersed as its students are apt to be in the elements be not delayed till its conclusion, is not illegal in
problems dealing with tangible facts in the world of experience, the Church of England.
that there is a tendency among them to claim a superior status For the various ceremonies in the blessing of the Agnus Dei see
of objective reality and finality for the laws to which their data A. Vacant, Diet, de theologie (cols. 605-613).
are found to conform. But these generalizations are not ultimate AGOBARD (c. 770-840), Carolingian prelate and reformer,
truths, when we have to consider the nature of experience itself. became coadjutor to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, in 813, and
" on the death of the latter succeeded him in the see (816). We
Because reference to the Deity will not serve for a physical
explanation in physics, or a chemical explanation in chemistry, know nothing of his early life nor of his descent. He pursued
it does not therefore follow," as Professor Ward says (op. cit. the same vigorous policy as his predecessor, who had been one
"
vol. i. p. 24), that the sum total of scientific knowledge is of Charlemagne's most active agents in the reformation of the
equally intelligible whether we accept the theistic hypothesis Church. He was strongly opposed to the schemes of the empress
or not. It is true that every item of scientific knowledge is con- Judith for a redivision of the empire in favour of her son Charles
cerned with some definite relation of definite phenomena, and the Bald, which he regarded as the cause of all the subsequent
with nothing else; but, for all that, the systematic organization evils, and supported Lothair and Pippin against their father the
of such items may quite well yield further knowledge, which emperor Louis I. Deposed in 835 by the council of Thionville,
transcends the special relations of definite phenomena." he made his peace with the emperor and was reinstated in 837.
At the opening of the era of modern scientific discovery, with Agobard occupies an important place in the Carolingian re-
all its fruitful new generalizations, the still more highly generalized naissance. He wrote extensively not only theological works
laws of epistemology and of the spiritual constitutionof man might but also political pamphlets and dissertations directed against
"
well baffle the physicist and lead his intellect to flounder." popular superstitions. These last works are unique in the
It is fundamentally necessary, in order to avoid such floundering, literature of the time. He denounced the trial by ordeal of fire
" " and water, the belief in witchcraft, and the ascription of tempests
that the knowledge of things sensible should be kept distinct
" "
from the knowledge of things spiritual; yet in practice they to magic.maintainedthe Carolingian opposition to image-worship,
are constantly confused. When the physicist limits the term but carried his logic farther and opposed the adoration of the
" " The basis for this crusade was theological, not scientific;
knowledge to the conclusions from physical apprehensions, saints.
his refusal to extend it to conclusions from moral and spiritual but it reveals a clear intellect and independent judgment. In
apprehensions is merely the consequence of an illegitimate his purely theological works Agobard was strictly orthodox,
definition. He relies on the validity of his perceptions of physical except that he denied the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.
facts; but the saint and the theologian are no less entitled to Agobard was reverenced as a saint in Lyons, and although his
rely on the validity of their moral and spiritual experiences. In canonization is disputed his life is given by the Bollandists,
each case the data rest on an ultimate basis, undemonstrable, Acta Sanctorum, Jun. ii. 748.
indeed, to any one who denies them (even if he be called mad for BIBLIOGRAPHY. Agobard s works were lost until 1605, when a
doing so), except by the continuous process of working out their manuscript was discovered in Lyons and published by Papirius
own proofs, and showing their consistency with, or necessity in, Masson, again by Baluze in 1666. For later editions see Potthast,
Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi. The life of Agobard in Ebert's
the scheme of things terrestrial on the one hand, or the mind Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters (1880), Band ii., is still one
and happiness of man on the other. The tests in each case differ ; of the best to consult. For further indications see A. Molinier,
" Sources de I'histoire de France,
and it is as irrelevant for the theologian to dispute the know- i. p. 235.
" of the physicist, by arguments from faith and religion, ancient Rome, festivals celebrated on the
ledge AGONALIA, in
" "
as it is for the physicist to deny the knowledge of the theo- 9th of January, 1 7 th of March, 2 1 st of May, and 1 1 th of December
logian from the point of view of one who ignores the possibility in each year in honour of various divinities (Ovid, Fasti, i.
"
of spiritual apprehension altogether. On the ground of secular 319-332). The word is derived either from agonia, a victim,"
"
history and secular evidence both might reasonably meet, as or from agonium, a festival."
regards the facts, though not perhaps as to their interpretation; AGONIC LINES (from Gr. a-, privative, and ydivia, an angle),
but the reason why they ultimately differ is to be found simply the term given to the imaginary lines on the earth's surface
in the difference of their mental attitude towards the nature of connecting points at which the magnetic needle points to the
" "
knowledge itself a difference of opinion as to the nature geographical north and south. (See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.)
of man. AGONOTHETES, in ancient Greece, the president or super-
In addition to the literature cited above, see L. Stephen, An intendent of the sacred games. At first the person who instituted
Agnostic's Apology (1893); K, Flint, Agnosticism (1903); T. Bailey the games and defrayed the expenses was the Agonothetes; but
"
Saunders, The Quest
Quesi of Faittt~cKap^ii.
, r (1899);
--, A. W.'Behn, English
. in the great public games, such as the Olympic and Pythian,
Rationalism in the XlXth Century (London, 1906). (H. CH.) these presidents were the representatives of different states, or
AGNUS DEI, the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, symbolical were chosen from the people in whose country the games were
"
of the Saviour as the Lamb of God." The device is common celebrated; thus at the Panathenaic festival at Athens ten
in ecclesiastical art, but the name is especially given in the athlothetae were elected for four years to superintend the various
Church of Rome to a small cake made of the wax of the Easter contests. They werevariously called aiavnvrJTa.1, |3pa/3eurai,
candles and impressed with this figure. Since the 9th century A-ycoi/apxai, ayuvobiKai, d0Xo0T<u (at Athens), pa^8ov\ot. or
it has been customary for the popes to bless these cakes, and frapSovo/jLoi (from the rod or sceptre emblematic of their
distribute them on the Sunday after Easter among the faithful, authority), but their functions were generally the same.
by whom they are highly prized as having the power to avert AGORA, originally, in primitive times, the assembly of the
evil. In modern times the distribution has been limited to Greek people, convoked by the king or one of his nobles. The
persons of distinction, and is made by the pope on his accession right of speech and vote was restricted to the nobles, the people
and every seven years thereafter. being permitted to express their opinion only by signs of applause
Agnus Dei is also the popular name for the anthem beginning or disapproval. The word then came to be used for the place
with these words, which is said to have been introduced into where assemblies were held, and thus from its convenience as
the missal by Pope Sergius I. (687-701). Based upon John i. 29, a meeting-place the agora became in most of the cities of Greece
the Latin form is Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere the general resort for public and especially commercial inter-
nobis. In the celebration of the mass it is repeated three times course, corresponding in general with the Roman forum. At
before the communion, and it is also appended to many of the Athens, with the increase of commerce and political interest, it
"
litanies. By the judgment in the case of Read and others v. was found advisable to call public meetings at the Pnyx or the
The Bishop of Lincoln " it was decided in 1890 that the singing temple of Dionysus; but the important assemblies, such as
of the Agnus Dei in English by the choir during the administra- meetings for ostracism, were held in the agora. In the best days
tion of the Holy Communion, provided that the reception of of Greece the agora was the place where nearly all public traffic
 AGORACRITUS AGRA
was conducted. It was most frequented in the forenoon, and then made the acquaintance of George Sand, and figures in the Leltres
"
only by men. Slaves did the greater part of the purchasing, d'un voyageur as Arabella." By Liszt she had three children
though even the noblest citizens of Athens did not scruple to a son who died young; Blandine, who married M. fimile OUivier;
buy and sell there. Citizens were allowed a free market; and Cosima, who married first Hans von Billow and later Richard
foreigners and metics had to pay a toll. Public festivals also Wagner. The story of her breach with Liszt is told under a very
were celebrated in the open area of the agora. At Athens the slightjdisguise in her novel Nelida (1845). On her return to Paris
agora of classical times was adorned with trees planted by Cimon; in 1841 she began to write art criticisms for the Presse, and in
around itnumerous public buildings were erected, such as the 1844 she contributed to the Revue des deux Mond.es articles on
council chamber and the law courts (for its topography, see Bettina von Arnim and on Heinrich Heine, but her views were not
ATHENS). Pausanias (especially vi. 24) is the great architectural acceptable to the editor, and Daniel Stern withdrew to become a
authority on the agorae of various Greek cities, and details are contributor to the Revue independante. Mme. d'Agoult was an
also given by Vitruvius (v. i). ardent apostle of the ideas of '48, and from this date her salon,
AGORACRITUS, a Parian and Athenian sculptor of the age which had been literary and artistic, took on a more political
of Phidias, and said to have been his favourite pupil. His most tone; revolutionists of various nationalities were welcomed by
noted work was the statue at Rhamnus of Nemesis, by some her, and she had an especial friendship and sympathy for Daniele
attributed to Phidias himself. Of this statue part of the head Manin. In 1857 she produced a national drama, Jeanne Dare,
is in the British Museum; some fragments of the reliefs which which was translated into Italian and presented with brilliant
adorned the pedestal are in the museum at Athens. success at Turin. The most important section of Daniel Stern's
AGORANOMI, magistrates in the republics of Greece, whose work is her political and historical essays: Lettres republicaines
position and duties were in many respects similar to those of the (1848), Esquisses morales et politiques (1849), Histoire de la Re-
aediles of Rome. In Athens there were ten, chosen annually by volution de 1848 (3 vols., 1850-1853), Histoire des commencements
lot, five of whom took charge of the city and five of the Peiraeus. de la Republique aux Pays-Bas (1872). Mme. d'Agoult died in
They maintained order in the markets, settled disputes, examined Paris on the 5th of March 1876. Her daughter Claire Christine
the quality of the articles exposed for sale, tested weights and (b. 1830), who married Guy de Charnace, is known as a writer.
measures, collected the harbour dues and enforced the shipping See Mme. d'Agoult, Mes Souvenirs (1806-1833), 1877; A. Cuvillier
Fleury, Portraits revolutionnaires vol. i. (1889); J. Mazzini, Leltres
,

regulations.
de Joseph Mazzini a Daniel Stern (1872); A. Pommier, Madame la
AGORDAT, a town of Eritrea, N.E. Africa, on the route comtesse d'Agoult (Daniel Stern), 1876; A. Ungherini,
"
Daniel Stern"
between Massawa and Kassala. At Agojrdat on the 2ist of in the Revista repubUicana (1880, No. 9) S. Rocheblave, Une Amitie
;

December 1893 the Italian troops under Colonel Arimondi romanesque, George Sand et Madame d'Agoult (1895).
inflicted a severe defeat on the followers of the khalifa. Agordat AGOUTI, or AGUTI, the West Indian name of Dasyprocta aguti,
is protected by a strong fort. (See ERITREA and SUDAN, History.) a terrestrial rodent of the size of a rabbit, common to Trinidad
AGOSTINI, LEONARDO, Italian antiquary of the i?th cen- and Guiana, and classed in the family Caviidae. Under the same
tury, was born at Siena. After being employed for some time term may be included the other species of Dasyprocta, of which
to collect works of art for the Barberini palace, he was appointed there are about half a score in tropical America. Agoutis are
by Pope Alexander VII. superintendent of antiquities in the slender-limbed rodents, with five front and three hind toes (the
Roman states. He issued a new edition of Paruta's Sicilian first front toe very minute), and very short tails. The hair,
Medals, with engravings of 400 additional specimens; and in especially on the hind-quarters, is coarse and somewhat rough;
conjunction with Giovanni Bellori (1615-1696) he also published the colour being generally rufous brown. The molar teeth have
a work on antique sculptured gems, which was translated into cylindrical crowns, with several islands and a single lateral fold of
Latin by Jakob Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1685). enamel when worn. In habits agoutis are nocturnal, dwelling in
AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629), forests, where they conceal themselves during the day in hollow
Italian musician, was born at Valerano, and studied under tree-trunks, or in burrows among roots. Active and graceful in
G. B. Nanini, as we learn from the dedication in the third and their movements, their pace is either a kind of trot or a series of
fourth books of his masses, subsequently becoming the son-in- springs following one another so rapidly as to look like a gallop.
law of his master. He succeeded Ugolini as conductor of the They take readily to water, in which they swim well. Their food
pope's orchestra in St. Peter's. His musical compositions are comprises leaves, roots, nuts and other fruits. They do much
numerous and of great merit, an Agnus Dei for eight voices being harm to plantations of sugar-cane and bananas. In captivity the
specially admired. females produce only one or two young at a birth.
AGOSTINO and AGNOLO (or ANGELO) DA SIENA, Italian AGRA, an ancient city of India, which gives its name to a
architectsand sculptors in' the first half of the I4th century. district and
division in the United Provinces. It is famous for
Delia Valle and other commentators deny that they were containing the most perfect specimens of Mogul architecture.
brothers. They certainly studied together under Giovanni Agra, like Delhi, owes much of its importance in both historical
Pisano, and in 1317 were jointly appointed architects of their and modem times to the commercial and strategical advantages
native town, for which they designed the Porto Romana, the of its position. The river Jumna, which washes the walls of
church and convent of St Francis, and other buildings. On the its fort, was the natural highway for the traffic of the rich delta
recommendation of the celebrated Giotto, who styled them the of Bengal to the heart of India, and it formed, moreover, from
best sculptors of the time, they executed in 1330 the tomb of very ancient times, the frontier defence of the Aryan stock settled
Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo, which Giotto in the plain between the Ganges and the Jumna against their
had designed. It was esteemed one of the finest artistic works western neighbours, hereditary freebooters who occupied the
of the i4th century,but unfortunately was destroyed by the highlands of Central India. No place was better fitted for both an
French under the duke of Anjou. emporium and a frontier fortress. The river formed an unfordable
AGOULT, MARIE CATHERINE SOPHIE DE FLAVIGNY, barrier and also a useful means of communication. Jehangir tells
COMTESSE o'(i8o5-i876) French author, whose nont de plume was
,
us in his autobiography that before his father Akbar built the
"
Daniel Stern," was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 3ist of present fort, the town was defended by a citadel of great antiquity.
December 1805. Her father was a French officer who had served For three hundred years the Afghans and other tribes came down
in the army of the emigrant princes, and her mother was the from the north and founded kingdoms; and their power radiated
daughter of a Frankfort banker. She was married in 1827 to the from Delhi and Agra. It was Sikandar, of the house of Lodi
comte Charles d'Agoult. In Paris she gathered round her a (A.D. 1500), the last of the Afghan dynasties, who realized the
brilliant society which included Alfred de Vigny, Sainte-Beuve, strategic importance of Agra as a point for keeping in check his
Ingres, Chopin, Meyerbeer, Heine and others. She was separated rebellious vassals to the south. He removed his court there, and
from her husband, and became the mistress of Franz Liszt. "
Agra from being a mere village of old standing," says a Persian
During her frequent travels in Switzerland, France and Italy she chronicler, became the capital of a kingdom. In 1 526 the city was
3 82 AGRA CANAL AGRAPHA
captured by the emperor Baber, the famous Koh-i-noor diamond 1901 the population was 5,249,542, showing an increase of 10%
being part of the loot; and it was here that Baber announced during the decade, attributed to the extension of irrigation from
that his invasion was to be a permanent conquest, acd not a mere canals. It comprises the six districts of Muttra, Agra, Farukh-
temporary inroad. It was Baber's grandson Akbar that built the abad, Mainpuri, Etawah and Etah.
present fort, whose strong and lofty walls of red sandstone are a For an account of the architecture of Agra see Fergusson's History
mile and a.half in circumference. The building was completed in of Architecture; Cities of India (1903), by G. W. Forrest; Enchanted
India (1899), by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevitch and E. B. Havell,
1665, when Charles II. was on the throne of England and the ;

Handbook to Agra and the Taj (1904). (C. L.)

plague was devastating London. Another building of much the
same date is the red stone palace generally attributed to Akbar, AGRA CANAL, an important Indian irrigation work, available
but probably of an earlier time, which is the finest example of also for navigation, in Delhi,Gurgaon, Muttra and Agra districts,
pure Hindu architecture; while the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, and Bharatpur state. The canal receives its water from the
is an equally perfect example of the Mahommedan style. Jumna river at Okla, about 10 m. below Delhi. The weir across
But the glory of Agra, the most splendidly poetic building in the Jumna was the first attempted in Upper India upon a founda-
the world, is the Taj Mahal, the mausoleum built (A.D. 1632) by tion of fine sand; it is about 800 yds. long, and rises 7 ft. above
the emperor Shah Jahan for the remains of his the summer level of the river. From Okla the canal follows the
Mahal. favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, in which he himself also high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally
lies buried. The building is built of white marble joins the Banganga river about 20 m. below Agra. Navigable
throughout, crowned with a great white dome in the centre, and branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra. It was
with a smaller dome at each of its four corners. From the marble opened in 1874.
terrace which surrounds it rise four tall minarets of the same A6RAM (Hungarian Zagrdb, Croatian Zagreb), the capital of
material, one at each corner. The Taj has been modelled and Croatia-Slavonia, and a royal free town of Hungary; pleas-
painted more frequently than any other building in the world, and antly situated between the north bank of the Save and the
the word pictures of it are numberless. But it can only be mountains which culminate in Sljeme (3396 ft.); 187 m. by
described as a dream in marble. It amply justifies the saying rail S. of Vienna.
Pop. (1890) 38,742; (1900) 57,930, or with
that the Moguls designed like Titans and finished like jewellers. garrison 61,002. is the seat of the ban, or viceroy, of
Agram
In regard to colour and design the Taj ranks first in the world for Croatia-Slavonia, of the Banal and Septemviral courts, the
purely decorative workmanship; while the perfect symmetry of highest in the land, and of a chamber of commerce. It is also
its exterior once seen can never be forgotten, nor the aerial grace the meeting-place of the parliament; but local affairs are con-
of its domes, rising like marble bubbles into the azure sky. In his ducted by a municipal council. The city is divided into three
History of Architecture, Fergusson says of it: districts. The Kapitel-Stadt, sometimes called the Bishop's
"
This building is an early example of that system of inlaying with Town, with the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop, and his
precious stones which became the great characteristic of the style late Gothic cathedral, dating from the isth century, lies eastward
of the Moghals after the death of Akbar. All the spandrils of the of the Medvesfiak, a brook which flows into the Save. The Upper
Taj, all the angles and more important architectural details, are
heightened by being inlaid with precious stones such as agates, Town, on high ground west of the Medvescak, contains the
bloodstones, jaspers and the like. These are combined in wreaths, palace of the ban and the natural history museum. On the
scrolls and as exquisite in design as they are beautiful in colour,
frets, south, the Lower Town is separated from the other districts by
and relieved by the pure white marble in which they are inlaid, they the Ilica, a long street traversed by a cable tramway. In it are
form the most beautiful and precious style of ornament ever adopted
in architecture. It is lavishly bestowed on the tombs themselves
the business and industrial quarters; the palace of justice; the
and the screens which surround them, but more sparingly introduced academy of science, with picture-galleries, a library and a
on the mosque that forms one wing of the Taj, and on the fountains collection of antiquities; the theatre; the Franz Josef Univer-
and surrounding buildings. The judgment, indeed, with which this
sity, founded in 1874 to teach theology, law and philosophy;
style of ornament is apportioned to the various parts, is almost as
remarkable as the ornament itself, and conveys a high idea of the the synagogue; and the only Protestant church existing in
taste and skill of the architects of this age." the country at the beginning of the 2oth century. Roman
Of the Taj as a whole Lord Roberts says in his Forty-one Catholic churches and schools are numerous. Besides the large
Years in India: Maximir park and botanical gardens, many of the squares are
" Neither words nor
pencil could give to the most imaginative planted with trees and adorned with statues; while the whole
reader the slightest idea of the all-satisfying beauty and purity of city is surrounded by vineyards and country houses. Tobacco,
this glorious conception. To those who have not already seen it I leather, linen, carpets and war-material are manufactured in
would say, Go to India. The Taj alone is well worth the journey.' "
'

Agram, which also contains the works of the Hungarian state

The Taj was designed by Us tad Isa, variously described as a railways, and has a brisk trade in grain, wine, potash, honey,
Byzantine Turk and a native of Shiraz in Persia. The pietra silk and porcelain.
dura work belongs to the Persian school; and the common In 1094 Agram was founded by Ladislaus I. of Hungary, as
belief that it was designed by Austin de Bordeaux, a French the seat of a bishop; and on the expulsion of its Mongol colony,
architect in the service of Shah Jahan, is probably incorrect. in 1242, it was raised to the rank of a royal free city. For cen-
Agra was formerly the capital of the North- West Provinces, but turies a bitter feud raged between the Kapitel-Stadt and the
after the Mutiny the seat of government was removed to Alla- Upper Town, until these rivals were forced to join hands against
habad. Situated 841 m. from Calcutta it is now an important the Turks. Agram, already the political centre of Croatia-
railway centre, whence two main lines diverge southwards Slavonia, was selected as the capital in 1867. It suffered severely
towards Bombay. In 1901 the population was 188,022, showing from earthquake in 1880 and 1901.
an increase of 1 2 %
during the decade. The city contains cotton AGRAPHA "unwritten"), the name given to certain
(i.e.
mills, factories for ginning and pressing cotton, a tannery and utterances ascribed, with some degree of certainty, to Jesus,
boot factory and flour mill. There are also two missionary which have been preserved in documents other than the Gospels,
colleges. e.g. Acts xx. 35; i Tim. v. 18; i Cor. vii. 10-12, and the Logia
The DISTRICT or AGRA has an area of 1856 sq. m. Its (q.v.) discovered in 1897 and 1903 at Oxyrhyncus. Two inter-
"
general appearance is that common to the Doab, a level plain esting examples of such sayings may be quoted: (i) That
intersected by watercourses and ravines. Its general elevation which is weak shall be saved by that which is strong "; (2)
"
is estimated at from 650 to 700 ft. above the level of the sea. The Jesus, on whom be peace, has said: 'The world is merely a
district is intersected by the Jumna, and is also watered by the bridge; ye are to pass over it, and not to build your dwellings
The "
Agra canal. principal crops are millets, pulses, barley, upon it.' The first of these is from the Apostolic Canons
wheat, cotton and a little indigo. The population in 1901 was (c. A.D. 300), the second was found by the missionary Alexander

1,060,528, showing an increase of 6 %

during the decade. Duff inscribed in Arabic on the gateway of the mosque at Fateh-
The DIVISION OF AGRA has an area of 10,154 sq- In m -
pur Sikri.
 AGRARIAN LAWS 383
The earliest modern collection of such sayings was by Cotelerius, was a free city, the guarantee was made by charter; if it
if it
Ecclesiae Graecae Monumenta. (1677-1688), followed by J. E. Grabe, was neither federate nor free, the abandonment of the territory
B. Fabricius, Codex Apocryph.
Spicelegium (1698 and 1700), and J. by Rome must have been taken as a sufficient guarantee of the
N. T. (2nd ed., 1719). See also A. Resch, Agrapha (Leipzig, 1889) ;

J. H. Ropes,
Die Spriiche Jesu (Leipzig, 1896); and the article city's right to possess, although statements relative to the sur-
" "
Sayings in J. Hastings' Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. render may have been contained in the charter of the province
AGRARIAN LAWS (Lat. ager, land). Under this heading (lex provinciae) to which the city belonged. But, whether the
we deal with the disposal of the public land (ager publicus) of states were federate, free or stipendiary, there was only one case
ancient Rome. It was a principle of the Republican constitution in which it was important to specify precisely that land had
that no gratuitous disposition of state property should be made been restored (redditus) to its former occupants. This was the
without the consent of the people. Hence many of the ordinances case where Rome had marked out a territory for assignment to
affecting the public land were laws (leges) in the strictest
sense of her own citizens, but where in or near the limits of the assignment
that word It is, however, both justifiable and convenient to some of the land had been left in the hands of its former pro-
consider in this article all the regulations that were made for the prietors. Such land was noted in the state registers as redditus
administration of the public land by the executive authorities, iseteri possessori. Sometimes it was found that such an ancient
as well as by the people during the Republic, and by the com- possessor owned pieces of land separated from one another. In
mands of the emperor, which had the force of law during the such cases an exchange might be effected between him and some
Principate. other possessor, so that his possessions might be continuous.
The existence of public land, first in Italy, and then in the The fac.t of such an exchange was symbolized in the registers
Mediterranean world, was the outcome of two ideas which are by the entry of land redditus et commutatus pro suo.
very familiar to students of antiquity. This land was the prize When the claims of earlier owners had been satisfied, the
of conquest and was one of the means of defraying the current state proceeded to deal with such land as it retained. It dealt

expenses of state-administration. For the latter purpose land with it in two ways. It either alienated it, whether in exchange
is often leased or allowed to be occupied on the condition of the for a price or gratuitously; or it kept it as a source of revenue,

payment of dues. But it may be made to fufil another purpose whether on a system of lease or on some system of remunerative
as well this purpose being the satisfaction of the individual occupation. We may first consider the cases in which the state
needs of poorer citizens. To meet this object the land is usually decided to alienate. The land might be sold for the benefit of
assigned, and on assignment generally ceases to be the property the treasury. Typical instances of this treatment are furnished
of the state. But it often happens that the state is not wholly by the sale of some Campanian land during the Second Punic War
disinterested in undertaking such acts of assignment. It gains (Livy xxviii. 46, xxxii. 7). The censors may have directed the
security and territorial control by planting garrisons in conquered sale, but it was executed by the quaestors as the regular officials
country, and it relieves itself of the necessity of providing for of the treasury. Hence such land was described as ager quaes-
its poorer classes whether by state-aid or by a hazardous tamper- torius. The land was sold in definitely marked out plots, and
ing with the rights of private property. In this use to which we must suppose that, as a rule, when this sale had been effected,
public land could be turned we see at once the connexion the lots fell under the absolute ownership of their purchasers.
between agrarian legislation and colonization a connexion Yet there was some period of Roman history when this ownership
which was so close that when a Roman spoke of an agrarian law was (at least in certain cases) conditioned. The Roman writers
he seems generally to have understood by it a law establishing on agriculture speak of conditions and their neglect (Gromatici,
a colony and also the two aspects of colonization, the military p. 115). The conditions were probably those of military service
and the social. These two objects were indissolubly connected or frontier defence. The epoch of history at which this con-
roughout the whole of the earlier period of Roman agrarian ditioned ownership was recognized cannot be determined. It
ignation. They only became separated in the period subse- is a form of tenure that would be equally appropriate to the
uent to the Gracchi in so far as social motives still continued needs of the earliest period of Roman history and to those of
be operative when military precautions had ceased to be imperial times.
ecessary. It is probable that one of the chief motives which The second mode of alienation was that by assignation. Lands
prompted infant Rome to war with her neighbours was the thus assigned were known as agri dati assignati. The gift on
land-hunger of her citizens. This hunger she satisfied after the part of the state was gratuitous, and ownership passed wholly
inquest by annexing a portion of the enemy's territory. The to the assignee. The land so given was definitely surveyed,
mount thus confiscated varied from time to time. It was marked out and registered. Such an assignment might take
iually a third, but sometimes a half or even two-thirds, and one of two possible forms. It might be the means of establishing
" "
fter the fall of Capua in the Second Punic War the whole terri- a new plantation (colonia), with some independent political
ry of the state was annexed. It is possible that by the close organization of its own, however slight a settlement, therefore,
f the 2nd century B.C. one-half of the land of Italy belonged which could be thought of as an entity separate from the city
Rome whether in private ownership or as the property of the of Rome and from any other municipality. Or it might be the
,tate. Annexation was carried on in the provinces on a relatively means of providing allotments for individuals who remained
aller scale; but Rome retained as domain-land much of the domiciled at Rome or continued to be members of some already
irritory of communities which had been destroyed, such as existing municipality. It has been frequently held in modern
'arthage and Corinth, and the estates of former kings, such as times that this latter method of assignment is the one which
e lands of the Attalids in the Chersonese. Other domains in our ancient authorities describe as assignment to individuals
" "
icily and Greece, such as the territory of Leontini in the former, (mritim), and that the antithesis lies between the colonial
" " the
>rOropus in the latter case, are also found. This peculiar prop- and the viritane method of distribution. It is true that
'ty of the Roman state in the provinces must be carefully passages which speak of the latter mode of assignation need not,
istinguished from the general overlordship which Rome was and perhaps cannot, be interpreted as presenting the antithesis
lUpposed to hold over all provincial soil, expressed in the state- (Varro, de Re Rustica, i. 2. 7, i. 10. 2; Livy iv. 48, v. 24;
ment that provincials had only possession or usufruct of their Festus, p. 373; Gromatici, pp. 154, 160); yet it is not improb-
land (Gaius ii. 7; Gromatici, p. 36, Lachmann). This overlord- able that the antithesis is latent in this specific use of the term.
ihip was probably merely a legal fiction by which the juristic It seems clear that the idea of assignation to, and, therefore,
ind assigned a reason for the fact that the provincials paid a of ownership by, individuals must originally have been developed
nd tax from which Italians were exempt. in contrast to the idea of ownership by some larger group (see
Such portions of the territories of conquered cities as were ROMAN LAW). When the stage of individual ownership was
not claimed by Rome were as a matter of course left in the un- "
reached, all assignation was viritane," but only some assigna-
" " "
disturbed possession of these cities. If the city was a federate tion was colonial." Viritane was, therefore, the wider
itate (civitas foederata) , his possession was guaranteed by a treaty; term which would cover, and may sometimes have been used
384 AGRARIAN LAWS
specially to denote, the system of non-colonial assignment. The speaks of land in Sicily which had been restored by Rome to
amount granted to individuals in assignments of both types former owners as being leased. The land itself could not be
varied from time to time. It was reckoned in terms of the leased by Rome if it belonged not to Rome but to the Sicilian
jugerum, which was approximately f of an English acre. The inhabitants; but the collection of the revenues due to Rome
earliest and smallest assignment was 2 jugera an amount so could be so leased to Publicani (q.v.). And the same explanation
small that it seems to presuppose on the part of the recipient would apply to Cicero's statements that the Campanian land
some share in common or gentile property or some additional was let on lease by the censors (cf. Festus, s.v. vendUiones)
. The
private property of his own. Other quotas were 3,31^, 7, 10+14 view that there was a distinct class of the public land which was
jugera. The last was the maximum amount granted before the let out for a fixed teim of years to tenants on a definite lease,
time of Ti. Gracchus (133 B.C.), and it was held by representatives unlike the ordinary public land which was always held in occupa-
of the old school that 7 jugera were as much as any frugal Roman tion merely at will (precario), has been maintained by W. A.
should want (Pliny, Historia Naturalis, xviii. 18). The division Becker, and seems to be supported, with the help of conjecture,
was carried out by commissions of 3, 5 or 10 men appointed by by a few passages in Cicero and by Hyginus (Gromatici, p. 116).
the people (Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii. 7. 17). The land which But the passage of Hyginus is barely intelligible even on this
the state retained as ager pwblicus was always placed in the hands supposition; and Cicero's repeated statement that the Campanian
of individuals, who occupied it in some manner remunerative land was expressly exempted from the legislation of the Gracchi
to the state. These individuals (possessores) were never regarded (cf. Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit. v. 6) shows that there was not
as owners of the land thus occupied. It remained the property sufficient distinction between the Campanian tenure and that
of the state, was held without a contract (precario) and could of other public land in Italy to make this definite exception
be resumed by the state at will. But though the possessors by name superfluous. The Sempronian law could obviously
had no claim against the state, their ownership could be defended not touch land which the state had leased to occupiers on the
against all other individual claimants; and it seems probable basis of a definite contract. Moreover, we have absolutely no
that from an early date the praetor's possessory interdict was evidence for such a contract, even in Cicero's speeches against
used to protect all occupiers, provided their tenure had been Rullus, when he might be expected to mention it as an objection
acquired neither by force (vi) nor by seizureof land in its occupiers'to Rullus's bill. That there were some distinctive characteristics
absence (clam), nor by mere permission of the previous holder about the tenure of certain lands, of which the Campanian land
to occupy (precario alter ab altero). Moreover, Appian says that is typical, seems proved by the repeated association of these

possessors of this type could transfer their land by inheritance, lands with certain special lands in the provinces, especially at
and that the land was accepted as security by creditors. This Leontini in Sicily, and by some passages in the Gromatici where
kind of occupation, therefore, though clearly distinguished from agri tiectigales are spoken of as a distinct class. But what these
ownership (dominium), was yet regarded as a perfectly secure characteristics were cannot be clearly determined. It seems
form of tenure. All occupiers of public land paid dues to the certain that in every case the possessor occupied precario, and
state through a state contractor (publicanus) . These dues that only in the bargain between the censor and the middleman
varied in amount, and in the method of their collection. We was there room for contract. Thus the state was justified in
learn from Appian that the ordinary dues paid by occupiers of the claim to resume public land which it made in many of the
arable land in Italy were -fa of seed crops and of plant produce. Agrarian laws.
Owners who turned cattle or sheep on pasture land belonging The earliest agrarian measures of which we have any record
to the state also paid fixed dues to the treasury. The occupiers are the distributions of land conquered in war to poor citizens,
of the Roman public land in Campania paid a large rent (Cic. which later authorities attribute to Numa and Servius Tullius.
de leg. Agr. i. 7. 21). Appian's account of the public land (Bell. Such assignments, however, are not the result of legislative acts,
Civ. i. 7) would lead us to suppose that the amount of tax paid but of a voluntary surrender on the king's part of his own
by the occupier, and the method adopted by the state for the portion of the spoils. It is probable that the agrarian law which
collection of the revenues, depended upon the nature of the land resulted from the proposals of Spurius Cassius (consul 486 B.C.)
at the time when it first passed to a possessor. He says that was the first attempt made by the Roman people to exercise its
some of the public land which was in a good state of cultivation control over the occupation of state territory. According to
was let on lease; but that with regard to the poorer devastated the traditional account, Cassius proposed that such portion ot
land proclamation was made that anyone might squat on it lands lately conquered from the Hernici as fell to the Roman
and till it in return for the small payment in kind mentioned state should be divided in equal shares between the Roman
above. It has been questioned whether the land 'described by plebs and the Latins; and further that poor citizens should
Appian and by Cicero as let on lease, of which the Campanian receive allotments of land previously conquered, and occupied
land and some lands in Sicily are typical, represents a legally without any legal right by the Patricians. The inclusion of
distinct class. It seems probable that the distinction is one of the Latins in the distribution was afterwards dropped; but the
practice rather than of law, and that the difference lay not in law in its final form certainly asserted the right of the Plebeians
the relation between the state and the possessor (as would be to take their share in the public land. The accounts given of it
the case if the leased land were really let to individuals by the by Livy and Dionysius are no doubt coloured by their know-
censor, while the occupied land was held by mere permission of ledge of later agrarian legislation, and it seems hardly likely
the state without any contract) but in the details of the contract that the proposal to resume and redistribute public land already
between the censor and the publicanus with regard to the collec- occupied was made at this early stage; but it probably challenged
tion of the dues. The conditions of the tenure of the Roman the exclusive claim of Patricians to occupy. We hear of another
public land in Africa are known to us from the Lex Agraria of agrarian law proposed by the tribune Lucius Icilius in 456 B.C.
in B.C. (Bruns, Fontes, i. 3. n, w. Ssfoll.). Here the publicanus (Lex Icilia de Aventino publicando) which regulated in some way
is the middleman between the state and the
possessor, and the tenure of public land on the Aventine. In 376 B.C. the
purchases from the censor the right of collecting dues. The tribunes Licinius and Sextius introduced into their laws, for
law places no restriction on bargaining between the censor and the promotion of the privileges of the plebs, a clause enacting
the publicanus, but enacts that no possessor or pastor shall ever that no more than 500 jugera of land should be occupied by a
be required by the publicanus to pay more than the amount single cultivator. It seems almost certain from Livy's account
prescribed by the censors of 1 1 5 B.C. These conditions may be that this measure referred only to the occupation of ager publicus,
regarded as typical for the occupation of public lands. And though some modern authorities have upheld the view that it
when Cicero speaks of public land as let on lease (locatus) by dealt with land held on any kind of tenure, others again that it
the censor, he no doubt refers to the farming of the taxes to a dealt only with private property in land. According to Appian,
publicanus for a fixed period, and not to the letting of the land. the law also enacted that only 100 cattle and 500 sheep might
This seems clear from a passage (in Verr. iii. 6. 12) where he be turned by one owner on the public pastures. But it failed
 AGREDA 385
of its object because it did not provide any adequate machinery ever, enacted that land should be purchased by the state with
for the resumption by the state of land held in excess of the the wealth which Pompey's conquests had brought into the
prescribed amount, and was therefore easily evaded. The next treasury. The last proposal was supported by Cicero, but the
agrarian law we hear of was a more special measure dealing with bill seems to have been dropped, only to reappear in more

lands conquered from the Senones and Picentines. In 232 B.C. moderate form in the following year. A consular bill, the lex
C. Flaminius, then tribune of the plebs, proposed to resume Julia Campana, was passed by Julius Caesar in 59 B.C., which
these lands for the state, although they were already occupied provided for the settlement of Pompey's veterans on the Cam-
by large landholders, and to distribute them in allotments to poor panian land, and other lands purchased by the state from private
citizens. The measure met with much opposition from the richer owners in Italy with the full consent of the latter. In its
classes, and did not gain the sanction of the senate; but original form, the bill omitted all reference to the Campanian
C. Flaminius ignored constitutional usage and brought it direct land, which seems to have been included by Caesar in the dis-
efore the council of the plebs, by which it was made law. In tribution only when the continued and unreasoning opposition
133 B.C. the tribune Tiberius Gracchus (q.v.) re-enacted the of the senate had goaded him to extreme measures. A commission
arlier measure of Licinius and Sextius, with the additional of twenty was to be appointed to carry out the law, from which

provisions that each owner might occupy 250 jugera for each Caesar himself was expressly excluded. This measure finally
son, in addition to the original 500, and that a commission of settled the question of the Campanian land, which now passed
hree (iii. iiiri agris dandis adsignandis) should be appointed to out of the category of ager publicus. The last agrarian law of
out the terms of the law. He also enacted that the land the republic was that passed in 44 B.C. on the proposal of the
cupied in excess of the prescribed amount, and on that account consul M. Antonius, or of his brother L. Antonius. We have
sumed for the state by the land commission, should be dis- no detailed account of the measure, but it seems to have pro-
tributed in inalienable lots to poor citizens. Subsequent modi- vided grants of land for veterans, and was to be administered by
fications of those provisions which dealt with the powers of seven commissioners. The law was afterwards cancelled by decree
he land commission led to a re-enactment of the whole by of the senate, probably on the ground of some technical flaw.
Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, tribune in 123 B.C. But The emperor Vespasian attempted to reclaim for the state small
vithin 15 years from the tribunate of C. Gracchus the whole oddments of land (subseciva) which were held by neighbouring
of his law had been rendered null by three further enactments. owners to whom they had never been definitely assigned. The
The first of these permitted the sale of land allotted under the attempt met with violent opposition, and though resumed by
which thus tended to return into the hands of its former Titus, was finally crushed by Domitian, who issued an edict re-
ccupiers as private property, which the state had no longer cognizing all oddments of land thus held to be private property.
any right to resume. The second abolished the commission AUTHORITIES. Niebuhr, History of Rome (English translation),
appointed to carry out the terms of the law, thus putting a stop
ii. p. 129 foil.
(Cambridge, 1832); Becker, Handbuch der romischen
Alterthiimer, iii. 2, p. 142 (Leipzig, 1843); Marquardt, Romische
to further resumption and distribution, and also transformed
Staatsverwaltung, i. p. 96 foil. (Leipzig, 1881); Madvig, Verjassung
xisting occupiers into owners of the land they occupied, paying und Verwaltung des romischen Staates, ii. p. 364 foil. (Leipzig, 1882),
only a small due to the treasury. The third (probably the sur- (See also ROME, History.) (A. H. J. G. A. M CL.)
; .

viving Lex Agraria, Bruns, loc. cit.) abolished the payment. This AGREDA, MARIA FERNANDEZ CORONEL, ABBESS or,
aw belongs to the year in B.C. The dates of the two former known Maria de Jesus (1602-1665), was
in religion as Sor (Sister)
jws are uncertain, but it is probable that the first was passed in the daughter of Don Francisco Coronel and of his wife Catalina
121, the second in 119 or 118. From this time forward a de Arana. She was born at Agreda, on the borders of Navarre
change comes over land legislation. The ordinary public land and Aragon, on the 2nd of April 1602. All her family were power-
in Italy, inthe hands of occupiers, which had given rise to all fully influenced by the ecstatic piety of Spain in that age. Her
he agrarian legislation between 376 and in, had practically biographer, Samaniego, records that even as an infant in arms she
eased to exist. The Campanian land still remained, but the was filled with divine knowledge. Her stupidity as a child is
ame reasons which led to its exemption from the Gracchan piously accounted for by extreme humility. From childhood she
legislation seem to have continued to protect its holders until
was favoured by ecstasies and visions. When she was fifteen the
63 B.C. In the meantime several agrarian laws were passed whole family entered religion. The father, now an old man, and
vhich provided for the distribution of land placed in some other the two sons entered the Franciscan house of San Antonio de
vay at the disposal of the state. In 100 B.C. Appuleius Satur- Nalda. Maria, her .mother and sister established a Franciscan
ninus (q.v.), tribune of the plebs, proposed the allotment of lands nunnery in the family house at Agreda, which, when Maria's
cently taken from the Cimbri in Gaul. This law was passed, reputation had extended, was replaced by the existing building.
jut eventually declared null by the senate, with the rest of She began it with one hundred reals (one pound sterling) lent her
iturninns's laws. A more dangerous precedent was set by by a devotee, and it was completed in fourteen years by voluntary
Sulla in his dictatorship (82-81 B.C.). He was the first to con- gifts. Much against her own wish, we are told, she was appointed
cate the lands of his political foes, and of communities which abbess at the age of twenty-five. In 1668, four years after her
iad resisted him, and treating them as ager publicus, assign death, the Franciscans published a story that at the age of
hem to his veterans as a prize. This example was followed by twenty-two she had been miraculously conveyed to Mexico, to
Dctavian (Augustus) and Antony (M. Antonius) after their convert a native people, and had made five hundred journeys
proscriptions in 43 B.C. A third method of providing land for through the air for that purpose in one year. Though the rule
distribution was that adopted by
Servilius Rullus (q.v.) in required the abbess to be changed every three years, Maria
63 B.C. His enacted that land should be purchased in Italy
bill remained the effective ruler of Agreda till her death. The Virgin
vith money gained by the sale of Roman territories abroad, and was declared abbess, and Maria acted as her locum tenens. In her
"
Hotted to citizens. A commission of ten (x. viri agris dandis later years she inclined to the internal prayer," and neglect of
dsignandis), annually elected by 9 out of the 35 tribes, was to the outward offices of the church, which was usual with the
" "
arry out the terms of the law. Rullus also ventured to propose alumbrados or Quietists. The Inquisition took notice of her,
he distribution of the Campanian land, which had hitherto but she was not proceeded against with severity. Maria's
en respected by all agrarian reformers. It was chiefly on this importance in religion and Spanish history is based on two
ound that Cicero in his three speeches on the Agrarian law grounds. In the earlier part of her life, while the Franciscan,
succeeded in exciting such a general feeling against it that it was Francisco Andres de la Torre, was her confessor, she wrote an
entually withdrawn. In 60 B.C. the tribune L. Flavius brought Introduction to the History of the Most Blessed Virgin. It was
forward a bill for the distribution of lands to Pompey's veterans, destroyed by the direction of another confessor. Later on, by the
he Campanian land was certainly to be included in the dis- order of her superiors, and under the guidance of her Franciscan
ribution, and it is clear from Cicero that the bill in some way confessor, Andres de Fuen Mayor, she wrote The Mystic City oj
dealt violently with the rights of private owners. It also, how- God. It is an extraordinary book, full of apocryphal history,
3 86 AGRICOLA
visions and scholasticism, which professes to have been written by however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the
divine inspiration, and is devoted to praise of the Virgin. In Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his
1642 she sent to Philip IV. an account of a vision she had had, of allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his
a council of the infernal powers for the destruction of Catholicism office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of
and Spain. The king visited her when on his way to Aragon to the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest
suppress the rebellion of Catalonia. A long correspondence, was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with
which lasted till her death on the 29th of March 1665, was begun. medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his
The king folded a sheet of paper down the middle and wrote on chief historical work being the Dominatores Saxonici a prima
the one side of the division. The answers were to be written on origins ad hanc aetatem, published at Freiberg. In 1544 he
the other and the sheet returned. By a pious fraud copies were published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid
kept at Agreda. How far Maria was only the mouthpiece of the the first foundations of a physical geology, and criticized the
Franciscans must of course be a matter of doubt. Her corre- theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the De natura eorum
spondence was apparently suspended whenever her confessor was quae effluunl e terra; in 1546 the De veteribus el novis metallis,
absent. She must, however, have co-operated at least, and it is a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of
certain that the Franciscans, who were very unfortunate in some minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus subterraneis; and in the
of their pious women, owed not a little to her. The letters are in two following years a number of smaller works on the metals.
excellent Spanish, are curious reading, and are invaluable as His most famous work, the De re metallica, libri xii., was pub-
illustrations for the second part of the reign of Philip IV. lished in 1556, though apparently finished several years before,
The correspondence of Sor Maria with the king has been published since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550.
in full by Don F. Siluela, Cartas de la Venerable Madre Sor Maria de It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and metallurgy,
Agreda y del Senor Rey Don Filipe IV. (Madrid, 1885). The Mystic illustrated withmany fine and interesting woodcuts and contain-
City of God is one of the most characteristic monuments of Mariolatry,
and has continued to be much in favour with supporters of the dogma ing, inan appendix, the German equivalents for the technical
terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work,
of the Immaculate Conception. It
appeared in Madrid in 1668, with
a biographical introduction by Samamego, has been often reprinted, and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists
and was translated into French and Italian. It was for a time of his time. Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at
reserved by the Index, both Spanish and Papal, but was taken off
by the influence of the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters Stolpen to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to
of the Immaculate Conception. An account of Maria de Agreda it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been per-
willbe found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 1706), vol. iii.,
manently incorporated in the vocabulary of science.
written by a competent critic and Anglican divine of the 1 8th century In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the
who detested " enthusiasm." (D. H.) tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end
AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719), German his days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catholic,
landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon). though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and
He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England, it is said that his life was ended by a fit of apoplexy brought on
HoUand and France, and residing for a considerable period at by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine. He died at
Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are Chemnitz on the 2ist of November 1555, and so violent was the
remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in
representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demon-
style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and strations he was carried to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and
colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found there buried.
in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and many See article by Giimbel in Allgem. Deutsche Biog. (1875);
other towns of both Germany and Italy. F. L. Becher, Georg Agricola und Werner (Freiberg, 1819); F. A.
Schmidt, Georg Agricola's Bermannus mil Einleitung (Freiberg,
AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG
" 1806); Poggendorff, Biographisches Handworterbuch; Agricola s
(1490-1555), German scholar and man of science, known as the works passim.
father of mineralogy," was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93), Roman states-
24th of March 1490. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early man and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was
"
threw himself into the pursuit of the new learning," with such born on the i3th of June A.D. 37 (according to others, 39) at
effect that at theage of twenty he was appointed Rector exlra- Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius
ordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of Zwickau, and Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was
made his appearance as a writer on philology. After two years he brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philo-
gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at Leipzig, sophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) under
where, as rector, he received the powerful support of the pro- Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome,
fessor of classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), a celebrated where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of dis-
humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in corre- tinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68
spondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he
physics and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus he went immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was
for a short time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree. On appointed to the command of the 2oth legion in Britain, then
his return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimstal, a stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end
"
centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly to of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician,
fill in the gaps in the art of
healing," partly to test what had been and appointed governor of Aquitania (74-78) Appointed consul
.

written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the suffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college
methods of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year
and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of
this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post
of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528. for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to
Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus, the first attempt to Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civil-
reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work, ization of their conquerors. His military achievements were
brought Agricola into notice. In 1 530 Prince Maurice of Saxony equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North
appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two
migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order years he carried his victorious arms to the Taiis (Tay; others
to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed read Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth cam-
their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town paign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the
physician and electing him burgomaster. His popularity was, firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of
 AGRICOLA AGRICULTURAL GANGS 38?
the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of Fife and or Sore. From 1524 death he lived at Magdeburg, whera
till his
Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians unde: he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant
Galgacus at the Graupian hill (see BRITAIN, Roman). His school. The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg,
successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion o: was a whose theoretical works, providing
close friend of Agricola,
Domitian. He was recalled to Rome, where he lived a life o: valuable material concerning the change from the old to the
studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the
the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the first to harmonize in four
parts Luther's chorale, Bin' feste Burg.
emperor's orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus Four other Agricolas 1 are known as composers between the
is practically a panegyric or funeral oration. end of the isth century and the middle of the lyth.
See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); Dio Cassius In the i8th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour
xxxix. 50, Ixvi. 20; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire
(Eng. trans., 1886), i.
183-184, 194.
in Germany (1772), much impressed by JOHANN FRIEDRICH
AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774), German AGRICOLA (1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal
musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of
4th of January 1720. While a student of law at Leipzig he Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially
studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be
to Berlin, where he studied musical composition. He was soon raised by French writers_aud composers in preparation for the
work of Gluck.
generally recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his
time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, // Filosofo AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN)
connnto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court (1443-1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near.Groningcn, in
composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the 1443- He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as
ist of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went
in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the
Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra.
Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek
language.
pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however, Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native
on his theoretical and critical writings on musical subjects. He country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic
of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation'of
wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio. Johann von Dalberg,
AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he had gained
JOHANNES (1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born in Italy, he accepted a
professorship at Heidelberg, and for
n the 2Oth of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the litera-
ture of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more
:alled Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he
>on gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied than by his writings he did much for the promotion of learning
uther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation
ted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his
ittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the re- opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree antici-
'ormed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month pated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his
hen he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the
cher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai 28th of October 1485. His principal work is De inventione
urch. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and dialectica, libri Hi., in which he attempts to change the scholastic
as welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a philosophy of the day.
utroversy, which had been begun ten years before and been See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae
(Groningen,
1830); y. Bezold, R. Agricola (Miinchen, 1884); and Ihm, Der
emporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben and seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893).
;ricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the
t to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys
?..), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under organized by an independent gang-master, under whose super-
e Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, vision they execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain
being under " "
ie
gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with parts of England. They are sometimes called public gangs
to distinguish them from " private gangs "
uther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg
secretly consisting of workers
Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for
Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of turn, under his own supervision or under that of one of his men.
;is obnoxious views.
The system was for long prevalent in the counties of Cambridge-
Luther, however, seems not to have so
cepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector shire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk
oachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour, and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much modified form in
the fen district. The practice dates from the latter
ppointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He years of the
icld both offices until his death in
1566, and his career in reign of George III., when the low-lying, marshy lands surround-
randenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along "ng the basin of the Wash were being rapidly drained and con-
ith Julius von Pflug, bishop of verted into rich alluvial districts. The unreformed condition of
Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael
the poor-law, under which the support of the poor fell upon each
elding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg
terim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adi- individual parish, instead of a union of parishes, made landlords
.phoristic controversy (see ADIAPHORISTS). He died during an reluctant to erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit
idemic of plague on the 22iid of September 1566. Agricola of their tenants. Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation
wrote a number of theological works which are now of little of these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys,
being
interest. He was the first to make a collection of German cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely
proverbs
pro which he illustrated with a commentary. The most employed. The tendency to moral and physical ruin which
conmplete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty pro- resulted from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into
rbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one the condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the
I that of Latendorf, 1862. reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862,
and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs
See Cordes, Joh. Agricola' s Schriften moglichst verzeichnet
(Altona,
Life by G. Kawerau (1881), who also wrote the notice in Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child
Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol., where other literature is under eight years old, and of any female under a male gang-
master unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also
AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was 1
Alexander, died 1506; Johann, flor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph,
rn about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr lor. 1630; and George Lucfwig,
1643-1676.

ted.
3 88 AGRICULTURE [ANCIENT SYSTEMS

present. Gang-masters must be licensed by two justices, and the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen.
They
may not hold a liquor license. The distance to be traversed were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at other
on foot is fixed by the justices, and the licenses must be renewed times tethered in meadows of green clover. The flocks were
every six months. Later legislation made more stringent the shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic
regulations under which children are employed in agricultural countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also EGYPT.)
gangs. By the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and
re-enacting the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children) Euphrates, like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation,
Act 1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven and traces of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia.
years, and none between eleven years and thirteen years before But beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were
the child has obtained a certificate of having reached the large producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry.
standard of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district. The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent
AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ager, field, and colere, to cultivate), upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper.
the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil so as to produce The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary
Blbllcal
the means of human subsistence, embracing in its widest sense circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During accounts
the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of crops. The the summer they frequented the mountainous districts, among
the
history of agriculture is the history of man in his most primitive, and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of
and most permanent aspect. Hence the nations of antiquity sheep and of jjoat constituted their wealth, although
ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma in Hindustan, Isis in they also possessed oxen. When the last were abundant,
Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in Italy, were its founders. it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised.
The simplest form of agriculture is that in which crops are raised Job, besides immense possessions in flocks and herds, had
"
from one patch of ground till it is exhausted, when it is allowed 500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in ploughing, and a very
" "
to go wild and abandoned for another. This extensive great husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral
"
husbandry is found in combination with a nomadic or semi- husbandry, and that with success, for he sowed in the land
nomadic and pastoral organization, such as that of the German "
Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold a return which, it would
tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus (see especially Germania, appear, in some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the
26). The discovery of the uses of the bare fallow and of manure, labour of the husbandman. In the parable of the sower, Jesus
by making it possible to raise crops from the same area for an Christ mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold.
" "
indefinite period, marks a stage of progress. This intensive Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the
culture in a more or less developed form was practised by the Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of
great nations of antiquity, and little decided advance was made antiquity. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law,
till after the middle ages. The introduction of new plants, which based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult males,
made it possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into
the application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils, Canaan. Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assigning
plant constituents and manures, brought abcjut a revolution (according to different calculations) from sixteen to twenty-five
in farming. But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the acres of land to each. This land, held in direct tenure from
production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory inalienable. The
due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is the accumulation of debt upon it was prevented by the prohibition
work of modern times. What before was done in the light of of interest, the release of debts every seventh year, and the
experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge. Even reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return
the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the practice of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated
of the fundamental processes of husbandry ploughing, manur- them with much care, and rendered them highly productive.
ing, sowing, weeding, reaping. It is the improvements in methods, They were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which
implements and materials, brought about by the application their skill and
diligence kept in good condition. The stones
of science, that distinguish the husbandry of the 2oth century were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered
from that of medieval and ancient times. from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks and
"
Ancient Husbandry. The monumental records of Egypt are streams with which the country was well watered everywhere,"
the source of the earliest information on farming. The Egypt and enriched by the application of manures. The seventh year's
f * ne Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further
Egypt
either by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth
superintendence of stewards. It owed its fertility to the Nile, of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat,
which, inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is supposed, on
means of canals over more distant portions of its valley. The grounds not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The
autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow chief implements were a wooden plough of simple and light
ploughing performed by oxen yoked to clumsy wooden ploughs, construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light harrow. The ox
the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by hand. and the ass were used for labour. The word "oxen," which
Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into the soil by occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septua-
the feet of sheep which were driven over the fields. At harvest gint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As
the corn was cut high on the stalk with short sickles and put the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were
up in sheaves, after which it was carried to the threshing-floor in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke
and there trodden out by the hoofs of oxen. Winnowing was of oxen in one day was called a yoke or acre. Towards the
done by women, who tossed the grain into the air with small end of October, with which month the rainy season begins, seed-
wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the winds. Wheat time commenced, and of course does so still. The seedtime,
and barley were the chief crops, and another plant, perhaps begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other white
identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of modern Egypt, was also crops, through November and December; and barley continues
cultivated. The latter, when ripe, was pulled up by the roots, to be sown until about the middle of February. The seed
and the grain was separated by means of an implement re- appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other
sembling a comb. To these crops may be added peas, beans times to have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds
and many herbs and esculent roots. Oxen were much prized, which prevail in January and February frequently injured
and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to selection. the crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The
Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared. rainy season extends from October to April, during which time
Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle were refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and generally
sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures of at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earlier or later as
ANCIENT SYSTEMS] AGRICULTURE 389
the rains towards the end of the season were more or less copious. cranes, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, caltrops, darnel and
It,however, generally began in April, and continued through shade are farmer's enemies. Scare off the birds, harrow up the
May for the different crops in succession. In the south, and in weeds, cut down all that shades the crop. Ploughs, waggons,
the plains, the harvest, as might be expected, commenced some threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, hurdles, winnowing-fans are
weeks earlier than in the northern and mountainous districts. the farmer's implements. The plough consists of several parts
The slopes of the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated made of seasoned wood. The threshing-floor must be smooth and
wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive rammed hard to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to
were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill get through. Some steep seed in soda and oil lees to get a larger
districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for produce. Careful annual selection by hand of the best seed is the
numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of only way to prevent degeneration. It is best to mow stubble and
a mixed husbandry. Not by a figure of speech but literally, every hay at night when they are moist."
Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and fig-tree; In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other
wh
whilst the country as a whole is described (2 Kings xviii.32)as manures, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the Romans.
a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, characterized
oil olive and of honey." their husbandry comes out well in the following quotation from
"
1 The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based
chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation. The agri-
the i8th book of the Natural History of Pliny: Cato would
have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm
culture of classical ages was slightly more developed in be good and fertile; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers
Oreece
so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have
able to leave to nature the fertilization of the soil. Greece being sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or
a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine land. Also that the house be well built, and the land about it as
rather than to that of cereals. Scanty, information on its agri- well managed. They are in error who hold the opinion that the
culture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod (about negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his
the 8th century B.C.), the Oeconomicus of Xenophon (4th century successor. Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and
B.C.),the History of Plants and the Origin of Plants of Theo- disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of
phrastus (4th century B.C.). The latter is the first writer on heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one
botany, and his works also contain interesting remarks on who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise and make
manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural topics (see light of the skill and knowledge of another."
also GEOPONICI). Greek husbandry had no salient character- Roman writers on agriculture (see GEOPONICI) are more
istics. The summer fallow with repeated ploughing was its basis. numerous than those of Greece. The earliest important treatises
The young crop was hoed, reaping was performed with a sickle, are the De re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) and the Rerum
and a high stubble left on the ground as manure. The methods Rusticarum Libri of Varro. More famous than either are the
of threshing and winnowing were the same as those in use in Georgicsoi Virgil, published about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage,
ancient Egypt. Wheat, barley and spelt were the leading crops. horticulture, cattle-breeding and bee-keeping. The works of
Meadows were pastured rather than mown. Attica was famous Columella (ist century A.D.) and of Palladius (4th century A.D.)
for its oh'ves and figs, but general agriculture excelled in Pelo- are exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder
ponnesus, where, by means of irrigation and drainage, all the Pliny (A.D. 23-70) contains considerable information on hus-
available land was utilized. bandry. Under the later empire agriculture sank into a condition
In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark Ages. In
.rgely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by them, and their
and classed with war as an occupation becoming a free successors the Moors, agriculture was carried to a high pitch of
man. The story of Cincinnatus, twice summoned from excellence. The work on agriculture 1 of Ibn-al-Awam, who
ie plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates the status lived in the i2th century A.D., treats of the varieties of soils,
the Roman husbandman. The later tendency was towards the manuring, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, harvesting, stock,
absorption of smaller holdings into large estates. As wealth horticulture, arboriculture and plant diseases, and is a lasting
increased the peasant-farmer gave way before the large land- record of their skill and industry.
owner, who cultivated his property by means of slave-labour, The subsequent history of agriculture is treated in the following
superintended by slave-bailiffs. The low price of grain, which pages primarily from the British standpoint. Doubtless Flanders
is imported in huge quantities from Sicily and other Roman
" "
may claim to be the pioneer of high farming in medieval
ivinces, operated to crush the small holder, at the same time times, other countries following her lead in many respects. It is
as it made arable farming unremunerative. Sheep-raising, not, however, necessary to deal with the agricultural evolution of
involving larger holdings, less supervision and less labour, was continental Europe, the gradual progress of agriculture as a whole
eferred by the capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the being well enough typified in the story of its development in
'heat, spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the England, which indeed has led the way in modern times. After
untry. Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for sections on the history and chief modern features of British
"odder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied hay. agriculture, a separate account is given of the general features of
Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater extent than American agriculture.
oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing. The following
HISTORY OF ENGLISH AGRICULTURE
epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman in the first book of
combined " or " common-field
" " "
the Georgics suggests the outline of Roman husbandry: First The system of husbandry
learn the peculiarities of your soil and climate. Plough the practised by the village community or township (see VILLAGE
fallow in early spring, and plough frequently twice in winter, COMMUNITIES) may be taken as the starting-point of English
twice in summer unless your land is poor, when a light ploughing agriculture, in which, till the end of the i8th century, it is a
in September will do. Either let the land lie fallow every other dominant influence. The territory of the " township " consisted
year or else let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine. Repetition of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste. The arable land
of one crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the was divided into two or, more usually, three fields, which were
strain, only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with cut up into strips bounded by balks and allotted to the villagers
manure or ashes. It often does good to burn the stubble on the in such a way that one holding might include several discon-
ground. Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross nected strips in each field a measure designed to prevent the
ploughing, work the land thoroughly. Irrigation benefits a sandy whole of the best land falling to one man. The fields were fenced
soil, draining a marshy soil. It is well to feed down a luxuriant in from seed-time to harvest, after which the fences were taken
crop when the plants are level with the ridge tops. Geese and 1
Translation by Clement-Mullet (Paris, 1864).
 390 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

down and the cattle turned in to feed on the stubble. Accord- landowners attempted to revive the disappearing system of
ing to early methods of cropping, which were destined to prevail labour-rents. The bitter feelings engendered between em-
for centuries, wheat, the chief article of food, was sown in one ployer and employed culminated in the peasants' revolt of 1381.
autumn, reaped the next August; the following spring, oats or Meanwhile large numbers of landowners were forced to adopt
barley were sown, and the year following the harvest was a one of two alternatives. In some cases they ceased to farm their
period of fallow. This procedure was followed on each of the own land and let it out on lease often together with the stock
three fields so that in every year one of them was fallow. In upon it; or else they abandoned arable culture, laid down their
addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown to demesnes to pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted them-
some extent. The meadow-land was also divided into strips selves to sheep-farming. In the latter course they were en-
from which the various holders drew their supply of hay. The couraged by the high prices of wool during the i4th century, and
pasture-land was common to all, though the number of beasts by Edward III.'s policy of fostering both the export of wool and
which one man might turn into it was sometimes limited. the home manufacture of woollen goods. The i5th century,
Rough grazing could had on the outlying waste lands.
also be barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was -in its early
In the absence of grasses and roots, hay was very
artificial years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing abandon-
valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for live ment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought about a
stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring. less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was accelerated
Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the as the peasant was deprived of his grazing-ground by the en-
Norman Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained, closure of more and more of the waste land. 2
but position of the cultivator was radically altered.
the From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the end of
"
Villeins," instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the encourage-
class of the population. They were bound to the soil and occu- ment of tillage, though probably to little purpose.
" Agrlcul.
pied holdings of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate Where in some towns," says the statute 4th tun under
"
or 30 acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly Henry VII. (1488), two hundred persons were occu- the Tudor*
**"'
in kind. A portion of the manor, generally about a third, con- pied and lived of their lawful labours, now there are
stituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes separate, occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall
usually consisted of strips intermingled with those of his villeins. into idleness"; therefore it is ordained that houses which
It thus formed part of the common farm and was cultivated by within three years have been let for farms, with twenty acres
the villeins and their oxen under the superintendence of a of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under
bailiff. Below the villeins in the social scale came the cottiers the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the king
possessing smaller holdings, sometimes only a garden, and no
or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century afterwards the
oxen. Free tenants and, after the Norman Conquest, slaves practice had become still more alarming; and in 1534 a new
"
formed small proportions of the population. During the middle act was tried, apparently with as little success. Some have
ages cattle and sheep were the chief farm animals, but the inter- 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some
mixture of stock consequent on the common-field system was 4000, and some more and some less "; and yet it is alleged the
"
a barrier to improvement in the breed and conduced to the price of wool had nearly doubled, sheep being come to a few
propagation of disease. Oxen, usually yoked in teams of eight, persons' hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who
were used for ploughing. Sheep were small and their fleeces kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in farm more
light, nevertheless, owing to the meagreness of the yields of than two tenements of husbandry. By the 3Qth Elizabeth (1597)
cereals' and the demand for wool for export, sheep-farming arable land made pasture since the ist Elizabeth shall be again
was looked to, as early as the 1 2th century, as the chief source converted into tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted
into pasture.
of profit. Pigs and poultry were universally kept. The treatise
on husbandry of Walter of Henley, dating from the early i3th The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise
of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the i6th
century, is very valuable as describing the management of the
demesne under the two- or three-field system. The following century. The best of the early works is the Book of Husbandry
are typical passages: (ist ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony Fitzherbert,
" a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of Henry VIII., but
April is a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks up behind
'

the plough for second fallowing after St John's Day when the dust
;
more probably written by his elder brother John. This was
rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing when the earth is well followed by the Book of Surveying and Improvements (1523), by the
settled and not too cracked; however, the busy man cannot be
" same author. In the former treatise we have a clear and minute
always waiting on the seasons." At sowing do not plough large
furrows, but little and well laid together, that the seed may fall description of the rural practices of that period, and from the
evenly." latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal
"
Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings, system in its decline.
except lands that are sown each year, and that each ploughing costs The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the plough
6d. more or less and the harrowing id. It is well to sow at least two
bushels to the acre." and other implements, after which about a third part of it is
"
Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown occupied with the several operations as they succeed one another
on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own." throughout the year. Among other passages in this part of the
"
Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless
work, the following deserve notice:
you need it for thatching. Have manure put up in heaps and mixed "Somme (ploughs) wyll tournthe sheld bredith at every landsende,
with earth." '

" and plowe all one way the same kind of plough that is now found
;
Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off." so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, that
During the I3th century there arose a tendency to commute "they be good on even grounde that lyeth lyghte "; and on such
labour-rents for money payments. This change led to the lands they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheels were
sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. On the
gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage the villeins and
much agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen
cottiers and the rise on the one hand of the small independent in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated.
The plague of 1348 "
farmer, on the other of the hired labourer. In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better," and in
marks an epoch in English agriculture. The diminution of the others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre-
ference. Beans and peas seem to have been common crops. He
population by one-half led to a scarcity of labour and an increase mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats; and after
of wages which deprived the landowner of his narrow margin "
describing the method of harrowing all maner of cornnes," we
of profit. To meet this situation, the Statute of Labourers find the roller employed. "They used to role their barley grounde
(1351) enacted that no man should refuse to work at the same 2
This process of enclosure must be distinguished from that of
rate of wages as prevailed before the plague. In addition the enclosing the arable common fields which, though advocated by
1
Walter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory Fitzherbert in a passage quoted below proceeded slowly till the
crop. i 8th century.
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 39 1
after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even to mowe." Under his neyghbours, and to leve them toguyther, and to make hym one
the article
"
To falowe," he observes, " the greater clottes (clods) the seuerall close in euery felde for his errable lands; and his leyse in
better wheate, for the clottes kepe the wheat warme all wynter; and euery felde to leve them togyther in one felde, and to make one seuerall
at March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small peces, close for them all. And also another seuerall close for his portion
the whiche is a new dongynge and refreshynge of the corne." This of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his medowe in a
is agreeable to the present practice, founded on the very same seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seureall both in wynter and
" "
reasons. In May, the shepe fplde is to be set out but Fitzherbert
; somer; and euery cottage shall haue his portion assigned hym
does not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages
" accordynge to his rent, and than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse
in a very judicious manner. In the latter end of May and the the poore man with his cattell and euery man may eate his oun
;
"
begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne and then we have
;
close at his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will
an accurate description of the different weeds, and the instruments find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, and
and mode of weeding. Next conies a second ploughing of the fallow ; better they shall lyke. For those beestis in the house have short
and afterwards, in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle and be bare ;

begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes and the hay- and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen
making there is a very good account. The corn harvest naturally in winter tyme for colde. And those that lye in a close undera hedge
follows :
rye and wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut haue longe heare and and they will neuer pylle nor be bare ;
thyck,
with the scythe. The writer does not approve of the common and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse so many catell
" In
practice of cutting wheat" high and then mowing the stubbles. as he did before.
"
Somersetshire," he says, they do shere theyr wheat very lowe; and This is the cause of this apprpwment. Nowe euery husbande
the wheate strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his
threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and call it rede, leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, and the sixte for his haye ;

and therewith they thacke theyr houses." He recommends the and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and than
practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight, hath the husbande other to occupy
tyll
lente come, and that he
fyue
instead of ten sheaves as at present probably owing to the straw hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer.
being then shorter. The corn was commonly housed; but if there And when he hath mowen his medowe, then he hath his medowe
be a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a scaffold grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be amended,
and not upon the ground. The fallow received a third ploughing in or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the
"
September, and was sown about Michaelmas. Wheat is moost which is a great advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than
commonlye sowne under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the
falowe, and then plpwe it under"; and this branch of his subject medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the rych men that hath
is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing and other moche catell wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have
kinds of barn-work. no help nor relefe in wynter when he hath moste nede and if an
;
"
Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock.
"
An housbande," he acre of lande be wort he sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth
says, can not well thryue by his corne without he have other VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and
cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. And bycause that shepe, in dpngyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and
myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can nighte; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be
haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe." His remarks worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his close that
on this subject are so accurate that one might imagine they came he hadde for his layse, or the close that he hadde for his commen
from a storemaster of the present day. pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye
In some places at present "they neuer seuertheir lambesfrom their for a time, and so shall he have always reist grounde, the which will
dammes " " and the poore of the peeke (high) countre'ye, and such
;
bear moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great
other places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only
wayne theyr lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche
" "
or syxe weekes but that, he observes,
;
is greate hurte to the ewes, more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate,
and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tyme drinke and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and
"
of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." In June is tyme to the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge-
shere shepe and ere they be shorne, they must be verye well washen,
;
able as all his holle rente; and also his corne shall be better saved
the which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of his wool, from eatinge or destroyeng with catel. For dout ye nat but heerde-
and also to the clothe-maker." men with their catell, shepeherdes with theirshepe, and tieng of horses
His remarks on horses, cattle, &c., are not less interesting; and and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save.
there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and some Paraduenture some men would say that this shuld be against the
just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen and swyne-herdes
same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work. shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered,
The author" then points out the great advantages of enclosure; though these occupations be not used, there be as many newe
recommends quycksettynge, dychynge and hedgeyng "; and gives occupations that were not used before as getting of quicke settes,
;

particular directions about settes, and the method of training a hedge, diching, hedging and plashing, the which the same men may use
as well as concerning the planting and management of trees. Fitz- and occupye."
herbert throws some light on the position of women in the agri- The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is
"
culture of his day. "It is a wyues occupation," he says, to wynowe
all maner of cornes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make
Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,
heye, shere corne, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande to published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 Lord
fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode Molesworth recommended that it should be taught in schools.
heye, corne and suche other; and to go or ride to the market to sel In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and then
butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese,
and all maner of cornes." follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages more.
The Book adds considerably to our knowledge It is written in verse. Amidst much that is valueless there are
of Surveying
" some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the
of the rural economy ol that
age. Four maner of commens "
are described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes, time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been intro-
" duced in the early part of the i6th century, and on the culture
and also quernes that goo with hand"; different orders of
" " of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are
tenants, down to the boundmen," who in some places con-
" mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after
tynue as yet "; and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be
many freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is barley. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. En-
taken from them." Lime and marl are mentioned as common closures must have been numerous in some counties; and there
"
is a very good comparison between champion (open fields)
manures, and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to
Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though country and several," which Blith afterwards transcribed into
destroy heath.
the latter but slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape,
" not yet cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs
how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere,
worth XX. li. a year," advocating the transition from communal and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser
or open field to individual or enclosure farming. about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works.
" In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated,
It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in
tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable landes to plowe and with augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach. Much
sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses and mares upon, and stress is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of
common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes and shepe
clover.
upon; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon.
Than to let it be known how many acres of errable lande euery man Fitzherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the
hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar
 39 2 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH
"
in modern times of tenants who, if they should marl and make old pasture, unless it be of the best quality. His description of
their holdings much
better, fear lest they should be put out, the different kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he
justly
or make a great fine or else pay more rent." This subject is recommends such as were drawn by two horses (some even by
treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue (ist one horse) in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines
ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding notice. The which required four or more horses or oxen. The following
"
author, writing from the landowner's point of view, ascribes the passage indicates the contemporary theory of manuring: In
and the rise in the price of corn 1 to the " emulation "
rise in rents thy tillage are these special opportunities to improve it, either
of tenants in competing for holdings, a practice implying that by liming, marling, sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-coddihg,
the agriculture of the period was prosperous. Norden's work mucking, chalking, pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or
"
contains many judicious observations on the different natures by any other means as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by
of grounds, how they may be employed, how they may be pitch marks, and tarry stuff, any oyly stuff, salt and many
bettered, reformed and amended." The famous meadows near things more, yea indeed any thing almost that hath any liquid-
Salisbury are mentioned, where, when cattle have fed their fill, ness, foulness, saltness or good moysture in it, is very natural!
"
hogs, it is said, are made fat with the remnant namely, with inrichment to almost any sort of land." Blith speaks of an
"
the knots and sappe of the grasse." Clouer grasse, or the grasse instrument which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same
"
honey suckle (white clover), is directed to be sown with other time; and the setting of corn was then a subject of much dis-
"
hay seeds. Carrot rootes " were then raised in several parts cussion. Blith was a zealous advocate of drainage and holds
of England, and sometimes by farmers. London street and that drains to be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft. deep.
stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and appears from The drainage of the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted
later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing. during the i;th century, but lack of engineering skill and the
Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of small capital opposition of the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now
as better than employing it in purchasing land. The works of fertile region.
Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel Plattes and other Hartlib's Legacie contains, among some very judicious direc-
authors of the first half of the i yth century may be passed over, tions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies
the best part of them being preserved by Blith and Hartlib, who which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be
are referred to below. placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can
Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant be supplied. Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable
and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, ar>d its title to the state of the country, and display more of general.knowledge
indicates the source to which England owed much of its sub- and good intention than of either the theory or practice of
sequent agricultural advancement. Weston was ambassador agriculture. Among the subjects deserving notice may be
from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the merit mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a
of being the first who introduced the great clover, as it was then preventive of smut; changing every year the species of grain,
called, 'into English agriculture, about 1652, and probably turnips and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down green
also. Clover thrives best, he says, when you sow it on the crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and chaff.
barrenest ground, such as the worst heath ground in England. This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about the
"
The ground is to be pared and burnt, and unslacked lime must advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. It were no
be added to the ashes. It is next to be well ploughed and "
losse to this island," he says, if that we should not plough at

harrowed; and about 10 Ib of clover seed must be sown on all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at a reasonable
an acre in April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures of wool "; and
seed, then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full one reason for this is, that pasture employs more hands than
and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five bushels tillage, instead of depopulating the country, as was commonly
"
per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; the land, when imagined. The grout, which he mentions as coming over to us
ploughed, will yield, three or four years together, rich crops of in Holland ships," about which he desires information, was
wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is probably the same as shelled barley; and mills for manufac-
to be sown again. It is in itself an excellent manure. Sir Richard turing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards
adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this treatment. the beginning of the i8th century.
Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention
method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn,
also made itsway to Ireland. both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in
A great many works on during the
agriculture appeared high estimation.
time of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver The first half of the tyth century was a period of agricultural
Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legacie are the most valuable. activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed farms.
The first edition of the former was published in 1649, and of the Marling and liming are again practised, new agricultural imple-
latter in 1651; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent ments and manures introduced, and the new crops more widely
editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved no used. But the Civil War and the subsequent political disturb-
mention is made of clover, nor in the second of turnips, but in the ances intervened to prevent the continuance of this progress, and
third, clover is treated of at some length, and turnips are recom- the agriculture of the end of the century seems to have relapsed
mended as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should into stagnation.
be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir Richard Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the i6th and the greater
Weston must have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith part of the i7th century very little is known; no professed
says that Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine treatise on the subject appeared after the Revolution. Scottish
till

with them. They were first given boiled, but afterwards the The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, agri-
swine came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very culture at

pull themforth as they gathered them an expression which

conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields.
wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the eastern
coast in that year, says,
"
We observed little or no
^ /(// .

Blith's book is the first systematic work in which there are fallow ground in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they
some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of interposing manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be very lazy, and
clover and turnip between culmiferous crops. He is a great may be frequently observed to plough in their cloaks. It is the
enemy to commons and common and to retaining land in
fields, fashion of them to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especi-
1
During the i6th century wheat had risen in price, and between ally on Sundays. They have neither good bread, cheese nor
1606 and 1618 never fell below 305. a quarter. At the same time drink. They cannot make them, nor will they learn. Their
wages remained low. butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how they could
 BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 393
contrive to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits the first decided
coal-wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated step in advance upon the principles and practices of his pre-
barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built of decessors. Not contented with a careful attention to details,
stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one room, many Tull set himself, with admirable skill and perseverance, to
of them no chimneys, the windows very small holes and not investigate the growth of plants, and thus to arrive at a know-
glazed. The ground in the valleys and plains bear very good ledge of the principles by which the cultivation of field-crops
corn, but especially bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely should be regulated. Having arrived at the conclusion that the
wheat and rye." food of plants consists of minute particles of earth taken up by
It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland their rootlets, it followed that the more thoroughly the soil in

from the end of the sth century, except that tenants gradually
i which they grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would
became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of having be the "pasture" (as he called it) to which their fibres would
"
their farm stocked by the landlord. The minority of James V., have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing
the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the
of her grandson Charles I. were all periods of lasting waste.
,
The intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until
very laws which were made during successive reigns for protecting they had well-nigh arrived at maturity. Such reliance did he
the tillers of the soil from spoil are the best proofs of the deplor- place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many as
able state of the husbandman."
1
thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure.
In the 1 7th century those laws were made which paved the way As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than
for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland. By a statute was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he begins
of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes valued, by showing that these roots extend much farther than is com-
and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, according monly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the nature of
to the nature of the property. The statute of 1685, conferring on their food. After examining several hypotheses, he decides this
landlords a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use
"
different tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. But the of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve this
two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons and separation of terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths of
intermixed properties, facilitated improvements. vegetable roots "; and this can be done more completely by
From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pulverize the soil
progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as might by repeated ploughings before it be seeded, but, as it becomes
be imagined from the great exportation of corn. It gradually more and more compressed afterwards, recourse must
is probable that very little improvement had taken be had to tillage while the plants are growing; and this is hoeing,
ofagricat-
tare from place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the which also destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of
'*** '
management of live stock, from the Restoration down their nourishment.
to the middle of the i8th century. Clover and turnips The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice of
were confined to a few districts, and at the latter period were laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., and upon
scarcely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern the middle of these drilling one, two, or three rows, distant
part of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, it is from one another about 7 in. when there were three, and 10 in.
necessary to notice only such as describe some improvement in when only two. The distance of the plants on one ridge from
the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that were those on the contiguous one he called an interval; the distance
formerly little known. between the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition; the
In John Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by
periodical work begun in 1681 there is one of the earliest notices of
,
the hand-hoe.
" " "
turnips being eaten by sheep: Some in Essex have their fallow Hoeing," he says, may be divided into deep, which is our
after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, by which means horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing;
the turnips are scooped, and so made capable to hold dews and and also the shallow horse-hoeing used in some places betwixt
rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the nitre of the air, and rows, where the intervals are very narrow, as 16 or 18 inches.
when the shell breaks it runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the This is but an imitation of the hand-hoe, or a succenadeum to
sheep, the land is dunged as if it had been folded; and those it, and can neither supply the use of dung nor fallow, and may

turnips, though few or none be carried off for human use, are a be properly called scratch-hoeing." But in his mode of forming
very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so, though they ridges his practice seems to have been original; his implements,
only plough the turnips in without feeding." This was written especially his drill, display much ingenuity; and his claim to
in February 1694. Ten years before, John Worlidge, one of his the title of founder of the present horse-hoeing husbandry of
correspondents, and the author of the Sy sterna A griculturae ( 1 669) ,
Great Britain seems indisputable.
"
observes, Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an Contemporary with Tull was Charles, 2ndViscountTownshend,
excellent nourishment for them in haM winters when fodder is a typical representative of the large landowners to whom the
scarce; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots strides made by agriculture in the i8th century were due. The
in the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin. Ten class to which he belonged was the only one which could afford
acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many to initiate improvements. The bulk of the land was still farmed
sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done." by small tenants on the old common-field system, which made
The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole Art it impossible for the individual to adopt a new crop rotation and

of Husbandry, a regular, systematic work of considerable merit, hindered innovation of every kind. On the other hand, the small
was published in 1707. farmers who occupied separated holdings were deterred from
From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that improving by the fear of a rise in rent. Townshend's belief in
"
:lover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that the growing of turnips gained him the nickname of Turnip
this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very Townshend." In their cultivation he adopted Tull's practice
common about the beginning of the i8th .century, wherever and horse-hoeing, and he was also the founder of the
of drilling
clover was cultivated. Rye-grass was now sown along with it. Norfolk or four-course system, the first of those rotations which
Turnips were hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding dispense with the necessity of a summer-fallow and provide
sheep and cattle. winter-keep for live-stock (see below, Rotation of Crops), The
The first considerable improvement in the practice of that spread of these principles in Norfolk made it, according to Arthur
was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, Young (writing in 1770), one of the best cultivated counties in
10 about the year 1701 invented the drill, and. whose Horse-
England. In the latter half of the century another Norfolk
1
Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii.
p. 732. farmer, Thomas William Coke of Holkham, earl of Leicester,

(riod
394 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

(1752-1842), figures as a pioneer of high-farming. He was one Scotland. John, 2nd earl of Stair, one of their most active
of the first to use oil-cake and bone-manure, to distinguish the members, said to have been the first who cultivated turnips in
is

feeding values of grasses, to appreciate to the full the beneficial that country. The Select Transactions of this society were
effects of stock on light lands and to realize the value of long collected and published in 1743 by Robert Maxwell, who took a
leases asan incentive to good farming. large part in its proceedings. It is evident from this book

Of the progress of the art in Scotland, till towards the end of that the society had exerted itself with success in intro-
the 17th century, we are almost entirely ignorant. The first ducing cultivated herbage and turnips, as well as in improving
... work, written by James Donaldson, was printed in the former methods of culture. But there is reason to believe
culture la 1697, under the title of Husbandry Anatomized; or, that the influence of the example of its numerous members did
Scotland an Inquiry into the Present Manner of Tilling and not extend to the common tenantry, who not unnaturally were
la the 18th
M anuri n g the Ground in Scotland. It appears from reluctant to adopt the practices of those by whom farming was
this treatise that the state of the art was not more perhaps regarded as primarily a source of pleasure rather than
advanced at that time in North Britain than it had been of profit. Though this society, the earliest probably in the
in England in the time of Fitzherbert. Farms were divided United Kingdom, soon counted upwards of 300 members, it
into infield and outfield; corn crops followed one another with- more than 20 years.
existed little
out the intervention of fallow, cultivated herbage or turnips, In the introductory paper in Maxwell's collection we are told
though something is said about fallowing the outfield; en- that
"
closures were very rare; the tenantry had not begun to emerge practice of draining, enclosing, summer fallowing, sowing
The
from a state of great poverty and depression; and the wages of
flax, hemp, rape, turnip and grass seeds, planting cabbages after,
and potatoes with, the plough, in fields of great extent, is introduced
;

labour, compared with the price of corn, were much lower than and that, according to the general opinion, more corn grows now
at present, though that price, at least in ordinary years, must yearly where it was never known to grow before, these twenty years
last past, than perhaps a sixth of all that the kingdom was in use
appear extremely moderate in our times. Leases for a term of to produce at any time before."
years, however, were not uncommon; but the want of capital
In 1757 Maxwell issued another work entitled The Practical
rendered it impossible for the tenantry to attempt any spirited
Husbandman; being a collection of Miscellaneous papers on
improvements.
The next work on the husbandry of Scotland is The Country- Husbandry, &c. In it the greater part of the Select Transactions
is republished, with a number of new papers, among which an
man's Rudiments, or an Advice to the Farmers in East Lothian,
how to labour and improve their Grounds, said to have been written Essay on the Husbandry of Scotland, with a proposal for the im-
provement of it, is the most valuable. In this he lays it down
by John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven about the time of the as a rule that it is bad husbandry to take two crops of grain
Union, and reprinted in 1723. The author bespeaks the favour
of those to whom he addresses himself in the following significant successively, which marks a considerable progress in the know-

terms:
"
Neither shall I affright you with hedging, ditching, ledge of modern husbandry; though he adds that in Scotland
the best husbandmen after a fallow take a crop of wheat; after
marling, chalking, paring and burning, draining, watering and
the wheat, peas; then barley, and then oats; and after that
such like, which are all very good improvements indeed, and
they fallow again. The want of enclosures was still a matter of
very agreeable with the soil and situation of East Lothian, but
I know ye cannot bear as yet a crowd of improvements, this complaint. The ground continued to be cropped so long as it
produced two seeds; the best farmers were contented with four
being only intended to initiate you in the true method and
The farm-rooms in East Lothian, seeds, which was more than the general produce.
principles of husbandry."
as in other districts, were divided into infield and outfield.
The gradual advance in the price of farm produce soon after
" the year 1760, occasioned by the increase of popula-
The infield (where wheat is sown) is generally divided by the
tenant into four divisions or breaks, as they call them, viz. one tion and of wealth derived from manufactures and lsig
of wheat, one of barley, one of pease and one of oats, so that the commerce, gave a powerful stimulus to rural industry,
wheat is sowd after the pease, the barley after the wheat and the
oats after the barley. The outfield land is ordinarily made use of
augmented agricultural capital and called forth a more skilful and
promiscuously for feeding of their cows, horse, sheep and oxen; 'tis enterprising race of farmers.
also dunged by their sheep who lay in earthen folds and sometimes,
;
A more rational system of cropping now began to take the
when they have much of it, they fanch or fallow a part of it yearly." place of the thriftless and barbarous practice of sowing succes-
Under this management the produce seems to have been sive crops of corn until the land was utterly exhausted, and then
"
three times the seed and yet, says the writer,
;
if in East leaving it foul with weeds to recover its power by an indefinite
Lothian they did not leave a higher stubble than in other places period of rest. Green crops, such as turnips, clover and rye
of the kingdom, their grounds would be in a much worse con- grass, began to be alternated with grain crops, whence the name
"
dition than at present they are, though bad enough." A good alternate husbandry.
crop of corn makes a good stubble, and a good stubble is the The writings of Arthur Young (<?..)> secretary to the Board
equalest mucking that is." Among the advantages of enclosures, of Agriculture, describe the transition from the old to the new
he observes, " you will gain much more labour from your ser- agriculture. In many places turnips and clover were still
vants, a great part of whose time was taken up in gathering unknown or ignored. Large districts still clung to the old
thistles and other garbage for their horses to feed upon in their common-field system, to the old habits of ploughing with
stables; and thereby the great trampling and pulling up and teams of four or eight, and to slovenly methods of cultivation.
other destruction of the corns while they are yet tender will Young's condemnation of these survivals was as pronounced as
be prevented." Potatoes and turnips are recommended to be his support of the methods of the large farmers to whom he
sown in the yard (kitchen-garden). Clover does not seem to have ascribed the excellence of the husbandry of Kent, Norfolk and
been in use. Rents were paid in corn; and for the largest farm, Essex. He realized that with the enclosure of the waste lands
which he thinks should employ no more than two ploughs, the and the absorption of small into large holdings, the common-
"
rent was about six chalders of victual when the ground is very field farmer must migrate to the town or become a hired labourer;

good, and four in that which is not so good. But I am most fully but he also realized that to feed a rapidly growing industrial
convinced they should take long leases or tacks, that they may population, the land must be improved by draining, marling,
not be straitened with time in the improvement of their rooms; manuring and the use of better implements, in short by the
and this is profitable both for master .and tenant." investment of the capital which the yeoman farmer, content to
Such was the state of the husbandry of Scotland in the early feed himself and his own family, did not possess. The enlarge-
part of the i8th century. The first attempts at improvement ment and in Scotland the letting of them under leases
of farms,
cannot be traced farther back than 1723, when a number of for a considerable term of years, continued to be a marked feature
landholders formed themselves into a society, under the title in the agricultural progress of the country until the end of the
of the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in century, and is to be regarded both as a cause and a consequence
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 395
of that progress. The passing of some 3500 enclosure bills, affect- ordinary events, every branch of industry extended with un-
ing between 5 and 55 million acres, during the reign of George exampled rapidity. But in nothing was this so apparent as in
III., before which the whole number was between 200
and 250, agriculture; the high prices of produce holding out a great
shows how rapidly the break-up of the common-field husbandry inducement to improve lands then arable, to reclaim others that
and the cultivation of new land now proceeded. The disastrous had previously lain waste, and to bring much pasture-land under
American War for a
time interfered with the national prosperity; the plough. Nor did this increased tillage interfere with the
but with the return of peace in 1783 the cultivation of the increase of live stock, as the green crops of the alternate hus-
country made more rapid progress. The quarter of a century bandry more than compensated for the diminished pasturage.
immediately following 1760 is memorable for the introduction This extraordinary state of matters lasted from 1795 to 1814,
of various important improvements. It was during this period the prices of produce even increasing towards the close of that
that the genius of Robert Bakewell produced an extraordinary period. The average price of wheat for the whole period
change in the character of our more important breeds of live was 895. 7d. per quarter; but for the last five years it was
stock, more especially by the perfecting of a new race of sheep 1075., and in 1812 it reached 1263. 6d. The agriculture of Great
the well-known Leicesters. Bakewell's fame as a breeder was Britain, as a whole, advanced with rapid strides during this
for a time enhanced by the improvement which he effected on period; but nowhere was the change so great as in Scotland.
the Long-horned cattle, then the prevailing breed of the midland Indeed, its progress there, during these twenty years, is probably
counties of England. These, however, were ere long rivalled without parallel in the history of any other country. This is
and afterwards superseded by the Shorthorn or Durham breed, accounted for by a concurrence of circumstances. Previous to
which the brothers Charles and Robert Colling obtained from this period the husbandry of Scotland was still in a backward
the useful race of cattle that had long existed in the valley of state as compared with the best districts of England, where many
the Tees, by applying to them the principle of breeding which practices, only of recent introduction in the north, had been in
Bakewell had already established. To this period also belong general use for generations. This disparity made the subsequent
George and Matthew Culley the former a pupil of Bakewell contrast the more striking. The land in Scotland was now, with
who left their paternal property on the bank of the Tees and trifling exceptions, let on leases for terms varying from twenty to
settled on the Northumbrian side of the Tweed, bringing with thirty years, and in farms of sufficient size to employ at the least
them the valuable breeds of live stock and improved husbandry two or three ploughs. The unlimited issues of government paper
of their native district. The improvements introduced by these and the security afforded by these leases induced the Scottish
energetic and skilful farmers spread rapidly, and exerted a most banks to afford every facility to landlords and tenants to embark
beneficial influence upon the border counties. capital in the improvement of the land. The substantial educa-
From 1784 to 1795 improvements advanced with steady steps. tion supplied by the parish schools, of which nearly the whole
This period was distinguished for the adoption and working population could then avail themselves, had diffused through all
out of ascertained improvements. Small's swing plough and ranks such a measure of intelligence as enabled them promptly
Andrew Meikle's threshing-machine, although invented some to discern and skilfully and energetically to take advantage of

years before this, were now perfected and brought into general this spring-tide of prosperity, and to profit by the agricultural
use, to the great furtherance of agriculture. Two important information now plentifully furnished by means of the Bath and
additions were about this time made to the field crops, viz. the West of England Society, established in 1777; the Highland
Swedish turnip and potato oat. The latter was accidentally Society, instituted in 1784; and the National Board of Agricul-
discovered in 1788, and both soon came into general cultivation. ture, in 1793.
In the same year Merino sheep were introduced by George III., The restoration of peace to Europe, and the re-enactment of
who was a zealous farmer. For a time this breed attracted much the Corn Laws in 1815, mark the beginning of another era in the
attention, and sanguine expectations were entertained that it history of agriculture. The sudden return to peace-
would prove of national importance. Its unfitness for the pro- prices was followed by a time of severe depression, low
duction of mutton, and increasing supplies of fine clothing wool wages, diminished rents and bad farming. The fall
from other countries, soon led to its total rejection. in prices was aggravated, first by the unpropitious weather and
In Scotland the opening up of the country by the construction deficient harvest of the years 1816, 1817, and still more by the
of practicable roads,and the enclosing and subdividing of farms passing in 1819 of the bill restoring cash payments, which, coming
by hedge and ditch, was now in active progress. The former into operation in 1821, caused serious embarrassment to all
admitted of the general use of wheel-carriages, of the ready con- persons who had entered into engagements at a depreciated
veyance of produce to markets, and in particular of the extended currency, which had now to be met with the lower prices of an
use of lime, the application of which was immediately followed enhanced one. The frequency of select-committees and commis-
by a great increase of produce. The latter, besides its more sions, which sat in 1814, 1821 and 1822, 1833 and 1836, testifies
obvious advantages, speedily freed large tracts of country from to the gravity of the crisis. The years 1830-1833 are especially
stagnant water and their inhabitants from ague, and prepared memorable for a disastrous outbreak of sheep-rot and for agrarian
the way for the underground draining which soon after began to outrages, caused partly by the dislike of the labourers to the
be practised. Dawson of Frogden in Roxburghshire is believed introduction of agricultural machines.
to have been the first who grew turnips as a field crop to any During this period of depression, which lasted till the 'forties,
extent. It is on record that as early as 1764 he had 100 acres of want of confidence prevented any general improvement in
on his farm in one year. An Act passed in 1770,
drilled turnips agricultural methods. At the same time, certain developments
which relaxed the rigour of strict entails and afforded power to destined to exercise considerable influence in later times are
landlords to grant leases and otherwise improve their estates, had to be noted. Before the close of the i8th century, and during
a beneficial effect on Scottish agriculture. the first quarter of the igth, a good deal had been done in the
The husbandry of the country was thus steadily improving, way of draining the land, either by open ditches or by James
when suddenly the whole of Europe became involved in the wars Elkington's system of deep covered drains. In 1834 James
of the French Revolution. In 1795, under the joint operation of Smith of Deanston promulgated his system of thorough draining
a deficient harvest and the diminution in foreign supplies of and deep ploughing, the adoption of which immeasurably im-
grain owing to outbreak of war, the price of wheat, which, for the proved the clay lands of the country. The early years of the
twenty preceding years, had been under 505. a quarter, suddenly reign ofQueen Victoria witnessed the strengthening of the union
rose to 8is. 6d., and in the following year reached p6s. In 1797 between agriculture and chemistry. The Board of Agriculture
the fear of foreign invasion led to a panic and run upon the banks, in 1803 had commissioned Sir Humphry Davy to deliver a
in which emergency the Bank Restriction Act, course of lectures on the connexion of chemistry with vegetable
suspending cash
payment, was passed, and ushered in a system of unlimited credit physiology. In 1840 the appearance of Chemistry in its Appli-
transactions. Under the unnatural stimulus of these extra- cation to Agrkulture and Physiology by Justus von Liebig set
 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH
on foot a movement in favour of scientific husbandry, the most was not, however, without its calamities. The foot-and-mouth
notable outcome of which was the establishment by Sir John disease first appeared about 1840, having been introduced, as is
Bennet Lawes in 1843 of the experimental station of Rotham- supposed, by foreign cattle. It spread rapidly over the country,
sted. Since Blith's time bone was the one new fertilizer that affecting all domesticated animals except horses, and although
had come into use. Nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano and seldom attended by fatal results, caused everywhere great alarm
superphosphate of lime in the form of bones dissolved by sulphuric and loss. It was soon followed by the more terrible lung-disease,
acid were now added to the list of manures, and the practice or pleuro-pneumonia. In 1865 the rinderpest, or steppe murrain,
of analysing soils became more general. Manual labour in originating amongst the vast herds of the Russian steppes, had
farming operations began to be superseded by the use of drills, spread westward over Europe, until it was brought to London
hay-makers and horse-rakes, chaff-cutters and root-pulpers. by foreign cattle. Several weeks elapsed before the true char-
The reaping-machine, invented in 1812 by John Common, acter of the disease was known, and in this brief space it had
improved upon by the Rev. Patrick Bell in England and by already been carried by animals purchased in Smithfield market
Cyrus H. McCormick and others in America, and finally perfected to all parts of the country. After causing the most frightful
about 1879 by the addition of an efficient self-binding apparatus, losses, it was at last stamped out by the resolute slaughter of all
is the most striking example of the application of mechanics to affected animals and of all that had been in contact with them.
agriculture. Improvements in the plough, harrow and roller Severe as were the losses in flocks and herds from these imported
were introduced, adapting those implements to different soils diseases, they were eclipsed by the ravages of the mysterious
and purposes. The steam-engine first took the place of horses potato blight, which, first appearing in 1845, pervaded the whole
as a threshing power in 1803, but it was not until after 1850 that of Europe, and in Ireland especially proved the precursor of
it was applied to the plough and cultivator. The employment famine and pestilence.
of agricultural machines received considerable impetus from the A short period of low prices followed the repeal of the Corn
Great Exhibition of 1851. The much-debated Corn Laws, after Laws, wheat averaging only 385. 6d. a quarter in 1851, but the
undergoing various modifications, and proving the fruitful years from 1852 to 1875 were the most prosperous of the century.
source of business uncertainty, social discontent and angry The letters written by Sir James Caird to The Times during
partisanship, were finally abolished in 1846, although the act 1850, and republished in 1852 under the title English Agriculture
was not consummated until three years later. Several other in 1850-1851, give a general review of English agriculture at
acts of the legislature passed during this period exerted a bene- the time. The scientific and mechanical improvements of the
ficial influence on agriculture. Of these, the first in date and first half of the century were widely adopted, while the prices

importance is the Tithe Commutation Act of 1836. Improve- of the protectionist period showed little decline. Amelioration
ment was also stimulated by the Public Money Drainage in all breeds of domesticated animals was manifested, not so
Acts 1846-1856, under which government was empowered to much in the production of individual specimens of 'high merit
advance money on certain conditions for the improvement of as in the diffusion of these and other good breeds over the
estates. Additional facilities were granted by the act passed country, and in the improved quality of live stock as a whole.
in 1848 for disentailing estates, and for burdening such as are The fattening of animals was conducted on more scientific
entailed with the share of the cost of certain specified im- principles. Increased attention was successfully bestowed on
provements. the improvement of field crops. Improved varieties, obtained
Meanwhile much had been done in the organization of agri- by cross-impregnation either naturally or artificially brought
cultural knowledge. Mention has already been made of the about, were carefully propagated and generally adopted, and in-
institution of the Highland Society and the National Board of creased attention was bestowed on the cultivation of the natural
Agriculture. These institutions were the means of collecting grasses. The most important additions to the list of field crops
a vast amount of statistical and general information connected were Italian rye-grass, winter beans, white Belgian carrot and
with agriculture, and by their publications and premiums made alsike clover.
known the practices of the best-farmed districts and encouraged The last quarter of the igth century proved, however, a fateful
their adoption elsewhere. These associations were soon aided period for British agriculture. The great future that seemed
in their important labours by numerous local societies which to await the application of steam power to the tillage
sprang up in all parts of the kingdom. After a highly useful of the soil proved illusory. The clay soils of England,
under the presidency till 1813 of Sir John Sinclair, the the latent fertility of which was to be brought into
"
career,
Board was dissolved in 1819, but left in its statis-
of Agriculture play in a fashion that should mightily augment the
tical account, county surveys and other documents much home-grown supplies of food, remained intractable, and the
interesting and valuable information regarding the agriculture extent of land devoted to the cultivation of corn crops, instead
of the period. In 1800 the original Farmers' Magazine came of expanding, diminished in a marked degree. British farmers
into existence under the editorship of Robert Brown of of long experience look back to 1874 as the last of the really
Markle, the author of the well-known treatise on Rural A/airs. good years, and consider that the palmy days of British agri-
The Highland Society having early extended its operations to culture began to dwindle at about that time. The shadow of the
the whole of Scotland, by and by made a corresponding addition approaching depression had already fallen upon the land before
to its title, and as the Highland and Agricultural Society of the year 1875 had run its course, and the outlook became ominous
Scotland gradually extended its operations. In 1828, shortly as the decade of the 'seventies neared its close. One memorable
after the discontinuance of the Farmers' Magazine, its Prize feature was associated with 1877 in that this was the last year
Essays and Transactions began to be issued statedly in connexion in which the dreaded cattle plague (rinderpest) made its appear-
with the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. This society early ance in England. The same year, 1877, was the last also in
began to hold a great show of live stock, implements, &c. In which the annual average price of English wheat (then 565. gd.)
1842 certain Midlothian tenant-farmers had the merit of exceeded 508. a quarter. With declining prices for farm produce
originating an Agricultural Chemistry Association (the first of came that year of unhappy memory, 1879, when persistent rains
its kind), by which funds were raised for the purpose of conduct- and an almost sunless summer ruined the crops and reduced
ing such investigations as the title of the society implies. After many farmers to a state of destitution. Much of the grain was
a successful trial of a few years this association was dissolved, never harvested, whilst owing mainly to the excessive floods
transferring its functions to the Highland and Agricultural there commenced an outbreak of liver-rot in sheep, due to the
Society. ravages of the fluke parasite. This continued for several years,
In England the Agricultural Society was founded in 1838, and the mortality was so great that its adverse effects upon the
"
with the motto Practice with Science," and shortly afterwards ovine population of the country were still perceptible ten years
incorporated by royal charter. In 1845 the Royal Agricultural afterwards. A fall in rents was the necessary sequel of the
College at Cirencester was incorporated. This era of revival agricultural distress, to inquire into which a royal commission
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 397
was appointed in 1879, under the chairmanship of the duke of Great Britain) was formed under an act of parliament of that
Richmond and Gordon. Its report, published in 1882, testified year (see AGRICULTURE, BOARD or). The election took place
" in the same year (1889) of the first county councils, and the
to the great extent and intensity of the distress which has
fallen upon the agricultural community. Owners and occupiers allotment to them of various sums of money under the Local
have alike suffered from it. No description of estate or tenure Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890 enabled local provision
has been exempted. The owner in fee and life tenant, the to be made for the promotion of technical instruction in agri-

occupier, whether of large or of small holding, whether under culture (see below, Agricultural Education). It was about this
lease, or custom, or agreement, or the provisions of the Agricul- time that the value of a mixture of lime and sulphate of copper
tural Holdings Act all without distinction have been involved sprayed in solution upon the growing plants,
(bouillie bordelaise),
in a general calamity." The two most prominent causes assigned came to be recognized as a check upon the ravages of potato
for the depression were bad seasons and foreign competition, disease. .

aggravated by the increased cost of production and the heavy The general experience of the decade of the 'eighties was
losses of live stock. Abundant evidence was forthcoming as that of disappointing summers, harsh winters, falling prices,
to the extent to which agriculture had been injuriously affected declining rents and the shrinkage of land values. It is true that
"
by an unprecedented succession of bad seasons." As regards one season of the series, that of 1887, was hot and droughty,
the pressure of foreign competition, it was stated to be greatly but the following summer was exceedingly wet. Nevertheless,
in excess of the anticipations of the supporters, and of the the decade closed more hopefully than it opened, and found
apprehensions of the opponents of the repeal of the Corn Laws. farmers taking a keener interest in grass land, in live stock and
Whereas formerly the farmer was to some extent compensated in dairying. Cattle-breeders did well in 1889, but sheep-breeders
by a higher price for a smaller yield, in recent years he had had fared better; on the other hand, owing to receding prices, corn-
to compete with an unusually large supply at greatly reduced growers were more disheartened than ever. With the incoming
prices. On the other hand, he had enjoyed the advantage of of the last decade of the century there seemed to be some
an extended supply of feeding-stuffssuch as maize, linseed- justifiable hopes of the dawn of better times, but they were
cake and cotton-cake and of artificial manures imported from speedily doomed to disappointment. In 1891 excessively heavy
abroad. The low price ofagriculturalproduce, beneficial though autumn rains washed the arable soils to such an extent that the
it might be to the general community, had lessened the ability next season's corn crops were below average. Wheat in parti-
of the land to bear the proportion of taxation which had hereto- cular was a poor crop in 1892, and the low yield was associated
fore been imposed upon it. The legislative outcome of the with falling prices due to large imports. The hay crop was very
findings of this royal commission was the Agricultural Holdings inferior, and in some cases it was practically ruined. This gave
Act 1883, a measure which continued in force in its entirety a stimulus to the trade in imported hay, which rose from 61,237
till 1901, when a new act came into operation. tons in 1892 to 263,050 tons in 1893, and despite some large
The apparently hopeless outlook for corn-growing compelled home-grown crops in certain subsequent years (1897 and 1898)
farmers to cast about for some other means of subsistence, and this expansion has never since been wholly lost.
to rely more than they had hitherto done upon the possibilities The misfortunes of 1892 proved to be merely a preparation
of stock-breeding. It was in particular the misfortunes of the for the disasters of 1893, i n which year occurred the most de-
later 'seventies thatgave the needed fillip to that branch of structive drought within living memory. Its worst effects were
stock-farming concerned with the production of milk, butter seen upon the light land farms of England, and so deplorable
and cheese, and from this period may be said to date the revival was the position that a royal commission on agricultural de-
of the dairying industry, which received a powerful impetus pression was appointed in September of that year under the
through the introduction of the centrifugal cream separator, chairmanship of Mr Shaw Lefevre (afterwards Lord Eversley).
and was fostered by the British Dairy Farmers' Association Thus, within the last quarter of the igth century and, as a
(formed in 1875). The generally wet character of the seasons matter of fact, only fourteen years apart two royal commissions
in 1879 and the two or three years following was mainly respon- on agriculture were appointed, the one in a year of memorable
sible for thehigh prices of meat, so that the supplies of fresh beef flood, 1879, and the other in a year of disastrous drought, 1893.
and mutton from Australia which now began to arrive found a The report of the commission of 1893 was issued in March 1896.
ready market, and the trade in imported fresh meat which was Amongst its chief recommendations were those relating to
thus commenced has practically continued to expand ever since. amendments in the Agricultural Holdings Acts, and to tithe rent-
The great losses arising from spoilt hay crops served to stimulate charge, railway rates, damage by game, sale of adulterated
experimental inquiry into the method of preserving green fodder products, and sale of imported goods (meat, for example) as
known as ensilage, with the result that the system eventually home produce. Two legislative enactments arose out of the
became successfully incorporated in the ordinary routine of work of this commission. In the majority report it was stated
"
agricultural practice. A contemporaneous effort in the direction that, in order to place agricultural lands in their right position
of drying hay by artificial means led to nothing of practical as compared with other ratable properties, it is essential that
importance. By 1882 the cry as to land going out of cultivation they should be assessed to all local rates in a reduced propor-
became loud and general, and the migration of the rural popula- tion of their ratable value." The Agricultural Rates Act 1896
tion into the towns in search of work continued unchecked (see gave recommendation. Its objects were to relieve
effect to this

below, Agricultural Population). In 1883 foot-and-mouth disease agricultural land from half the local rates, and to provide the
was terribly rampant amongst the herds and flocks of Great means of making good out of imperial funds the deficiency in local
Britain, and was far more prevalent than it has ever been since. taxation caused thereby. It was provided that the act should
It was about this time that the first experiments were made continue in force only till the 3ist of March 1902, but a further
(in Germany) with basic slag, a material which had hitherto act in 1901 extended the period by four years, and in 1905 its
been regarded as a worthless by-product of steel manufacture. operation was extended to the 3ist of March 1910. The other
A year or two later field trials were begun in England, with the measure arising out of the report of the royal commission of 1893
final result that basic slag has become recognized as a valuable was the Agricultural Holdings Act 1900. This was an amending
source of phosphorus for growing crops, and is now in constant act and not a consolidating act; consequently it had to be read
demand for application to the soil as a fertilizer. as if incorporated into the already existing acts. As affecting
In 1883 the veterinary department of the Privy Council agricultural practice there were three noteworthy improvements
which had been constituted in 1365 when the country was in respect of the making of which, without the consent of or
ravaged by cattle plague was abolished by order in council, notice to his landlord, a tenant might claim compensation (i)
and the " Agricultural Department " was substituted, but no the consumption on the holding
"
by horses, other than those
alteration was effected in the work of the department, so far as regularly employed on the holding," of corn, cake or other
"
it related to animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for feeding-stuff not produced on the holding; (2) the consumption
398 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

on the holding by cattle, sheep, or pigs, or by horses other than prospective value were too high, the council might hire such land
those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by for the purpose of letting it. (See ALLOTMENTS AND SMALL HOLD-
satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on INGS for this and other acts.) The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
"
the holding "; (3) laying down temporary pasture with clover, Act 1893 compelled sellers of fertilizers (i.e. manures), manu-
grass, lucerne, sainfoin or other seeds sown more than two years factured or imported, to state the percentage of the nitrogen, of
prior to the determination of the tenancy." A further act was the soluble and insoluble phosphates, and of the potash in each
passed in 1906 (the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906) which im- article sold, and this statement was to have the effect of a war-

proved the tenant's position in respect of freedom of cropping, ranty. Similar stringent conditions applied as regards the sale of
disposal of produce and compensation for disturbance. feeding-stuffs for live stock. The Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs
After 1894, in which' year the brilliant prospects of a bountiful Act 1906, amending and re-enacting the act of 1893, provided
harvest were ultimately extinguished by untimely and heavy for the compulsory appointment by county councils of official
rains, all the remaining seasons of the closing decade of the igth samplers. It also provides penalties for breaches of duty by the
century were dominated by drought. A fact that was amply seller, but grants him protection in cases where he is not morally
illustrated, moreover, is that the period of incidence of a drought responsible. The Finance Act of 1894, with its great changes in
is not less important than its duration, and the same is true of the death duties, overshadowed all other acts of that year both in
abnormal rainfall. A spring drought, a summer drought, an its immediate effects and in its far-reaching consequences. The
autumn drought, each has its distinctive characteristics in so far Copyhold Consolidation Act 1894 supersedes six previous copy-
as the effect upon the crops is concerned. The hot drought of hold statutes, but does not effect any alteration in the law concern-
1893 extended over the spring and summer months, but there ing enfranchisement. The Diseases of Animals Act 1896 provided
was an abundant rainfall in the autumn; correspondingly there for thecompulsory slaughter of imported live stock at the place
was an unprecedented^ bad yield of corn and hay crops, but a of landing. The Light Railways Act and the Locomotives on
moderately fair yield of the main root crops (turnips and swedes). Highways Act were added to the statute book in 1896, and
In 1899 the drought became most intense in the autumn after various clauses in the Finance Act effected reforms in respect of
the corn crops had been harvested, but during the chief period, the death duties, the land-tax, farmers' income-tax and the beer
of growth of the root crops; correspondingly the corn crops of duty. The Chaff-cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897 is a
that year rank very well amongst the crops of the decade, but measure very similar in its intention to the Threshing Machines
the yield of turnips and swedes was the worst on record. It is Act 1878, and provides for the automatic prevention of accidents
quite possible for a hot dry season to be associated with a large to persons in charge of chaff-cutting machines. The Sale of Food
yield of corn, provided the drought is confined to a suitable period, and Drugs Act 1899 has special reference in its earlier sections
as was the case in 1896 and still more so in 1898; the English to the trade in dairy produce and margarine. In 1899 was also
wheat crops in those years were probably the biggest in yield passed the act establishing the Department of Agriculture and
per acre that had been harvested since 1868, which is always Technical Instruction in Ireland.
looked back upon as a remarkable year for wheat. The drought The year 1900 saw the passing of a Workmen's Compensation
of 1898 was interrupted by copious rains in June, and these Act, which extended the benefits of the act of 1897 to agricultural
falling on a warm soil led to a rapid growth of grass and, as labourers.
measured by yield per acre, an exceedingly heavy crop of hay. Acreage 'and Yields of British Crops.
With the exceptions of 1891 and 1894, every year in the period
The most notable feature in connexion with the cropping of the
1891-1900 was stricken by drought. The two meteorological land of the United Kingdom between 1875 and 1905 was the
events of the decade which will probably live longest in the
lessened cultivation of the cereal crops associated with an expan-
recollection were, however, the terrible drought of 1893, result-
sion in the area of grass land. At the beginning of the period the
ing in a fodder famine in the succeeding winter, and the severe
Between aggregate area under wheat, barley and oats was nearly iOj
frost of ten weeks' duration at the beginning of 1895.
million acres; at_the close it did not amount to 8 million acres.
these two occurrences came the disastrous decline in the value
There was thus a withdrawal during the period of over 25 million
of grain in the autumn of 1894, when the weekly average price
acres from cereal cultivation. From Table I., showing the
of English wheat fell to the record minimum of 175. 6d. per im-
acreages at intervals of five years, it will be learnt that the loss
perial quarter. As a consequence, the extent of land devoted
fell chiefly upon the wheat crop, which at the close of the period
to wheat in the British Isles receded in 1895 to less than 13
million acres. The year 1903 was memorable for a very heavy TABLE I. Areas of Cereal Crops in the United Kingdom
A cres.
rainfall, comparable though not equal in its disastrous effects to
that of 1879. Successful trials of sulphate of copper solution Year.
as a means of destroying charlock in corn crops took place in
the years 1898-1900. Charlock is a most persistent cruciferous
weed, but if sprayed when young with the solution named it is
killed, the corn plants being uninjured. In 1901 the formation
of the Agricultural Organization Society marked the first sys-
tematic attempt to organize co-operation among the farmers
of Great Britain. In the subsequent years the principle, which
had already made great progress in Ireland, began to obtain a
hold in England and Wales, where, in 1906, there were 145 local
co-operative societies with a turn -over of 350,000.
Amongst measures of importance to agriculturists
legislative
mention' should be made, in addition to those that have been
referred to, of the Tithe Rent-charge Recovery Act 1891, which
transfers the liability for payment of tithe from the occupier to
the owner. In the same year was passed the Markets and Fairs
(Weighing of Cattle) Act. The object of the Small Holdings Act
1892 was to facilitate the acquisition of small agricultural hold-
ings. It provided that a county council might acquire any suit-
able land, with the object of allotting from one to fifty acres,
or, if more than fifty acres, of an annual value not exceeding 50,
to persons who desired to buy, and would themselves cultivate,
the holdings. If, owing to proximity to a town or otherwise, the
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 399
1892 did it exceed 305. In one of these exceptional years, 1898,
the average rose to 343., but this was due entirely to a couple of
months of inflated prices in the early half of the year, when the
outbreak of war between Spain and the United States of America
coincided with a huge speculative deal in the latter country. The
TABLE II. Gazette Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter
of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905.

Year.
400 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low

prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided in-
ducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over
three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many
cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass
indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the
Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass
into the category of permanent grass land, or what is often
"
spoken of as permanent pasture." Whilst much grass land has
been laid down with the intention from the outset that it should
be permanent, at the same time some considerable areas have
through stress of circumstances been allowed to drift from the
temporary or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have
thus still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion
of the plough. The column relating to permanent grass in
Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became
TABLE IV. Areas of Grass Land (excluding Heath and Mountain
Land) in the United Kingdom Acres.

Year.
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 401
as in any one of the years 1890, 1891 and i8g8. The produce
of barley, like that of oats, is less irregular than that of wheat, the
extremes for barley being 80,794,000 bushels (1890) and 62,453,000
bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894)
and 161,175,000 bushels (1901). Similar details for potatoes,
ots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the

TABLE VIII. Estimated Annual Total Produce of Potatoes, Roots

and Hay in the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 Thousands of
Tons.

Year.
 402 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH
crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first the wheat lands of the whole world. Mineral manures alone give
the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the very little increase, nitrogenous manures alone considerably more
United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels than mineral manures alone, but the mixture of the two con-
of 60 Ib per bushel, which was for a long time the
acceptec siderably more than either separately. In one case, indeed, the
average unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating anc average produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was
manuring the soil were to increase its general more than that by the annual application of farmyard manure;
wheat-yielding
1
capacity. and in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were
Crops and Cropping. used the average yield per acre was from over two to over
eight
The greater freedom
of cropping and the less close adherence to bushels more than the average yield of the United
Kingdom
the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the (assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 60 Ib per
early years of the 2oth century, rest upon a scientific basis. bushel) under ordinary rotation. It is estimated that the
reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the forty years,
Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as
to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how 1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without manure during
best to meet these requirements in the case of field the eight preceding years, was, provided it had been uniform
crops. He
cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel from
accumulated the truths that have been slowly established at year to year due to exhaustion that is, irrespectively of fluctua-
the agricultural experiment stations in various tions due to season. It is related that a visitor from the United
parts of the "
world. Of these stations the greatest, and the oldest now States, talking to Sir John Lawes, said, Americans have learnt
existing,
is that at Rothamsted, more from this field than from any dther agricultural experiment
Harpenden, Herts, England, which was
founded in 1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.). The results of in the world."

more than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years in
communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, Sir succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in show-
J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or reports, many of ing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger than that
which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the Journal without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone give more
of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England. 2 produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures of
In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow some mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than either
of the most important crops of used alone generally twice, or more than twice, as much as
rotation, each separately year
after year, for mineral manures alone. Of mineral constituents, whether used
many years in succession on the same land, (a)
without manure, (b) with farmyard manure and (c) with a alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are
great
variety of chemical manures; the same description of manure
much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and
being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same plot. magnesia. The average results show that, under all conditions
Experi-
ments on an actual course of rotation, without manure, and with of manuring excepting with farmyard manure the produce
different manures, have also been made. was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the experi-
Wheat, barley, oats,
beans, clover and other leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet, ments, an effect partly due to the seasons. But the average
mangels, potatoes and grass crops have thus been experimented produce over forty years of continuous growth of barley was, in
all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures
upon. Incidentally there have been extensive sampling and (containing
analysing of soils, investigations into rainfall and the composition phosphates) were used together, much higher than the average
of drainage waters, inquiries into the amount of water produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation in the United
transpired
by plants, and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen. Kingdom, and very much higher than the average in most other
Cereals. countries when so grown. The requirements of barley within the
Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, not
one of more universal interest than that in which wheat was soil, and its susceptibility to the external influences of season, are
very similar to those of its near ally, wheat. Nevertheless there
grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without manure,
are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of
(b) with farmyard manure and (c) with various artificial manures.
The results show that, unlike leguminous crops such as beans or the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accord-

clover, wheat may be successfully grown for many years in suc- ingly. In the British Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn
cession on ordinary arable land, provided suitable manures be on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to dis-
tribute its roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of soil
applied and the land be kept clean. Even without manure the
average produce over forty-six years, 1852-1897, was nearly
and subsoil before barley is sown in the spring. Barley, on the
thirteen bushels per acre, or about the average other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its short
yield per acre of
1
The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the igth century period for root-development, relies in a much greater degree on
the stores of plant-food within the surface soil. Accordingly it
appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing seasons.
The yields in the experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted where is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface soil as to its nitro-
there is no change either of land or of treatment indicate this. genous, and especially as to its mineral supplies; and in the
Tne following figures show the average yields common
per acre of the selected practice of agriculture it is found to be more benefited
plots at Rothamsted over six 8-yearly periods from 1852 to 1899,
and afford evidence that the higher yield of later years is due to the ay direct mineral manures, especially phosphatic manures, than
is wheat when sown under
seasons :
equal soil conditions. The exhaustion
Bushels (of 60 ft) of the soil induced by both barley and wheat is, however, char-
Average of per acre acteristically that of available nitrogen; and when, under the
8 years 1852-1859 28
8 1860-1867 28 ordinary conditions of manuring and cropping, artificial manure
8 s still required, nitrogenous manures are, as a rule, necessary for
1868-1875 27
B
8
1876-1883
1884-1891
1892-1899
...... 25-
29
30
Dbth crops, and, for the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also.
Although barley is appropriately grown on lighter soils than
wheat, good crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier
32 soils after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures,
1852-1883 27|
16 1884-1899 Drovided that the land is sufficiently clean. Experiments similar
30
:o the foregoing were carried on for many years in succession at
48 1852-1899 28J Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were in general
The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 27^ bushels per accordance with those on the other cereal crops.
acre, of the last sixteen years 30 bushels, and of the whole forty-eight Additional significance to the value of the above experiments
years 28} bushels.
2
J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert, Rothamsted Memoirs on
See on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same series,
Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1899); A. D with but slight modifications, has also been carried out since
Hall, Book of the Rothamsted Experiments (1905).
1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental farm of the
 BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 403
Royal Agricultural Society of England, the soil here being of character and range of roots. This result is doubtless largely
light sandy character, and thus very different from the heavy dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition
soil of Rothamsted. The results for the thirty years, 1877-1906, of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different
are in their general features entirely confirmatory of those descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells sym-
ibtained at Rothamsted. biotically with one species is not identical with that which
Root-Crops. Experiments upon root-crops chiefly white similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success in
mips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels have resulted any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous
the establishment of the following conclusions. Both the crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation
antity and the quality of the produce, and consequently its in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success
ding value, must depend greatly upon the selection of the will commonly include the liberal application of potash and
:st description of roots to be grown, and on the character and phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the
ie amount of the manures, and especially on the amount of
leguminous crop. As to how long the leguminous" crop should
itrogenous manure employed. At the same time, no hard- occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed
d-fast rules can be laid down concerning these points. Inde- on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned,
ndently of the necessary consideration of the general economy and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be
the farm, the choice must be influenced partly by the character ploughed in these are points which must be decided as they
the soil, but very much more by that of the climate. Judgment arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer
tunded on knowledge and aided by careful observation, both soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils
by the
the field and in the feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the extended growth of leguminous crops.
guide of the practical farmer. Over and above the great advan- Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished
.gearising from the opportunity which the growth of root-crops the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established
:ords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent
t-crop in rotation are due (i) to the large amount of manure application when the old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was
plied for its growth, (2) to the large residue of the manure left devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green
the soil for future crops, (3) to the large amount of matter manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable
t once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) to the large with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus,
ount of food produced, and (5) to the small proportion of the whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere
ost important manurial constituents of the roots which is a quantity of nitrogen available for the use of subsequent crops
tained by store or fattening animals consuming them, the rest of any kind. In Canada and the United States this rational
turning as manure again; though, when the roots are consumed employment of a leguminous crop for ploughing in green is
for the production of milk, a much larger proportion of the con- largely resorted to for the amelioration of worn-out wheat lands
is lost to the manure. and other soils, the condition of which has been lowered to an
Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen. The fact unremunerative level by the repeated growth year after year
at the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves of a cereal crop. The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and
"
e soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of a grain
Pugh (1861), On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation,
t'ltuents
sp that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous crop is to with special reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate
a great extent equivalent to the application of a nitrogenous free or uncombined Nitrogen," answered the question referred
manure for the cereal crop was in effect known ages ago. to in the negative. The attitude taken up later on with regard
Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the closing to this problem is set forth in the following words, which are
decade of the igth century that the explanation of this long- quoted from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments,
established point of agricultural practice was forthcoming. It 1900 (p. 7):
was in -the year 1886 that Hellriegel and Wilfarth first published "
Experiments were commenced in 1857, and conducted for several
in Germany the results of investigations in which they demon- years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate free or
strated that, through the agency of micro-organisms dwelling uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral points. Plants
in nodular outgrowths on the roots of ordinary leguminous of the gramineous, the leguminous and of other families were
operated upon. The late Or Pugh took a prominent part in this
plants, the latter are enabled to assimilate the free nitrogen of The conclusion arrived at was that our agricultural plants
inquiry.
the air. The
existence of the root nodules had long been recog- do not themselves directly assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by
nized, but hitherto no adequate explanation had been afforded their leaves.
"
as to their function. In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite a new
aspect. It now is whether the free nitrogen of the atmosphere is
Since Hellriegel's striking discovery farm crops have been
brought into combination under the influence of micro-organisms,
conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and nitrogen- or other low forms, either within the soil or in symbiosis with a
consuming. To
the former belong the ordinary leguminous higher plant, thus serving indirectly as a source of nitrogen to
crops the beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin,
clovers, plants of a higher order. Considering that the results of Hellriegel
which obtain their nitrogen from the air, and Wilfarth on this point were, if confirmed, of great significance
lucerne, for example
and importance, it was decided to make experiments at Rothamsted
and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures, on somewhat similar lines. Accordingly, a preliminary series was
whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which undertaken in 1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889
will ultimately become available for future crops of other and in 1890; and the investigation was continued up to the com-
kinds. It is, in fact, fully established that these leguminous mencement of the year 1895. Further experiments relating to
certain aspects of the subject were begun in 1898. The results
crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation have shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected
of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of with appropriate organisms, there is a development of the so-called
the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, and, coincidently,
increased growth and gain of nitrogen."
higher plant. The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize) ;

the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage, kale, rape, mustard); The conclusions of Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been
the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodiaceous crops confirmed by the later experiences of Rothamsted, and since
(mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have, that time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical
so far as known, no such power, and are therefore more or
is
application of the discovery. This has taken the form of in-
less benefited
by the direct application of nitrogenous manures. oculating the soil with the particular organism required by the
The field experiments on leguminous plants at Rothamsted have particular kind of leguminous crop. To this end the endeavour
shown that land which is, so to speak, exhausted so far as the has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in
growth of one leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very portable form the organisms required by the several plants,
luxuriant crops of another plant of the same natural order, and though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have
but of different habits of growth, and especially of different been generally successful, the work done justifies hopes
 404 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH
that the problem will eventually be solved in a practical The rotations extending to five, six, seven or more years are,
direction. in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations of
Grass. Another field experiment of singular interest is that soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local conditions.
relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, for which They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the description
seven acres of old grass land were set apart in Rothamsted Park of the root-crop,and perhaps by the introduction of the potato
in 1856. Of the twenty plots into which this land is divided, crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may be more than one
two were left without manure from the outset, two received cereal consecutively; by the growth of some other leguminous
" "
ordinary farmyard manure for a series of years, whilst the crop than- clover, since clover-sickness may result if that
remainder each received a different description of artificial or crop is grown at too short intervals, or the intermixture of grass
chemical manure, the same being, except in special cases, applied seeds with the clover, and perhaps by the extension by one or
year after year on the same plot. During the growing season more years of the period allotted to this member of the rotation.
the field affords striking evidence of the influence of different Whatever the specific rotation, there may in practice be devia-
manurial dressings. So much, indeed, does the character of tions from the plan of retaining on the farm the whole of the
the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly root-crops, the straw of the grain crops and the leguminous
be described as kaleidoscopic. Repeated analyses have shown fodder crops (clover, vetches, sainfoin, &c.) for the production
how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical of meat or milk, and, coincidently, for that of manure to be
composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the descrip- returned to the land. It is equally true that, when under the
tion ofmanure applied. They have further shown how dominant influence of special local or other demand proximity to towns,
is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of easy railway or other communication, for example the products
different manures that the gross produce of the mixed herbage which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported
is totally different on the respective plots according to the from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an
manure employed, both as to the proportion of the various essential condition of such practice. This system of free sale,
species composing it and as to their condition of development indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased
and maturity. manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of
merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended
The Rotation of Crops. in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the
The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very
plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has large imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other
exhausted it, and renders them vigorous and more liable to
less products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food
disease. The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a and other agricultural produce. More attention is thus being
way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops. devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, but on those
It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to which that are mainly arable.
the different crops are put, that have to be considered in the case The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well
of rotation. Thus the cereal crops, when grown in rotation, illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at
yield more produce for sale in the season of growth than when Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may
grown continuously. Moreover, the crops alternated with the fairly be regarded as a self-supporting system. Reference may
cereals accumulate very much more of mineral constituents first be made to the important mineral constituents of different
and of nitrogen in their produce than do the cereals themselves. crops of the four-course rotation. Of phosphoric acid, the cereal
By far the greater proportion of those constituents remains in crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops of the
circulation in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion thus taken
yields highly valuable products for sale in the forms of meat up is lost to the farm in the saleable product the grain. The
"
and milk. For this reason these crops are known as restora- remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the
tive," cereals the produce of which is sold off the farm being leguminous crops, is supposed to be retained on the farm, except-
"
classed as exhaustive." With a variety of crops, again, the ing the small amount exported in meat and milk. Of potash,
mechanical operations of the farm, involving horse and hand each of the rotation crops takes up very much more than of
labour, are better distributed over the year, and are therefore phosphoric acid. But much less potash than phosphoric acid
more economically performed. The opportunities which rotation is exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the

cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is straw, whilst the other products of the rotation the root and
another distinct element of advantage. Although many different leguminous crops which are also supposed to be retained on
rotations of crops are practised, they may for the most part be the farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals,
considered as little more than local adaptations of the system and comparatively little of it is exported in meat and milk. Thus
of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal the whole of the crops of rotation take up very much more of
crops, as exemplified in the old four-course rotation roots, potash than of phosphoric acid, whilst probably even less of it is
barley, clover, wheat. ultimately lost to the land. Of lime, very little is taken up by
Under this system the clover is ploughed up in the autumn, the cereal crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash;
the nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the more by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the
nourishment of the cereal crop. The following summer the clover especially, sometimes much more than by all the other
wheat crop is harvested, and an opportunity is afforded for crops of the rotation put together. Very little of the lime of
extirpating weeds which in the three previous years have re- the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of the farm
ceived little check. Or, where the climate is warm and the soil in the case of the self-supporting rotation under considera-
"
light, a catch-crop," i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some tion. Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large,
other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by
or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing. On heavy the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any
soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash;

necessary for thorough cultivation of the land. The cleaning and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience
process is carried on through the next summer by means of has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased
successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop. As turnips or manures.
swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than
is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as the any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding the
latter isa shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is required. circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically benefited
Clover is sown at the same time or shortly after the cereal and by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain
thus occupies the land for two years. two or more times as much nitrogen as either of the cereals,
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 405
and the leguminous crops, especially the clover, much more cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artificial. Under such
than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of the conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as
cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps not more they are, and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding
than 10 or 15% of that of either the root-crop or the clover (or root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity
other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in animal increase or in of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in
milk. Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period
large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen- of accumulation and growth extending even months after the
yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and
future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen at the season when nitrification within the soil is most active,
" "
of the root-crops the so-called restorative crops these are and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest. When
as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen a full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at
within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli- command, these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of
TABLE XI. The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Ib. per Acre.

Crop.
406 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 407
Weddel and Company, from which those for 1885 and 1890 and
for each year from 1895 to 1906 are given in Table XVIII. The
home-grown is the estimated dead weight of sheep and lambs
slaughtered, which is taken at 40% of the total number of sheep
and lambs returned each year in the United Kingdom. In the
TABLE XVI. Average Values of Fresh Meat, Bacon and Hams
imported into the United Kingdom, 1891-1905 per Cwt.

Year.
408 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

early maturity has received full recognition. If the sole purpose

for which an animal is reared is to prepare it for the block and
this isthe case with steers amongst cattle and with wethers
amongst sheep the sooner it is ready for slaughter the less
should be the outlay involved. During the whole time the
animal is living the feeder has to pay what has been termed the
" "
life tax that is, so much of the food has to go to the main-
tenance of the animal as a living organism, independently of
that which may be undergoing conversion into what will sub-
sequently be available in the form of beef or mutton. If a bullock
can be rendered fit for the butcher at the age of two or three
years, will the animal repay another year's feeding? It has
been proved at the Christmas fat stock shows that the older a
bullock gets the less will he gain in weight per day as a result
of the feeding. With regard to this point the work of the Smith-
field Club deserves recognition. This body was instituted in
1798 as the Smithfield Cattle and Sheep Society, the title being
TABLE XIX. Digestible Matter in 1000 Ib. of various Foods.
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 409
wether lambs, whose function is exclusively the production of annual shows, publishes annually the Shire Horse Stud Book and
meat. At the 1905 show, sheep of each breed, and also cross-breds, offers gold and silver medals for competition amongst Shire

competed as (i) wether lambs under twelve months old, and (2) horses at agricultural 'shows in different parts of the country.
wether sheep above twelve and under twenty-four months old. The society has carried on a work of high national importance,
The only exception was in the case of the slowly-maturing and has effected a marked improvement in the character and
Cheviot and mountain breeds, for which the second class was for quality of the Shire horse. What has thus voluntarily been done
ether sheep of any age above twelve months. Of prize sheep at in England would in most other countries be left to the state, or
ie centenary show the largest average daily gain was 0-7 7 Ib per would not be attempted at all. It is hardly necessary to say that
,d given by Oxford-Hampshire cross-bred wether lambs, aged the Shire Horse Society has never received a penny of public
ie months two weeks. In the case of wether sheep, twelve to money, nor has any other of the voluntary breeders' societies.
wenty-four months old, the highest daily increase was 0-56 Ib The Hackney Horse Society and the Hunters' Improvement
per head as yielded by Lincolns, aged twenty-one months. Society are conducted on much the same lines as the Shire Horse
Within the last quarter of the igth century the stock-feeding Society, and, like it, they each hold a show in London in the
practices of the country were much modified in accordance with spring of the year and publish an annual volume. Other horse-
these ideas of early maturity. The three-year-old wethers and breeders' associations, all doing useful work in the interests of
older oxen that used to be common in the fat stock markets their respective breeds, are the Suffolk Horse Society, the
are nowrarely seen, excepting perhaps in the case of mountain Clydesdale Horse Society, the Yorkshire Coach Horse Society,
breeds of sheep and Highland cattle. It was in 1875 that the the Cleveland Bay Horse Society, the Polo Pony Society, the
Smithfield Club first provided the competitive classes for lambs, Shetland Pony Stud Book Society, the Welsh Pony and Cob
and in 1883 the champion plate offered for the best pen of sheep Society and the New Forest Pony .Association. Thoroughbred
of any age in the show was for the first time won by lambs, a race-horses are registered in the General Stud Book. The Royal
pen of Hampshire Downs. The young classes for bullocks were Commission on Horse Breeding, which dates from 1887, is, as its
established in 1880. The time-honoured notion that an animal name implies, not a voluntary organization. Through the com-
must have completed its growth before it could be profitably mission the money previously spent upon Queen's Plates is
" "
fattened is no longer held, and the improved breeds which now offered in the form of King's Premiums (to the number of
rival one another as regards the early period at which they twenty-eight in 1907) of 150 each for thoroughbred stallions, on
y be made ready for the butcher by appropriate feeding and condition that each stallion winning a premium shall serve not
nagement. less than fifty half-bred mares, if required. The winning stallions
n
;st 1895 the Smithfield Club instituted a carcase competition are distributed in districts throughout Great Britain, and the use
in association with its annual show of fat stock, and it has been of these selected sires has resulted in a decided improvement in
continued each year since. The cattle and sheep entered for this the quality of half-bred horses. The annual show of the Royal
competition are shown alive on the first day, at the close of which Commission on Horse Breeding is held in London jointly and
they are slaughtered and the carcases hung up for exhibition, concurrently with that of the Hunters' Improvement Society.
with details of live and dead weights. The competition thus Of organizations of cattle-breeders the English Jersey Cattle
"
constitutes what is termed a block test," and it is instructive Society, established in 1878, may be taken as a type. It offers
in affording the opportunity of seeing the quality of the carcases prizes in butter-test competitions and milking trials at various
furnished by the several animals, and in particular the relative agricultural shows, and publishes the English Herd Book and
proportion and distribution of fat and lean meat. The live Register of Pure-bred Jersey Cattle. This volume records the
animals are judged and subsequently the carcases, and, though the births in the herds of members of the society, and gives the
results sometimes agree, more often they do not. Tables are con- pedigrees of cows and bulls, besides furnishing lists of prize-
structed showing the fasted live weight, the carcase weight, and winners at the principal shows and butter-test awards, and
the weight of the various parts that are separated from and not reports of sales by auction of Jersey cattle. Other cattle
included with the carcase. An abundance of lean meat and a societies, all well caring for the interest of their respective breeds,
moderate amount of fat well distributed constitutes a better are the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain and Ireland, the
carcase, and a more economical one for the consumer, than a Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn Association, the Hereford Herd Book
carcase in which gross accumulations of fat are prominent. To Society, the Devon Cattle Breeders' Society, the South Devon
add to the educational value of the display, information as to the Herd Book Society, the Sussex Herd Book Society, the Long-
methods of feeding would be desirable, as it would then be horned Cattle Society, the Red Polled Society, the English
possible to correlate the quality of the meat with the mode of its Guernsey Cattle Society, the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle
manufacture. A point of high practical interest is the ratio of Society, the Welsh Black Cattle Society, the Polled Cattle
carcase weight to fasted live weight, and in the case of prize- Society (for the Aberdeen- Angus breed), the English Aberdeen-
winning carcases these ratios usually fluctuate within very narrow Angus Cattle Association, the Galloway Cattle Society, the Ayr-
limits. At the 1899 show, for example, the highest proportion of shire Cattle Herd Book Society, the Highland Cattle Society of
the carcase weight to live weight was 68 %in the case of an Scotland and the Dairy Shorthorn Association.
Aberdeen-Angus steer and of a Cheviot wether, whilst the lowest In the case of sheep the National Sheep Breeders' Association
was 6 1 %, afforded alike by a Shorthorn-Sussex cross-bred heifer looks after the interests of flockmasters in general, whilst most
and a mountain lamb. A familiar practical method of estimating of the pure breeds are represented also by separate organizations.
carcase weight from live weight is to reckon one Smithfield stone The Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association may be taken
(8 Ib) of carcase for each imperial stone (14 Ib) of live weight. as a type of the latter, its principal object being to encourage the
This gives carcase weight as equal to 57 % of live weight, a breeding of Hampshire Down sheep at home and abroad, and to
ratio much inferior to the best results obtained at the carcase maintain the purity of the breed. It publishes an annual Flock
competition promoted by the Smithfield Club. Book, the first volume of which appeared in 1890. In this book
are named the recognized and pure-bred sires which have been
Breed Societies.
used, and ewes which have been bred from, whilst there are also
A noteworthy feature of the closing decades of the igth century registered the pedigrees of such sheep as are proved to be eligible
was the formation of voluntary associations of stockbreeders, for entry. Prizes are offered by the society at various agri-
with the object of promoting the interests of the respective breeds cultural shows where Hampshire Down sheep are exhibited.
of live stock. As a typical example of these organizations the Other sheep societies include the Leicester Sheep Breeders'
Shire Horse Society may be mentioned. It was incorporated in Association, the Cotswold Sheep Society, the Lincoln Longwool
1878 to improve and promote the breeding of the Shire or old Sheep Breeders' Association, the Oxford Down Sheep Breeders'
English race of cart-horses, and to effect the distribution of sound Association, the Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association and
and healthy sires throughout the country. The society holds Flock Book Society, the Southdown Sheep Society, the Suffolk
 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

in that it contains the first mention of pleuro-pneumonia, and the

Sheep Society, the Border Leicester Sheep Breeders' Society, the
Wensleydale Longwool Sheep Breeders' Association and Flock exposure in any market of cattle suffering from that disease
Book Society, the Incorporated Wensleydale Blue-faced Sheep was made an offence. The Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
Breeders' Association and Flock Book Society, the Kent Sheep 1869 (32 & 33 Viet. c. 70) revoked all former acts, and defined
Breeders' Association, the Devon Longwool Sheep Breeders' disease to mean cattle plague, pleuro-pneumonia, foot-and-mouth
Society, the Dorset Horn Sheep Breeders' Association, the disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab and glanders, together with any
Cheviot Sheep Society and the Roscommon Sheep Breeders' disease which the Privy Council might by order specify. The
Association. principle of this act in regard to foreign animals was that of
The interests of pig-breeders are the care of the National Pig free importation, with power for the Privy Council to prohibit
Breeders' Association, in addition to which there exist the or subject to quarantine and slaughter, as circumstances seemed
British Berkshire, the Large Black Pig, and the Lincoln Curly- to require. The act of 1869 was at that time the most complete
Coated White Pig Societies, and the Incorporated Tamworth Pig measure that had ever been passed for dealing with diseases
Breeders' Association. of animals. The re-introduction of cattle plague into England
The addresses of the secretaries of the various live-stock in 1877 led to the passing of the Act 41 &
42 Viet. c. 74, 1878,
societies in the United Kingdom are published annually in the which repealed the act of 1869, and affirmed as a principle the
Live Stock Journal Almanac. landing of foreign animals for slaughter only, though free im-
portation or quarantine on the one hand and prohibition on the
The Maintenance of the Health of Live Stock. other were provided for in exceptional circumstances. By an
It was not till the closing decade of the igth century that the order of council which came into operation in December 1878,
stock-breeders of the United Kingdom found themselves in a swine fever was declared to be a disease for the purposes of the
position to prosecute their industry free from the fear of the act of that year. It was not, however, till October 1886 that
introduction of contagious disease through the medium of store anthrax and rabies were officially declared to be contagious
animals imported from abroad for fattening on the native pas- diseases for the purposes of certain sections of the act of 1878.
tures. By the Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 &6o Viet. c. 15) In 1884 the Act 47 & 48 Viet. c. 13 empowered the Privy Council
it was provided that cattle, sheep and pigs imported into the to prohibit the landing of animals from any country in respect
United Kingdom should be slaughtered at the place of landing. of which the circumstances were not such as to afford reason-
The effect was to reduce to a minimum the risk of the introduction able security against the introduction of foot-and-mouth disease.
of disease amongst the herds and flocks of the country, and at the After one or two other measures of minor importance came the
same time to confine the trade in store stock exclusively to the Act 53 & 54 Viet. c. 14, known as the Pleuro-pneumonia Act
breeders of Great Britain and Ireland. This arrangement makes 1890, which transferred the powers of local authorities to slaughter
no difference to the food-supply of the people, for dead meat and pay compensation in cases of pleuro-pneumonia to the Board
continues to arrive at British ports in ever-increasing quantity. of Agriculture, and provided further for the payment of such
Moreover, live animals are admitted freely from certain coun- compensation out of money specifically voted by parh'ament.
tries, provided such animals are slaughtered at the place of This measure was regarded at the time as a marked step in
landing. At Deptford, for example, large numbers and
of cattle advance, and was only carried after a vigorous campaign in its
sheep which thus arrive mainly from Argentina, Canada and favour. In 1892 by the Act 55 & 56 Viet. c. 47 power was given
the United States are at once slaughtered, and so furnish a to the Board of Agriculture to use the sums voted on account
steady supply of fresh-killed beef and mutton. The animals of pleuro-pneumonia for paying the costs involved in dealing
which are shipped in this are necessarily of the best quality,
way with foot-and-mouth disease; under this act the board could
because the freight on a superior beast is no more costly than on order the slaughter of diseased animals and of animals in contact
an inferior one, and the proportion of freight to sale price is there- with these, and could pay compensation foranimals so slaughtered.
fore less. With this superior description of butchers' stock all Under the provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act
classes of home-grown stock good, bad and indifferent have, J893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 43) swine fever in Great Britain was, from
of course, to compete. The Board of Agriculture has the power the ist of November in that year, dealt with by the Board of
to close the ports of the United Kingdom against live animals Agriculture in the same way as pleuro-pneumonia, the slaughter
from any country in which contagious disease is known to exist. of infected swine being carried out under directions from the
This accounts for the circumstance that so few countries none central authority, and compensation allowed from the imperial
of them in Europe enjoy the privilege of sending live animals to exchequer. In 1894 was passed the Diseases of Animals Act
British ports. In 1900 the discovery early in the year of the (57 & 58 Viet. c. 57), the word "contagious" being omitted
existence of foot-and-mouth disease amongst cattle and sheep from the title. This was a measure to consolidate the Contagious
shipped from Argentina to the United Kingdom led to the issue Diseases (Animals) Acts 1878-1893. In it "the expression
' '
of an order by which all British ports were closed against live disease means cattle plague (that is to say, rinderpest, or the
animals from the country named. This order came into force on disease commonly called cattle plague), contagious pleuro-
the 3oth of April, and the result was a marked decline in the pneumonia of cattle (in this act called pleuro-pneumonia),
shipments of live cattle and sheep from the River Plate, but a foot-and-mouth disease, sheep-pox, sheep-scab, or swine fever
decided increase in the quantity of frozen meat sent thence to the (that is to say, the disease known as typhoid fever of swine,
United Kingdom. soldier purples, red disease, hog cholera or swine plague)." The
The last quarter of the igth century witnessed an important Diseases of Animals Act 1896 (59 & 60 Viet. c. 15) rendered
change in the attitude of public opinion towards legislative compulsory the slaughter of imported live stock at the place
control over the contagious diseases of animals. When, after of landing, a boon for which British stock-breeders had striven
the introduction of cattle plague or rinderpest in 1865, the for many years. The ports in Great Britain at which foreign
proposal was made to resort to the extreme remedy of slaughter animals be landed are Bristol, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hull, Liver-
may
in order to check the ravages of a disease which was pursuing pool, London,\'Manchester and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Animals
its course with ruinous results, the idea was received with public from the Channel Islands may be landed at Southampton.
indignation and denounced as barbarous. Views have undergone
The Diseases of Animals.
profound modification since then, and the most drastic remedy
has come to be regarded as the most effective, and in the long Under the Diseases of Animals Acts 1894 and 1896 weekly
run the least costly. The Cattle Diseases Prevention Act 1866 returns are issued by the Board of Agriculture of outbreaks of
(29 & 30 Viet. c. 2) made compulsory the slaughter of diseased anthrax, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders (including farcy),
of
cattle, and permitted the slaughter of cattle which had been pleuro-pneumonia, rabies and swine fever in the counties
exposed to infection, compensation being provided out of the Great Britain; also monthly returns of outbreaks of sheep-scab.
rates. The Act 30 & 31 Viet. c. 1 25, 1867, is of historical interest, Cattle plague, or rinderpest, has not been recorded in Great
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 411
Britain since 1877. In that year there were 47 outbreaks dis-
tributed over five counties and involving 263 head of cattle.
The course of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain between
1877 and 1905 inclusive is told in Table XX., from which the
TABLE XX. Outbreaks of Foot-and- Mouth Disease in Great Britain,
1877-1905.

Year.
412 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH

Wales and Scotland being comparatively few. What are termed

" "
swine-fever infected areas are scheduled by the board when
and where circumstances seem to require, and the movement
TABLE XXIV. Outbreaks of Swine Fever in Great Britain,
1894-1905.

Year.
BRITISH] AGRICULTURE
conveying fresh butter by rail. In 1886, at Norwich, a prize of done by steam power, thus materially lightening the work in the
25 was awarded for a thatch-making machine. In 1887, at succeeding spring. On farms of moderate size it is usual to hire
Newcastle-on-Tyne, a prize of 200 went to a compound portable steam tackle as required, the outlay involved in the purchase
agricultural engine, one of 100 to a simple portable agricultural
of a set being justifiable only in the case of estates or of very

engine, and lesser prizes to a weighing-machine for horses and big farms where, when not engaged in ploughing, or in culti-
cattle, a weighing-machine for sheep and pigs, potato-raisers vating, or in other work upon the land, the steam-engine may
and one-man-power cream separators. In 1888. at Nottingham, be employed in threshing, chaff-cutting, sawing and many
hay and straw presses for steam-power, horse-power and hand- similar operations which require power. The labour question
power were the subjects of competition. In 1889, at Windsor, again became acute in the early years of the 2oth century, when,
prizes were awarded for a fruit and vegetable evaporator, a owing to the scarcity of hands and the high rate of wages, self-
paring and coring machine, a dairy thermometer, parcel post binding harvesters were resorted to in England for the ingather-
butter-boxes to carry different weights, and a vessel to contain ing of the corn crops to a greater extent than ever before. For
preserved butter. In 1800, at Plymouth, competitions took the same reason potato-planting and potato-lifting machines
place of light portable engines (a) using solid fuel, (b) using were also in greater requisition.
liquid or gaseous fuel, grist mills for use on a farm, disintegrators,
and cider-making plant for use on a farm. In 1891, at Doncaster, Agricultural Population and Wages.

special prizes were given for combined portable threshing and The last half of the igth century witnessed a remarkable
finishing machines, and cream separators (hand and power). diminution of the British rural population. The decrease has
In 1892, at Warwick, the competitions related to ploughs assumed serious proportions since 1871, as before that date the
single furrow (a) for light land, (b) for strong land, (c) for supply of rural labour exceeded the demand. A large number of
press drill and broad-cast sowing; two-furrow; three-furrow; agricultural labourers were thus only in partial employment, and
digging (a) for light land, (b) for heavy land; and one-way their withdrawal from the land was of minor importance as com-
ploughs. In 1893, at Chester, self-binding harvesters and pared with the shrinkage in the number of those permanently
sheep-shearing machines (power) were the appliances respec- employed. The following tables indicate the extent of rural
tively in competition. In 1894, at Cambridge, the awards depopulation :

were for fixed and portable oil engines, potato-spraying and " "
Number of Persons engaged in Agriculture in the United
tree-spraying machines, sheep-dipping apparatus and churns. Kingdom, 1851-1901.
In 1895, at Darlington, the competitions were confined to
1851.
hay-making machines and clover-making machines. In 1896,
at Leicester, prizes were awarded after trial to potato-
planting machines, potato-raising machines and butter-drying
machines. In 1897, at Manchester, special awards were made
for fruit baskets and milk-testers. In 1898, at Birmingham, a
prize of 100 was given for a self-moving vehicle for light loads,
100 and 50 for self-moving vehicles for heavy loads, and 10
for safety feeder to chaff-cutter, inaccordance with the Chaff-
cutting Machines (Accidents) Act 1897. In 1899, at Maidstone,
special prizes were offered for machines for washing hops with
liquid insecticides, cream separators (power and hand), machines
for the evaporation of fruit and vegetables, and packages for
the carriage of (a) soft fruit, (b) hard fruit. In 1900, at York,
the competitions were concerned with horse-power cultivators,
self-moving steam diggers, milking machines and sheep-shearing
machines (power and hand). In 1901, at Cardiff, competition
was invited in portable oil engines, agricultural locomotive oil
engines and small ice-making plant suitable for a dairy. In the
years 1903 and 1904 petrol motors adapted for ploughing and
other agricultural operations formed a prominent feature of the
exhibits.
The progress of steam cultivation has not justified the hopes
that were once entertained in the United Kingdom concerning
this method of working implements in the field. It was about
the year 1870 that its advantages first came into prominent
notice. At that time, owing to labour disputes, the supply of
hands was short and horses were dear. The wet seasons that set
in at the end of the 'seventies led to so much hindrance in the
work on the land that the aid of steam was further called for, and
it seemed probable that there would be a lessened demand for

horse power. It was found, however, that the steam work was
done with less care than had been bestowed upon the horse
tillage, and the result was that steam came to be regarded as an
auxiliary to horse labour rather than as a substitute for it. In
this capacity it is capable of rendering most valuable assistance,
for it can be utilized in moving extensive areas of land in a very
short time. Accordingly, when a few -days occur early in the
season favourable to the working of the land, much of it can be
got into a forward condition, whilst horses are set free for the
lighter operations. The crops can then be sown in due time,
which in wet years, and with the usual teams of horses kept on
a farm, is not always practicable. Much advantage arises from
the steam working of bastard fallows in summer, and after
harvest a considerable amount of autumn cultivation can be
 AGRICULTURE [AMERICAN
*Midland Agricultural and Dairy College, Kingston, Derby. itinerant instructors. The Department carries on agricultural
"Harper-Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Salop. experiment-stations at Athenry (Co. Galway), Ballyhaise (Co.
^Lancashire County School, Harris Institute, Preston. Cavan) and Clonakilty (Co. Cork), where farm apprentices are
*University College of North Wales, Bangor. received and instructed.
"University of Leeds.
"Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
AGRICULTURE ix THE UNITED STATES
"Cambridge University. Agriculture has been the chief and most characteristic work
"University College, Reading. of the American people, that in which they have achieved the
"South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye. greatest results in proportion to the resources at command,
"University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. that in which their economic superiority has been most
strikingly
"Agricultural Institute, Ridgmont (Bedfordshire County manifest. In ten years from 1 790, the mean population of the
Council). period being 4,500,000, 65,000 sq. m. were for the first time
"Essex County Technical Laboratories, Chelmsford. brought within the limits of settlement, crossed with roads and
In the year 1904-1905 10,600 was devoted by the Board of bridges, covered with dwellings, both public and private, much
Agriculture to agricultural instruction and experiments. Of this of it also cleared of primeval forest; and this in addition to
sum the greater part was divided amongst the institutions keeping up and improving the whole extent of previous settle-
marked with an asterisk in the above list. The first three named ments, and building towns and cities, at a score of favoured
are private establishments. The county councils also expend points. In the next decade, the mean number of inhabitants
sums varying at their own discretion on instruction in dairy-work, being about 6,500,000, population extended itself over 98,000
poultry-keeping, farriery and veterinary science, horticulture, sq. m. of absolutely new territory, an area eight times as large as
agricultural experiments, agricultural lectures at various centres, Holland. Between 1810 and 1820, besides increasing the
density
scholarships at, and grants to, agricultural colleges and schools; of population on almost every league of the older
territory,
the whole amount in 1904-1905 reaching 87,472.' The sum besides increasing their manufacturing capital twofold, in
spite
spent by individual counties varies considerably. In 1904-1905 of a three years' war, the people of the United States advanced
Lancashire (8510), Kent (5922) and Cheshire (4310) spent their frontier to occupy 101,000 sq. m., the mean
population
most in this direction. In some instances colleges are supported being 8,250,000. Between 1820 and 1830, 124,000 sq. m. were
entirely by one county, as is the Holmes Chapel College, Cheshire; brought within the frontier and made the seat of habitation
in others a college is supported by several affiliated counties, as in and cultivation; between 1830 and 1840, 175,000 sq. m.;
the case of the agricultural department of the University College, between 1840 and 1850, 215,000 sq. m. The Civil War, indeed,
Reading, which acts in connexion with the counties of Berks, checked the westward flow of population, though it caused no
Oxon, Hants and Buckingham. The organization and supply of refluence, but after 1870 great progress was made in the creation
county agricultural instruction is often carried out through the of new farms and the development of old.
medium of the institution to which the county is affiliated. In That which has allowed this great work to be done so rapidly
Scotland higher agricultural instruction is given at: and fortunately has been, first, the popular tenure of the soil,
Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College. and, secondly, the character of the agricultural class. At no
Edinburgh University, Agriculture Department. time have the cultivators of the soil north of the Potomac and
West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow. Ohio constituted a peasantry in the ordinary sense of that term.
Aberdeen and North of Scotland Agricultural College. They have been the same kind of men, out of precisely the same
University of St. Andrews. homes, generally with the same early training, as those who
A typical course at one of the higher colleges lasts for two years filled the learned professions or who were engaged in manu-
and includes instruction under the heads of soils and manure, facturing or commercial pursuits. Switzerland and Scotland
crops and pasture, live stock, foods and feeding, dairy work, have, in a degree, approached the United States in this particular;
farm and estate management and farm bookkeeping, surveying, but there is no other considerable country where as much mental
and machinery, agricultural chemistry,
agricultural buildings activity and alertness has been applied to the cultivation of the
soil as to trade and manufactures.
agricultural botany, veterinary science and agricultural ento-
mology. Experimental farms are attached to the
But even the causes which have been adduced would have
colleges.
The facilities for intermediate are far inferior to Failed to produce such effects but for the exceptional inventive
those for higher
agricultural education. Schools for farmers' sons and daughters, ingenuity of the American. The mechanical genius which has
and others, answering to the fcoles pratiques d agriculture
1
entered into manufacturing in the United States, the engineering
(see
skill which has guided the construction of the
FRANCE), are few, the principal being the Dauntsey Agricultural greatest works
School. Wiltshire, the Hampshire Farm School, Basing, and the of the continent, have been far exceeded in the hurried " im-
"
Farm School at Newton Rigg, Penrith, Cumberland, maintained provements of the pioneer farm; in the housing of women,
children and live stock and gathered crops against the storms
by the county councils of Cumberland and Westmorland. Occa-
of the first few winters; in the rough-and-ready reconnaissances
sionallygrammar schools have agricultural sides, and in evening
continuation schools agricultural classes are sometimes held. which determined the " lay of the land " and the capabilities
Both elementary day schools and continuation schools are in of the soil; in the preparation for the thousand
exigencies of
many cases provided with gardens in which horticultural teaching primitive agriculture. It is no exaggeration to say that the
is chief manufacture of the United States, prior to 1900, was the
given.
In Ireland agricultural education is under the supervision of
manufacture of 5,740,000 farms, comprising 841,200,000 acres.
the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for The people of the United States, finding themselves on a
Ireland, founded continent containing an almost limitless extent of land of fair
in 1899. Higher education is given at the Royal
College of Science, Dublin; the Albert Agricultural College, average fertility, having at the start but little accumulated
Glasnevin; and the Munster Institute, Cork, for female students, capital and urgent occasions for the economy of labour, have
where dairying and poultry- keeping are prominent subjects. elected to regard the land in the earliest stages of occupation
Winter classes for boys over sixteen years of age are held at as practically of no value, and to regard labour as of high value.
centres in some counties, and there are winter schools of agri- In pursuance of this view they have freely sacrificed the land,
culture at Downpatrick, Monaghan and Mount Bellew (Co. so far as was necessary, in order to save labour, systematically

Galway); while lectures are given at farmers' meetings by cropping the fields on the principle of obtaining the largest
results with the least expenditure, limiting improvements to
This sum was furnished out of a total of 693,851, forming the
residue grant allocated for the purposes of education to the various what was demanded for immediate uses, and caring little about
county councils of England and Wales under the Local Taxation returning to the soil an equivalent for the properties taken from
(customs and Excise) Act 1890. it in the harvests of successive years. But, so far as the northern
 AMERICAN 7
] AGRICULTURE
states are concerned, the enormous profits of this alleged wasteful of productive energy from agricultural pursuits, it tended at the
cultivation have in the main been applied, not to personal con- same time to increase the value of farm labour and of farm
sumption, but to permanent improvements, not indeed to products and to extend the use of machinery in order to offset
improvements of the land, but to what were still more needed the deficient labour supply. Agricultural machinery had been
in the situation, namely, improvements upon the land. The employed before the war, but only to a very small extent. In
first-fruits of a virgin soil have been expended in forms which 1864, 70,000 reapers and mowers were manufactured, twice as
have vastly enhanced the productive power of the country. many as in 1862, and manufacturers were unable to supply the
The land, doubtless, as one factor of that productive power, demand. Moreover, in the years 1860, 1861 and 1862 the wheat
became temporarily less efficient than it would have been under crops of Great Britain and the European continent were failures,
a conservative European treatment; but the joint product of while those of the United States, far removed from the theatre
the three factors land, labour and capital was for the time of military operations, were unusually large. The wheat exports
enormously increased. Under this regimen the fertility of the to Great Britain in 1861 were three times as great as those of
land, of course, in time necessarily declined, sooner or later, any previous year, and the strong demand from abroad was an
according to the nature of the crops grown and to the degree additional stimulus to higher prices. In 1864 agricultural prices
of original strength in the soil. Resort was then had to new were from too to 200 % higher than in 1861, while transportation
fields farther west. The granary of the continent moved first charges had only slightly advanced and in some instances had
to western NewYork, thence into the Ohio valley, and then, actually decreased. In the middle of the war the farmers' profits
again, to thebanks of the Mississippi. The north and south line were normal; toward the end they had increased enormously.
dividing the wheat product of the United States into two equal This marvellous agricultural prosperity of a nation engaged in
parts was in 1850 drawn along the 82nd meridian (81 58' 49"). one of the world's most formidable wars has no counterpart in
In 1860 that line was drawn along the 86th (86 i' 38"), in 1870 modern history. In the decade from 1860 to 1870 there was a
along the 8pth (88 48' 40"), in 1880 along the goth (90 30' 46"), steady increase in cultivated area, in agricultural products and
in 1890 along the 93rd (93 9' 18"), and' in 1900 along the 95th in population. The value of the farm lands in the northern
(94 59' 23"). Meanwhile one portion of the inhabitants of the states in 1870 exceeded that of 1860 by five dollars an acre. On
earlier settlements joined in the movement across the face of the other hand, the farm lands of the southern states had declined
the continent. As the grain centre passed on to the west they in value to an almost equal amount; but after 1870 these states
followed it, too restless by character and habit to find pleasure also made substantial progress, and in 1880 they produced more
in the work of stable communities. A second portion of the cotton than in 1860, when the greatest crop under the slave
inhabitants became engaged in raising, upon limited areas, system was grown.
small crops, garden vegetables and orchard fruits, and in pro- Since 1870 the most important factors in this development
ducing butter, milk, poultry and eggs, for the supply of the have been the employment of more scientific methods of pro-
citiesand manufacturing towns which had been built up out of duction and the more extensive use of machinery. The study
the abundant profits of the primitive agriculture. Still another of soils with a view of adapting to them the most suitable crops
portion of the agricultural population gradually became occupied and fertilizers; the increased attention given to diversified
in the more careful and intense culture of the cereal crops upon farming and crop rotation; the introduction and successful
the better lands, the less eligible fields being allowed to spring growth of new plants (e.g. the date palm in Arizona and Cali-
up in brush and wood. Deep ploughing and thorough drainage fornia, and tea in South Carolina); tile drainage; the ensilage
were resorted to; fertilizers were employed to bring up and to of forage; more careful selection in breeding; the use of
keep up the soil and thus began the serious systematic agricul-
; inoculation to prevent Texas fever in cattle and cholera in
ture of the older states. Something continued to be done in swine, of tuberculin to discover the presence of tuberculosis in
wheat, but not much. New York raised 13 million bushels cows, of organic ferments to hasten the progress of butter-making,
"
in 1850; thirty years later she raised n million bushels; and of the Babcock test " for ascertaining the amount of fat in
fifty years later io| million bushels. Pennsylvania raised 15^ milk, of fungicides and insecticides to destroy fruit and vegetable
million bushels in 1850; in 1880 she raised 195 million such are but a few manifestations of the spread of scien-
bushels; pests,
and in 1900 205 million bushels. More is done in Indian corn tificknowledge among the farming population of the United
(maize), that most prolific cereal, the backbone of American States. Nearly every county has some- sort of agricultural
still more is done
agriculture; relatively in buckwheat, barley society; in 1899 there were about 1500 of these organizations,
and rye.Pennsylvania, though the eleventh state in wheat some of which, especially those holding annual fairs, received
production in 1905, stood first in rye and second in buckwheat state aid.
(ninth in oats). New York was only twenty-first in wheat, With the improvement in technical processes of production
but first in buckwheat (tenth in barley), fourth in rye. We do came the conquest of the arid regions of the western states.
not, however, reach the full significance of the situation until Irrigation was first employed in the west by the Mormons in
we account for the fourth portion of the former agricultural 1847; but as late as 1870 only about 20,000 acres had been
population, in noting how
naturally and fortunately commercial irrigated. In 1880 the irrigated area was approximately
and manufacturing cities spring up in the sites which have been i, 000,000 acres, and in the decade from 1889 to 1899 it increased
prepared for them by the lavish expenditure of the enormous from 3,631,381 to 7,539.545 acre s, a gain of 107-6 %. By
profits of a primitive agriculture upon permanently useful im- 1902 there had been a still further increase to 9,478,852 acres,
provements of a constructive character. These towns are the %
a gain of 25- 7 in three years. As many of the streams available
gifts of agriculture. for irrigation purposes lie within more than one state, the control
Besides the extension of cultivated area, very little was of water supply is a proper matter for federal jurisdiction, and
accomplished in the way of agricultural improvement before in June 1902 Congress provided for an extensive system of
1850. With some few exceptions the methods of cultivation irrigation works in thirteen states and three territories. The
were substantially the same as those of colonial and were cost of the work is defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of
days,
marked by crudeness, waste and a general adherence to rule-of- government lands within the states and territories affected
thumb principles. The year 1850 roughly marks the beginning by the act. The measure is not paternalistic; the settlers on
of a period of improvement and The Irish famine the lands, which are divided into farms of not less than 40 nor
development.
of 1846 and the German political troubles of more than 160 acres, are required to make annual payments
1848 were followed
by an unprecedented emigration to America of highly desirable to the government in proportion to the water service they have
European labourers, for whom there were cheap and abundant received, until the original cost of the works has been met. The
lands. The period from 1850 to 1870 was marked by a steady first of these works, the so-called Truckee-Carson project, of
owth, which, in the western states, was highly stimulated by Nevada, was completed in June 1905, and at the end of that
Civil War. While this conflict withdrew a certain amount year eight projects, in as many different states, were under
416 AGRICULTURE [AMERICAN

construction; bids had been received for three more, and the progress. There has been a great division of labour in agri-
seven others had received the approval of the secretary of the culture. Makers of agricultural implements, of butter and
interior. With these initial undertakings it was estimated that cheese, cotton ginners, grist and wheat millers, are now classed
i ,000,859 acres could be reclaimed. In addition to supplying the in the United States census reports as manufacturers, but all
soils with water, means have been found of ridding them of their their work was once done on the farm. The farmer is now more
alkali, or of rendering it harmless; and this is an element of and more dependent on other industries than
of a specialist
reclamation hardly less important than irrigation itself. A third formerly. He
has changed from a producer for home con-
step in the reclamation of desert lands is arid farming that is, sumption or a local market to a producer for a world market.
the adapting to the soils of crops that require a minimum amount Unfortunately, his knowledge of economic laws has lagged
of moisture, and the utilization, to the fullest possible extent, behind his progress in scientific agriculture. The farming class
of the meagre amount of rainfall in the region. Experiments at times have experienced periods of great depression, largely
conducted in this direction in Utah produced promising results. on account of their inability to adjust their crops to changing
The development of farming machinery has kept pace with conditions in the world's markets, and in such cases have been
the general progress in scientific agriculture. Although numer- prone to seek a remedy in radical legislation. Periods of agri-
ous patents were issued for such machinery before 1850, its use, cultural discontent at different times have been marked by the
" "
with the exception of the cotton gin, was very restricted before political activity of the Grangers and of the " Farmers'
that date. Even iron ploughs were not in general use until Alliance." and even by the formation of new political parties
1842, and a really scientific plough was practically unknown such as the Greenback party in 1874 and the Populist or People's
before 1870. Thirty years later the large farms of the Pacific party in 1892 whose strength lay mainly in the agricultural
states were ploughed, harrowed and sowed with wheat in a states. The new industrial conditions that produced com-
single operation by fifty-horse-power traction engines drawing binations among manufacturers were much slower in their effect

ploughs, harrows and press drills. Since 1850 there has been upon the farming element, but gradually led to increasing
a transition from the sickle and the scythe to a machine that in co-operation and to the organization of the growers of various
one operation mows, threshes, cleans and sacks the wheat, commodities for marketing their crops. The fruit growers of
and in five minutes after touching the standing grain has it California and the tobacco growers of Kentucky have furnished
ready for the market. Hay-stackers, potato plantersand diggers, interesting examples of such organizations. Under the improved
feed choppers and grinders, manure-spreaders, check-row corn conditions there is less drudgery on the farm; the farmer does
planters and ditch-digging machines are some of the common more work, produces more, and yet has more leisure than
labour-saving devices. By the 28th of August 1907 the United formerly. Better roads, rural free mail delivery, telephone and
States Patent Office had issued patents for 13,212 harvesting electric lines are removing the isolation of country life, and to
machines, 6352 6680 harrows and diggers, 9649
threshers, some extent are diminishing the attractions of the cities for th<>
seeders and and 13,171 ploughs. In the manufacture
planters, rural population.
of agricultural machinery the United States leads the world. Covering as it does the breadth of the North American con-
The total value of the implements and machinery used by tinent, with 3,000,000 sq. m. of land surface, not including
farmers of the United States in 1880 was $406,520,055; in 1890 Alaska and the islands, of which over 800,000,000 acres are in
$494,247,467; in 1900 $761,261,550, a gain in this last decade farms and over 400,000,000 in actual cultivation, representing
f 54%- The total value of the implements and machinery every variety of soil and all the climatic life zones of the world,
manufactured in 1850 was $6,842,611; in 1880 $68,640,486; except the extreme boreal and the hottest tropical, the United
in 1890 $81,271,651; in 1900 $101,207,428. These figures, States affords an important subject of study in respect of agri-
however, are a very poor indication of the actual use of culture. Its cotton, wheat and meat are large factors in all
machinery, on account of the rapid decrease in prices following markets, and its many other agricultural products are distributed
its manufacture on a more extensive- scale and by improved throughout the civilized world. To the student the equipment
methods. and methods of agriculture in the United States form as interest-
The effects of the new agriculture are apparent from the ing a subject of examination as do its resources and production.
following figures: By the methods of 1830 it required 64 hours In quantity, distribution and inter-relation of heat and moisture
and 15 minutes of man-labour and cost $3-71 to produce an acre the chief factors in agricultural production the United States
of wheat; by the methods employed in 1896 it required 2 hours is greatly blessed. We
find in this vast' territory all the agricul-
and 58 minutes of man-labour and cost 72 cents. To produce tural belts the biologist, producing all varieties of
mapped by
an acre of barley in 1830 required 63 hours of man-labour and cereals, fruits and breeds of live stock, whilst all kinds of soils,
cost $3-59; in 1896 it required 2 hours and 43 minutes and cost adapted to different crops, are spread out at all altitudes from
60 cents. An acre of oats produced by the methods of 1830 8000 ft. down to sea-level.
required 66 hours and 1 5 minutes of man-labour and cost $3 73 ; The story of the vast and varied agriculture of the United
the methods of 1893 required only 7 hours and 6 minutes and States can be outlined by extracts from the figures published by
cost $1-07. With the same unit of labour the average quantity the Census, the Agricultural and other government departments.
of all leading crops produced by modern methods is about five As a result of the great supply of available land the number of
times as great as that produced by the methods employed farms in the United States increased between 1850 and
in 1850, and the cost of production is reduced by one half. 1900 from 1,449,073 to 5,739,657: their total acreage Fanal .

increased from 293,560,614 to 841,201,546 acres; their

From 1880 to 1900 the average number of acres of leading crops
improved acreage increased from 113,032,614 to 414,793,191 acres;
per male worker increased from 23-3 to 31-0, or 34%; the and their unimproved 1 acreage from 180,528,000 to 426,408,355
number of horses per worker from 1-7 to 2-3, or 35 %; and the acres. Table XXVII. exhibits the increases of number of farms,
total and improved acreage by decades.
value of agricultural product per person employed from $286-82
The largest percentage of increase of improved land was 50-7,
to $454-37, or 58-4%. from 1870 to 1880; the lowest was in the decade 1860 to 1870, the
There are numerous other factors that have operated to the period of the Civil War, and was 15-8. The chief cause of this
benefit of the agriculturist. Increased transportation facilities wonderful development of agriculture is the large area of cheap
public lands which has been available for immigrants and
natives
and lower freight charges have widened his market. The pro-
cesses of canning, packing, preserving and refrigerating have
alike. Up to 1906, under the Homestead Act of the 2Oth of May
1862, the number of entries, both final and pending, covered
produced a similar effect, and have also provided a means for 185,385,000 acres. Between 1875 and 1905 the public and Indian
the disposal of surplus perishable products that otherwise would lands sold for cash and under homestead and timber culture laws, as
be lost. The utilization of by-products, as, for example, the well as those allotted by scrip, granted to the colleges of agriculture

conversion of cotton seed into oil, fertilizers and food for live " "
1
Unimproved land includes land which has never been
stock, has become another source of profit. ploughed, or cropped, and also land once cultivated but now
mown
Great economic and social changes have resulted from this overgrown with trees or shrubs.
AMERICAN] AGRICULTURE
and mechanic arts and other institutions, and by military bounty
land warrants, and selected by states and railroad corporations,
covered about 430,000,000 acres. In addition to this, the states
and railroad corporations sold a large amount of land to farmers
of which we have no accurate record. This vast territory, greater

TABLE XXVII. Percentage of Increase of Number and Acreage of

Farms by Census Decades.

The United States.

418 AGRICULTURE [AMERICAN
cereals declined less during the thirty years. Corn declined from
an average farm price of 42-6 cents per bushel for 1870-1880 to
34-4 cents in 1890-1899. The average production per acre shows
nothing conclusive with regard to the fertility of the soil of the
country. The expansion of the crop area usually causes a lowering
of the average yield per acre by distributing the culture, fertilizers,
&c., over more surface. Likewise the contraction of crop area will
usually increase the average yield per acre of the entire country.
TABLE XXXII. Average Yield and Value of Cereal Crops in the United States, by Periods
of Years, 1870-1905.

Period.
AMERICAN] AGRICULTURE 419
TABLE XXXV. Acreage, Production, Value, Prices and Exports of Indian Corn in the
United Stales in 1890-1905.

Year.
420 AGRICULTURE [AMERICAN
"
from $13,340,000 in 1880 to $30,600,000 in 1895, an increase of vicinity of all cities, and highly specialized truck gardening,"
129 %, and to $40,590,000 in 1905 or 204 %. The average value of that is, the growing of early fruits and vegetables for transportation
cattle exported increased from $19 in 1870 to $73 in 1880 and $92 to distant markets where the seasons are later, has made rapid
in 1895, decreasing to $71-50 in 1905. Only the best and heaviest progress in the South Atlantic states. The census reports of 1900
cattle are exported, these, of course, commanding a much higher use the potato acreage in these states as an index of the rate of
price than the average of the country. development of truck gardening; the southern potato being largely
The total value of farm animals exported from the United States a truck garden crop. In seven counties of Virginia the increase in
has fluctuated greatly. On the whole, however, the value increased acreage from 1889 to 1899 was 100%; in eleven counties of North
from $16,000,000 in round numbers in 1880 to $46,500,000 in 1905, or Carolina, 314 %; in five counties of South Carolina, 134 %; in nine
190 %. Table XXXIX. shows the number and value of live animals counties of Georgia, 1 1 1 % ;in six counties of Florida, 309% ;in
exported between 1880 and 1905. five counties of Alabama, 277 %. Irish and sweet potatoes are the
Since 1890 there has been a great development in the production most important vegetables raised ; the North Central states leading
of fruit and vegetables. Local market gardens are numerous in the in the production of the former and the South Atlantic states in

TABLE XXXIX. Number and Value of Farm Animals exported from the United States, 1880-1905.
Year
ending
30th
 AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF 421
institutions had been organized under this act up to 1905, of the Philippines. Alabama, Hawaii, Connecticut, Jersey New
which sixty- three maintain courses in agriculture; twenty-one and New York each maintain separate stations, supported
are departments of agriculture and engineering in state univer- wholly or in part by -state funds; Louisiana has a station for
sities; twenty-seven are separate colleges of agriculture and sugar, and Missouri for fruit experiments. Excluding all branch
mechanic arts; and the remainder are organized in various stations, the total number of experiment stations in the United
other ways. Separate schools for persons of African descent States is and of these fifty-five receive the national appro-
sixty,
had been established under this act in sixteen southern states. priation. The
total income of the stations during 1904 was
These colleges take students prepared in the common schools $1,508,820, of which $720,000 was received from the national
and give them a course of from two to four years in the sciences government and the remainder was derived from societies,
pertaining to agriculture. Many of them offer short courses, fees for analyses of fertilizers, sale of products, &c. The stations
varying from four to twelve weeks in length, in agriculture, employed 795 persons in the work of administration and re-
horticulture, forestry and dairying, which are largely attended. search; the chief classes being directors, 71; chemists, 163;
Agricultural experiment stations are connected with all the agriculturists, 47; agronomists, 41; besides numerous horti-
colleges, and many of them conduct farmers' institutes, farmers' culturists, botanists, entomologists, physicists, bacteriologists,
reading clubs and correspondence classes. dairymen, weather observers and irrigation experts. The
The agricultural experiment stations of the United States stations publish annual reports and bulletins, besides a large
grew up in connexion with the agricultural colleges. Several number of " press " bulletins, which are reproduced in the
of the colleges early attempted to establish separate departments agricultural and county papers. They act as bureaus of informa-
for research and practical experiments, on the plan of the German tion on all farm questions, and carry on an extensive corre-
stations. The act establishing the Agricultural College of Mary- spondence covering all conceivable questions. Their mailing
"
land required it to conduct a series of experiments upon the listsaggregate half a million names. In addition to the experi-
cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the latitude ment stations there is in nearly every state an officer or a special
and climate of the state of Maryland." This was the first sug- board whose duty is to look after its agricultural interests.
gestion of an experiment station in America, but resulted in Eighteen states, one territory, Porto Rico and the Philippine
little. The first experiment station was established at Middle- Islands have a single official, usually called the Commissioner
town, Connecticut, in 1875, partly under state aid, partly of Agriculture. Twenty-six states, one territory and Hawaii,
through a gift from Orange Judd, partly in connexion with the have Boards of
Agriculture. Information concerning the
Sheffield Scientific School, which from 1863 to 1892 was the Agricultural Department of the United States will be found
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts for the state of Con- under AGRICULTURE, BOARD or.
necticut, and partly under control of Wesleyan University, See the articles on the various sorts of crops; also CATTLE,
which contributed the use of its chemical laboratory; in 1877 HORSE, PIG, SHEEP, &c.; DAIRY AND DAIRY-FARMING, HORTI-
it was removed to New Haven. The state of Connecticut made CULTURE, FRUIT AND FLOWER-FARMING, POULTRY AND POULTRY-
in 1875 an appropriation of $2800 (and in 1877 $5000 per annum) FARMING; SOIL, GRASS AND GRASSLAND, MANURE, DRAINAGE
for this school the state appropriation of the kind.
first The OF LAND, IRRIGATION, SOWING, REAPING, HAY AND HAY-
state of North Carolina on the i2th of March 1877,
established, MAKING, PLOUGH, HARROW, THRESHING.
an agricultural experiment and fertilizer control station in LITERATURE. Besides the contemporary works cited in the text,
connexion with " "
its state university. The Cornell University see the article Agricultura in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and
" "
experiment station was organized by that institution in 1879. Roman Antiquities (1890), and the article Agriculture in I. A.
The New Jersey station was organized in 1880 and the station Barrel's Dictionnaire d' Agriculture (1885-1892); R. E. Prothero,
Pioneers and Progress of English Farming (1888); sections on agri-
of the University of Tennessee in 1882. From these beginnings culture by W. J. Corbett, R. E. Prothero and W. E. Bear in Traill's
the experiment stations multiplied until, when Congress passed Social England (1901-1904); J. E. T. Rogers, History of Agriculture
the National (or Hatch) Experiment Station Act in 1887, there and Prices in England from 1259 to 1793 (7 vols., 1866-1902) ;

were seventeen already in existence. The Hatch Experiment W. Cunningham, Growth and Commerce during
of English Industry
the Early and Middle Ages (2 vols., 1905 and 1907); D. M'Donald,
Station Act, so called from the fact that its leading advocate was
Agricultural Writers from Sir Walter of Henley to Arthur Young,
William Henry Hatch (1833-1896) of Missouri, appropriated 1200-1800 (London, 1908); H. Rider Haggard, Rural England,
$15,000 a year to each agricultural college for the purpose of 2 vols. (1902) Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, ed. by C. E. Green
;

and D. Young (Edinburgh, 1907-1908); Cyclopaedia of American

conducting an agricultural experiment station. The object of
the stations was declared to be, " to conduct original researches Agriculture, ed. by L. H. Bailey (New York and London, 1907-1908) ;

W. S. Harwood, The New Earth (New York, 1906) T. B. Collins, ;

or verify experiments on the physiology of plants and animals; The New Agriculture (New York, 1906) Journals of the Royal
;

the diseases to which they are severally subject, with the Agricultural Society of England and other agricultural societies.
remedies for the same; the chemical composition of useful Amongst general works on practical agriculture the following may
be mentioned: Stephens's Book of the Farm, 3 vols., revised by
plants at their different stages of growth; the comparative
J. Macdonald (Edinburgh, 1908) William Fream, Elements of
;

advantages of rotative cropping as pursued under a varying Agriculture (London, 1905); Rural Science Series, ed. by L. H.
series of crops; the capacity of new
plants or trqes for acclima- Bailey (New York and London, 1895, &c.) Morton's Handbooks of
;

tion; the analysis of soils and water; the chemical composition

the Farm (London); R. Wallace, Farm Livestock of Great Britain

of (Edinburgh, 1907) Youatt's

; Complete Grazier, rewritten by W.
manures, natural or artificial, with experiments designed to Fream (London, 1900) E. V. Wilcox,
;
Farm Animals (New York,
test their comparative effects on crops of different kinds; the 1907). (W. FR. ; R. TR.)
adaptation and value of grasses and forage plants; the com- AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF. The Board of Agriculture and
position and digestibility of the different kinds of food for Fisheries, in England, owes its foundation to the establishment
domestic animals; the scientific and economic questions involved of a veterinary department of the privy council in 1865, when the
country was ravaged by cattle plague. An order in council
in the production of butter and
cheese; and such other re-
searches or experiments bearing directly on the agricultural " "
abolished the name veterinary department in 1883 and sub-
"
industry of the United States as may in each case be deemed stituted that of agricultural department," but no alteration was
advisable, having due regard to the varying conditions and needs effected in the work of the department, so far as it related to
of the respective states or territories." The stations were animals. In 1889 the Board of Agriculture (for Great Britain)
authorized to publish annual reports and also bulletins of pro- was formed under an act of parliament of that year, and the
gress for free distribution to farmers. The franking privilege immediate control of the agricultural department was transferred
was given to these publications. The office of experiment from the clerk of the privy council to the secretary of the Board
f stations, in the Department of Agriculture, was established in of Agriculture, where it remains.
1888 to be the head office and clearing-house of these stations. A minister of agriculture had for years been asked for in the
Agricultural experiment stations are now in operation in all the interests of the agricultural community, and the functions of this
states and territories, including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and office are discharged by the president of the Board of Agriculture
422 AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF
and Fisheries, whose appointment is a political one, and may or United States. The Department of Agriculture dates its rank
may not carry with a seat in the cabinet. The board consists
it as an executive department from 1889. It was first established
of the lord president of the council, the five principal secretaries as a department in 1862, ranking as a bureau, with a commis-
of state, the first lord of the treasury, the chancellor of the ex- sioner in charge. In addition to the commissioner there were
chequer, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and the appointed a statistician, chemist, entomologist and superintend-
secretary for Scotland. The establishment consists of a pre- ent of a propagatory and experimental farm. Its scope was then
sident, secretary, assistant secretaries, &c. The salary of the somewhat limited, but its work was gradually enlarged by the
president is 2000 a year, and that of the secretary 1500 a year. appointment of a botanist in 1868, a microscopist in 1871, the
The Board of Agriculture on its establishment took over from creation of a forestry department in 1877, a bureau of animal
the privy council the responsibilities of the Contagious Diseases industry in 1884 and the establishment of agricultural experiment
(Animals) Acts, besides the comprehensive duties of the Land stations throughout the country in 1887. In 1889 the department
Commission. The board, through its intelligence division, col- became an executive department, the principal official being
lects and prepares statistics relating to agriculture and forestry, designated Secretary of Agriculture, with a seat in the president's
and 1904 appointed a number of honorary agricultural corre-
in cabinet. His salary is $8000 a year. The secretary is now
spondents throughout the country for the purpose of bringing charged with the supervision of all business relating to the agri-
to the notice of the board any special circumstances affecting the cultural and productive industries. The fisheries have a separate
practice of agriculture, horticulture and forestry, or the transport bureau, and the public lands and mining interests are cared for
of farm, garden and fc r est produce in their districts. The land in the Department of the Interior; but with these exceptions,
division of the board prepares the annual agricultural and produce all the productive interests are looked after by the Department of

returns, and the three divisions, the animals, intelligence and Agriculture. The department now comprises (i) the weather
land, take proceedings under the following acts: the Diseases of bureau, which has charge of the forecasting of weather; the issue
Animals Acts, the Markets and Fairs (Weighing of Cattle) Acts, of storm warnings; the display of weather and flood signals for
the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 Merchandise
to 1809, the the benefit of agriculture, commerce and navigation; the gauging
Marks Acts 1887 to 1905, the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act and reporting of rivers; the reporting of temperature and rain-
1893, the Tithe Acts 1836 to 1891, the Copyhold Act 1894, the fall conditions for the cotton, rice, sugar and other interests; the

Inclosure Acts 1845 to 1899, the Agricultural Holdings Acts display of frost and cold waves signals; and the distribution of
1883 to 1900, the Drainage and Improvement of Land Acts, the meteorological information in the interest of agriculture and
Universities and College Estates Acts 1858 to 1898, the Glebe commerce; (2) the bureau of animal industry, which makes
Lands Act 1888, &c. The board also has charge of the inspection investigations as to the existence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia
of schools (not being public elementary schools) in which technical and other dangerous and communicable diseases of live stock,
instruction is given in agriculture or forestry, and institutes such superintends the measures for their extirpation, makes original
experimental investigations as may be deemed conducive to the investigations as to the nature and prevention of such diseases,
and forestry.
progress of agriculture and reports on the conditions and means of improving the animal
The Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom is under the industries of the country; (3) the bureau of plant industry,
control of the board, as well as the arrangements for the advert- which studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture. Its
isement and sale of the publications of the Geological Survey. work is classified under the general subjects of pathological

In 1903 the powers and duties formerly vested in the commis- investigations, physiological investigations, taxonomic investiga-
sioners of the Office ofWorks, relating to the Royal Botanic tions, agronomic investigations, horticultural investigations and
Gardens, Kew, were transferred to the board. The various seed and plant introduction investigations; (4) the forest service,
departments of the board are (i) chief clerk's branch and indoor which is occupied with experiments, investigations and reports
branch of animals division; (2) outdoor branch of the animals dealing with the subject of forestry, and with the dissemination of
division; (3) veterinary department; (4) fisheries branch; (5) information upon forestry matters; (5) the bureau of chemistry,
intelligence department; (6) educational branch; (7) accounts which investigates methods proposed for the analysis of plants,
branch; (8) inclosure and common branch; (9) copyhold and fertilizers and agricultural products, and makes such analyses as
tithe branch; (10) statistical branch; (n) law branch; (12) pertain in general to the interests of agriculture; (6) the bureau of
survey, land improvement and land drainage branch. soils, which is entrusted with the investigation, survey and map-
In 1903, in pursuance of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries ping of soils; the investigation of the cause and prevention of the
Act 1903, the powers and duties of the Board of Trade under the rise of alkali in the soil and the drainage of soils and the investi-
;

Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Acts, the Sea Fisheries Regula- gation of the methods of growing, curing and fermentation of
tion Acts and other acts relating to the industry of fishing, were tobacco in the different tobacco districts; (7) the bureau of
transferred from that department to the Board of Agriculture, entomology, which obtains and disseminates information regard-
and its name was changed to its present form. The Department ing insects injurious to vegetation; (8) the bureau of biological
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland covers much survey, which studies the geographic distribution of animals and
the same ground. The Annual Report of the Proceedings of the plants, and maps the natural life zones of the country; it also
Board of Agriculture under the Tithe and other Acts for 1902 investigates the economic relations of birds and mammals,
and
contains a full account of its powers and duties. recommends measures for the preservation of beneficial, and the
In the British colonies the interests of agriculture are looked destruction of injurious, species; (9) the division of accounts and
after in New South Wales, by an under-secretary for mines disbursements; (10) the division of publications; (n) the bureau
and agriculture; in Victoria, by a member of the executive of statistics,which collects information as to the condition,
council who holds the portfolio of lands and agriculture; in prospects and harvests of the principal crops, and of the number
Queensland, by an under-secretary for agriculture; in New and status of farm animals. It records, tabulates and co-
Zealand, by a minister for lands and agriculture; in Canada (see, ordinates statistics of agricultural production, distribution and
the
for more detail, the article Canada, Canadian Agriculture), by consumption, and issues monthly and annual crop reports for
a minister for agriculture (the various provinces have also depart- information of producers and consumers. The section of foreign
ments of agriculture). The government of India has a secretary markets makes investigations and disseminates information
of revenue and agriculture. Cape Colony has a secretary for concerning the feasibility of extending the demands of foreign
agriculture, a member of the cabinet; in the Transvaal Colony markets for the agricultural products of the United States; th
the director of agriculture is a departmental secretary; in Natal, bureau also makes investigations of land tenures, cost of pr
the minister for agriculture is a member of the executive council, ducing farm products, country life education, transportation and
and the establishment consists, in addition, of a secretary, a other lines of rural economies; (12) the library; (13) the office
director of agriculture, an entomologist, a dairy expert and a of experiment stations which represents the department in it
conservator of forests. Cyprus has a director of agriculture. relations to the experiment stations which are now in operatic
 AGRIGENTUM 423
in all the states;it collects and disseminates general information

regarding agricultural schools, colleges, stations, and publishes

accounts of agricultural investigations at home and abroad; it
also indicates lines of inquiry for the stations, aids in the conduct
of co-operative experiments, reports upon their expenditures and
work, and in general furnishes them with such advice and assist-
ance as promote the purposes for which they were
will best

established; conducts
it investigations relative to irrigation
and drainage; (14) the office of public roads, which collects
information concerning systems of road management, conducts
investigations regarding the best method of road-making, and
prepares publications on this subject.
In the following countries there are state departments of agri-
culture: Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, (industry, agriculture and
public works), Bulgaria (commerce and agriculture), Denmark,
France, Norway (agriculture and public accounts), Italy, Japan
(agriculture and commerce), Prussia (agriculture,
woods and forests),
Russia (agriculture and crown domains), Sweden.

AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'A.Kpayas, mod. Girgenti (?..)), an

ancient city on the south coast of Sicily, 2^m. from the sea.
It was founded (perhaps on the site of an early Sicanian settle-
ment) by colonists from Gela about 58-2 B.C., and, though the
lastest city of importance founded by the Greeks in Sicily, soon
acquired a position second to that of Syracuse alone, owing
to its favourable situation for trade with Carthage and to the
fertilityof its territory. Pindar (Pyth. xii. 2) calls it xaXXiora
Pportav TToXiwi'. The buildings for which it is famous all belong AGRIGENTUM
to the first two centuries of its existence. Phalaris, who is said (Girgenti)
to have roasted his enemies to death in a brazen bull (Pindar,
Pyth. i. 184), ruled as tyrant from 570 to 554.
What form of
government was established after his fall is uncertain; we know Wall.
only that, after a long interval, Theron became tyrant (488-473) ;
Contours at intervals of
but his son Thrasydaeus was expelled after an unsuccessful war 10 metres = 32 -8 feet.
with Hiero in 472 and a democracy established. In the struggle
between Syracuse and Athens (415-413) the city remained
absolutely neutral. Its prosperity continued
to increase (its traces of it are visible. But whichever of these two summits
2
population is given at over 200,000)
until in 405 B.C., despite was the acropolis proper, it is certain that both were included
the help of the Siceliot cities, it was captured and plundered in the circuit of the city walls. On the north both summits are
by the Carthaginians, a blow from which it never entirely re- defended by cliffs; on the south the ground slopes away somewhat
covered. It was colonized by Timoleon in 338 B.C. with settlers abruptly from the eastern summit towards the plateau on
from Velia in Lucania, and in the time of the tyrant Phintias which the town stood, while the western summit is separated
(289-279) it had regained some of its power. In the First Punic from .this plateau by a valley traversed by a branch of the Hypsas
War, however, it was sacked by the Romans (261) and the [mod. Drago], the deep ravine of which forms the western
Carthaginians (255), and finally in the Second Punic War by the boundary and defence of the city. On the east of the city is
Romans (210). But it still retained its importance as a trading the valley of the Acragas [Fiume S. Biagio], from which the city
and agricultural centre, even in the Roman period, exporting took its name and which, though shallower than that of the
not only agricultural products but textile fabrics and sulphur. Hypsas, still affords a sufficient obstacle to attack, and
the two
In the local museum are tiles used for stamping cakes of sulphur, unite a little way to the south of the town; at the mouth was
which show that the mines, at any rate from the 3rd century, the ancient harbour, small and now abandoned.
were imperial property leased to contractors. The most famous remains of the ancient city are the temples,
The site is one of great natural strength and remarkable the most important of which form a row along the low cliffs at
beauty, though quite unlike that of other
Greek cities in Sicily. the south end of the city. All are built in the Doric style, of
The northern portion of it consists of a lofty ridge with two the local porous stone, which is of a warm red brown colour, full
summits, the westernmost of which is occupied by the modern of fossil shells and easily corroded when exposed to the air. It

town (985 ft.), while the easternmost, which is slightly higher, should be noted that their traditional names, with the exception
bears the name of Rock of Athena, owing to its identification of that of Zeus and that of Asclepius, have no foundation in
in modern days with the acropolis of Acragas as described by fact, while the attribution of the temple
in antis, into the cello,
3
of Zeus Atabyrius (the
Polybius, who places upon it the temple of which the church of S. Biagio has been built, is uncertain.
erection of which was attributed to the half mythical Phalaris) in R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die
They are described
and that of Athena. 1 It must be confessed that the available griechischenTempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1899),
space (about 70X20 yds.) on the eastern summit (where there 138-184. Of all these temples the oldest is probably that of
are some remains of ancient buildings) is so small that there Heracles, while the best preserved are those of
Hera and Con-
would be only room for a single temple, which must have been cordia, which are very similar in dimensions; the latter, indeed,

occupied by the two deities jointly, if the new theory is correcl 2

Some writers place Kamikos, the city of the mythical Sican
(see Notizie degll scavi, 1902, 387 and reft). In the modern town Kokalos, on the site of Acragas or its acropolis; but it appears to
on the other hand, the remains of one temple are to be seen in have lain to the north-west, possiblyat Caltabellotta, lom. north-east
the church of S. Maria dei Greci, while the other is generally of Sciacca. We hear of it even in the Punic Wars as a fortified post of
Acragas- (E. A. Freeman, Hist, of Sic. i. 495).
ipposed to have occupied the site of the cathedral, though no 3
The attribution to Demeter is supported by the discovery o
1
E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (Oxford, 1891), i. 433, accept votive terra-cottas, representing Demeter and Kore in the neigh-
"
le name " Rock of Athena and yet puts the acropolis on the site bourhood, while the conjecture that it .was dedicated to the river-
of which
the modern town, arguing further that the cathedral hill was an god Acragas rests on its position above the river, in the valley ,

indeed, a statue which may represent the deity has been

discovered.
ropolis within an acropolis (II. and XVII.).
424 AGRIMONY AGRIPPA
lacks nothing but its roof, owing its preservation to its conversion construction of the harbour of Porto Empedocle. The four
into the cathedral in 597 by Gregory II., bishop of Girgenti. columns erected on the site of the temple of Castor and Pollux
Both temples belong to the best period of the Doric style and are a modern (and incorrect) restoration in which portions of
are among the finest in existence. In front of the former, as two buildings have been used. Of that of Hephaestus only two
in front of those of Heracles and Zeus, stood a huge altar for columns remain, while of that of Asclepius, a mile to the south
burnt offerings, as long as the facade of the temple itself. The of the town, an anta and two pillars are preserved. It was in
cetta of the temple of Heracles underwent considerable modifica- the latter temple that the statue of the god by Myron
stood;
tions in Roman times, and the discovery in it of a statue of it had probably been carried off to Carthage, was
given to the
Asclepius seems to show that the cult of this deity superseded temple by P. Scipio Africanus from the spoils of that city and
the original one. aroused the cupidity of Verres.
In the colossal temple of Zeus the huge Atlantes (figures of The other remains within the city walls are of surprisingly
Atlas), 25 ft. in height, are noticeable. They seem to have stood small importance; near the picturesque church of S. Nicolo is
in the intercolumniations half-way up the outside wall and to the so-called Oratory of Phalaris, a shrine of the 2nd century B.C.,
have supported the epistyle. The collapse both of this temple 27 J ft. long (including the porch) by 23 J ft. wide; and not far off
and of that of Heracles must be attributed to an earthquake; on the east is a large private house with white tesselated pave-
many fallen blocks of the former were removed in 1756 for the ments, probably pre-Roman in origin but slightly altered in
 AGRIPPA 425
accurately determined. He must have lived later than of the east, the territory he possessed equalling in extent that
Aenesidemus, who is generally said to have been a contemporary held by Herod the Great. He returned to Judea and governed
of Cicero. To him are ascribed the five tropes (irevre rpoiroi) it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. His zeal, private and
which, according to Sextus Empiricus, summarize the attitude public, for Judaism is celebrated by Josephus and the rabbis;
of the later ancient sceptics. The first trope emphasizes the and the narrative of Acts xii. gives a typical example of it.
disagreement of philosophers on all fundamental points; know- About the feast of the Passover A.D. 44, James the elder, the
ledge comes either from the senses or from reason. Some son of Zebedee and brother of John the evangelist, was seized
thinkers hold that nothing is known but the things of sense; by his order and put to death. He proceeded also to lay hands
others that the things of reason alone are known; and so on. on Peter and imprisoned him. After the Passover he went to
It follows that the only wise course is to be content with an Caesarea, where he had games performed in honour of Claudius,
attitude of indifference, neither to affirm nor to deny. The and the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon waited on him to sue
second trope deals with the validity of proof; the proof of one for peace. According to the story in Acts xii., Agrippa, gor-
so-called fact depends on another fact which itself needs demon- geously arrayed, received them in the theatre, and addressed
stration, and so on ad infinitum. The third points out that the them from a throne, while the audience cried out that his was
data of sense are relative to the sentient being, those of reason the voice of a god. But " the angel of the Lord smote him,"
to the intelligent mind; that in different conditions things
;
and shortly afterwards he died " eaten of worms." The story
themselves are seen or thought to be different. Where, then, is in Acts differs slightly from that in Josephus, who describes
the absolute criterion? Fourthly, if we examine things fairly, how in the midst of his elation he saw an owl perched over his
we see that in point of fact all knowledge depends on certain head. During his confinement by Tiberius a like omen had been
hypotheses, or facts taken for granted. Such knowledge is interpreted as portending his speedy release, with the warning
fundamentally hypothetical, and might well be accepted as that should he behold the same sight again he would die within
such without the labour of a demonstration which is logically five days. He was immediately smitten with violent pains,
invalid. The fifth trope points out the impossibility of proving and after a few days died. Josephus says nothing of his being
"
the sensible by the intelligible inasmuch as it remains to estab- eaten of worms," but the discrepancies between the two
lish the intelligible in its turn by the sensible. Such a process stories are of slight moment. A third account omits all the
isa vicious circle and has no logical validity. A
comparison of apocryphal elements hi the story and says that Agrippa was
these tropes with the ten tropes enumerated in the article assassinated by the Romans, who objected to his growing power.
AENESIDEMUS shows that scepticism has made an advance into See articles in Ency. Bibl. (W. J. Woodhouse), Jewish Ency. (M.
the more abtruse questions of metaphysics. The and the
first Brann), with further references; N. S. Libowitz, Herod and Agrippa
third include all the ideas expressed in the ten tropes,and the (New York, 2nd ed., 1898); Gratz, Geschichte d. Juden, iii. 318-361.
other three systematize the more profound difficulties which AGRIPPA, HEROD, II. (27-100), son of the preceding, and like
new thinkers had developed. Aenesidemus was content to him originally Marcus Julius Agrippa, was born about A.D. 27,
attack the validity of sense-given knowledge; Agrippa 'goes and received the tetrarchy of Chalcis and the oversight of the
further and impugns the possibility of all truth whatever. His Temple on the death of his uncle Herod, A.D. 48. In A.D. 53 he
reasons are those of modern scepticism, the reasons which by was deprived of that kingdom by Claudius, who gave him other
their very nature are not susceptible of disproof. provinces instead of it. In the war which Vespasian carried on
See Diogenes Laertius x. 88, and Zeller's Greek Philosophy. Also against the Jews Herod sent him 2000 men, by which it appears
the articles SCEPTICISM; AENESIDEMUS. that, though a Jew in religion, he was yet entirely devoted to the
AGRIPPA, HEROD, I. (c. 10 B.C.-A.D. 44), king of Judea, the Romans, whose assistance indeed he required to secure the peace
son of Aristobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the of his own kingdom. He died at Rome in the third year of
Great, was born about 10 B.C. His original name was Marcus Trajan, A.D. 100. He was the seventh and last king of the family
Julius Agrippa. Josephus informs us that, after the murder of Herod the Great. It was before him and his sister Berenice
of his father, Herod the Great sent him to Rome to the court of (q.v.,8.2) that St Paul pleaded his cause at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.).
Tiberius, who conceived a great affection for him, and placed He supplied Josephus with information for his history.
him near his son Drusus, whose favour he very soon won. On AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS (63-12 B.C.), Roman states-
the death of Drusus, Agrippa, who had been recklessly extrava- man and'general, son-in-law and minister of the emperor Augus-
gant, was obliged to leave Rome, overwhelmed with debt. tus, was of humble origin. He was of the same age as Octavian
After a brief seclusion, Herod the Tetrarch, his uncle, who had (as the emperor was then called), and was studying with him at
married Herodias, his sister, made him Agoranomos (Overseer Apollonia when news of Julius Caesar's assassination (44)
of Markets) of Tiberias, and presented him with a large sum of arrived. By his advice Octavian at once set out for Rome.
money; but his uncle being unwilling to continue his support, Agrippa played a conspicuous part in the war against Lucius,
Agrippa left Judea for Antioch and soon after returned to Rome, brother of Mark Antony, which ended in the capture of Perusia
where he was welcomed by Tiberius and became the constant (40). Two years later he put down a rising of the Aquitanians
campanion of the emperor Gaius (Caligula), then a popular in Gaul, and crossed the Rhine to punish the aggressions of the
favourite. Agrippa being one day overheard by Eutyches, a Germans. On his return he refused a triumph but accepted the
slave whom he had made free, to express a wish for Tiberius' consulship (37). At this time Sextus Pompeius, with whom war
death and the advancement of Gaius, was betrayed to the was imminent, had command of the sea on the coasts of Italy.
emperor and cast into prison. In A.D. 37 Caligula, having Agrippa's first care was to provide a safe harbour for his ships,
ascended the throne, heaped wealth and favours upon Agrippa, which he accomplished by cutting through the strips of land
set a royal diadem upon his head and gave him the tetrarchy which separated the Lacus Lucrinus from the sea, thus forming
of Batanaea and Trachonitis, which Philip, the son of Herod an outer harbour; an inner one was also made by joining the
the Great, had formerly possessed. To this he added that held lake Avernus to the Lucrinus (Dio Cassius xlviii. 49 ; Pliny, Nat.
by Lysanias; and Agrippa returned very soon into Judea to Hist, xxxvi. 24). About this time Agrippa married Pomponia,
'take possession of his new kingdom. In A.D. 39 he returned daughter of Cicero's friend Pomponius Atticus. Having been
to Rome and brought about the banishment of Herod Antipas, appointed naval commander-in-chief he put his crews through a
to whose tetrarchy he succeeded. On the assassination of Cali- course of training, until he felt in a position to meet the fleet of
gula (A.D. 41) Agrippa contributed much by his advice to main- Pompeius. In 36 he was victorious at Mylae and Naulochus, and
tain Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, while he received the honour of a naval crown for his services. In 33 he
made a show of being in the interest of the senate. The emperor, was chosen aedile and signalized his tenure of office by effecting
inacknowledgment, gave him the government of Judea, while the great improvements in the city of Rome, restoring" and building
kingdom of Chalcis in Lebanon was at his request given to his aqueducts, enlarging and cleansing the sewers, and constfucting
brother Herod. Thus Agrippa became one of the greatest princes baths and porticos, and laying out gardens. He also first gave
426 AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM
a stimulus to the public exhibition of works of art. The em- university of D61e, where he lectured on John Reuchlin's De
peror's boast thathe had found the city of brick but left it of Verbo mirifico, but his teaching soon caused charges of heresy to
marble (" marmoream se relinquere, quam latericiam accepisset," be brought against him, and he was denounced by a monk named
Suet. Aug. 29) might with greater propriety have been uttered John Catilinet in lectures delivered at Ghent. As a result Agrippa
by Agrippa. He was again called away to take command of the was compelled to leave Dole; proceeding to the Netherlands he
fleet when the war with Antony broke out. The victory at took service again with Maximilian. In 1510 the king sent him
Actium (31), which gave the mastery of Rome and the empire of on a diplomatic mission to England, where he was the guest of
the world to Octavian, was mainly due to Agrippa. As a token Colet, dean of St Paul's, and where he replied to the accusations
of signal regard Octavian bestowed upon him the hand of his brought against him by Catilinet. Returning to Cologne he
niece Marcella (28). We must suppose that his wife Pomponia followed Maximilian to Italy in 1 5 1 1 and as a theologian attended
,

was either dead or divorced. In 27 Agrippa was consul for the the council of Pisa, which was called by some cardinals in opposi-
third time, and in the following year the senate bestowed upon tion to a council called by Pope Julius II. He remained in Italy
Octavian the emperial title of Augustus. Probably in com- for seven years, partly in the service of William VI., marquis of
memoration of the battle of Actium, Agrippa built and dedicated Monferrato, and partly in that of Charles III., duke of Savoy,
the Pantheum still in existence as La Rotonda. The inscription probably occupied in teaching theology and practising medicine.
on the portico states that it was erected by him during his third In 1515 he lectured at the university of Pavia on the Pimander
consulship. His friendship with Augustus seems to have been of Hermes Trismegistus, but these lectures were abruptly ter-
clouded by the jealousy of his father-in-law Marcellus, which was minated owing to the victories of Francis I., king of France.
probably fomented by the intrigues of Livia, the second wife of In 1518 the efforts of one or other of his patrons secured for
Augustus, who feared his influence with her husband. The result Agrippa the position of town advocate and orator, or syndic,
was that Agrippa left Rome, ostensibly to take over the governor- at Metz. Here, as at Dole, his opinions soon-brought him into
ship of Syria a sort of honourable exile; but as a matter of fact collision with the monks, and his defence of a woman accused
he only sent his legate to the East, while he himself remained at of witchcraft involved him in a dispute with the inquisitor,
Lesbos. On the death of Marcellus, which took place within a Nicholas Savin. The consequence of this was that in 1520
year, he was recalled to Rome by Augustus, who found he could he resigned his office and returned to Cologne, where he stayed
not dispense with his services. It is said that by the advice of about two years. He then practised for a short time as a
Maecenas he resolved to attach Agrippa still more closely to him physician at Geneva and Freiburg, but in 1524 went to Lyons
by making him his son-in-law. He accordingly induced him to on being appointed physician to Louise of Savoy, mother of
divorce Marcella and marry his daughter Julia (21), the widow of Francis I. In 1528 he gave up this position, and about this time
Marcellus, equally celebrated for her beauty and abilities and her was invited to take part in the dispute over the legality of the
shameless profligacy. In 19 Agrippa was employed in putting divorce of Catherine of Aragon by Henry VIII.; but he pre-
down a rising of the Cantabrians in Spain. He was appointed ferred an offer made by Margaret, duchess of Savoy and regent
governor of Syria a second time (17), where his just and prudent of the Netherlands, and became archivist and historiographer
administration won him the respect and good-will of the pro- to the emperor Charles V. Margaret's death in 1530 weakened
vincials, especially the Hebrew population. His last public his position, and the publication of some of his writings about
service was the bloodless suppression of an insurrection in the same time aroused anew the hatred of his enemies; but
Pannonia (13). He died at Campania in March of the year after suffering a short imprisonment for debt at Brussels he lived
following his fifty-first year. Augustus honoured his memory at Cologne and Bonn, under the protection of Hermann of Wied,
by a magnificent funeral. archbishop of Cologne. By publishing his works he brought him-
Agrippa was also known as a writer, especially on geography. self into antagonism with the Inquisition, which sought to stop
Under his supervision Julius Caesar's design of having a complete the printing of De occulta philosophia. He then went to France,
survey of the empire made was carried out. From the materials where he was arrested by order of Francis I. for some disparaging
at hand he constructed a circular chart, which was engraved on words about the queen-mother; but he was soon released, and
marble by Augustus and afterwards placed in the colonnade on the i8th of February 1535 died at Grenoble. He was married
built by his sister Polla. Amongst his writings an autobiography, three times and had a large family. Agrippa was a man of great
now lost, is referred to. Agrippa left several children; by ability and undoubted courage, but he lacked perseverance
Pomponia, a daughter Vipsania, who became the wife of the and was himself responsible for many of his misfortunes. In
emperor Tiberius; by Julia three sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar spite of his inquiring nature and his delight in novelty, he re-
and Agrippa Postumus, and two daughters, Agrippina the elder, mained a Catholic, and had scant sympathy with the teaching
afterwards the wife of Germanicus, and Julia, who married of the reformers. His memory was nevertheless long defamed
Lucius Aemilius Paullus. in the writings of the monks, who placed a malignant inscrip-
See Dio Cassius xlix.-liv. Suetonius, Augustus; Velleius Pater-
;
tion over his grave. Agrippa 's work, De occulta philosophia, was
culus ii.Josephus, Antiq. Jud. xv. 10, xvi. 2; Turnbull, Three
; written about 1510, partly under the influence of the author's
Dissertations, one of the characters of Horace, Augustus and Agrippa
friend, John Trithemius, abbot of Wiirzburg, but its publication
(1740); Frandsen, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa (1836); Motte, Etude
sur Marcus Agrippa (1872); Nispi-Landi, Marcus Agrippa e i suoi was delayed until 1531, when it appeared at Antwerp. It is
tempi (1901); D. Detlefsen, Ursprung, Einrichtung and Bedeutung a defence of magic, by means of which men may come to a
der Erdkarte Agrippas (1906); V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine knowledge of nature and of God, and contains Agrippa's idea
Zeit, vol. i.
762 foil., ii.
432 foil.
of the universe with its three worlds t>r spheres. His other
AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, HENRY CORNELIUS (1486- principal work, De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum el Artiunt
I S3S)> German writer, soldier, physician, and by common atque Excellentia Verbi Dei Declamatio, was written about 1527
reputation a magician, belonged to a family many members of and published at Antwerp in 1531. This is a sarcastic attack
which had been in the service of the house of Habsburg, and was on the existing sciences and on the pretensions of learned men.
born at Cologne on the i4th of September 1486. The details of In it Agrippa denounces the accretions which had grown up
his early life are somewhat obscure, but he appears to have around the simple doctrines of Christianity, and wishes for a
obtained a knowledge of eight languages, to have studied at the return to the primitive belief of the early Christian church. He
university of Cologne and to have passed some time in France. also wrote De Nobilitate et Praecellentia Feminei Sexus, dedicated
When quite young he entered the service of the German king, to Margaret. of Burgundy, De matrimonii Sacramento and other
Maximilian I., and in 1508 was engaged in an adventurous enter- smaller works. An edition of his works was published at Leiden
prise in Catalonia. He probably served Maximilian both as in 1550 and they have been republished several times.
soldier and as secretary, but his wonderful and varied genius was
See H. Morley, Life of H. C. Agrippa (London, 1856); A. Prost,
not satisfied with these occupations, and he soon began to take X
Les Sciences et les arts occultes au VI. siecle: Corneille Agrippa, sa vie
a lively interest in theosophy and magic. In 1509 he went to the et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1881) A. Daguet, Cornelius Agrippa (Pans, 1856).
;
 AGRIPPINA AGUESSEAU 427
"
AGRIPPINA, the elder," daughter of Marcus Vipsanius neighbouring district produces sugar-cane, tobacco, cattle,
Agrippa by his third wife Julia, was the grand-daughter of cocoanuts, oranges and lemons. The bay is supposed to have
Augustus and the wife of Germanicus. She accompanied her been first visited by Columbus (November 1493), though the
husband to Germany, when the legions on the Rhine revolted town was not founded until 1775.
after the death of Augustus (A.D. 14). Three years later she AGUADO, ALEXANDRE MARIE, marquis de Las Marismas
in the East with Germanicus (q.v.), who died at Antioch in 19, del Guadalquivir, viscount de Monte Ricco (1784-1842),
JLSisoned, it was said, by order of Cn. Calpurnius Piso, governor Spanish banker, was born of Jewish parentage at Seville, on
ol Syria. Eager to avenge his death, she returned to Rome and the 2gth of June 1784. He began life as a soldier, fighting with
boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid distinction in the Spanish war of independence on the side of
iublic infamy Piso committed suicide. Tiberius and his favourite Joseph Bonaparte. After the battle of Baylen (1808) he entered
:janus feared that her ambition might lead her to attempt the French army, in which he rose to be colonel and aide-de-camp
secure the throne for her children, and she was banished to to Marshal Soult. He was exiled in 1815, and immediately
ieisland of Pandataria off the coast of Campania, where she started business as a commission-agent in Paris, where, chiefly
ied on the iSth of October 33, starved to death by herself, or, through his family connexions in Havana and Mexico, he
rding to some, by order of Tiberius. Two of her sons, Nero acquired in a few years enough wealth to enable him to undertake
d Drusus, had already fallen victims to the machinations of banking. The Spanish government gave him full powers to
janus. Agrippina had a large family by Germanicus, several negotiate the loans of 1823, 1828, 1830 and 1831; and Ferdinand
whom died young, while only two are of importance VII. rewarded him with the title of marquis, the decorations
" "
.grippina the younger
.
and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded of several orders and valuable mining concessions in Spain.
^berius under the name of Caligula. It is remarkable that, Aguado also negotiated the Greek loan of 1834. In 1828, having
though Tiberius had ordered the execution of his elder become possessed of large estates in France, including the chateau
irothers, by his will he left Caligula one of the heirs of the Margaux, famous for its wine, he was naturalized as a French
Empire. Agrippina was a woman of the highest character citizen. He died at Gijon in Spain on the i4th of April 1842,
and exemplary morality. There is a portrait of her in the leaving a fortune computed at 60,000,000 francs, and a splendid
Capitoline Museum at Rome, and a bronze medal in the British collection of pictures which at his death was bought by the
Museum representing the bringing back of her ashes to Rome French government.
by order of Caligula. AGUASCALIENTES, an inland state of Mexico, bounded
See Tac. Ann. Suetonius, Tiberius, 53; Dio Cassius Ivii.
i.-vi.; N., E.and W. by the state of Zacatecas, and S. by Jalisco.
6, Iviii. 22, lix. 3; Elizabeth Hamilton, Memoirs of the Life of Pop. (est. 1900) 102,416, a gradual decrease since the census
Igrippina (1804); Burkhard, Agrippina, des Agrippa Tochter
years of 1895 and 1879; area, 2970 sq. m. The state occupies
(1846) Stahr, Romische Kaiserfrauen (1880).
;

an elevated plateau, extending from two spurs of the Sierra

AGRIPPINA, the "younger" (A.D. 16-59), daughter of
Madre, called the Sierra Fria and Sierra de Laurel, eastward to
ermanicus and Agrippina the elder, sister of Caligula and
the rolling fertile plains of its eastern and south-eastern districts.
icther of Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the
It is well watered by numerous small streams and one larger
Rhine, afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae
river, the Aguascalientes or Rio Grande, and has a mild healthy
(mod. Cologne). Her life was notorious for intrigue and perfidy. climate with a moderate rainfall. The fertile valleys of the
By her first husband, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, she was north and west are devoted to agriculture and the plains to stock-
the mother of the emperor Nero; her second husband was
raising. Indian corn, flour, cattle, horses, mules and hides are
Passienus Crispus, whom she was accused of poisoning. Assisted
exported to the neighbouring states. Mining industries are
by the influential freedman Pallas, she induced her uncle the still undeveloped, but considerable progress has been made in
emperor Claudius to marry her after the death of Messalina, and manufactures, especially of textile fabrics. The state has good
adopt the future Nero as heir to the throne in place of Britan-
railway communications and a prosperous trade. The capital,
nicus. Soon afterwards she poisoned Claudius and secured
Aguascalientes, named from the medicinal hot springs near it,
the throne for her son, with the intention of practically ruling
is a flourishing commercial and manufacturing city. Pop. (est.
m his behalf. Being alarmed at the influence of the freedwoman
1900) 35,052. It has cotton factories, smelting works, potteries,
.cte over Nero, she threatened to support the claims of the
tanneries, distilleries, and wagon and tobacco factories. It is a
IIghtful heir Britannicus. Nero thereupon murdered the young
station on the Mexican Central railway, 364 m. by rail north-
prince and decided
to get rid of his mother. Pretending a re- west of the city of Mexico, and is connected by rail with Tampico
nciliation, he invited her to Baiae, where an attempt was on the Gulf of Mexico. The city is well built, has many fine
iade to drown her on a vessel especially constructed to founder.
churches and good public buildings, street cars and electric
As proved a failure, he had her put to death at her country
this
The surrounding district is well cultivated and produces
lights.
house. Agrippina wrote memoirs of her times, referred to by an abundance of fruit and vegetables. Other prominent towns
'acitus (Ann. iv. 53). Her character is set forth in Racine's
of the state are Rincon de Romos (or Victoria de Calpulalpam),
'itannicus.
Asientos de Ibarra and Calvillo, the first having more and the
See Tac. Ann. xii., xiii., xiv. Dio Cassius lix.-lxi. Suetonius,
; ;

'era, 34; Stahr, Agrippina, die Mutter Neros (1880); Raffay, Die
others less than 5000 inhabitants.
femoiren der Kaiserin Agrippina (1884); B. W. Henderson, The AGUE (from Lat. acuta, sharp; sc. febris, fever), the common
ife and Principate of the Emperor Nero (1903) also article NERO.; name given to a form or stage of malarial disease; the ague fit
AGROTERAS THUSIA, an annual festival held at Agrae near is the cold, shivering stage, and hence the word is also loosely

Athens, in honour of Artemis Agrotera, in fulfilment of a vow

used for any such paroxysm. Simple ague is of much the same
ade by the city, before the battle of Marathon, to offer in type whether in temperate or tropical climates, and may take
"
rifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in various forms (quotidian, tertian, quartan), passing into re-

be conflict. The number being so great, it was decided to offer mittent fever." The symptoms are discussed, together with
"
causation, &c., in the article MALARIA. For " brow-ague
goats yearly.
>

See Plutarch, De Malignitate Herodoti, 26; Xenophon, Anab. see NEURALGIA.

2. 12; Aelian, Var. Hist. ii. 25; Schol. on Aristophanes, Equites,
AGUESSEAU, HENRI FRANCOIS D' (1668-1751), chancellor
of France, illustrious for his virtues, learning and talents, was
AGUADILLA, a town and port near the northern extremity born at Limoges, of a family of the magistrature. His father,
the W. coast of Porto Rico. Pop. (1899) 6425. It has a Henri d' Aguesseau, a hereditary councillor of the parlement
fairlygood and safe anchorage, and is the commercial outlet for of Metz, was a man of singular ability and breadth of view who,
a very fertile agricultural district. The town is attractively after holding successively the posts of intendant of Limousin,
situated and well built, and is connected by railway with Maya- Guyenne and Languedoc, was in 1685 called to Paris as coun-
guez, 20 m. distant, and also with Ponce and San Juan. The cillor of state, appointed director-general of commerce and
428 AGUILAR AHAB
manufactures in 1695, president of the council of commerce in minister at Copenhagen. He was elected to the French Academy
1 700 and a member of the council of the regency for finance.
By in 1787.
him Francois d'Aguesseau was early initiated into affairs and Of d'Aguesseau's works the most complete edition is that of the
brought up in religious principles deeply tinged with Jansenism. eminent lawyer Jean Marie Pardessus, published in 16 vols. (1818-
He studied law under Jean Domat, whose influence is apparent 1820); his letters were edited separately by Rives (1823); a selec-
tion of his works, (Euvres choisies, was issued, with a biographical
in both the legal writings and legislative work of the chancellor.
notice, by E. Falconnet in 2 vols. (Paris, 1865). The far greater
When little more than twenty-one years of age he was, through part
of his works relate to matters connected with his profession,
his father's influence with the king, appointed one of the three but they also contain an elaborate treatise on money; several
advocates-general to the parlement of Paris; and the eloquence theological essays a life of his father, which is interesting from the
;

account which it gives of his own early education; and Metaphysical

and learning which he displayed in his first speech gained him
Meditations, written to prove that, independently of all revelation
a very high reputation. D'Aguesseau was in fact the first great and all positive law, there is that in the constitution of the human
master of forensic eloquence in France. mind which renders man a law to himself.
In 1700 he was appointed procurator-general; and in this See Boullee, Histoire de la vie et des outrages du chancelier
which he filled for seventeen years, he gained the greatest d'Aguesseau (Paris, 1835); Fr. Monnier, Le Chancelier d'Aguesseau
office,
(Paris, 1860; 2nd ed., 1863); Charles Butler, Mem. of Life of H. F.
popularity by his defence of the rights of the Gallican Church d'Aguesseau, &c. (1830).
in the Quietist troubles and in those connected with the bull AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847), English writer, the daughter
Unigenitus (see JANSENISM). In February 1717 he was made of a Jewish merchant in London, was born in June 1816. Her
chancellor by the regent Orleans; but was deprived of the seals works consist chiefly of religious fiction, such as The Vale of
in January of the following year and exiled to his estate of Cedars (1850) and Home Influence (1847). She also wrote, in
Fresnes in Brie, on account of his steady opposition to the defence of her faith and its professors, The Spirit of Judaism
projects of the famous John Law, which had been adopted by (1842) and other works. Her services were acknowledged
"
the regent and his ministers. In June 1720 he was recalled to gratefully by the women of Israel " in a testimonial which they
satisfy public opinion; and he contributed not a little by the presented shortly before her death, which took place at Frank-
firmness and sagacity of his counsels to calm the public dis- fort-on-the-Main on the i6th of September 1847.
turbance and repair the mischief which had been done. Law AGUILAR, or AGUILAR DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern
himself had acted as the messenger of his recall; and it is said Spain, in the province of Cordova; near the small river Cabra,
that d'Aguesseau's consent to accept the seals from his hand and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 13,236.
" "
greatly diminished his popularity. The parlement continuing its Aguilar of the Frontier was so named in the middle ages
opposition to the registering of the bull Unigenitus, d'Aguesseau, from its position on the border of the Moorish territories, which
fearing a schism and a religious war in France, assisted Guillaurne were defended by the castle of Anzur, now a ruin; but the
Dubois, the favourite of the regent, in his endeavour to force spacious squares and modern houses of the existing town retain
the parlement to register the bull, acquiesced in the exile of the few vestiges of Moorish dominion. The olives and white wine
magistrates and allowed the Great Council to assume the power of Aguilar are celebrated in Spain, although the wine, which
of registration, which legally belonged to the parlement alone. somewhat resembles sherry, is known as Montilla, from the
The people unjustly attributed his conduct to a base compliance adjacent town of that name. Salt springs exist in the neigh-
with the favourite. He certainly opposed Dubois in other bourhood, and to the south there are two small lakes, Zonar
matters; and when Dubois became chief minister d'Aguesseau and Rincon, which abound in fish.
was deprived of his office (March i, 1722). AGUILAS, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province
He retired to his estate, where he passed five years of which he of Murcia, on the Mediterranean Sea, at the terminus of a
always spoke with delight. The Scriptures, which he read and railway from Huercal-Overa. Pop. (1900) 15,868. Aguilas is
compared in various languages, and the jurisprudence of his built on the landward side of a small peninsula, between two
own and other countries, formed the subjects of his more serious bays the Puerto Ponente, a good harbour, on the south-west,
studies; the rest of his time was devoted to philosophy, literature and the Puerto Levanto, which is somewhat dangerous to
and gardening. From these occupations he was recalled to shipping in rough weather, on the north-east. It is the chief
court by the advice of Cardinal Fleury in 1727, and on the outlet for the Spanish trade in esparto grass, and for the iron
1 5th of August was named chancellor for the third ore and other mineral products of the neighbourhood. It has
time, but
the seals were not restored to him till ten years later. During also some trade in fruit and grain. The imports consist chiefly
these years he endeavoured to mediate in the disputes between of coal. In 1904, 296 vessels, of 238,274 tons, cleared at this
the court and the parlement. When he was at last reinstated port.
in office, he completely withdrew from all political affairs, and AGUILERA, VENTURA RUIZ (1820-1881), Spanish poet,
devoted himself entirely to his duties as chancellor and to the was born in 1820 at Salamanca, where he graduated in medicine.
achievement of those reforms which had long occupied his He removed to Madrid in 1844, engaged in journalism and won
thoughts. He aimed, as others had tried before him, to draw considerable popularity with a collection of poems entitled
up in a single code all the laws of France, but was unable to Ecos nacionales (1849). His Elegias y Armonlas (1863) was no
accomplish his task. Besides some important enactments less successful, but his Sdliras (1874) and Estaciones del ano (1879)
regarding donations, testaments and successions, he introduced showed that his powers were declining. He wrote under the
various regulations for improving the forms of procedure, for obvious influence of Lamartine, preaching the gospel of liberal-
ascertaining the limits of jurisdictions and for effecting a greater ism and Christianity in verses which, though deficient in force,
uniformity in the execution of the laws throughout the several leave the impression of a sincere devotion and a charming
provinces. These reforms constitute an epoch in the history of personality. He became director of the national archaeological
French jurisprudence, and have placed the name of d'Aguesseau museum at Madrid, where he died on the ist of July 1881.
in the same rank with those of L'H6pital and Lamoignon. As AGUILLON (AGUILONIUS), FRANCOIS D' (1566-1617),
a magistrate also he was so conscientious that the due de Saint- Flemish mathematician. Having entered the Society of Jesus
Simon in his Memoirs complained that he spent too much time in 1586, he was successively professor of philosophy at Douai
over the cases that came before him. and rector of the Jesuit College at Antwerp. He wrote a treatise
In 1750, when upwards of eighty-two years of age, d'Aguesseau on optics in six books (Antwerp, 1613), notable for containing
retired from the duties without giving up the rank of chancellor. the principles of stereographic projection.
He died on the gth of February of the following year. AHAB (in Heb. 'ak'db, " father's brother "), king of Israel,
His grandson, HENRI CARDIN JEAN BAPTISTE, MARQUIS the son and successor of Omri, ascended the throne about
D'AGUESSEAU (1746-1826), was advocate-general in the parle- 875 B.C. (i Kings xvi. 29-34). He married Jezebel, the daughter
ment of Paris and deputy in the Estates- General. Under the of the king of Sidon, and the alliance was doubtless the means
Consulate he became president of the court of appeal and later of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury
 'AHAI AHASUERUS 429
in their train. We
read of his building an ivory palace and in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at

founding new the effect perhaps of a share in the flourish-

cities, this period. 3 This has in fact been confirmed by excavation in
ing commerce of Phoenicia.
1
The material prosperity of his Palestine.
reign, which is comparable with that of Solomon a century Another Ahab is known only as an impious prophet in the
before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his time of the Babylonian exile (Jer. xxix. 21). (S. A. C.)
marriage involved. Although he was a worshipper of Yahweh, 'AHAI, of Sabha, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown.
as the names of his children prove (cp. also xxii. 5 seq.), his wife He was author of Quaestiones (Sheilloth), a collection of homilies
was firmly attached to the worship of the Tyrian Baal, Melkart, (at once learned and popular) on Jewish law and ethics. This is
and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building recorded to have been the first work written by a Jewish scholar
a temple in honour of Baal in Samaria. This roused the in- after the completion of the Talmud.
dignation of those prophets whose aim it was to purify the AHASUERUS (the Latinized form of the Hebrew w'nijpro;;'

worship of Yahweh (see ELIJAH). During Ahab's reign Moab, in LXX. 'Aaffovrjpos, once in Tobit a royal Persian
'Acruij/jos),
which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; or Median name occurring in three of the books of the Old
Judah, with whose king, Jehoshaphat, he was allied by marriage, Testament and in one of the books of the Apocrypha. In every
was probably his vassal; only with Damascus is he said to have case the identification of the person named is a matter of
had strained relations. The one event mentioned by external controversy.
sources is the battle at Karkar (perhaps Apamea), where Shal- In Dan. ix. i Ahasuerus is the father of Darius the Mede, who
"
maneser II. of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes was made king over the realm of the Chaldeans " after the
from Cilicia, N. Syria, Israel, Ammon and the tribes of the Syrian conquest of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. Who this Darius
desert (854 B.C.). Here Ahabbu Sir'lai (Ahab the Israelite) with was is one of the most difficult questions in ancient history.
Baasha, son of Ruhub (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are Nabonidos (Nabunaid, Nabu-nahid) was immediately succeeded
allied with Bir-'idri (Ben-hadad), Ahab's contribution being by Cyrus, who ruled the whole Persian empire. Darius may
reckoned at 2000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are possibly have acted under Cyrus as governor of Babylon, but
comparatively .large and possibly include forces from Tyre, this view is not favoured by Dan. vi. i, vi. 25, for Darius (v. 31) is

Judah, Edom and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, said to have been sixty-two years old at the time (638 B.C.) This.

but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 would make him contemporary with Nebuchadrezzar, which
"
and 846 against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to agrees with Tob. xiv. 15, where we read of the destruction of
show that he met with no lasting success. According to the Nineveh, which Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus took captive."
Old Testament narratives, however, Ahab with 7000 troops had As a matter of fact, however, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar were
previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, the conquerors of Nineveh, and the latter was the father of
who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year Nebuchadrezzar. Cyrus did, on ascending the throne of Babylon,
obtained a remarkable victory over him at Aphek, probably appoint a governor of the province, but his name was Gobryas,
in the plain of Sharon ( i Kings xx.). A treaty was made whereby the son of Mardonius. The truth is, no doubt, as Prof. Sayce
Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from points out, that the book of Daniel was not meant to be strictly
Ahab's father (i.e. Omri, but see xv. 20, 2 Kings xiii. 25), and historical. As Prof. Driver says, " tradition, it can hardly be
trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted. doubted, has here confused persons and events in reality dis-
"
A late popular story (xx. 35-42, akin in tone to xii. 33-xiii. 34) tinct (Literature of the Old Test. (6) p. 500).
condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction In Ezraiv. 6 Ahasuerus is mentioned as a king of Persia, to
of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on whom the enemies of the Jews sent representations opposing the
the east of Jordan, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went rebuilding of the temple at Jerusalem. Here the sequence of
to recover Ramoth-Gilead and was mortally wounded (xxii.). the reigns in the Biblical writer and in the profane historians
He was succeeded by his sons (Ahaziah and Jehoram). in the one, Cyrus, Ahasuerus, Artaxerxes, Darius; in the other,
It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius led in the past (Ewald, &c.)
events (LXX. places i Kings xxi. immediately after xix.). How to the identification of Ahasuerus with Cambyses (529-522 B.C.),
the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common son of Cyrus. The name Khshayarsha, however, has been found
enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, in Persian inscriptions, and has been thought to be equivalent to
are questions which have perplexed all recent writers. The reality the Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) of the Greeks. On Babylonian tablets
of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact ithat it has been both the forms Khishiarshu and Akkashiarshi occur amongst
suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote
"
Ahab " for his son others. Modern scholars, therefore, identify the Ahasuerus of
" "
Jehoram (Kamphausen, Chronol. d. hebr. Kon., Kittel), and Ezra with Xerxes.
that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has In the book of Esther the king of Persia is called
been questioned (Horner, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., 1898, p. 244)." Ahasuerus (rendered in LXX. " Artaxerxes " throughout). The
Whilst the above passages in i Kings view Ahab not unfavour- identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, the
ably, there are others which give a less friendly picture. The son and successor of Xerxes, though countenanced by Josephus,
tragic murder of Naboth (see JEZEBEL), an act of royal encroach- deserves little consideration. Most students are agreed that he
ment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused must be a monarch of the Achaemenian dynasty, earlier than
the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found Artaxerxes I. ; and opinion is divided between Darius Hystaspes
their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic and Xerxes. In support of the former view it is alleged, among
teaching of more than one age. (See KINGS.) His denunciation other things, that Darius was the first Persian king of whom it
"
of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship could be said, as in Esther i. i, that he reigned from India even
of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, form the keynote to a period unto Ethiopia, over an hundred and seven and twenty pro-
which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which vinces "; and that it was also the distinction of Darius that
"
Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure. (Esther x. i) he laid a tribute upon the land and upon the isles
"
The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in of the sea (cf. Herod, iii. 89). In support of the identification
Mic. vi. 16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and with Xerxes it is alleged (i) that the Hebrew 'Ahashverosh is
the reference to the incidents at the building of Jericho (i Kings the natural equivalent of the old Persian Khshayarsha, the true
rvi. 34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar name of Xerxes; (2) that there is a striking similarity of
character between the Xerxes of Herodotus and the Ahasuerus
'Ahab's ivory palace found its imitators (i Kings xxii. 39; Am. of Esther; (3) that certain coincidences in dates and events
iii.15). The ivory was probably brought by the Phoenicians from
Cyprus or from one of the works on the coast of Asia Minor. 'See Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, pp. 46 sqq.; Haddon, Study
8
See the discussions by Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 91 seq., and by of Man, pp. 347 sqq.; P. Sartori, Zeitschr. fiir Ethnologic, 1898,
Whitehouse, Diet. Bib. i. 53. pp. I seq.
430 AHAZ AHMAD IBN HANBAL
corroborate this identity, as, e.g., the feast in the king's third After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian
year (cf. Esther i. 3 with Herod, vii. 8), the return of Xerxes troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although
to Susa in the seventh year of his reign and the marriage of treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia
Ahasuerus at Shushan in the same year of his. To this it may (Marseilles) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After
be added that the interval of four years between the divorce of itssurrender, he joined Pompey in Greece and was slain in the
Vashti and the marriage of Esther is well accounted for by the the battle of Pharsalus, in which he commanded the
flight after
intervention of an important series of events fully occupying right wing against Antony (Caesar, Bellum Civile, i., ii., Hi.;
the monarch's thoughts, such as the invasion of Greece. Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, B.C. ii. 82).
" "
See articles Ahasuerus in the Encyclopaedia Siblica, Hastings' GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, accom-
Dictionary, the Jewish Encyclopaedia S. R. Driver, Introd. to the Lit.
;
panied his father at Corfinium and Pharsalus, and, having been
vfthe Old Test. Friedrich Delitzsch in the Calwer Bibellexikon (1893).
;
pardoned by Caesar, returned to Rome in 46. After Caesar's
AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds "), son of Jotham, grand- assassination he attached himself to Brutus and Cassius, and in
son of Uzziah or Azariah and king of Judah. After the death 43 was condemned by the lex Pedia as having been implicated
of Menahem, Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin (rather Rasun), in the plot. He obtained considerable naval successes in the
king of Syria, allied against Assyria, invaded Judah, and laid Ionian Sea against the triumvirate, but finally, through the
siege to Jerusalem in the hope of setting up one of their puppets mediation of Asinius Pollio, became reconciled to Antony, who
upon the throne. At the same time the Edomites recovered made him governor of Bithynia. He took part in Antony's
Elath on the Gulf of Akabah (so read in 2 Kings xvi. 6; cp. also Parthian campaigns, and was consul in 32. When war broke
2 Chron. xxviii. 16 sqq.) and Judah was isolated. Notwith- out between Antony and Octavian, he at first supported Antony,
standing the counsel of Isaiah (Is. vii. 1-17), Ahaz lost heart and but, disgusted with his intrigue with Cleopatra, went over to
used the temple funds to call in the aid of Tiglath-pileser IV., who Octavian shortly before the battle of Actium (31). He died
after attacking the Philistines destroyed the power of Syria, soon afterwards(Dio Cassius xlviii.-l; Appian, Bell. Civ. iv., v.).
taking care to exact heavy tribute from Judah, which led to His son was married to An tonia, daughter of Antony, and became
further despoliation of the temple. It was as a vassal that Ahaz the grandfather of the emperor Nero. .

presented himself to the Assyrian king at Damascus, and he See Drumann, Geschichte Rom., 2nd ed. by Groebe.vol. iii. pp.14 ff.
brought back religious innovations (2 Kings xvi. io sqq.; for AHITHOPHEL (Heb. for " brother of foolishness, " i.e.
the priest Urijah see Is. viii. 2) and new ideas to which he pro- foolish!), a man of Judah whose son was a member of David's
ceeded to give effect. His buildings are referred to in 2 Kings
" bodyguard. He was possibly the grandfather of Bathsheba
xx. n, xxiii. 12; cf. perhaps Jer. xxii. 15: art thou a true king (see 2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34), a view which has been thought to
"
because thou viest with Ahaz (see the LXX.). Ahaz was have some bearing on his policy. He was one of David's most
"
succeeded by his son Hezekiah. trusted advisers, and his counsel was as though one inquired
On the ritual changes which he introduced see W. R. Smith, of the word of God." He took a leading part in Absalom's
485 sqq. and on his reign, idem, Prophets of
Relig. of Semites (2), pp. ; revolt, and his defection was a severe blow to the king, who
On 2 Kings xvi. 3 (cf. 2 Chron. xxviii. 3) "
Israel (2), pp. 415 sqq.
prayed that God would bring his counsel to foolishness."
see MOLOCH. See further ISAIAH and JEWS.
The subsequent events are rather obscure. At Ahithophel's
AHAZIAH he whom Yahweh sustains "), the name of two
(" advice Absalom first took the precaution of asserting his claim
kings in the Bible, one of Israel, the other of Judah. (i) Ahaziah, to the throne by seizing his father's concubines (cf. ABNER).
8th king of Israel, was the son and successor of Ahab, and reigned The immediate pursuit of David was then suggested; the
for less than two years. On his accession the Moabites refused advice was accepted, and the sequence of events shows that the
any longer to pay tribute. Ahaziah lost his life through a fall from king, being warned of this, fled across the Jordan (2 Sam. xvi.
the lattice of an upper room in his palace, and it is stated that 20-23, xvii. 1-4,. 22). Inconsistent with this is the account of
in his illness he sent to consult the oracle of Baal-zebub at Ekron; the intervention of Hushai, whose counsel of delay (in order to
"
his messengers, however, were met by Elijah, who bade them gather all Israel from Dan to Beersheba "), in spite of popular
return and tell the king he must die (2 Kings i. 2-17; cf. Luke ix. approbation, was not adopted, and with this episode is con-
54-56). Ahaziah, 6th king of Judah, was the son of Jehoram
(2) nected the tradition that the sagacious counsellor returned to
and Ahab's daughter Athaliah, and reigned one year. He is his home and, having disposed of his estate, hanged himself.
described as a wicked and idolatrous king, and was slain by Jehu, Instances of suicide are rare in the Old Testament (cf. SAUL),
son of Nimshi. He is variously called Jehoahaz and Azariah. and it is noteworthy that in this case, at least, a burial was not
AHENOBARBUS (" brazen-bearded "), the name of a plebeian refused. (See further ABSALOM; DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS or.)
Roman family of the gens Domitia. The name was derived from AflMAD IBN flANBAL (780-855), the founder, involuntarily
the red beard and hair by which many of the family were dis- and after his death, of the Hanbalite school of canon law, was
tinguished. Amongst its members the following may be born at Bagdad in A.H. 164 (A.D. 780) of parents from Merv but
mentioned: of Arab stock. He studied the Koran and its traditions (hadtth,
GNAEUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, tribune of the people sunna) there and on a student journey through Mesopotamia,
104 B.C., brought forward a law Domitia de Sacerdoliis) by
(lex Arabia and Syria. After his return to Bagdad he studied under
which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by ash-Shafi'I between 195 and 198, and became, for his life, a
the people in the comilia tributa (seventeen of the tribes voting) devoted Shafi-'ite. But his position in both theology and law
instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by Sulla, re- was more narrowly traditional than that of ash-Shafi'I; he
vived by Julius Caesar and (perhaps) again repealed by Marcus rejected all reasoning, whether orthodox or heretical in its
Antonius, the triumvir (Cicero, De Lege Agraria, ii. 7; Suetonius, conclusions, and stood for acceptance on tradition (naql) only
Nero, 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in 103, from the Fathers. (See further on this, MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION
consul in 96 and censor in 92 with Lucius Licinius Crassus the and MAHOMMEDAN LAW.) In consequence, when al-Ma'mun
orator, with whom he was frequently at variance. They took and, after him, al-Mo'tasim and al-Wathiq tried to force upon
joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established the people the rationalistic Mo'tazilite doctrine that the Koran
Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to was created, Ibn Hanbal, the most prominent and popular
public morality (Aulus Gellius xv. n). theologian who stood for the old view, suffered with others
Lucius DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS, son of the above, husband grievous imprisonment and scourging. In 234, under al-Mota-
Cato Uticensis, friend of Cicero and enemy
of Porcia the sister of wakkil, the Koran was finally decreed uncreated, and Ibn
of Caesar, and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party. Hanbal, who had come through this trial better than any of
At first strongly opposed to Pompey, he afterwards sided with the other theologians, enjoyed an immense popularity with the
him against Caesar. He was consul in 54 B.C., and in 49 he was mass of the people as a saint, confessor and ascetic. He died
appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul. at Bagdad in 241 (A.D. 855) and was buried there. There was
 AHMAD SHAH AHMEDABAD 43 1
much popular excitement at his funeral, and his tomb was known demoralization and corruption became as general throughout
and visited until at least the i4th century A.D. the public service as indiscipline in the ranks of the army. The
On his great work, the Musnad, a collection of some thirty thou- use of tobacco is said to have been introduced into Turkey during
sand selected traditions, see Goldziher in ZDMG, 1. 465 ff. For his Ahmed I.'s reign.
life and works generally see W. M. Patten, Ahmed ibn Hanbal and AHMED II. (1643-1695), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan
the Mihna; C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arab. Lit. i. 181 ff . ;

F. Wustenfeld, Schafi'iten, 55 ff M'G. de Slane's transl. of Ibn

.
;
Ibrahim, succeeded his brother Suleiman II. in 1691. His chief
Khallikan, i. 44 ff. ; Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, merit was to confirm Mustafa Kuprili as grand vizier. But
1 10, 157, index. (D. B. MA.) a few weeks after his accession Turkey sustained a crushing
AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), founder of the Durani dynasty defeat at Slankamen from the Austrians under Prince Louis
in Afghanistan, was the son of Sammaun-Khan, hereditary of Baden and was driven from Hungary; during the four years
chief of the Abdali tribe. While still a boy Ahmad fell into the of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed
hands of the hostile tribe of Ghilzais, by whom he was kept died, worn out by disease and sorrow.
prisoner at Kandahar. In March 1738 he was rescued by Nadir AHMED III. (1637-1736), sultan of Turkey, son of Mahommed
Shah, who soon afterwards gave him the command of a body of IV., succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his
cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of brother Mustafa II. He cultivated good relations with England,
Nadir in 1747, Ahmad, having failed in an attempt to seize the in view doubtless of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded
Persian treasures, retreated to Afghanistan, where he easily a refuge in Turkey to Charles XII. of Sweden, after his defeat
persuaded the native tribes to assert their independence and at Poltava (1709). Forced against bis will into war with Russia,
accept him as their sovereign. He was crowned at Kandahar he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to
in October 1747, and about the same time he changed the name breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his Grand Vizier
of his tribe to Durani. Two things may be said to have con- Baltaji Mahommed Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding
tributed greatly to the consolidation of his power. He inter- near the Pruth (1711). In the treaty which Russia was compelled
fered as little as possible with the independence of the different to sign Turkey obtained the restitution of Azov, the destruction
tribes, demanding from each only its due proportion of tribute of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the tsar
and military service; and he kept his army constantly engaged should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the
in brilliant schemes of foreign conquest. Being possessed of the Poles or the Cossacks. Discontent at the leniency of these terms
Koh-i-noor diamond, and being fortunate enough to intercept a was so strong at Constantinople that it nearly brought on a
consignment of treasure on its way to the shah of Persia, he had renewal of the war. In 1715 the Morea was taken from the
all the advantages which great wealth can give. He first crossed Venetians. This led to hostilities with Austria, in which Turkey
the Indus in 1748, when he took Lahore; and in 1751, after a was unsuccessful, and Belgrade fell into the hands of Austria
feeble resistance on the part of the Mahommedan viceroy, he (1717). Through the mediation of England and Holland the
became master of the en tire Punjab. In 17 50 he took Nishapur, peace of Passarowitz was concluded (1718), by which Turkey
and in 1752 subdued Kashmir. His great expedition to Delhi retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost Hungary.
was undertaken in 1756 in order to avenge himself on the Great A war with Persia terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt
Mogul for the recapture of Lahore. Ahmad entered Delhi with of the janissaries, who deposed Ahmed in September 1730.
his army in triumph, and for more than a month the city was He died in captivity some years later.
given over to pillage. The shah himself added to his wives a AHMEDABAD, or AHMADABAD, a city and district of British

princess of the imperial family, and bestowed another upon his India in the northern division of Bombay. The city was once
son Timur Shah, whom he made governor of the Punjab and the handsomest and most flourishing in western India, and it
Sirhind. As his viceroy in Delhi he left a Rohilla chief in whom still ranks next to Agra and Delhi for the beauty and extent

he had all confidence, but scarcely had he crossed the Indus of its architectural remains. It was founded by Ahmad Shah
when the Mahommedan wazir drove the chief from the city, in A.D. 1411 on the site of several Hindu towns, which had pre-
killed the Great Mogul and set another prince of the family, a ceded it, and was embellished by him with fine buildings of

P
A
tool
-i of his own, upon the throne. The Mahratta chiefs availed marble, brought from a distance. The Portuguese traveller
lemselves of these circumstances to endeavour to possess them- Barbosa, who visited Gujarat in A.D. 1511 and 1514, described
whole country, and Ahmad was compelled more Ahmedabad as " very rich and well embellished with good
I

selves of the
than once to cross the Indus in order to protect his territory streets and squares supplied with houses of stone and cement."
from them and the Sikhs, who were constantly attacking his In Sir Thomas Roe's time, A.D. 1615, " it was a goodly city as
garrisons. In 1758 the Mahrattas obtained possession of the large as London." During the course of its history it has passed
Punjab, but on the 6th of January 1761 they were totally routed through two periods of greatness, two of decay and one of revival.
by Ahmad in the great battle of Panipat. In a later expedition From 1411 to 1511 it grew in size and wealth; from 1512 to 1572
inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten it declined with the decay of the dynasty of Gujarat; from
estwards immediately afterwards in order to quell an insur- 1572 to 1709 it renewed its greatness under the Mogul emperors;
tion in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and from 1709 to 1809 it dwindled with their decline; and from
mad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining- the 1818 onwards it has again increased under British rule.
immand of the Punjab. After lengthened suffering from a The consequence of all these changes of dynasty was that
rrible disease, said to have been cancer in the face, he Ahmedabad became the meeting-place of Hindu, Mahommedan
ied in 1773, leaving to his son Timur the kingdom he had and Jain architecture. Ahmad Shah pulled down Hindu temples
:ounded. in order to build his mosques with the material. The Jama
AHMED (1589-1617), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
I. Masjid itself, which he built in A.D. 1424, with its three hundred
ahommed whom he succeeded in 1603, being the first
III., pillars fantastically carved, is a Hindu temple converted into
ttoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his a mosque (see INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, Plate III., fig. 1 5) . One of
lajority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he the finest buildings is the modern Jain temple of Hathi Singh out-
lowed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa, who side the Delhi gate, which was built only in 1848, and is a stand-
entually succeeded him. In the earlier part of his reign he ing monument to the endurance of Jain architectural art The
gave proofs of decision and vigour, which were belied by his external porch, between two circular towers, is of great magnifi-
subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession cence, most elaborately ornamented, and leads to an outer court,
>th in Hungary and in Persia terminated with sixteen cells on either side. In the centre of this court is
unfavourably for
rkey, and her prestige received its first check in the peace a domed porch of the usual form with twenty pillars. The
Sitvatordk, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid court leads to an inner porch of twenty-two pillars, two stories
iy Austria was abolished. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure in height. This inner porch conducts to a triple sanctuary.
"
.ring the remainder of his reign, which ended in 1617, and James Fergusson wrote of this temple that each part increases
 432 AHMEDNAGAR AHMED VEFIK
in dignity to the sanctuary; and whether looked at from its by the Dor, another tributary of the Godavari; on the east
by
courts or from outside, it possesses variety without confusion, the Sephani, which flows through the valley below the
Balaghat
and an appropriateness of every part to the purpose for which range; and in the extreme south by the Bhima and its tributary
it was intended." But perhaps the most unique sight in the Gor. The Sina river, another tributary of the Bhima, flows
Ahmedabad is the two windows in Sidi Said's mosque of filigree through the Nagar and Karjat talukas. The principal crops are
marble work. The design is an imitation of twining and inter- millet, pulse, oil-seeds and wheat. The district suffered from
laced branches, a marvel of delicacy and grace, and finer than drought in 1896-1897, and again in 1899-1900.
anything of the kind to be found in Agra or Delhi. AHMED TEWFIK, PASHA (1845- ), Turkish diplomatist,
The modern city of Ahmedabad is situated on the left bank was the son of Ismail Hakki Pasha. He was at first in the army,
of the river Sabarmati, and is still surrounded by walls en- but left the service in 1862; four years later he entered the
closing an area of about 2 sq. m. Its population in 1901 diplomatic service, being employed at various European capitals.
was 185,889. It has a station on the Bombay and Baroda He became minister at Athens in 1883 and ambassador in Berlin
railway, 309 m. from Bombay, whence branch lines diverge in 1884. He was appointed minister for foreign affairs (Kharijie
into Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha, and is a great centre for both Naziri) in 1896.
trade and manufacture. Its native bankers, shopkeepers and AHMED VEFIK, PASHA (1819-1891), Turkish statesman and
workers are strongly organized in gilds.
all It has cotton mills man was born in Stambul in 1819. He was the son of
of letters,
for spinning and weaving, besides many handlooms, and factories Rouheddin Effendi, at one time charge d'affaires in Paris, an
for ginning and pressing cotton. Other industries include the accomplished French scholar, who was, therefore, attached, in the
manufacture of gold and silver thread, silk brocades, pottery, capacity of secretary-interpreter, to Reshid Pasha's diplomatic
paper and shoes. The prosperity of Ahmedabad, says a native mission to Paris in 1834. Reshid took Ahmed with him and
proverb, hangs on three threads silk, gold and cotton; and placed him at school, where he remained about five years and
though its manufactures are on a smaller scale than formerly, completed his studies. He then returned to Constantinople, and
they are still moderately flourishing. The military cantonment, was appointed to a post in the bureau de traduction of the ministry
3 m. north of the native town, is the headquarters of the for foreign affairs. While thus employed he devoted his leisure
northern division of the Bombay command, with an arsenal. to the translation of Moliere's plays into Turkish and to the
The DISTRICT OF AHMEDABAD lies at the head of the Gulf of compilation of educational books dictionaries, historical and
Cambay, between Baroda and Kathiawar. Area 3816 sq. m. geographical manuals, &c. for use in Turkish schools, with the
The river Sabarmati and its tributaries, flowing from north-east object of promoting cultivation of the French language among
to south-west into the Gulf of Cambay, are the principal streams the rising generation. In 1847 he brought out the first edition
that water the district. The north-eastern portion is slightly of the Salnameh, the official annual of the Ottoman
empire.
elevated, and dotted with low hills, which gradually sink into Two years later he was appointed imperial commissioner in the
a vast plain, subject to inundation on its western extremity. Danubian principalities, and held that office till early in 1851
With the exception of this latter portion, the soil is very when he was sent to Persia as ambassador a post which suited
fertile, and some parts of the district are beautifully wooded. his temperament, and in which he rendered good service to his
The population in 1901 was 795,967, showing a decrease of 14
in the decade, due to the effects of famine.
%
goverment for more than four years. Recalled in 1855, he was
The principal sent on a mission to inspect the eastern frontiers, and on his
crops are millets, cotton, wheat and pulse. The district is return was appointed member of the Grand Council of Justice,
traversed by the Bombay and Baroda railway, and has two and was entrusted with the revision of the penal code and the
seaports, Dholera and Gogo, the former of which has given its code of procedure. This work occupied him until the begin-
name to a mark of raw cotton in the Liverpool market. It ning of 1860, when he was sent as ambassador to Paris, for the
suffered severely in the famine of 1899-1900. special purpose of averting the much-dreaded intervention of
AHMEDNAGAR, or AHMADNAGAR, a city and district of France in the affairs of Syria. But Ahmed Vefik's abrupt frank-
British India in the Central division of Bombay on the left bank ness, irascibility and abhorrence of compromise unfitted him for
of the river S'na. The town is of considerable antiquity, having European diplomacy. He offended the French government; his
been founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah, on the site of a mission failed, and he was recalled in January, 1861. None the
more ancient city, Bhingar. This Ahmad established a new less his integrity of purpose was fully understood and appreciated
monarchy, which lasted till its overthrow by Shah Jahan in 1636. in Paris. On his return he was appointed minister of the Evkaf,
In 1759 the Peshwa obtained possession of the place by bribing, but he only retained his seat in the cabinet for a few months. He
the Mahommedan commander, and in 1797 it was ceded by the was then for a brief period president of the Board of Audit, and
Peshwa to the Mahratta chief Daulat Rao Sindhia. During the subsequently inspector of the Anatolian provinces, where he was
war with the Mahrattas in 1803 Ahmednagar was invested by a engaged for more than three years. His next appointment was
British force under General Wellesley and captured. It was that of director-general of customs, whence he was removed to
afterwards restored to the Mahrattas, but again came into the the office of musteshar of the grand vizierate, and in the following
possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms of the year entered the cabinet of Midhat Pasha as minister of public
treaty of Poona. The town has rapidly advanced in prosperity instruction, but very soon retired to his seat in the Council of
under British rule. Several mosques and tombs have been con- State and remained out of office until 1875, when he represented
verted to the use of British administration. The old industries Turkey at the International Telegraphic Conference in St Peters-
of carpet- weaving and paper-making have died out; but there burg. He was president of the short-lived Turkish parliament
is a large trade in cotton and silk
goods, and in copper and brass during its first session March 19 to June 28, 1877 and at
pots, and there are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. its close was appointed vali of Adrianople, where he rendered
Ahmednagar is a station on the loop line of the Great Indian invaluable aid to the Red Cross Society. On his recall, at the
Peninsula railway, 218 m. from Bombay, and a military beginning of 1878, he accepted the ministry of public instruction
cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 6th in the cabinet of Ahmed Hamdi Pasha, and on the abolition of
division of the western army corps. The population in 1901 the grand vizierate (February 5, 1878) he became prime minister
was 43,032. and held office till about the middle of April, when he resigned.
The DISTRICT OF AHMEDNAGAR is a comparatively barren tract Early in the following year he was appointed vali of Brusa, where
with a small rainfall. The area is 6586 sq. m. The popula- he remained nearly four years, and rendered admirable services
tion in 1901 was 837,695, showing a decrease of 6 %
in the to the province. The drainage of the pestilent marshes, the
decade, due to the results of famine. The bulk of the population water-supply from the mountains, the numerous roads, the
consists of Mahrattas and Kunbis, the latter being the agricul- suppression of brigandage, the multiplication of schools, the vast
turists. On the north the district is watered by the Godavari development of the silk industry through the substitution of
and its tributaries the Prawara and the Mula; on the north-east mulberry plantations for rice-fields, the opening out of the mineral
 AHOM AHRENS 433
springs of Chilli, the introduction of rose-trees and the produc- in Assam they gradually became Hinduized, and their kings
tion of otto of roses all these were Ahmed Vefik's work; and he finally adopted Hindu names and titles. They believed that
became so popular that when in 1882 he was recalled, it was there were in the beginning no heavenly bodies, air or earth,
thought advisable that he should be taken away secretly by only water everywhere, over which at first hovered a formless
night from the konak in Brusa and brought to his private Supreme Being called Pha. He took corporeal shape as a huge
residence on the Bosporus. A few days after his return he was crab that lay floating, face upwards, upon the waters. In turn
in appointed prime minister (December i, 1882), but Ahmed other animals took shape, the last being two golden spiders from
'efik demanded, as the condition of his acceptance of office, that whose excrement the earth gradually rose above the surrounding
e should choose the other members of the cabinet, and that a ocean. Pha then formed a female counterpart of himself, who
umber of persons in the sultan's entourage should be dismissed, laid four eggs, from which were hatched four sons. One of these
pon this, the sultan, on the 3rd of December, revoked the irade was appointed to rule the earth, but died and became a spirit.
f the ist of December, and appointed Said Pasha prime minister, His son also died and became the national household deity of-
'or the rest of his life Ahmed Vefik, by the sultan's orders, was the Ahoms. The origin of mankind is connected with a flood-
ctically a prisoner in his own house; and eventually he died, legend. The only survivors of the flood, and of the conflagra-
the ist of April 1891, of a renal complaint from which he had tion that followed it, were an old man and a pumpkin-seed.
ing been a sufferer. Ahmed Vefik was a great linguist. He spoke From the latter there grew a gigantic gourd. This was split
wrote French perfectly, and thoroughly understood English,
id open by a thunderbolt, the old man sacrificing himself to save
German, Italian, Greek, Arabic and Persian. From all these the lives of those who were inside, and from it there issued the
languages he translated many books into Turkish, but wrote no progenitors of the present races of men, beasts, birds, fishe
original work. His splendid library of 15,000 volumes contained and plants. The kings claimed independent divine origin.
priceless manuscripts in many languages. In his lifetime he The religion and language have both died out, being only
appreciably aided the progress of education; but, as he had no preserved by a few priests of the old cult; but even among
following, the effects of his labour and influence in a great measure them the tradition of the pronunciation of the language has
faded away after his death. In all his social and family relations been lost. The Ahoms had a considerable literature, much of
Ahmed Vefik was most exemplary. His charity knew no bounds. which is still in existence. Their historic sense was very fully
He was devoted to his aged mother and to his one wife and developed, and many priests and nobles maintained bu-ran-jis
To his friends and acquaintances he was hospitable, "
children. (i.e. stores of instruction for the ignorant "), or chronicles,
courteous and obliging; his conversation was intellectual and which were carefully written up from time to time. A few of
refined, and in every act of his private life he manifested the these have been translated, but as yet no European scholar
spirit of a true gentleman. At home his habits, attire and mode possesses knowledge sufficient to enable him to study these
of life were quite Turkish, but he was perfectly at his ease in valuable documents at first hand.
European society; he had strong English proclivities, and The Ahom language is the oldest member of the Tai branch
numbered many English men and women amongst his intimate of the Siamese-Chinese linguistic family of which we have any
friends. In public life his gifts were almost sterilized by pecu- record. It bears much the same relationship to Siamese and
liarities of- temperament and incompatibility with official sur- Shan that Latin does to Italian. It is more nearly related to
roundings; and his mission as ambassador to Persia and his modern Siamese than to modern Shan, but possesses many
administration of Brusa were his only thorough successes. But groups of consonants which have become simplified in both.
his intellectual powers, literary erudition and noble character It is a language of the isolating class, in which every word is a
made him for the last forty years of his life a conspicuous figure monosyllable, and may be employed either as a noun or as a
eastern Europe. (E. W.*) verb according to its context and its position in a sentence.
AHOM, or AHAM, a tribe of Shan descent inhabiting the Assam In the order of words, the genitive follows the noun it governs,
: alley, and, prior to the invasion of the Burmese at the com- and, as usual in such cases, the relations of time and place are
mencement of the i pth century, the dominant race in that indicated by prefixes, not by suffixes. The meanings of the
country. The Ahoms, together with the Shans of Burma and monosyllables were differentiated, as in the other Tai languages
Eastern China and the Siamese, were members of the Tai race. and in Chinese, by a system of tones, but these were rarely
The name is believed to be a corruption of the word " A-sam," indicated in writing, and the tradition regarding them is lost.
the latter part of which is identical with
"
Shan " (properly The language had an alphabet of its own, which was clearly
Sham ") and with " Siam." Under their king Su-ka-pha related to that of Burmese.
thicy invaded Assam (?..) from the East in the year A.D. 1228, See E. A. Gait, A History of Assam (Calcutta, 1906). For the
giving their name to the country.
g" For a century and a half from language see The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. ii. (Calcutta,
" 1906)
(contains grammar and vocabulary) G. A. Grierson, Notes on
1228 the successors of
12 Su-ka-pha appear to have ruled un-
;

disturbed
disu over a small territory in Lakkimpur and Sibsagar
Ahom," in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenliindischen Gesell-
schaft, vol. Ivi., 1902, pp. I ff. (contains grammar and vocabulary,
dist
stricts. The extension of their power westward down the with specimens), and An Ahom Cosmogony, with a translation
vail ey of theBrahmaputra was very gradual, and its success and a vocabulary of the Ahom language," in the Journal of the
was by no means uniform. In the time of Aurangzeb the Ahom Royal Asiatic Society for 1904, pp. 181 ff. (G. A. GR.)

kings held sway over the entire Brahmaputra valley from Sadiya AHR, a river of Germany. It is a left-bank tributary of the
to near Goalpara, and from the skirts of the southern hills to Rhine, into which it falls at Sinzig, rising in the Eifel mountains,
the Bhutia frontier on the north. The dynasty attained the and having a total length of 55 m. It flows at first through
height of its power under Rudra Singh, who is said to have rather monotonous country, but the latter portion of its course,
ascended the throne in 1695. In the following century the power from the village of Altenahr, over which tower the ruins of the
of the Ahoms began to decay, alike from internal dissensions castle of Ahr, or Are (loth century), is full of romantic beauty.
and the pressure of outside invaders. The Burmese were called It is well stocked with trout, and the steep declivities of the
in to the assistance of one of the contending factions in 1810. lower valley furnish red wines of excellent quality.
Having once obtained a foothold in the country, they established AHRENS, FRANZ HEINRICH LUDOLF (1809-1881), German
their power over the entire valley and ruled with merciless bar- philologist, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of June 1809.
barity, until they were expelled by the British in 1824-1825. After studying at Gottingen (1826-1829) under K. O. Mtiller
In the census of 1901 the total Ahom population in Assam was and Ludolf Dissen, and holding several educational appoint-
at 178,049. ments,, in 1849 he succeeded G. F. Grotefend as director of the
The Ahoms retained the form of government in Assam peculiar
/turned Lyceum at Hanover, a post which he filled with great success
to the Shan tribes, which may be briefly described as an organ- for thirty years. He died on the 25th of September 1881. His
ized system of personal service in lieu of taxation. Their most important work is De Graecae Linguae Dialectis (1839-1843,
gion was pagan, being quite distinct from Buddhism; but new ed. by Meister, 1882-1889), which, although unfortunately
434 AHRIMAN AICKIN
incomplete, dealing only with Aeolic and Doric, and in some and destruction by Joshua (vii. 2-5, viii. 1-29), who made it
"
respects superseded by modern research, will always remain a a heap for ever, even a desolation." It is mentioned by Isaiah
standard treatise on the subject. He also published Bucolicorum (x. 28), and also after the captivity (Ezra ii. 28; Neh. vii. 32),
Graecorum Reliquiae (1855-1859); studies on the dialects of but then probably was not more than a village. In the later
Homer and the Greek lyrists; on Aeschylus; and some excellent Hebrew writings the name sometimes has a feminine form,
school-books. A volume of his minor works (ed. Haberlin) was Aiath (Is. x. 28), Aija (Neh. xi. 31). The definite article is
published in 1891, which also contains a complete list of his usually prefixed to the name in Hebrew. The site was known,
writings. and some scanty ruins still existed, in the time of Eusebius and
AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apei/idwos in Aristotle, or 'Apetjuavr/s in Jerome (Onomast., s.v. 'Ayyai). Dr E. Robinson was unable
"
Agathias; in the Avesta, Angro Mainyush) the Destructive to discover any certain traces of either name or ruins. He
Spirit ") the name of the principle of evil in the dualistic doctrine
, remarks, however (Bib. Researches, ed. 1856, i. p. 443), that it
of Zoroaster. The name does not occur in the Old Persian must have been close to Bethel on account of Biblical narrative
inscriptions. In the Avesia he is called the twin-brother of the (Josh. viii. 1 7) A little to the south of a village called Deir Di wan,
.

Holy Spirits, and contrasted either with the Holy Spirit of and one hour's journey south-east from Bethel, is the site of an
Ormazd or with Ormazd himself. He is the all-destroying Satan, ancient place called Khirbet Haiydn, indicated by reservoirs hewn
the source of all evil in the world and, like Ormazd, exists since in the rock, excavated tombs and foundations of hewn stone.
the beginning of the world. Eventually, in the great world This may possibly be the site of Ai; it agrees with all the in-
catastrophe, he will be defeated by Ormazd and disappear. The timations as to its position. It has also been identified with
later sect of the Zervanites held that both were visible manifesta- a mound now called el-Tell (" the heap "), but though the name
tions of the primeval principle Zruvan akarana (Infinite Time). of a neighbouring village, Turmus Aya, is suggestive, it is in
(See ZOROASTER.) the wrong direction from Bethel. In this view recent authorities,
AHRWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine such as G. A. Smith, generally coincide.
province, on the river Ahr and the Remagen-Adenau line of See Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1869, p. 123;
railway. Pop. 5000. It is a town of medieval aspect and is 1874, P- 62; 1878, pp. 10, 132, 194; 1881, p. 254. (R. A. S. M.)
surrounded by ancient walls, with battlements and four gates AI BONITO, an inland town of the electoral district of Guayama,
in good repair. There is a Gothic church (dating from 1245). Porto Rico, on the highway between San Juan and Ponce,
A convent school of the Ursuline nuns is a prominent feature 25 m. E.N.E. of the latter. It is the, capital of a municipal
on a hill to the south. The trade is almost exclusively confined district of the same name. Pop. (1899) of the town, 2085; of
to the manufacture and export of the wines of the district. the district, 8596. The town is about 2200 ft. above sea level,
AHT, a confederacy of twenty-two tribes of North American and owing to its cool climate and freedom from malaria it has
Indians of the Wakashan stock. They are settled on the west been chosen as an acclimatizing station and sanatorium for
coast of Vancouver, British Columbia. The chief tribes included foreigners. It is surrounded by coffee plantations, and tobacco
are the Nitinaht, Tlaasaht or Makah, Tlaokiwaht or Clahoquaht, of excellent quality is raised in the vicinity. The town was
Ahansaht and Ehatishaht. The confederacy numbers some considerably damaged by the great hurricane of the 8th of
3500. August 1899.
AHTENA (" ice people '.'),
the name of an Athapascan tribe AICARD, JEAN FRANCOIS VICTOR (1848- ), French
of North American Indians, in the basin of Copper River, poet and dramatist, was born at Toulon on the 4th of February
Alaska. 1848. His father, Jean Aicard, was a journalist of some dis-
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, tinction, and the son early began his career in 1867 with Les
1907). Jeunes Croyances, followed in 1870 by a one-act play produced at
AHVAZ, a town of Persia, in the province of Arabistan, on the Marseilles theatre. His poems include: Les Rebellions et les
the left bank
of the river Karun, 48 m. S. of Shushter, in 31 18' apaisemenls (1871); Poemes de Provence (1874), and La Chanson
N., 49 E. It has been identified with the Aginis of Nearchus, de I' enfant (1876), both of which were crowned by the Academy;
500 stadia from Susa, and occupies the site of what was once Miette et Nore (1880), a Provencal idyll; Le Lime d'heures de
an extensive and important city. Of this ancient city vast I'amour (1887); Jesus (1896), &c. Of his plays the most suc-
remains are left, extending several miles along the bank of the cessful was Le Pere Lebonnard (1890), which was originally
river. Among the most remarkable are the ruins of a bridge produced at the Theatre Libre. Among his other works are the
and a citadel, or palace, besides vestiges of canals and water- novels, LeRoide Camargue{ 1890), L'A me d'unenfant (1898) and
mills, which tell of former commercial activity. There are also Tatas (1901), Benjamine (1906) and La Venus de Milo (1874),
the ruins of a band, or stone dam of great strength, which was an account of the discovery of the statue from unpublished
thrown across the river for the purposes of irrigation. The band documents.
was 1 1 50 yds. in length and had a diameter of 24 ft. at its base. AICHINGER, GREGOR (c. -1565-1628), one of the greatest
Remains of massive structure are still visible, and many single German composers of the Golden Age. He was organist to the
blocks in it measure from 8 to 10 ft. in thickness. Ahvaz reached Fugger family of Augsburg in 1584. In 1599 he went for a two
the height of its prosperity in the i2th and ijth centuries and years' visit to Rome. This was for musical and not for ecclesi-
is now a collection of wretched hovels, with a small astical reasons, though he had taken orders before his appointment
rectangular
fort in a state of ruin, and an Arab population of about 400. under Fugger. Proske, in the preface to vol. ii. of his Musica
Since the opening of the Karun to foreign commerce in October Divina, calls him a priest of Regensburg, and is inclined to give
1888, another settlement called Benderi Nassiri, in compliment him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.
to the Shah Nassir ed din (d. 1896), has been established on a Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and
slight elevation overlooking the river at the point below the somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology.
rapids where steamers come to anchor, about one mile below AICKIN, FRANCIS (d. 1805), Irish actor, first appeared in
Ahvaz. It has post and telegraph offices; and agencies of some London in 1765 as Dick Amlet in Vanbrugh's The Confederacy at
mercantile firms, a British vice-consul (since 1004) and a Drury Lane. He acted there, send at Covent Garden, until 1792.
Russian consular agent (since 1902) are established there. The His repertory consisted of over eighty characters, and among his
new caravan road to Isfahan, opened for traffic in 1000, promised, best parts were the Ghost in Hamlet and Jaques in As You Like
if
successful, to give Ahvaz greater commercial importance. It. His success in impassioned declamatory r61es obtained for
AI [Sept. 'Ayyai, 'Ayyat and Tot; Vulg. Hai\, a small him the nickname "
of Tyrant."
royal city of the Canaanites, E. of Bethel. The meaning of His younger brother JAMES AJCKIN (d. 1803) was playing lead-
the name may be " the stone heap "; but it is not necessarily ing parts in both comedy and tragedy at the Edinburgh theatre,
a Hebrew word. Abraham pitched his tent between Ai and when he gave offence to his public by his protest against the
Bethel (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3) ;
but it is chiefly noted for its capture discharge of a fellow-actor. He therefore went to London, and
 AIDAN AIDS 435
from 1767 to 1800 was a member of the Drury Lane Company principle that they ought to assist him in special emergency
and for some years a deputy manager. He quarrelled with John or need. The occasions for demanding them and the amount
Philip Kemble, with whom, in 1792, he fought a bloodless duel. to be demanded would thus be matters of dispute, while the
AIDAN king of the Scottish kingdom of Dalriada, was
(d. 606), loose use" of the term to denote many different payments in-
the son of Gabran, king of Dalriada, and became king after th creases the difficulty of the subject.
death of his kinsman King Conall, when he was crowned at lona Both in Normandy and in England, in the I2th century, the
by St Columba. He refused to allow his kingdom to remain in two recognized occasions on which, by custom, the lord could
dependence on the Irish Dalriada, but coming into collision with demand " aid," were (i) the knighting of his eldest son, (2) the
his southern neighbours he led a large force against jEthelfrith
marriage of his eldest daughter; but while in England the third
king of the Northumbrians, and was defeated at a place called occasion was, according to Glanvill, as in
Normandy, his pay-
Daegsanstane, probably in Liddesdale. ment of " relief " on his succession, it was, according to the
See Bede, Historiae Ecclesiasticae gentis Anglorum, edited by Great Charter (1215), the lord's ransom from
Plummer
(Oxford, 1896); Adamnan, Vita S. Columbae, edited captivity. By
its provisions, the king covenanted to exact an " aid " from
by T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894).
J. his
barons on these three occasions alone and then "
AIDAN, or ^DAN, first bishop of Lindisfarne, a monk of Hii " " only a reason-
lona), was sent by the abbot Senegi to Northumbria, at the
able one except by the common counsel " of his realm.
equest of King Oswald, A.D. 634-635. He restored Christianity,
Enormous importance has been attached to this provision, as
nd in accordance with the traditions of Irish episcopacy chose establishing the principle of taxation by consent, but its scope
he island of Lindisfarne, close to the royal city of Bamborough, was limited to the barons (and the city of London), and the word
" "
his see.
(
Although he retained the Irish Easter, his character
aids was omitted from subsequent issues of the charter. The
ad energy in missionary work won him the respect of Honorius barons, on their part, covenanted to claim from their feudal
nd Felix. He survived Oswald, and died shortly after the tenants only the above three customary aids. The last
levy by
the crown was that of James I. on the
lurder of his friend Oswine of Deira, on the 3ist of August 651, knighting of his eldest
the 1 7th year of his episcopate. son (1609) and the marriage of his daughter
(1613).
See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. Plummer), iii. 3, 5, 17, 25. From at least the days of Henry I. the term " aid " was also
AIDE-DE-CAMP (Fr. for camp-assistant or, perhaps, field- applied (i) to the special contributions of boroughs to the king's
sistant), an officer of the personal staff of a general, who acts revenue, (2) to a payment in lieu of the military service due from
his confidential secretary in routine matters. the crown's knights. Both these occur on the
In Great pipe roll of 1 130,
Britain the office of the latter as auxilium milUum (and possibly as auxilium comi-
aide-de-camp to the king is given as a reward
an honorary In many foreign armies the word
distinction. tatus). The borough " aids " were alternatively known as
" " " "
djutant is used for an aide-de-camp, and adjutant general for a gifts (dona), resembling in this the benevolences of later
oyal aide-de-camp. The common abbreviation for aide-de-camp days. When first met with, under Henry I., they are fixed
ithe British service is " A.D.C.," and in the United States " aid." round sums, but under Henry II. (as the Dialogue on the
Exchequer
governors, such as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, have also, explains) they were either assessed on a population basis by
a rule, officers on their staffs with the title and functions of crown officers or were sums offered by the towns and accepted
aides-de-camp. by them as sufficient. In the latter case the townsfolk were
AIDIN, (i) A vilayet in the S.W. of Asia Minor including the collectively responsible for the amount. The Great Charter, as
ancient Lydia, Ionia, Caria and western Lycia. It derives its stated above, extended specially to London the limitation on
baronial
"
name from the Seljuk emir who took Tralles, and is the richest aids," but left untouched its liability to tallage, a
and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey. The seat of lower and more arbitrary form of
taxation, which the towns
government is Smyrna. (2) The principal town of the valley of shared with the crown's demesne manors, and which London
the Menderes or Maeander, about 70 m. E.S.E. of
Smyrna. It is
resisted in vain. The two exactions, although distinct, have
to be studied together, and when in
called also Giizel Hissar from the beauty of its situation on the 1296-1297 Edward I. was
lower slopes of Mons Messogis and along the course of the ancient Forced to his great surrender, he was
formerly supposed by
Eudon. historians to have pledged himself, under De
the capital of a sanjak. It was taken by the
It is tallagio non conce-
Seljuks, Aidin and Mentesh,
late in the I3th century, and about dendo, to levy no tallage or aid except by common consent of
1390, when ruled by Isa Bey, a descendant of the first-named, Siis
people. It is now held, however, that he limited this con-
" "
acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty. In the Seljuk period it was cession to aides, mises," and prises," retaining the right to
a secondary city under the provincial capital, Tireh In tallage. Eventually, by a statute of 1340, it was provided that
(q.v.).
the nation should not be called upon " to make
the 1 7th century it came under the power of the Karasmans of any common
Manisa and remained so till about 1820. Aidin is on the Smyrna- aid or sustain charge " except by consent of
parliament. The
Dineir railway, has large tanneries and sweetmeat manufac- aids spoken of at this period are of
yet another character,
"
and exports figs, cotton and raisins. It was greatly
tories, namely, the grant of a certain proportion of all movables "
damaged by an earthquake in 1899. On a neighbouring height (i.e. personal property), a form of taxation introduced about
are to be seen the ruins of the ancient Tralles
(q.v.), the site to
n 88 and now rapidly increasing in importance. These sub-
which the name Gtizel Hissar was particularly given sidies were conveniently classed under the "
by the vague term aids,"
Aidin is the seat of a British consular agent. As there as were also the grants made by the
Seljuks. clergy in convocation, the
are considerable numbers of Greeks, Armenians and ;erm covering both feudal and non-feudal levies from -the
Jews among "
the inhabitants, there are a Greek cathedral, several churches and ligher clergy and proportions not only of movables " but of
synagogues in addition to the fine Turkish mosques. (D. G. H.) ecclesiastical revenues as well.

AIDONE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta. From The "knight's aid" of 1130 spoken of above is probably
the town 22 m. E.S.E. direct (18 m. S.S.W. of
of Caltanisetta it is dentical with auxilium exercitus spoken of in the oldest cus-
the railway station of Raddusa, which is 41 m. W. of tumals of Normandy, where the phrase appears to represent what
Catania).
Pop. (1901) 8548. There are some interesting churches of the was known in England as " scutage." Even in England the
" "
i4th century (see E. Mauceri in L'Arte, 1906, 17). On the Serra )hrase quando Rex accipit auxilium de militibus occurs in
Orlando, a mountain not far off, are the extensive remains of an 1 1 66 and appearsto be loosely used for scutage.
unknown city, the finest in eastern Sicily, but rapidly suffering The same loose use enabled the early barons to demand
"
destruction from the spread of cultivation and unauthorized aid from their tenants on various grounds, such as their
excavations. ndebtedness to the Jews, as is well seen in the Norfolk fragments
See P. Orsi in Atti del Congresso di Scienze of returns to the Inquest of Sheriffs
Storiche, vol. v. 178 (1170).
(Rome, 1904). Sheriff's aid was a local payment of a fixed nature
paid in
AIDS, a term of medieval finance, were part of the service due
early days to the sheriff for his service. It was the subject of
to a lord from his men, and
appear to have been based upon the a hot dispute between Henry II. and Becket in 1163.
436 AIGRETTE AIGUILLON
AUTHORITIES. Stubbs' Constitutional History and Select Charters ;
coupled with his connexion with the Richelieu family, gave
M'Kechnie's Magna Carta Pollock and Maitland's History of English
;
lim an important place at court. He was a member of the
Law Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond Dialogus de Scaccario
;
;
so-called parti devot, the faction opposed to Madame de Pompa-
(Oxford, 1892); Madox's History of the Exchequer; Round's
Feudal
England, and The Commune of London; The Pipe
Rolls (Record dour, to the Jansenists and to the parlement, and his hostility
Commission and Pipe Roll Society). (J. H. R.) to the new ideas drew upon him the anger of the pamphleteers.
AIGRETTE (from the Fr. for egret, or lesser white heron), [n 1753 he was appointed commandant (governor) of Brittany
the tufted crest, or head-plumes of the egret, used for adorning and soon became unpopular in that province, which had retained
"
a woman's head-dress, the term being also given to any similar a large number of privileges called liberties." He first came
ornament, in gems, &c. An aigrette is also worn by certain nto collision with the provincial estates on the question of the
ranks of officers in the French army. By analogy the word is royal imposts (1758), but was then blamed for his inertia in
used in various sciences for feathery excrescences of like appear- ;he preparation of a squadron against England (1759), and
ance, as for the tufts on the heads of insects, the feathery
down inally alienated the parlement of Brittany by violating the
of the dandelion, the luminous rays at the end of electrified srivileges of the province (1762). In June 1764 the king, at
bodies, or the luminous rays seen in solar eclipses, diverging the instance of d'Aiguillon, quashed a decree of the parlement for-
from the moon's edge. ding the levying of new imposts without the consent qf the
AIGUES-MORTES, town of south-eastern France, in the
a estates, and refused to receive the remonstrances of the parlement
department of Card 25 m. S.S.W. of Nimes, on a branch line against the duke. On the nth of November 1765 La Chalotais,
of the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3577. the procureur of the parlement, was arrested, but whether at
Aigues-Mortes occupies an isolated position in the marshy plain the instigation of d'Aiguillon is not certain. The conflict between
at the western extremity of the Rhone delta, 23 m. from the d'Aiguillon and the Bretons lasted two years. In the place of the
Golfe du Lion. It owes its celebrity to the medieval fortifications parlement, which had resigned, d'Aiguillon organized a tribunal
of remarkable completeness with which it is surrounded. They of more or less competent judges, who were ridiculed by the
form a parallelogram 596 yds. long by 149 yds. broad, and con- pamphleteers and ironically termed the bailltage d'Aiguillon.
sist of crenellated walls from 25 to 36 ft. in height, dominated In 1768 the duke was forced to suppress this tribunal, and
at intervals by towers. Of these, the Tour de Constance, built returned to court, where he resumed his intrigue with the parti
by Louis IX., is the most interesting; it commands the north- devot and finally obtained the dismissal of the minister Choiseul
western angle of the ramparts, and contains two circular, (December 24, 1770). When Louis XV., acting on the advice
vaulted chambers, used as prisons for Protestants after the of Madame Dubarry, reorganized the government with a view
revocation of the edict of Nantes. The remainder of the to suppressing the resistance of the parlements, d'Aiguillon was
fortifications were built in the reign of Philip III. Aigues- made minister of foreign affairs, Maupeou and the Abbe Terray
Mortes the meeting-place of several canals connecting it with
is
(1715-1778) also obtaining places in the ministry. The new
Beaucaire, with Cette, with the Lesser Rhone and with the ministry, albeit one of reform, was very unpopular, and was
"
Mediterranean, on which it has a small port. Fishing and the styled the triumvirate." All the failures of the government
manufacture of soda are the chief industries with which the were attributed to the mistakes of the ministers. Thus
town is connected. It has trade in coal, oranges and other fruits, d'Aiguillon was blamed for having provoked the coup d'etat of
and in wine. In the surrounding country there are important Gustavus III., king of Sweden, in 1 772, although the instructions
vineyards, which are preserved from disease by periodical sub- of tke comte de Vergennes, the French ambassador in Sweden,
mersion. There is a statue in the town in memory of Louis IX. had been written by the minister, the due de la Vrilliere.
who embarked from Aigues-Mortes in 1248 and 1270 for the D'Aiguillon, however, could do nothing to rehabilitate French
seventh and eighth crusades. To further the prosperity of the diplomacy; he acquiesced in the first division of Poland, re-
town a most liberal charter was granted to and in addition
it, newed the Family Compact, and, although a supporter of the
the trade of the port was artificially fostered by a decree re-
Jesuits, sanctioned the suppression of the society. After the
quiring that every vessel navigating within sight of its lights death of Louis XV. he quarrelled with Maupeou and with the
should put in there. This ordinance remained in force till the young queen, Marie Antoinette, who demanded his dismissal
reign of Louis XIV. from the ministry (1774). He died, forgotten, in 1782. In no
AIGUILLE (Fr. for needle), the sharp jagged points above circumstances had he shown any special ability. He was more
the snow-line, standing upon the massif of a mountain split by fitted for intrigue than for government, and his attempts to
frost action along joints or planes of cleavage with sides too restore the status of French diplomacy met with scant success.
steep for snow to rest upon them. Aiguilles are thus the forms See Memoir es du ministere du due d'Aiguillon (3rd ed., Paris and
remaining from the splitting up of the high ridges with house- Lyons, 1792), probably written by J. L. Soulavie. On d'Aieuillpn's
roof structure into detached pinnacles. governorship of Brittany see Carre,
La Chalotais et le due d'Aiguillon
AIGUILLETTE (Fr. diminutive of aiguille, a needle; the (Paris, 1893); Marion, La Bretagne et le due d'Aiguillon (Paris,
" 1898) and Barthelemy Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais
;

obsolete English form is aglet "), originally a tag of metal, (Paris, 1901-1902). The three last have full bibliographies. See
often made of precious metals and richly chased, attached to also Flammermont, Le Chancelier Maupeou et les parlements (Paris,
the end of a lace or ribbon, and pointed, so as to pass more easily 1883) Frederic Masson, Le Cardinal de Bernis (Paris, 1884).
;

through eyelet holes. The term was, in time, applied to any MARIE MADELEINE DE WIGNEROD DU
AIGUILLON,
bright ornament or pendant for the dress made of metal, and PONT DE COURLAY, DUCHESSE D' (1604-1675), daughter of
is now specially used of ornamental cords and tags of gold and Cardinal Richelieu's sister. In 1620 she married a nephew of the
silver lace, worn on naval and military uniforms. The aiguillette constable de Luynes, Antoine de Beauvoir du Roure, sieur de
isfastened to the shoulder, the various cords hanging down Combalet, who died in 1622. In 1625, through her uncle's
influence, she was made a lady-in-waiting (dame d'atour) to
therefrom being fastened at their other end on the front of the the
coat. queen-mother, and in 1638 was created duchess of Aiguillon.
AIGUILLON, EMMANUEL ARMAND DE WIGNEROD DU She did not marry a second time, although Richelieu wished to
PLESSIS DE RICHELIEU, Due D' (1720-1782), French states- marry her to a prince either to the comte de Soissons or to the
man, nephew of the marechal de Richelieu, was born on the 3ist king's brother. After the death of the cardinal (1642) she retained
of July 1720. He entered the army at the age of seventeen, and her honours and titles, but withdrew from the court, and devoted
at the age of nineteen was made colonel of the regiment of Brie. herself entirely toworks of charity. She entered into relations
He served in the campaigns in Italy during the War of the with Saint Vincent de Paul and helped him to establish the
Austrian Succession, was seriously wounded at the siege oi hospital for foundlings. She also took part in organizing the
Chateau-Dauphin (1744), was taken prisoner (1746) and was General Hospital and several others in the provinces. She died
made marlchal de camp in 1748. His marriage in 1740 with on the I7th of April 1675. She was the patroness of Corneille,
Louise Felicite de Brehan, daughter of the comte de P161o, who in 1636 dedicated to her his tragedy of The Cid.
 AIGUN AILLY 437
Mme. Marie de Wignercd,
See E. Flechier, Oraison funebre de he went to Leyden, took the degree of M.D. (1780), and in
1784.
duchesse d'Aiguillon; Bonneau-Avenant, La duchesse d'Aiguillon established himself as a doctor in Yarmouth. In 1792 he re-
(1879); Memoires de Saint-Simon, ed. by A. de Boislisle (1879
et seq.). moved to London, where he practised as a consulting physician.
AIGUN, or AIHUN (also Sakhalyan-ula-khoto), a town of China But he concerned himself more with the advocacy of liberty of
conscience than with his professional duties, and he
province Hei-lung-kiang, in northern Manchuria, situated on began at
the right bank of the Amur, in a fertile and populous region,
an early period to devote himself to literary pursuits. In con-
20 m. below Blagovyeshchensk, where it occupies nearly 2 m. junction with his sister, Mrs Barbauld (q.ii.), he published a
on the bank of the river. There is a palisaded fort in the popular series of volumes entitled Evenings at Home (6 vols.,
middle of the town, inside of which is the house of the fu-tit 1792-1795), excellently adapted for elementary family reading,
Its merchants carry on an active local trade in
which were translated into almost every European
(governor). language.
and tobacco, and some of its firms supply In 1798 Dr Aikin retired from professional life and devoted
grain, mustard, oil
the Russian administration with grain and flour. himself with great industry to various
During the literary undertakings,
" Boxer " among which his General Biography (10 vols., 1799-1815) holds
rising of 1900 it was, for a few weeks, the centre of
a conspicuous place. Besides these, he published Biog. Memoirs
military action directed against the Russians. The population,
of some 20,000, includes a few hundred Mussulmans. The town of Medicine (1780); Lives of John Selden and Archbishop Usher
was founded first on the left bank of the Amur, below the mouth (1812) and other works. He edited the Monthly Magazine from
of the Zeya, but was abandoned, and the present town was 1796 to 1807, and conducted a paper called the Athenaeum from
founded in 1684. It was here that Count Muraviev concluded, 1807 to 1809, when it was discontinued. Aikin died in 1822.
in May 1857, the Aihun treaty, according to which the left bank His daughter, LUCY AIKIN (1781-1864), born at Warrington
of the Amur was conceded to Russia. on the 6th of November 1781, had some repute as a historical
AIKEN, a city ajid the county-seat of Aiken county, South writer. After producing various books for the young, and a
Carolina, U.S.A., 17 m. E.N.E. of Augusta, Georgia. novel, Larimer (1814), she published in 1818 her Memoirs of the
Pop. (1890)
Court of Queen Elizabeth, which passed through several editions.
2362; (1900) 3414 (2131 of negro descent) (1910) 3911. It
;

is served by the Southern

This was followed by Memoirs of the Court of James I.
railway, and by an electric line con- (1822),
necting with Augusta. Aiken is a fashionable winter resort,
Memoirs of the Court of Charles I. (1833) and a Life of Addison
chiefly frequented by Northerners, and is pleasantly situated (1843). Miss Aikin died at Hampstead, where she had lived for
about 500 ft. above sea level in the heart of the famous sand-hill forty years, on the 2gth of January 1864.
and pine-forest region of the state. The dry and unusually See a Memoir of John Aikin, with selections of his miscellaneous
equable temperature (mean for winter 50 F., for spring 57 F., pieces (1823), by his daughter; and the Memoirs, Miscellanies and
of Lucy Aikin (1864), including her correspondence (1826-
Letters
and for autumn 64 F.) and the balmy air laden with the frag-
1842) with William Ellery Channing, edited by P. H. Le Breton.
rance of the pine forests have combined to make Aiken a health
and pleasure resort; its climate is said to be especially bene- AIRMAN, WILLIAM (1682-1731), British portrait-painter, was
ficial for those afflicted with born at Cairney, Forfarshire. He was intended by his father for
pulmonary diseases. There are
the bar, but followed his natural bent by
fine hotels, club houses and cottages, and the Palmetto Golf becoming a pupil under
Links near the city are probably the finest in the southern SirJohn Medina, the leading painter of the day in Scotland. In
states; fox-hunting, polo, tennis and shooting are among the 1707 he went to Italy, resided in Rome for three years, after-
popular sports. There are some excellent drives in the vicinity. wards travelled to Constantinople and Smyrna, and in 1712
The city is the seat of the Aiken Institute (for whites) and the returned home. In Edinburgh, where he practised as a portrait-
Schofield Normal and Industrial School (for There painter for some years, he enjoyed the patronage of the duke of
negroes).
are lumber mills, cotton mills and cotton-gins; and cotton, Argyll; and on his removal to London in 1723 he soon obtained
farm products and artificial stone are exported. Considerable many important commissions. Perhaps his most successful
quantities of aluminium are obtained from the kaolin deposits work was the portrait of the poet Gay. He also painted por-
traits of himself, Fletcher of
in the vicinity. The city's water supply is obtained from Saltoun, William Carstares and
artesian wells. Aiken ,vas settled in the early part of the igth Thomson the poet. The likenesses were generally truthful and
century, but was not incorporated until 1835, when it was the style was modelled very closely upon that of Sir
Godfrey
named in honour of William Aiken (1806-1887), governor of Kneller. Aikman held a good position in literary society and
the state in 1844-1847, and a representative in counted among his personal friends Swift, Pope, Thomson, Allan
Congress in
1851-1857- Ramsay, Somervile and Mallet.
AIKIN, ARTHUR (1773-1854), English chemist and mineralo- AILANTHUS (more correctly ailanius, from ailanto, an
gist,was born on the igth of May 1773, at Warrington in Lanca- Amboyna word probably meaning " Tree of the Gods," or
shire. He studied chemistry under Priestley and gave attention Tree of Heaven "), a genus of trees belonging to the natural
to the practical applications of the science. To mineralogy he order Simarubaceae. The best known species, A. glandulosa,
was likewise attracted, and he was one of the founders of the Chinese sumach or tree of heaven, is a handsome, quick-growing
Geological Society of London, 1807, and honorary secretary, tree with spreading branches and large compound leaves, re-

1812-1817. To the transactions of that society he contributed sembling those of the ash, and bearing numerous pairs of long
papers on the Wrekin and the Shropshire coalfield, &c. Later pointed leaflets. The small greenish flowers are borne on
he became secretary of the Society of 3 ranched panicles; and the male ones are characterized
Arts, and in 1841 treasurer by
of the Chemical Society. In early life he had been for a short having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and
time a Unitarian minister. He was each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle.
highly esteemed as a man
of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in London The wood is fine grained and satiny. The tree, which is a native
on the isth of April 1854. of China and Japan, was introduced into England in
1751 and
PUBLICATIONS. Journal of a Tour through North Wales and part is a favourite in parks and gardens. A silk spinning moth, the
of Shropshire; with observations in ailanthus moth (Bombyx or Philosamia cynthia), lives on its
Mineralogy and other branches
of Natural History (London, 1797) A Manual of Mineralogy (1814;
ed. 2, 1815); A Dictionary
;
eaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry
of Chemistry and Mineralogy (with his but inferior to it in fineness and gloss. This moth is common
brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814). silk,
near many towns in the eastern United States; it is about
AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822), English doctor and writer, was 5 in. across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown,
born at Kibworth-Harcourt, and received his with white markings. Other species of ailanthus are: A.
elementary
education at the Noncomformist academy at
Warrington, 'mberbiflora and A. punctata, important Australian timber-trees;
where his father was tutor. He studied medicine in the univer- and A excelsa, common in India.
.

sity of Edinburgh, and in London under Dr William Hunter.

AILLY, PIERRE D' (1350-1420), French theologian, was born
He practised as a surgeon at Chester and Warrington. at Compiegne in 1350 of a bourgeois family, and studied in Paris
Finally,
438 AILLY
at the celebrated college of Navarre. He became a licentiate of the obstinacy of Benedict XIII. by threatening a formal with-
" "
arts in 1367, procurator of the French nation in 1372, bachelor drawal from his obedience. Pierre d'Ailly, who, in spite of his
of theology in 1372, and licentiate and doctor in that faculty attachment to the pope, had been carried away by the example of
in 1381. the kingdom, was among the first who, in 1403, after experience
Since 1378 Western Christendom, in consequence of the election of what had happened, counselled and celebrated the restoration
of the two popes Urban VI. and Clement VII., had been divided of obedience. He was sent by Charles VI. on an embassy to
into two obediences. In the spring of 1379 Pierre d'Ailly, in Benedict XIII. and seized this opportunity of lavishing on the
anticipation even of the decision of the university of Paris, had pontiff friendly congratulations mingled with useful advice. Two
" "
carried to the pope of Avignon the role of the French nation, years later, before the same pontiff, he preached in the city of
but notwithstanding this prompt adhesion he was firm in his Genoa a sermon which led to the general institution, in the
desire to put an end to the schism, and when, on the 2oth of May countries of the obedience of Avignon, of the festival of the
1381, the university decreed that the best means to this end was Holy Trinity.
to try to gather together a general council, Pierre d'Ailly sup- At the ecclesiastical council which took place at Paris in 1406
ported this motion before the king's council in the presence of the Pierre d'Ailly made every effort to avert a new withdrawal from
duke of Anjou. The dissatisfaction displayed shortly after by the obedience and, by order of the king, took the part of defender
the government obliged the university to give up this scheme, of Benedict XIII., a course which yet again exposed him to attacks
and was probably the cause of Pierre d'Ailly's temporary retire- from the university party. The following year he and his disciple
ment to Noyon, where he held a canonry. There he continued Gerson formed part of the great embassy sent by the princes to
the struggle for his side in a humorous work, in which the parti- the two pontiffs, and while in Italy he was occupied in praise-
sans of the council are amusingly taken to task by the demon worthy but vain efforts to induce the pope of Rome to remove
Leviathan. himself to a town on the Italian coast, in the neighbourhood of his
After his return to Paris, where from 1384 onwards he filled rival, where it was hoped that the double abdication would take
the position of master of the college of Navarre, and took part in place. Discouraged by his failure to effect this, he returned to
a violent campaign against the chancellor of Notre-Dame, he was his diocese of Cambrai at the beginning of 1408. At this time he
twice entrusted with a mission to Clement VII. in 1388 to defend was still faithful to Benedict XIII., and the disinclination he felt
the doctrines of the university, and especially those concerning to joining the members of the French clergy who were on the
the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, against the preaching point of ratifying the royal declaration of neutrality excited the
friar Jean de Montson, and in 1389 to petition in the name of the anger of Charles VI. 's government, and a mandate, which was
king for the canonization of the young cardinal Peter of Luxem- however not executed, ordered the arrest of the bishop of
burg. The success which attended his efforts on these two Cambrai.
occasions, and the eloquence which he displayed, perhaps con- It was not till after the cardinals of the two colleges had led to
tributed to his choice as the king's almoner and confessor. At the
,.
the convocation of the general council of Pisa that Pierre'd'Ailly
same time, by means of an exchange, he obtained to the highest renounced the support of Benedict XIII., and, for want of a better
dignity in the university, becoming chancellor of Notre-Dame de policy, again allied himself with the cause which he had cham-
Paris. pioned in his youth. In the council lay now, to judge from his
When in 1394 Benedict XIII. succeeded Clement VII. at words, the only chance of salvation; and, in view of the require-
Avignon, Pierre d'Ailly was entrusted by the king with a mission ments of the case, he began to argue that, in case of schism, a
of congratulation to the new pontiff. His obsequious language council could be convoked by any one of the faithful, and would
on this occasion, and the favours with which it was rewarded, have the right to judge and even to depose the rival pontiffs.
formed a too violent contrast to the determined attitude of the This was, in fact, the procedure of the council of Pisa, in which
university of Paris, which, tired of the schism, was even then Pierre d'Ailly took part. After the declaration of the deposition
demanding the resignation of the two pontiffs. Pierre d'Ailly of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. it went on to the election of
himself had not long before taken part in the drawing up of a Alexander V. (June 26th, 1409). This pope reigned only ten
letter to the king in which the advantages of this double abdica- months; his successor, John XXIII., raised Pierre d'Ailly to the
tion were set forth, but since then his zeal had seemed to cool a rank of cardinal (June 6, 1411), and further, to indemnify him
little. None the less, on his return from Avignon, he again in for the loss of the bishopric of Cambrai, conferred upon him the
the presence of the king enlarged upon the advantages offered by administration of that of Limoges (November 3, 1412), which
the way which the university commended. But the suspicions was shortly after exchanged for the bishopric of Orange. He also
aroused by his conduct found further confirmation when he nominated Pierre d'Ailly as his legate in Germany (March 18,
caused himself or allowed himself to be nominated bishop of 1413)-
Le Puy by Benedict XIII. (April 2, 1395). The great number Forgetting these benefits, the cardinal of Cambrai was one of
of benefices which he held left room for some doubt as to his dis- the most formidable adversaries of John XXIII. at the council of
interestedness. Henceforward he was under suspicion at the Constance. Convinced as he was of the necessity for union and
university, and was excluded from the assemblies where the union reform, he contributed more than any one to the adoption of the
was discussed. principle that, since the schism had survived the council of Pisa,
Some time
afterwards Pierre d'Ailly became bishop of Cambrai it was necessary again to take up the work for a fundamental

(March by the favour of the pope, who had yielded no

19, 1397) union, without considering the rights of John XXIII. any more
whit, and, by virtue of this position, became also a prince of the than they had those of Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. From
empire. In order to take possession of his new see, he had to this point of view Pierre d'Ailly, together with his compatriot
brave the wrath of the duke of Burgundy, override the resistance Cardinal Fillastre, took the preponderating part during the first
of the clergy and bourgeoisie, and even withstand an armed few months. Afterwards, seeing the trend of events, he showed
attack on the part of several lords; but his protector, the duke some uneasiness and hesitation. He refused, however, to under-
of Orleans, had his investiture performed by Wenceslaus, king of take the defence of John XXIII., and only appeared in the trial of
the Romans. The latter, though a partisan of the pope of Rome, thispope to make depositions against him, which were sometimes
took the opportunity of enjoining on Pierre d'Ailly to go in his of an overwhelming character.
name and argue with the pope of Avignon, a move which had as Among the important matters which claimed his attention at
its object to persuade Benedict XIII. to an abdication, the Constance may be mentioned also the condemnation of the errors
necessity of which was becoming more and more evident. How- of Wycliffe and the trial of John Huss. The reading in public
ever, the language of the bishop of Cambrai seems on this occasion of his two treatises De Potestate ecdesiastka and De Reformatione
to have been lacking in decision; however that may be, it led to Ecdesiae revealed, besides ideas very peculiar to himself on the
no felicitous result. reform and constitution of the church, his design of reducing the
of
France next tried to bring violent pressure to bear to conquer power of the English in the council by denying them the right
 AILSA CRAIG AIN 439
forming a separate nation (October i-November i, 1416). By the from the Craig, which was his property. When John
title

this campaign, which exposed him to the worst retaliation of the Keats was in Girvan during his Scottish tour in 1818 he apostro-
"
English, he inaugurated his role of procurator and defender of phized the rock in a fine sonnet.
the king of France." AIMAK, or EIMAK (Mongolian for " clan," or section of a
When at last the question arose of giving the Christian world a tribe), the name given to certain nomadic or semi-nomadic
new pope, this time sole and uncontested, Pierre d'Ailly defended tribes of Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west
the right of the cardinals, if not to keep the election entirely in Afghan highlands immediately to the north of Herat. They were
their own hands, at any rate to share in the election, and he originally known as "chahar (the four) Eimaks," because there
brought forward an ingenious system for reconciling the preten- were four principal tribes: the Taimani (the predominating
In this
sions of the council with the rights of the Sacred College. element in the population of Ghur), the Ferozkhoi, the Jamshidi
way was elected Pope Martin V. (November n, 1417), and the and, according to some authorities, the Hazara. The Aimak
was at last finished.
task of Pierre d'Ailly peoples number upwards of a quarter of a million, and speak
The predominance of the Anglo-Burgundians in France having a dialect said to be closely related to the Kalmuck. They are
made it impossible for him to stay there, he went to Avignon to Sunnite Mahommedans in distinction from the Hazara who are
end days in melancholy calculations arising from the calami-
his Shiites. They are predominantly of Iranian or quasi-Iranian
ties ofwhich he had been the witness, and the astrological blood, while the Hazara are Turanian. They are a bold, wild
reckonings, in which he found pleasure, of the chances for and people and renowned fighters.
against the world coming to an end in the near future. He died AIMARD, GUSTAVE, the pen-name of OLIVIER GLOUX (1818-
on the gth of August 1420. 1883), French novelist, who was born in Paris on the I3th of
Pierre d'Ailly's written works are numerous. A great part of September 1818. He made use of the materials collected in a
them was published with the works of Gerson (by Ellies du Pin, roving and adventurous youth and early manhood in numerous
Antwerp, 1706); another part appeared in the i5th century, romances in the style of J. Fenimore Cooper. Among the best
probably at Brussels, and there are many treatises and sermons of them are: Les Trappeurs de I' Arkansas (1858); La Grande
still unpublished. In philosophy he was a nominalist. Many flibuste (1860); Nulls mexicaines (1863); La Forget merge (1870).
questions in science and astrology, such as the reform of the He died in Paris on the 2Oth of June 1883. Many of his novels
calendar, attracted his attention. His other works consisted of have been translated into English.
theological essays, ascetic or exegetic, questions of ecclesiastical AIMOIN (c. g6o-c. 1010), French chronicler, was born at
discipline and reform, and of various polemical writings called Villefranche de Longchapt about 960, and in early life entered
forth for the most part by the schism. the monastery of Fleury, where he became a monk and passed
Whatever reservations may be made as to a certain interested the greater part of his life. His chief work is a Historia Fran-
or ambitious side of his character, Pierre d'Ailly, whose devotion corum, or Libri V. de gestis Francorum, which deals with the
to the cause of union and reform is incontestable, remains one history of the Franks from the earliest times to 653, and was
of the leading spirits of the end of the I4th and beginning of continued by other writers until the middle of the i2th century.
the 1 5th centuries. It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Tschackert, Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877); value is now regarded as slight. It has been edited by G. Waitz
L. Salembier, Petrus de Alliaco (Lille, 1886); H. Denifle et Em. and published in the Monumenla Germaniae hislorica : Scriptores,
Chatelain, Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis, t. iii. (Paris, Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). He also wrote a
1894); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'Occident (Paris,
Vita Abbonis, abbatis Floriacensis, the last of a series of lives
4 vols., 1896-1902); and Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes, vol. Ixv.,
1904, pp. 557-574- (N. V.) of the abbots of Fleury, all of which, except the life of Abbo, have
AILSA CRAIG, an island rock at the mouth of the Firth been lost. This has been published by J. Mabillon in the Ada
of Clyde, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Ayrshire, Scotland. It is of sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701). Aimoin's
conoidal form, with an irregular elliptic base, and rises abruptly third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the Miracula
to a height of 1114 ft. The only side from which the rock can Sancti Benedicti, the first book of which was written by another
be ascended is the east; the other sides being for the most part monk of Fleury named Adrevald. This also appears in the
perpendicular, and generally presenting lofty columnar forms, Ada sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti.
though not so regular as those of Staffa. This island is composed Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from
of micro-granite with riebeckite, of great interest on account of Aimoin, a monk of St Germain-des-Pres, who wrote De miraculis
the rare occurrence of this type in Britain. It is comparatively sancti Germani, and a fragment De Normanorum gestis circa
fine-grained and of a greyish colour. Its essential constituents Parisiacam urbem et de divina in eos ultione tempore Caroli calm.
are felspar, quartz and riebeckite a soda amphibole. The Both of these are published in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores,
last of these minerals occurs in small irregular patches between Tome ii.(Paris, 1639-1649).
the idiomorphic felspars which Dr J. J. H. Teall has found to See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome vii. (Paris, 1865-1869).
be a soda orthoclase. The rock is allied to paisanite described AIN, a department on the eastern frontier of France, formed
by C. A. Osann and has been termed ailsite by Professor M. F. in 1790 from Bresse, the Pays de Gex, Bugey, Dombes and
Heddle. It forms part of an intrusive mass which, on the south Valromey, districts of Burgundy. It is bounded N. by the
and west cliffs of the island, has a columnar arrangement and departments of Jura and Saone-et-Loire, W. by Sa6ne-et-Loire
is traversed by
dykes of dolerite, most of which run in a north- and Rhone, S. by Isere, and E. by the departments of Savoie
west direction. The age of this mass is uncertain, as its relations and Haute-Savoie and the Swiss cantons Geneva and Vaud.
to other rocks are not visible in the island. As riebeckite- Pop. (1906) 345,856. Area 2248 sq. m. The department takes
granophyre has been found in Skye it may be of Tertiary age. its name from the river Ain, which traverses its centre in a
The rock is a favourite material for curling-stones, about three- southerly direction and separates it roughly into two well-
fourths (according to estimate) of those in use in the countries marked physical divisions a region of mountains to the east,
where the game obtains being made of it. On this account and of plains to the west. The mountainous region is occupied
" " "
curling-stones are popularly known as Ailsas or Ailsa by the southern portion of the Jura, which is divided into parallel
Craigs." A columnar cave exists towards the northern side of chains running north and south and decreasing in height from
the island, and on the eastern are the remains of a The most easterly of these chains, that forming
tower, with east to west.
several vaulted rooms. Two springs occur and some scanty the Pays de Gex in the extreme north-east of the department,
grass affords subsistence to rabbits, and, on the higher levels, contains the Cret de la Neige (6653 ft.) and other of the highest
to goats. The precipitous parts are frequented by large flocks summits in the whole range. The district of Bugey occupies
of solan geese and other sea birds. The lighthouse on the the triangle formed by the Rhone in the south-east of the depart-
southern side shows a flashing light visible for 13 m. In 1831 ment. West of the Ain, with the exception of the district covered
the twelfth earl of Cassillis became first marquis of Ailsa, taking by the Revermont, the westernmost chain of the Jura, the country
440 AINGER AINSWORTH
is flat, consisting in the north of the south portion of the Bresse, 1899-1900); articles on Tennyson and Du Maurier in the
in the south of the marshy Dombes. The chief rivers of the Dictionary of National Biography; The Gospel and Human
eastern region are the Valserine and the Seran, right-hand Life (1904), sermons; Lectures and Essays (2 vols., 1905), edited
tributaries of the Rhone, which forms the eastern and southern by the Rev. H. C. Beeching.
boundary of the department; and the Albarine and Oignin, See also Edith Sichel, The Life and Letters of Canon Ainger (1906).
left-hand affluents of the Ain. The Bresse is watered by the AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMMANUEL (1807-1870),
Veyle and the Reyssouze, both flowing into the Saone, which German artist and glass-painter, was born at Munich on the i4th
washes the western limit of the department. The climate is of February 1807. By the advice of Gartner, director of the
cold in the eastern and central districts of Ain, but it is on the royal porcelain manufactory, he devoted himself to the study
whole healthy, except in the Dombes. The average rainfall of glass-painting, both as a mechanical process and as an art,
is about 38 in. The soil in the valleys and plains of the depart- and in 1828 he was appointed director of the newly-founded
ment, especially in the Bresse, is fertile, producing large quantities royal painted-glass manufactory at Munich. The method
of wheat, as well as oats, buckwheat and maize. East of the which he gradually perfected there was a development of the
Ain, forests of fir and oak abound on the mountains, the lower enamel process adopted in the Renaissance, and consisted in
slopes of which give excellent pasture for sheep and cattle, and actually painting the design upon the glass, which was sub-
much cheese is produced. Horse-raising is carried on in the jected, as each colour was laid on, to carefully-adjusted heating.
Dombes. The pigs and fowls
of the Bresse and the geese and The earliest specimens of Ainmuller's work are to be found in
turkeys of the Dombes
are largely exported. The vineyards the cathedral of Regensburg. With a few exceptions, all the
of Bugey and Revermont yield good wines. The chief mineral windows in Glasgow cathedral are from his hand. Specimens
product is the asphalt of the mines of Seyssel on the eastern may also be seen in St Paul's cathedral, and Peterhouse, Cam-
frontier, besides which potter's clay, building stone, hydraulic bridge, and Cologne cathedral contains some of his finest
lime and cement are produced in the department. There are productions. Ainmuller had considerable skill as an oil-painter,
many corn and saw mills and the wood-working industry is especially in interiors, his pictures of the Chapel Royal at
important. Silk fabrics, coarse woollen cloth, paper and clocks Windsor and of Westminster Abbey being much admired. He
are manufactured. Live-stock and agricultural products are died on the gth of December 1870.
exported; the chief imports are wood and raw silk. The depart- AINSWORTH, HENRY English Nonconformist
(1571-1622),
ment is within the judicial circumscription of the appeal court divine and scholar, was born of yeoman stock in 1570/1 at
of Lyons and the educational circumscription (academic) of S wanton Morley, Norfolk. He was for four years from December
Lyons. It forms part of the archiepiscopal province of Besancon. 1587 a scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, and, after associat-
The Rhone and the Sa6ne are navigable for considerable distances ing with the Puritan party in the Church, eventually joined the
in the department; the chief railway is that of the Paris-Lyon- Separatists. Driven abroad about the year 1593, he found a
"
Mediterranee Company, whose line from Macon to Culoz traverses home in a blind lane at Amsterdam." He acted as " porter "
the department. Ain is divided into five arrondissements to a scholarly bookseller in that city, who, on discovering his
those of Bourg and Trevoux in the west, and those of Gex, skill in the Hebrew language, made him known to his
country-
Nantua and Belley in the east; containing in all 36 cantons men. When part of the London church, of which Francis
and 455 communes. Bourg is the capital and Belley is the seat Johnson (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam,
of a bishop. Jujurieux, in the arrondissement of Nantua, has Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher. In 1596 he
the most important silk factory in the department, occupying took the lead in drawing up a confession of their faith, which
over 1000 workpeople. Bellegarde on the eastern frontier is he reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various univer-
an industrial centre; it has a manufactory of wood-pulp, and sities of Europe (including St Andrews, Scotland). Johnson
saw and flour mills, power for which is obtained from the waters joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed
of the Rhone. Oyonnax and its environs, north of Nantua, An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly
are noted for the production of articles in wood and horn, but unjustly called Brownisls. The task of organizing the church
especially combs. St Rambert, in the arrondissement of Belley, was not easy and dissension was rife. Of Ainsworth it may be
besides being of industrial importance for its manufactures of said that, though often embroiled in controversy, he never put
silk and paper, possesses the remains of a Benedictine abbey, himself forward; yet he was the most steadfast and cultured
powerful in the nth, izth and I3th centuries. The Gothic champion of the principles represented by the early Congre-
church of Ambronay in the arrondissement of Belley, the church gationalists. Amid all the strife of controversy, he steadily
of St Paul de Varax (about 9 m. S.W. of Bourg), a building in pursued his rabbinical studies. The combination was so unique
the Romanesque style of Burgundy, and that of Nantua (izth that many, like the encyclopaedists L. Moreri and J. H. Zedler,
century), are of architectural interest. Ferney, 4 m. S.W. of have made two Henry Ainsworths one Dr Henry Ainsworth,
Gex, is famous as the residence of Voltaire from 1758-1778. a learned, biblical commentator; the other H. Ainsworth, an
"
AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904), English divine and man of arch-heretic and the ringleader of the Separatists at Amster-
was born in London on the gth of February 1837, the
letters, dam." Some confusion has also been occasioned through his
son of an architect. He was educated at King's College, London, not unfriendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained in 1860 abjured the Anglican for the Roman church. In 1608 Ainsworth
to a curacy at Alrewas, near Rugeley. There he remained until answered Richard Bernard's The Separatist Schisme. But his
1864, when he became an assistant master at the Sheffield ablest and most arduous minor work in controversy was his
1

Collegiate School. His connexion with the Temple church, in reply to John Smyth (commonly called "the Se-Baptist "),
London, began in 1866, when he was appointed reader; and in entitled a Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used
1894 he succeeded Dr Vaughan as master. In 1887 he was in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the
presented to a canonry in Bristol cathedral, and he was chaplain- Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth (1609). In
in-ordinary to Queen Victoria and King Edward VII. He died 1610 he was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of
on the 8th of February 1904. Canon Ainger's gentle wit and their church, from F. Johnson and those who adhered to him.
humour, his generosity and lovable disposition, endeared him For some time a difference of principle, as to the church's right
to a wide circle. In literature his name is chiefly associated to revise its officers' decisions, had been growing between them,
with his sympathetic appreciation of Charles Lamb and Thomas Ainsworth taking the more Congregational view. (See CONGRE-
Hood. His works include: Charles Lamb (1882) and Crabbe GATIONALISM.) But in spirit he remained a man of peace. His
" "
(1903) in the English Men of Letters series; editions of memory abides through his rabbinical learning. The ripe fruit
Lamb's Essays of Elia (1883) and of his Letters (1888; 2nd ed., of many years' labour appeared in his Annotations on Genesis
1904), of the Poems (1897) of Thomas Hood, with a biographical (1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619);
introduction; The Life and Works of Charles Lamb (12 vols., Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612);
 AINSWORTH AINU 441
Song of Solomon (1623). These were collected in folio in 1627, and but nothing is to be seen there except a mound. The place was
again in 1639, and later in various forms. From the outset the probably of Hittite origin and does not appear to have been
Annotations took a commanding place, especially among con- settled by Greeks. The bazaars of Aintab are a great centre for
" "
tinental scholars, and he established for English nonconformity a Hittite antiquities, found at various sites from Sakchegozu
tradition of culture and scholarship. There is no probability on the west to Jerablus on the east. The modern town lies in
about the narrative given by Neal in his History of the Puritans the open treeless valley of the Sajur, a tributary of the Euphrates,
(ii. 47)
that he was poisoned by certain Jews. He died in 1622, and on the right bank, 65 m. north-east of Aleppo, with which it is
or early in 1623, for in that year was published his Seasonable connected by a chausste, passing through Killis. This road pro-
Discourse, or a Censure upon a Dialogue of the Anabaptists, in ceeds east to the great crossing of Euphrates at Birejik, and thus
which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy. Aintab lies on the highway between N. Syria and Urfa-Mosul and
LITERATURE. John Worthington's Diary (Chetham Society), by has much transit trade and numerous khans. In the middle ages
Crossley, 263-266; works of John Robinson (1851) H. M. Dexter,
i. ; its strong castle (Hamtab) was an important strategic point,
Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (1880) W. E. A. ;
taken by Saladin about A.D. 1183; and it supplied the last base
Axon, H. Ainsworth, the Puritan Commentator (1889) F. J. Powicke,
;

Henry Barrow and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam (1900); J. H.

from which Ibrahim Pasha marched in 1839 to win his decisive
Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational Pioneers (1906). victory over the Turks at Nezib, about 25 m. distant north-east.
AINSWORTH, ROBERT (1660-1743), English schoolmaster Lying high (3500 ft.) and swept by purifying winds, Aintab is
and author, was born at Eccles, near Manchester, in September a comparatively clean and healthy spot, though not free from
"
1660. After teaching for some time at Lever's Grammar School ophthalmia and the Aleppo button," and it has been selected
Bolton, he removed to London, where he conducted a boarding-
i by the American Mission Board as its centre for N. Syria.
"
chool, first at Bethnal Green and then at Hackney. He soon Central Turkey College," educational and medical, lies on high
ade a moderate fortune which gave him leisure to pursue his ground west. It was burnt down in 1891, but rebuilt; it has a
:lassical studies. Ainsworth's name is- associated with his Latin- dependency for girls within the town. Thanks to its presence the
Jnglish Dictionary, begun in 1714, and published in 1736 as Armenian protestants are a large and rich community, which
Thesaurus linguae Latinae compendiarius. It was long ex- suffered less in the massacre of 1895 than the Gregorians. There
tensively used in schools, and often reprinted, the later editions is a small Episcopalian body, which has a large unfinished
"
eing revised and enlarged by other hands, but it is now super- church, and a schismatic catholicos," who has vainly tried to
eded. Ainsworth was also the author of some useful works on gain acceptance into the Anglican communion. There is also a
classical antiquities, and a sensible treatise on education, en- flourishing Franciscan mission. Striped cloths and pekmez, a
titled The most Natural and Easy Way of Institution (1698), in sweet paste made from grapes, are the principal manufactures;
vhich he advocates the teaching of Latin by conversational and tobacco and cereals the principal cultures. The town is
nethods and deprecates punishment of any sort. He died in unusually well and solidly built, good stone being obtained
London on the 4th of April 1743. near at hand. The Moslem inhabitants are mainly of Turko-
AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882), English man origin, and used to owe fealty to chieftains of the
novelist, son of Thomas Ainsworth, solicitor, was born at Man- family of Chapan Oglu, whose headquarters were at Yuzgat in
chester on the 4th of February 1805. He was educated at Cappadocia. (D. G. H.)
lanchester Grammar School and articled to the firm of which AINU (" man "), a race inhabiting the northernmost islands of
father was a member, proceeding to London in 1824 to Japan. Little definite is known about their earliest history, but
omplete his legal training at the Inner Temple. At the age of it is improbable that they are, as has been urged, the aborigines

twenty-one he married a daughter of John Ebers the publisher, of Japan. The most accurate researches go to prove that they
and started in his father-in-law's line of business. This, however, were immigrants, who reached Yezo from the Kuriles, and sub-
oon proved unprofitable and he decided to attempt literary sequently crossing Tsugaru strait, colonized a great part of the
vork. A novel called Sir John Chiverlon, in which he appears main island of Japan, exterminating a race of pit-dwellers to
have had a share, had attracted the praise of Sir Walter Scott,
i whom they gave the name of koro-pok-guru (men with sunken
ad this encouragement decided him to take up fiction as a places). These koro-pok-guru were of such small stature as to be
areer. In 1834 he published Rookwood, which had an immediate considered dwarfs. They wore skins of animals for clothing, and
success, and thenceforth he was always occupied with the com- that they understood the potter's art and used flint arrow-heads
" "
pilation of historical novels. He published about forty such is clearly proved by excavations at the sites of their pits. The
stories, of which the best-known are Jack Sheppard (1839), The Ainu, on the contrary, never had any knowledge of pottery.
Tower of London (1840), Guy Fawkes (1841), OldSt Paul's (1841) Ultimately the Ainu, coming into contact with the Japanese, who
ind Windsor Castle (1843). He edited Bentley's Miscellany, in had immigrated from the south and west, were driven northward
vhich Jack Sheppard was published as a serial, and in 1842 he into the island of Yezo, where, as well as in the Kuriles and in the
ecame proprietor of Ainsworth's Magazine. In 1853 it ceased southern part of Sakhalin, they are still found in some numbers.
appear, and Ainsworth bought the New Monthly Magazine. When, at the close of the i8th and the beginning of the igth
le continued his literary activity until his death, but his later century, Russian enterprises drew the attention of the Japanese
stories were less striking than the earlier ones. He died at government to the northern districts of the empire, the Tokugawa
^.eigate on the 3rd of January 1882 and was buried at Kensal shoguns adopted towards the Ainu a policy of liberality and
ireen. Ainsworth had a lively talent for plot, and his books leniency consistent with the best principles of modern coloniza-
bave many attractive qualities. The glorification of Dick Turpin tion. But the doom of unfitness appears to have begun to
Rookwood, and of Jack Sheppard in the novel that bears his overtake the race long ago. History indicates that in ancient
ame, caused considerable outcry among straitlaced elders. In times they were fierce fighters, able to offer a stout resistance to
bis later novels Ainsworth confined himself to heroes less
open the incomparably better armed and more civilized Japanese.
criticism. His style was not without archaic affectation and To-day they are drunken, dirty, spiritless folk, whom it is

awkwardness, but when his energies were aroused by a striking difficult tosuppose capable of the warlike role they once played.
situation he could be brisk, vigorous and impressive. He did Their number, between 16,000 and 17,000, is virtually stationary.
i
great deal to interest the less educated classes in the historical The Ainu are somewhat taller than the Japanese, stoutly built,
omances of their country, and his tales were invariably in- well proportioned, with dark-brown eyes, high cheek-bones,
structive, clean and manly. short broad noses and faces lacking length. The hairiness of the
AINTAB (anc. Dolichf), a town in the vilayet of Aleppo and Ainu has been much exaggerated. They are not more hairy than
ncient Cyrrhestica district of N. Syria. Pop. 45,000, two-thirds many Europeans. Never shaving after a certain age, the men
loslem. The site of Doliche, famous for its worship of Baal have full beards and moustaches, but the stories of Ainu covered
(Zeus Dolichenus), adopted by the Seleucids and eventually with hair like a bear are quite unjustified by facts. Men and
spreadall over the Roman empire, lies at Duluk, two hours women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of
N.W.;
442 AIR
the head, but trim it semicircularly behind. The women tattoo seems to be the counterpart of the Biblical deluge, and about an
their mouths, arms, and sometimes their foreheads, using for earthquake which lasted a hundred days, produced the three
colour the smut deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark. volcanoes of Yezo and created the island by bridging the waters
Their original dress is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree. that had previously separated it into two parts.
It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the The Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws and judged by
body and tied with a girdle of the same material. Females wear Japanese tribunals, but in former times their affairs were ad-
also an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of ministered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for ad-
animals are worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from ministrative purposes the country was divided into three districts,
the skin of dogs or salmon. Both sexes are fond of ear-rings, Saru, Usu and Ishikari, which were under the ultimate control of
which are said to have been made of grape-vine in former times, Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants
but are now purchased from the Japanese, as also are bead neck- were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions
laces, which the women prize highly. Their food is meat, when- of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number
ever they can procure it the flesh of the bear, the fox, the wolf, of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals.
the badger, the ox or the horse fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted
herbs and roots. They never eat raw fish or flesh, but always to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except
either boil or roast it. Their habitations are reed-thatched huts, in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the assassin were
the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Little as the Japanese
in the centre. There is no chimney, but only a hole at the angle and the Ainu have in common, intermarriages are not infrequent,
of the roof; there is one window on the eastern side and there are and at Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast, many children
two doors. Public buildings do not exist, whether in the shape of such marriages may be seen. Doenitz, Hilgendorf and Dr B.
of inn, meeting-place or temple. The furniture of their dwellings Scheube, arguing from a minute investigation of the physical
is exceedingly scanty. They have no chairs, stools or tables, but traits of the Ainu, have concluded that they are Mongolians;
"
sit on. the floor, which is covered with two layers of mats, one of according to Professor A. H. Keane the Ainu are quite distinct
rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging from the surrounding Mongolic peoples, and present several
mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. remarkable physical characters which seem to point to a remote
The men use chop-sticks and moustache-lifters when eating; the connexion with the Caucasic races. Such are a very full beard,
women have wooden spoons. Uncleanliness is characteristic of shaggy or wavy black or dark-brown hair, sometimes covering
the Ainu, and all their intercourse with the Japanese has not the back and chest; a somewhat fair or even white complexion,
improved them in that respect. The Rev. John Batchelor, in his large nose, straight eyes and regular features, often quite hand-
Notes on the Ainu, says that he lived in one Ainu habitation for some and of European type. They seem to be a last remnant of
six weeks on one occasion, and for two months on another, and the Neolithic peoples, who ranged in prehistoric times across the
that he never once saw personal ablutions performed, or cooking northern hemisphere from the British Isles to Manchuria and
or eating utensils washed. Japan. They are bear-worshippers, and have other customs in
Not having been at any period acquainted with the art of common with the Manchurian aborigines, but the language is
writing, they have no literature and are profoundly ignorant. entirely different, and they have traditions of a time when they
But at schools established for them by the Japanese in recent were the dominant people in the surrounding lands." It should
times, they have shown that their intellectual capacity is not be noted finally that the Ainu are altogether free from ferocity or
deficient. No distinct conception of a universe enters into their exclusiveness, and that they treat strangers with gentle kindness.
cosmology. They picture to themselves many floating worlds, See Rev. John Batchelor, The A inu and their Folk-lore(London,i 90 1) ;

yet they deduce the idea of rotundity from the course of the sun, Romyn Hitchcock, The Ainos of Japan (Washington, 1892) H. von ;

Siebold, Uber die Aino (Berlin, 1881); Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop),
and they imagine that the " Ainu world " rests on the back of a Korea and her Neighbours (1898) Basil Hall Chamberlain, Language,
;

fish whose movements cause earthquakes. It is scarcely possible Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in the
to doubt that this fancy is derived from the Japanese, who used Light of Aino Studies and Aino Fairy-tales (1895).
to hold an identical theory. The Ainu believe in a supreme AIR, or ASBEN, a country of West Africa, lying between 15
Creator, but also in a sun-god, a moon-god, a water-god and a and 19 N. and 6 and 10 E. It is within the Sahara, of which
mountain-god, deities whose river is the Milky Way, whose it forms one of the most fertile regions. The northern portion
voices are heard in the thunder and whose glory is reflected in the of the country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a
lightning. Their chief object of actual worship appears to be the height of 5000 ft. Richly wooded hollows and extensive plains
bear. Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs Bishop) writes: " The peculiarity are interspersed between the hills. The mimosa, the dum palm
which distinguishes their rude mythology is the worship of the and the date are abundant. Some of the plains afford good
bear, the Yezo bear being one of the finest of his species. But pasturage for camels, asses, goats and cattle; others are desert
it is impossible to understand the feelings t>y which this cult is tablelands. In the less frequented districts wild animals abound,
prompted, for although they worship the animal after their notably the lion and the gazelle. The country generally is of
fashion and set up its head in their villages, yet they trap it, kill sandstone or granite formation, with occasional trachyte and
it, eat it and sell its skin. There is no doubt that this wild beast basaltic ranges. There are no permanent rivers; but during
inspires more of the feeling which prompts worship than the the rainy season, from August to October, heavy floods convert
inanimate forces of nature, and the Ainos may be distinguished the water-courses in the hollows of the mountains into broad
as bear-worshippers, and their greatest religious festival or and rapid streams. Numerous wells supply the wants of the
saturnalia as the Festival of the Bear. . . Some of their rude
.
people and their cattle. To the south of this variegated region
chants are in praise of the bear, and their highest eulogy on a man lies a desert plateau, 2000 ft. above sea-level, destitute of water,
is to compare him to a bear." They have no priests and tenanted only by the wild ox, the ostrich and the giraffe.
by profession.
The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are Still farther south is the fairly fertile district of Damerghu, of

necessary; ceremonies confined to making libations of wine, which Zinder is the chief town. Little of the soil is under culti-
uttering short prayers and offering willow sticks with wooden vation except in the neighbourhood of the villages. Millet,
shavings attached to them, much as the Japanese set up the well- dates, indigo and senna are the principal productions. The
known gohei (sacred offerings) at certain spots. The Ainu gives great bulk of the food supplies is brought from Damerghu, and
thanks to the gods before eating, and prays to the deity of fire in the materials for clothing are also imported. A great caravan
time of sickness. He thinks that his spirit is immortal, and that annually passes through Air, consisting of several thousand
it will be rewarded hereafter in heaven or camels, carrying salt from Bilma to the Hausa states.
punished in hell, both
of which places are beneath the earth, hell being the land of Air was called Asben by the native tribes until they were
volcanoes; but he has no theory as to a resurrection of the body conquered by the Berbers. The present inhabitants are for the
or metempsychosis. He preserves a tradition about a flood which most part of a mixed race, combining the finer traits of the
 AIR AIR-ENGINE 443
Berbers with negro characteristics. The sultan of Air is to a 6th of October 1616. His character as a man, preacher, divine,
great extent dependent on the chiefs
of the Tuareg tribes in- and as an important ruler in the university, will be found por-
habiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the north-west. large A trayed in the Epistle by John Potter, prefixed to the Commentary.
part of his revenue is
derived from tribute exacted from the He must have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans
salt caravans. Since 1890 Air has been included in the French possessed of a robust common-sense in admirable contrast
sphere of influence in West Africa. with some of his contemporaries.
Agades, the capital of the country, which has a circuit of AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876), Scottish poet, was born at
3^ m., is built on the edge of a plateau 2500 ft. high, and is Bowden, Roxburghshire, on the 28th of August 1802. He was
supposed to have been founded by the Berbers to serve as a educated at Edinburgh University, where he made the acquaint-
secure magazine for their extensive trade with the Songhoi ance of Carlyle and James Hogg, and he decided to devote
empire. The language of the people is a dialect of Songhoi. himself to literary work. He published Martzoufle, a Tragedy,
In former times Agades was a place of great traffic, and had a with other Poems (1826), a volume of essays, and a long narrative
population of about 50,000. Since the beginning of the i6th poem in several cantos, The Captive of Fez (1830). For a year
century the prosperity of the town has, however, gradually de- he edited the Edinburgh Weekly Journal, and for twenty-eight
clined. F. Foureau, who visited Agades in 1899, stated that years the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald. In 1848 he
more than half the total area was deserted and ruinous. The published a collected edition of his poems, which met with much
"
houses, which are built of clay, are low and flat-roofed; and the favour. Carlyle said that he found in them a healthy breath
only buildings of importance are the chief mosque, which is as of mountain breezes." Among Aird's other friends were De
surmounted by a tower 95 ft. high, and the sultan's residence, Quincey, Lockhart, Stanley (afterwards dean of Westminster)
a massive two-storied structure pierced with small windows. and Motherwell. He died at Dumfries on the 2 sth of April 1876.
The chief trade is grain. The great salt caravans pass through AIRDRIE, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
as well as pilgrims on their way to Mecca. Scotland. Pop. (1901) 22,228. It is situated n m. E. of
"
AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning breathe," Glasgow by the North British railway, and also communicates
3 low "), the atmosphere that surrounds the earth; Gr. with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal (which passes within i m.
<M?P, the lower thick air, being distinguished from aWrjp, the of the town), as well as by the Caledonian railway via Coatbridge
upper pure air. With the development of analytical and especi- and Whifflet. The canal was constructed between 1761 and
1 790, and connects with the Forth and Clyde Canal near
ally of pneumatic chemistry, the air was recognized not to be Mary-
one homogeneous substance, as was long supposed, and different hill. Airdrie was a market town in 1695, but owes its prosperity
"
airs," or gases, came to be distinguished. Thus oxygen gas, to the great coal and iron beds in its vicinity. Other industries
at the end of the i8th century, was known as dephlogisticated air, include iron and brass foundries, engineering, manufactures
nitrogen or azote as phlogisticated air, hydrogen as inflammable of woollens and calicoes, silk-weaving, paper-making, oil and
air, carbonic acid gas as fixed air. The name is now ordinarily fireclay. The public buildings comprise the town hall, county
restricted to what is more accurately called atmospheric air buildings, mechanics' institute, academy, two fever hospitals
the air we breathe the invisible elastic fluid which surrounds and free library, the burgh having been the first town in Scotland
the earth (see ATMOSPHERE). Probably the sense of atmosphere to adopt the Free Library Act. Airdrie unites with Falkirk,
or environment led (though this is disputed by etymologists) Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow in sending one member to
" " " manner " or
the further use of the word air to mean parliament. The parish of New Monkland, in which Airdrie
appearance "; and so to its employment (cf. Lat. modus) lies, was formed (with Old Monkland)in 1640 out of the ancient
"
music for melody." (See ARIA.) barony of Monkland, so named from the fact that it was part of
AIRAY, HENRY (is6o?-i6i6), English Puritan divine, was the lands granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks of Newbattle.
irn at Kentmere, Westmorland, but no record remains of the AIRE, a town of south-western France, in the department
date of either birth or baptism. He was the son of William of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 22 m. S.E. of Mont-de-
"
Airay, the favourite servant of Bernard Gilpin, the apostle Marsan on the Southern railway between Morcenx and Tarbes.
of the North," whose bounty showed itself in sending Henry Pop. (1906) 2283. It is the seat of a bishopric, and has a
and his brother Evan (or Ewan) to his own endowed school, cathedral of the I2th century and an episcopal palace of the
"
here they were educated in grammatical learning," and were nth, 1 7th and i8th centuries. Both have undergone frequent
attendance at Oxford when Gilpin died. From Wood's restoration. They are surpassed in interest by the church of
thenaewe glean the details of Airay's college attendance. St Quitterie in Mas d'Aire, the suburb south-west of the town.
He was sent to St Edmund's hall in 1579, aged nineteen or The latter is a brick building of the I3th and i4th centuries, with
icreabouts. Soon after he was translated to Queen's College, a choir in the Romanesque style, and a fine western portal which
ere he became pauper puer serviens; that is, a poor serving has been much disfigured. The crypt contains several Gallo-
ild that waits on the fellows in the common hall at meals, Roman tombs and the' sarcophagus (5th century) of St Quitterie.
.d in their chambers, and does other servile work about the Aire has two ecclesiastical seminaries.
illege." His transference to Queen's is perhaps explained by Aire (Atura, Vicus Julii) was the residence of the kings of
having been Gilpin's college, and by his Westmorland origin the Visigoths, one of whom, Alaric II. (q.v.), there drew up his
giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He graduated famous code. The bishopric dates from the 5th century.
B.A. on the igth of June 1583, M.A. on the isth of June 1586, AIRE, a town of northern France, on the river Lys, in the
.D. in 1594 and D.D. on the I7th of June 1600 all in department of Pas-de-Calais, 12 m. S.S.E. of St Omer by rail.
" About the time he was master " "
icen's College. (1586) he Pop. (1006) 4258. The town lies in a low and marshy situation
Entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous preacher at the junction of three canals. The chief buildings are the
the university." His Commentary on the Epistle to the church of St Pierre (isth and i6th centuries), which has an
'hilippians (1618, reprinted 1864) is a specimen of his preach- imposing tower and rich interior decoration; a h6tel de ville
before his college, and of his fiery denunciation of popery of the i8th century; and the Bailliage (i6th century), a small
and his fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford building in the Renaissance style. Aire has flour-mills, leather
in common with all England then prized. In 1598 he was and oil works, and nail manufactories, and trade in agricultural
chosen provost of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor produce.
of the university. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's In the middle ages Aire belonged to the counts of Flanders,
duties he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early
UUI from whom in 1188 it received a charter, which is still extant.
s manifesting his antagonism to the prevailing Puritanism. It was given to France by the peace of Utrecht 1713.
He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a AIR-ENGINE, the name given to heat-engines which use air
:>
living which involved him in a trying but successful litigation, for their working substance, that is to say for the substance
hereof later incumbents reaped the benefit. He died on the which is caused alternately to expand and contract by application
444 AIR-ENGINE
and removal of heat, this process enabling a portion of the (See THERMODYNAMICS and STEAM-ENOINE.) In Carnot's cycle
applied heat to be tiansformed into mechanical work. Just as the substance takes in heat at its highest temperature, then
the working substance which alternately takes in and gives passes by adiabatic expansion from the top to the bottom of
out heat in the steam-engine is water (converted during a part its temperature range, then rejects heat at the bottom of the
of the action into steam), so in the air-engine it is air. The range, and is finally brought back by adiabatic compression
practical drawbacks to employing air as the working substance to the highest temperature at which it again takes in heat, and
of a heat-engine are so great that its use has been very limited. so on. An air-engine working on this cycle would be intolerably
Such attempts as have been made to design air-engines on a bulky and mechanically inefficient. Stirling substituted for
large scale have been practical failures, and are now interesting the two stages of adiabatic expansion and compression the
"
only as steps in the historical development of applied thermo- passage of the air to and fro through a regenerator," in which
dynamics. In the form of motors for producing very small the air was alternately cooled by storing its heat in the material
amounts of power air-engines have been found convenient, of the regenerator and reheated by picking the stored heat up
and within a restricted field they are still met with. But even again on the return journey. The essential parts of one form
in this field the competition of the oil-engine and the gas-engine of Stirling's engine are shown in fig. i There A is the externally-
.

is too formidable to leave to the air-engine more than a very fired heating vessel, the lower part of which contains hot air
narrow chance of employment. which is taking in heat from the furnace beneath. A pipe from
One of the chief practical objections to air-engines is the great the top of A leads to the working cylinder (B). At the top of A is
bulk of the working substance in relation to the amount of heat a cooler (C) consisting of pipes through which cold water is made
that is utilized in the working of the engine. To some extent this to circulate. In A there is a displacer (D) which is connected
objection may be reduced by using the air in a state of com- (by parts not shown) with the piston in such a manner that it
pression, and therefore of greater density, throughout its opera- moves down when the piston has moved up. The air-pressure
tion. Even
then, however, the amount of operative heat is is practically the same above and below D, for these spaces are

very small in comparison with that which passes through the in free communication with
steam-engine, per cubic foot swept through by the piston, for one another through the
the change of state which water undergoes in its transformation regenerator (E), which is an
into steam involves the taking in of much more heat than can annular space stacked loosely
be communicated to air in changing its temperature within such with wire-gauze. When D
a range as is practicable. Another and not less serious objection moves down, the hot air is
is the practical difficulty of getting heat into the working air driven up through the re-
through the walls of the containing vessel. The air receives heat generator to the upper part
from an external furnace just as water does in the boiler of a of the containing vessel. It
steam-engine, by contact with a heated metallic surface, but it deposits its heat in the wire-
takes up heat from such a surface with much less readiness gauze, becoming lowered in
than does water. The waste of heat in the chimney gases is temperature and conse-
accordingly greater; and further, the metallic shell is liable quently reduced in pressure.
to be quickly burned away as a result of its contact at a high The piston (B) descends, and
temperature with free oxygen. The temperature of the shell the air, now in contact with
is much higher than that of a steam boiler, for in order to secure the cooling pipes (C) gives up
,

that the working air will take up a fair amount of heat, the upper heat to them. Then the dis-
limit to which its temperature is raised greatly exceeds that of placer (D) is raised. The air
even high-pressure steam. This objection to the air-engine passes down through its
arises from the fact that the heat comes to it from external regenerator picking up the
^-Stirling's Air-Engine,
combustion; it disappears when internal combustion is resorted heat deposited there, and
to; that is to say, when the heat is generated within the envelope thereby having its
temperature and its pressure
restored
containing the working air, by the combustion there of gaseous raised. Itthen takes in heat from the furnace, expanding
or other fuel. Gas-engines and oil-engines and other types of in volume and forcing the piston (B) to rise, which completes
engine employing internal combustion may be regarded as the cycle. The engine was double-acting, another heating
closely related to the air-engine. They differ from it, however, vessel like A being connected with the upper end of the working
in the fact that their working substance is not air, but a mixture cylinder at F. The stages at which heat is taken from the fur-
of gases a necessary consequence of internal combustion. It nace and rejected to the cooler (C) are approximately isothermal
is to internal combustion that they owe their success, for it at the upper and lower limits of temperature respectively, and
" "
enables them to get all the heat of combustion into the working the cycle accordingly isapproximately perfect in the thermo-
substance, to use a relatively very high temperature at the top dynamic sense. The theoretical indicator diagram is made up
of the range, and at the same time to escape entirely the draw- of two isothermal lines for the taking in and rejection of heat,
backs that arise in the air-engine proper through the need of and two lines of constant volume for the two passages through
conveying heat to .the air through a metallic shell. the regenerator. This engine was the subject of two patents
A form of air-engine which was invented in 1816 by the Rev. (by R. and S. Stirling) in 1827 and 1840. A double-acting
R. Stirling is of special interest as embodying the earliest applica- Stirling engine of 50 horse-power, using air which was maintained
tion of what is known as the " "
regenerative the
principle, by a pump at a fairly high pressure throughout the operations,
principle namely that heat may be deposited by a substance was used for some years in the Dundee Foundry, where it is
at one stage of its action and taken up again at another stage credited with having consumed only 1-7 ft of coal per hour
with but little loss, and with a great resulting change in the per indicated horse-power. The coal consumption per brake-
substance's temperature at each of the two stages in the operation. horse-power was no doubt much greater. It was finally abandoned
The principle has since found wide application in metallurgical on account of the failure of the heating vessels.
and other operations. In any heat-engine it is essential that The type survives in some small domestic motors, an example
the working substance should be at a high temperature while of which, manufactured under the patent of H. Robinson, is
it is taking in heat, and at a
relatively low temperature when shown in fig. 2. In this there is no compressing pump, and the
it isrejecting heat. The highest thermodynamic efficiency will main pressure of the working air is simply that of the atmo-
be reached when the working substance is at the top of its sphere. The whole range of pressure is so slight that no packing
temperature range while any heat is being received and at the is required. Here A is the vessel in which the air is heated and
bottom while any heat is being rejected as is the case in the within which the displacer works. It is heated by a small coke-
cycle of operations of the theoretically imagined engine of Carnot. fire or by a gas flame in C. It communicates through a passage
 AIREY AIRY 445
that he was the best soldier on Lord Raglan's
(D) with the working cylinder (B) The displacer (E) which takes
.
,
nized in the army
its motion through a rod (I) from a rocking lever (F) connected by staff. He was made a K.C.B., and was reported upon most
a short link to the crank-pin, is itself the regenerator, its con- favourably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and Sir J. Simpson.
struction being such that the air passes up and down through Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older sense of the
it as in one of the original Stirling forms. The cooler is a water word, i.e. a chief of the general staff, but a different view of
vessel (G) through which water circulates from a tank (H). the duties of the office was then becoming recognized. Public
" "
Messrs. Hayward and Tyler's Rider engine may be mentioned opinion held him and his department responsible for the failures
as another small hot-air motor which follows nearly the Stirling and mismanagement of the commissariat. Airey demanded an
cycle of operations. inquiry on his return to England and cleared himself completely,
An attempt to develop a powerful air-engine was made in but he never recovered from the effects of the unjust persecution
America about 1833 by John Ericsson, who applied it to marine of which he had been made the victim, though the popular view
" was not shared by his military superiors. He gave up his post
propulsion in the ship Caloric," but without permanent
success. Like Stirling, Ericsson used a regenerator, but with at the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at
this difference that the pressure instead of the volume of the home. In 1862 he was promoted lieutenant-general, and from
air remained constant while 1865 to 1870 he was governor of Gibraltar, receiving the G.C.B.
it passed in each direction in 1867. In 1870 he became adjutant-general at headquarters,
through the regenerator. and in 1871 attained the full rank of general. In 1876, on
Cold air was compressed by his retirement, he was created a peer, and in 1879-1880 he
a pump into a receiver, presided over the celebrated Airey commission on army reform.
where it was kept cool He died at the house of Lord Wolseley, at Leatherhead, on the
during compression and i4th of September 1881.
from which it passed through AIR-GUN, a gun in which the force employed to propel the
a regenerator into the work- bullet is the elasticity of compressed atmospheric air. It has
ing cylinder. In so passing attached to it, or constructed in it, a reservoir of compressed
it took up heat and ex- air, a portion of which, liberated into the space behind the bullet
panded. It was then allowed when the trigger is pulled, propels the bullet from the barrel by
to expand further, taking its expansion. The common forms of air-gun, which are merely
in heat frotn a furnace toys, are charged by compressing a spiral spring, one end of
under tLe cylinder and which forms a piston working in a cylinder; when released by
failing in pressure. This a pull on the trigger, this spring expands, and the air forced out
expansion was continued in front of it propels the bullet. Air-guns of this kind are some--
till the pressure of the times made to resemble walking-sticks and are then known as

'IG. 2.
working air fell nearly to
Robinson's form of Stirling's
air-canes.

Engine.
that of the atmosphere. It AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892), British Astro-
was then discharged through nomer Royal, was born at Alnwick on the 27th of July 1801. He
tie regenerator, depositing heat for the next charge of air in came of a long line of Airys who traced their descent back to a
urn to take up. The indicator diagram approximated to a family of the same name residing at Kentmere, in Westmorland,
orm made up of two isothermal lines and two lines of constant in the i4th century; but the branch to which he belonged,
pressure. having suffered in the civil wars, removed to Lincolnshire, where
In the transmission of power by compressed air (see POWER for several generations they lived as farmers. George Airy was
TRANSMISSION) the air-driven motors are for the most part educated first at elementary schools in Hereford, and afterwards
nachines resembling steam-engines in the general features of at Colchester Grammar School. In 1819 he entered Trinity
heir pistons, cylinders, valves and so forth. Such machines College, Cambridge, as a sizar. Here he had a brilliant career,
re not properly described as air-engines since their function and seems to have been almost immediately recognized as the
not the conversion of heat into work. Incidentally, however,
i
leading man of his year. In 1822 he was elected scholar of
hey do in some cases partially discharge that function, namely, Trinity, and in the following year he graduated as senior wrangler
vhen what is called a " preheater " is used to warm up the and obtained first Smith's prize. On the ist of October 1824 he
ompressed air before it enters in the motor cylinder. The was elected fellow of Trinity, and in December 1826 was ap-
object of this device is not, primarily, to produce work from pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics in succession to
eat, but to escape the inconveniences that would otherwise Thomas Turton. This chair he held for little more than a year,
irise through extreme cooling of the air during its expansion. being elected in February 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy
Without preheating the expanding air becomes so cold as to be and director of the new Cambridge observatory. Some idea of
liable to deposit snow from the moisture held in suspension, his activity as a writer on mathematical and physical subjects
nd thereby to clog the valves. With preheating this is avoided, during these early years may be gathered from the fact that
id the amount of work done by a given quantity of air is previous to this appointment he had contributed no less than
ncreased by the conversion into work of a part of the sup- three important memoirs to the Philosophical Transactions of the
plementary energy which the preheater supplies in the form of Royal Society, and eight to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.
beat. (J. A. E.) At the Cambridge observatory Airy soon gave evidence of his
AIREY, RICHARD AIREY, BARON (1803-1881), British remarkable power of organization. The only telescope erected
eneral, was the son of Lieutenant-General Sir George Airey in the establishment when he took it in charge was the transit
(1761-1833) and was born in 1803. He entered the army in instrument, and to this he vigorously devoted himself. By the
1821, became captain in 1825, and served on the staff of Sir adoption of a regular system of work, and a careful plan of reduc-
Frederick Adam in the Ionian Islands (1827-1830) and on that tion, he was able to keep his observations reduced practically up
of Lord Aylmer in North America (1830-1832). In 1838 Airey, to date, and published them annually with a degree of punctu-
hen a lieutenant-colonel, went to the Horse Guards, where in ality which astonished his contemporaries. Before long a mural
1852 he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief, circle was installed, and regular observations were instituted with
ord Hardinge. In 1854 he was given a brigade command in it in 1833. In the same year the duke of Northumberland pre-
he army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was sented the Cambridge observatory with a fine object-glass of
amediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post of 12 in. aperture, which was mounted according to Airy's designs
quartermaster-general to Lord Raglan, in which capacity he and under his superintendence, although the erection was not
erved through the campaign in the Crimea. He was made a completed until after his removal to Greenwich in 1835. Airy's
lajor-general in December 1854, and it was universally recog- writings during this time are divided between mathematical
446 AIRY
physics and astronomy. The former are for the most part they could be used directly for comparison with the theory and
concerned with questions relating to the theory of light, arising for the improvement of the tables of the moon's motion. For
out of his professorial lectures, among which may be specially this work Airy received in 1848 a testimonial from the Royal
"
mentioned his paper On the Diffraction of an Object-Glass with Astronomical Society, and it at once led to the discovery by
Circular Aperture." In 1831 the Copley medal of the Royal P. A. Hansen of two new inequalities in the moon's motion.
Society was awarded to him for these researches. Of his astro- After completing these reductions, Airy made inquiries, before
nomical writings during this period the most important are his engaging in any theoretical investigation in connexion with
investigation of the mass of Jupiter, his report to the British them, whether any other mathematician was pursuing the
Association on the progress of astronomy during the ipth century, subject, and learning that Hansen had taken it in hand under
and his memoir On an Inequality of Long Period in the Motions of the patronage of the king of Denmark, but that, owing to the
the Earth and Venus. death of the king and the consequent lack of funds, there was
One of the sections of his able and instructive report was danger of his being compelled to abandon it, he applied to
"
devoted to A Comparison of the Progress of Astronomy in the admiralty on Hansen's behalf for the necessary sum. His
England with that in other Countries," very much to the dis- request was immediately granted, and thus it came about that
advantage of England. This reproach was subsequently to a Hansen's famous Tables de la Lune were dedicated to La Haute
great extent removed by his own labours. Amiraute de sa Majeste la Reine de la Grande Bretagne el d'Irlande.
Airy's discovery of a new inequality in the motions of Venus One of the most remarkable of Airy's researches was his
and the earth is in some respects his most remarkable achieve- determination of the mean density of the earth. In 1826 the
ment. In correcting the elements of Delambre's solar tables he idea occurred to him of attacking this problem by means of
had been led to suspect an inequality overlooked by their con- pendulum experiments at the top and bottom of a deep mine.
structor. The cause of this he did not long seek in vain. Eight His first attempt, made in the same year, at the Dolcoath mine
times the mean motion of Venus is so nearly equal to thirteen in Cornwall, failed in consequence of an accident to one of the
times that of the earth that the difference amounts to only the pendulums; a second attempt in 1828 was defeated by a flooding
j-J-jfth of the earth's
mean motion, and from the fact that the of the mine, and many years elapsed before another opportunity
term depending on this difference, although very small in itself, presented itself. The experiments eventually took place at the
receives in the integration of the differential equations a multi- Harton pit near South Shields in 1854. Their immediate result
plier of about 2,200,000, Airy was led to infer the existence of a
was to show that gravity '
at the bottom of the mine exceeded
sensible inequality extending over 240 years (Phil. Trans, cxxii. that at the top by 1 9 \ 8 6 th of its amount, the depth being
67). The investigation that brought about this result was 1256 ft. From this he was led to the final value of 6-566 for
probably the most laborious that had been made up to Airy's the mean density of the earth as compared with that of water
time in planetary theory, and represented the first specific (Phil. Trans, cxlvi. 342). This value, although considerably
improvement in the solar tables effected in England since the in excess of that previously found by different methods, was
establishment of the theory of gravitation. In recognition of this held by Airy, from the care and completeness with which the
"
work the medal of the Royal Astronomical Society was awarded observations were carried out and discussed, to be entitled to
to him in 1833. compete with the others on, at least, equal terms."
In June 1835 Airy was appointed Astronomer Royal in succes- In 1872 Airy conceived the idea of treating the lunar theory
sion to John Pond, and thus commenced that long career of in a new way, and at the age of seventy-one he embarked on the

wisely directed and vigorously sustained industry at the national prodigious which this scheme entailed. A general description
toil

observatory which, even more perhaps than his investigations in of his method
will be found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
abstract science or theoretical astronomy, constitutes his chief Astronomical Society, vol. xxxiv. No. 3. It consisted essentially
title to fame. The condition of the observatory at the time of his in the adoption of Delauny's final numerical expressions for
appointment was such that Lord Auckland, the first lord of the longitude, latitude and parallax, with a symbolic term attached
"
Admiralty, considered that it ought to be cleared out," while to each number, the value of which was to be determined by
" With his usual substitution in the equations of motion. In this mode of treat-
Airy admitted that it was in a queer state."

energy he set to work at once to reorganize the whole manage- ing the question the order of the terms is numerical, and though
ment. He remodelled the volumes of observations, put the the amount of labour is such as might well have deterred a
library on a proper footing, mounted the new (Sheepshanks) younger man, yet the details were easy, and a great part of it
equatorial and organized a new magnetic observatory. In 1847 might be entrusted to a mere computer. The work was published
an altazimuth was erected, designed by Airy to enable observa- in 1886, when its author was eighty-five years of age. For some
tions of the moon to be made not only on the meridian, but little time previously he had been harassed by a suspicion that
whenever she might be visible. In 1848 Airy invented the reflex certain errorshad crept into the computations, and accordingly
zenith tube to replace the zenith sector previously employed. he addressed himself to the task of revision. But his powers
At the end of 1,850 the great transit circle of 8 in. aperture and were no longer what they had been, and he was never able to
ii ft. 6 in. focal length was erected, and is still the principal examine sufficiently into the matter. In 1890 he tells us how a
instrument of its class at the observatory. The mounting in 1 859 grievous error had been committed in one of the first steps,
of an equatorial of 13 in. aperture evoked the comment in his and pathetically adds, " My spirit in the work was broken,
" and I have never heartily proceeded with it since." In 1881
journal for that year, There is not now a single person employed
or instrument used in the observatory which was there in Mr Sir George Airy resigned the office of Astronomer Royal and
"
Pond's time ;
and the transformation was completed by the resided at the White House, Greenwich, not far from the
inauguration of spectroscopic work in 1868 and of the photo- Royal Observatory, until his death, which took place on the
graphic registration of sun-spots in 1873. 2nd of January 1892.
The formidable undertaking of reducing the accumulated A complete list of Airy's printed papers, numbering no less
planetary observations made at Greenwich from 1750 to 1830 than 518, will be found in his Autobiography, edited in 1896 by
was already in progress under Airy's supervision when he became his son, Wilfrid Airy, B. A., M. Inst.C.E. Amongst the most
Astronomer Royal. Shortly afterwards he undertook the further important of his works not already mentioned may be named the
laborious task of reducing the enormous mass of observations following: Mathematical Tracts (1826) on the Lunar Theory,
of the moon made at Greenwich during the same period under Figure of the Earth, Precession and Nutation, and Calculus of
the direction, successively, of J. Bradley, N. Bliss, N. Maskelyne Variations, to which, in the second edition of 1828, were adde
and John Pond, to defray the expense of which a large sum of tracts on the Planetary Theory and the Undulatory Theory
money was allotted by the Treasury. As the result, no less than Light; Experiments on Iron-built Ships, instituted for the purpos
8000 lunar observations were rescued from oblivion, and were, of discovering a correction for the deviation of the Compass produce*
in 1846, placed at the disposal of astronomers in such a form that by the Iron of the Ships (1839); On the Theoretical Explanation of
 AISLABIE AISSE 447
an apparent new Polarity in Light (1840); Tides and Waves valleys,and diversified in the north-east by hilly ground which
(1842). forms a part of the mountain system of the Ardennes. Its
He was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society in 1836, its pre- general slope is from north-east, where the culminating point
sident in 1871,and received both the Copley and Royal medals. (930 is found, to south-west, though altitudes exceeding
ft.)
He was five times president of the Royal Astronomical Society, 750 are also found in the south.
ft. The chief rivers are the
was correspondent of the French Academy and belonged to many Somme, the Escaut and the Sambre, which have their sources
other foreign and American societies. He was D.C.L. of Oxford in the north of the department; the Oise, traversing the north-
and LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh. In 1872 he was made west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, the latter of
K.C.B. In the same year he was nominated a Grand Cross in which joins it beyond the limits of the department; and the
the Imperial Order of the Rose of Brazil; he also held the Marne and the Ourcq in the south. The climate is in general
"
Prussian Order Pour le Merite," and belonged to the Legion of cold and humid, especially in the north-east. Agriculture is
Honour of France and to the Order of the North Star of Sweden highly developed; cereals, principally wheat and oats, and
and Norway. beetroot are the chief crops; potatoes, flax, hemp, rape and
See also Proc. Roy. Society, li. I (E. J. Routh); Month. Notices hops are also grown. Pasturage is good, particularly in the
Roy. Astr. Society, Hi. 212; Observatory, xv. 74 (E. Dunkin) Wine of medium
north-east, where dairy-farming flourishes.
;

Nature, 3ist of Oct. 1878 (A. Winnecke), 7th of Jan. 1892; The
Times, 5th of Jan. 1892; R. Grant's Hist, of Piiys. Astronomy; quality is grown on the banks of the Marne and the Aisne.
R. P. Graves's Life of Sir W. Rowan Hamilton. (A. A. R.*) Bee-farming is of some importance. Large tracts of the depart-
AISLABIE, JOHN (1670-1742), English politician, was born ment are under wood; the chief forests are those of Nouvion
.t Goodramgate, York, on the 7th of December 1670. He was and St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre,
\the fourth son of George Aislabie, principal registrar of the and Villers-Cotterets in the south. The osiers grown in the
archiepiscopal court of York. In 1695 he was elected member vicinity of St Quentin supply an active basket-making industry.
of parliament for Ripon. In 1712 he was appointed one of the Though destitute of metals Aisne furnishes abundance of
commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, freestone, gypsum and clay. There are numerous tile and brick
and in 1714 became treasurer of the navy, being sworn in two works in the department. Its most important industrial estab-
years later as a member of the privy council. In March 1718 lishments are the mirror manufactory of St Gobain and the
he became chancellor of the exchequer. The proposal of the chemical works at Chauny, and the workshops and foundries
South Sea Company to pay off the national debt was strenuously of Guise, the property of an association of workpeople organized
supported by Aislabie, and finally accepted in an amended on socialistic lines and producing iron goods of various kinds.
form by the House of Commons. After the collapse of that The manufacture of sugar is
very important; brewing, distilling,
company a secret committee of inquiry was appointed by the flour-milling, iron-founding, theweaving and spinning of cotton,
Commons, and who had in the meantime resigned the
Aislabie, wool and silk, and the manufacture of iron goods, especially
was declared guilty of having encouraged and
seals of his office, agricultural implements, are actively carried on. Aisne imports
promoted the South Sea scheme with a view to his own ex- coal, iron, cotton and other raw material and machinery; it
orbitant profit, and was expelled the House. Though committed exports cereals, live-stock and agricultural products generally,
to the Tower he was soon released, and was allowed to retain and manufactured goods. The department is served chiefly
the property he possessed before 1718, including his country by the lines of the Northern railway; in addition, the main line
estate, to which he retired to pass the rest of his days. He died of the Eastern railway to Strassburg traverses the extreme
1742. south. The Oise, Aisne and Marne are navigable, and canals
.

'AISLE (from Lat. ala, a wing), a term which in its primary furnish 170 m. of waterway. Aisne is divided into five
:nse means the wing of a house, but is generally applied in
sen arrondissements St Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon
architecture
arc. to the lateral divisions of a church or large building, in the centre, and Soissons and Chateau-Thierry in the south
Thee earliest example is that found in the basilica of Trajan, and contains 3 7 cantons and 841 communes. It forms part of the
hich had double aisles on either side of the central area; the
whi. educational division (academic) of Douai and of the region of
same number existed in the original church of St Peter's at the second army corps, its military centre being at Amiens, where
Rome, in the basilica at Bethlehem, and according to Eusebius also is its court of appeal. Laon is the capital, and Soissons
in the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The aisles the seat of a bishopric of the province of Reims. Other important
are divided from the nave or central area by colonnades or places are Chateau-Thierry, St Quentin and Coucy-le-Chateau.
arcades, and may flank also the transept or choir, being dis- La Ferte-Milon has remains of an imposing chateau of the i4th
inguished as transept-aisles or choir-aisles.
nave-aisles, If and 1 5th centuries with interesting fortifications. The ruined
ie choirsemi-circular, and the aisles, carried round, give
is church at Longpont (i3th century) is the relic of an import-
cess to a series of chapels, the whole arrangement is known ant Cistercian abbey; Urcel and Mont-Notre-Dame have fine
the chevet. As a rule in Great Britain there is only one aisle churches, the first entirely in the Romanesque style, the second
each side of the nave, the only exceptions being Chichester dating from the i2th and i3th centuries, to which period the
idElgin cathedrals, where there are two. Many European church at Braisne also belongs. At Premontre the buildings
.thedralshave two aisles on each side, as those of Paris, Bourges, of the abbey, which was the cradle of the Premonstratensian
.miens, Troyes, St Sernin, Toulouse, Cologne, Milan, Seville, order, are occupied by a lunatic asylum.
bledo; and in those of Paris, Chartres, Amiens and Bourges, A'JSSE- [a corruption of HAIDEE], MADEMOISELLE (c. 1694-
;ville and Toledo, double aisles flank the choir on each side. 1733), French letter-writer, was the daughter of a Circassian
The cathedral at Antwerp has three aisles on each side. chief, and was born about 1694. Her father's palace was
In some of the churches in Germany the aisles are of the same pillaged by the Turks, and as a child of four years old she was
height as the nave. These churches are known as Hallenkirchen, sold to the comte de Ferriol, the French ambassador at Constanti-
the principal examples being St Stephen's, Vienna, the Weisse- nople. She was brought up in Paris by Ferriol's sister-in-law
kirche
JUfl at Soest, St Martin's, Landshut, Munich cathedral, and with her own sons, MM. d'Argental and Pont de Veyle. Her
Marienkirche at Danzig.
e (R. P. S.) great beauty and romantic history made her the fashion, and
AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France, she attracted the notice of the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans,
<e
'ormed
r in 1790 from portions of the old provinces of Ile-de- whose offers she had the strength of mind to refuse. She formed
France and Picardy. Area 2866 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 534,495. a deep and lasting attachment to the Chevalier d'Aydie, by
It is bounded N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom whom she had a daughter. She died in Paris on the I3th of
of Belgium, E. by the department of Ardennes, S.E. by that March 1733. Her letters to her friend Madame Calandrini
of Marne, S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and W. by those of Oise contain much interesting information with regard to con-
and Somme. The surface of the department consists of un- temporary celebrities, especially on Mme. du Deffand and Mme.
dulating and well-wooded plains, intersected by numerous de Tencin, but they are above all of interest in the picture they
 AITON AIX-LA-CHAPELLE
afford of the writer's own tenderness and fidelity. Her Lettres rich portal in the Gothic style with elaborately carved doors, and
were edited by Voltaire (1787), by J. Ravenel, with a notice isflanked on the north by an uncompleted tower. The interior
by Sainte-Beuve (1846) and by Eugene Asse (1873). Mile. Alsse contains tapestry of the i6th century and other works of art.
has been the subject of three plays: by A. de Lavergne and The archbishop's palace and a Romanesque cloister adjoin the
P. Woucher (1854), by Louis Bouilhet (1872) and by Dejoux cathedral on its south side. The church of St Jean de Malte,
(1898). dating from the I3th century, contains some valuable pictures.
See also Courteault, Une Idylle au XVIII' stick, Mile. A'isse et The hdtel de ville, a building in the classical style of the middle
le Chevalier d'Aydie (Magon, 1900); and notices prefixed to the of the 1 7th century, looks on to a picturesque square. It contains
editions of 1846 and 1873. There is an interesting essay by E. Gosse
some fine wood-work and a large library which includes many
in his French Profiles (1905).
valuable MSS. At its side rises a handsome clock-tower erected
AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793), Scottish botanist, was born in 1505. Aix possesses many beautiful fountains, one of which
near Hamilton in 1731. Having been regularly trained to the in the Cours Mirabeau is surmounted by a statue of Rene, count
profession of a gardener, he travelled to London in 1754, and of Provence, who held a brilliant court at Aix in the i sth century.
became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the Aix has thermal springs, remarkable for their heat and containing
Physic Garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director lime and carbonic acid. The bathing establishment was built in
of the newly established botanical garden at Kew, where he
1705 near the site of the ancient baths of Sextius, of which
remained until death on the 2nd of February 1793. He
his
The town, which is the seat of an arch-
vestiges still remain.
effected many improvements at the gardens, and in 1789 he
bishop and court of appeal, and the centre of an academic (educa-
published Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants there tional circumscription), numbers among its public institutions a
cultivated. A second and enlarged edition of the Hortus was court of assizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and
brought out in 1810-1813 by his eldest son, WILLIAM TOWNSEND a chamber of arts and manufactures. It also has training-colleges,
AITON (1766-1849), who succeeded him at Kew and was com- a lycee, a school of art and technics, museums of antiquities,
missioned by George IV. to lay out the gardens at the Pavilion, natural history and painting, and several learned societies. The
Brighton. industries include flour-milling, the manufacture of confectionery,
AITZEMA, LIEUWE (LEO) VAN (1600-1669), Dutch historian
iron-ware and hats, and the distillation of olive-oil. Trade is in
and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the igth of
olive-oil, almonds and stone from the neighbouring quarries.
November 1600. In 1617 he published a volume of Latin poems Aix (Aquae Sextiae) was founded in 123 B.C. by the Roman
under the title of of which a copy is preserved
Poemata Juvenilia, consul Sextius Calvinus, who gave his name to its springs. In
in the British Museum. He made
a special study of politics and 102 B.C. its neighbourhood was the scene of the defeat inflicted
political science and was for thirty years resident for the towns on the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius. In the 4th century it
of the Hanseatic League at the Hague, where he died on the 23rd
became the metropolis of Narbonensis Secunda. It was occupied
of February 1669. His most important work was the Saken van
by the Visigoths in 477, in the succeeding century was repeatedly
Staet in Oorlogh in ende omtrenl de Vefeenigte Nederlanden (14 vols.
plundered by the Franks and Lombards, and was occupied by the
4to, 1655-1671), embracing the period from 1621 to 1668. It
Saracens in 731. Aix, which during the middle ages was the
contains a large number of state documents, and is an invaluable
capital of the county of Provence, did not reach its zenith until
authority on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history. after the i2th century, when, under the houses of Aragon and
Four continuations of the history, by the poet and historian
Lambert van den Bos, were published successively at Amsterdam Anjou, it became an artistic centre and seat of learning. With
in 1685, 1688, 1698 and 1699. The Derde Vervolg Zijnde het vierde the rest of Provence, it passed to the crown of France in 1487, and
Stuck van het Vervolgh op de Historic, &c., brings the history down in 1501 Louis XII. established there the parlement of Provence
to 1697. which existed till 1789. In the I7th and i8th centuries the town
AIVALI (Gr. Kydonia), a prosperous town on the W. coast of was the seat of the intendance of Provence.
Asia Minor, opposite the island of Mitylene. Pop. 21,000. It AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Ger. Aachen, Dutch Aken), a city and
stands near the site of the Aeolian Heraclea, on rising ground at spa of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, situated in a pleasant
the end of a bay which is separated from the Gulf of Adramyt- valley, 44 m. W. of Cologne and contiguous to the Belgian and
tium, and protected from the prevailing winds by the Moschonisi Dutch frontiers, to which its municipal boundaries extend. Pop.
Islands (Hecatonnesoi). In 1821 it was burned to the ground (1885) 95,725; (1905) including Burtscheid, 143,906. Its posi-

during a fight between the Turks and the Greeks, and a large tion, at the centre of directrailway communications with Cologne
number of its Greek population killed or enslaved. It is one of and Diisseldorf respectively on the E. and Liege-Brussels and
the most thriving towns in the Levant, with a purely Greek Maestricht- Antwerp on the W., has favoured its rise to one of
population distinguished for its commercial, industrial and the most prosperous commerical towns of Germany. The city
maritime enterprise. The exports are olive oil, grain and wood, consists of the old inner town, the former ramparts of which have
and a fleet of fishing-boats supplies Constantinople and Smyrna been converted into promenades, and the newer outer town and
with fish; the exports in 1902 were valued at 987,070, and the suburbs. Of the ancient gates but two remain, the Ponttor on
imports at 336,693. the N.W. and the Marschiertor on the S. Its general appearance
AIWAN, the reception-hall or throne-room of a Parthian or is that rather of a spacious modern, than of a medieval city full of

Sassanian palace. historical associations.

AIX, a city of south-eastern France, capital of an arrondisse- Of the cluster of buildings in the centre, which are conspicuous
ment in the department of Bouches-du- Rh&ne, 18 m. N. of from afar, the town hall (Rathaus) and the cathedral are specially
Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 19,433. It is situated in a plain noteworthy. The former, standing on the south side of the market
overlooking the Arc, about a mile from the right bank of the square, is a Gothic structure, erected in 1353-1370 on the ruins of
river. The Cours Mirabeau, a wide thoroughfare, planted with Charlemagne's palace. It contains the magnificent coronation
double rows of plane-trees, bordered by fine houses and decorated hall of the emperors (143 ft. by 61 ft.), in which thirty-five
by three fountains, divides the town' into two portions. The German kings and eleven queens have banqueted after the
new town extends to the south, the old town with its wide but coronation ceremony in the cathedral. The two ancient towers,
irregular streets and its old mansions dating from the i6th, the Granusturm to the W. and the Glockenturm to the E., both
1 7th and i8th centuries lies to the north. Aix is an important of which to a large extent had formed part of the Carolingian
educational centre, being the seat of the faculties of law and palace, were all but destroyed in the fire by which the Rathaus was
letters of the university of Aix-Marseille, and the north and east seriously damaged in 1883. Their restoration was completed in
quarter of the town, where the schools and university buildings 1902. Behind the Rathaus is the Grashaus, in which Richard of
are situated, is comparable to the Latin Quarter of Paris. The Cornwall, king of the Romans, is said to have held his court. It
cathedral of St Sauveur, which dates from the i ith, 1 2th and I3th was restored in 1 889 to accommodate the municipal archives. The
centuries, is situated in this portion of Aix. It is preceded by a cathedral is of great historic and architectural interest. Apart
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 449
from the which was rebuilt in 1884, it consists of two parts
spire, owing to the opening up of extensive coalfields in the district
of different styles and date. The older portion, the capella in almost every branch of iron industry is carried on. It has some
palatio, an octagonal building surmounted by a dome, was large breweries and manufactories of chemicals, and does a
designed on the model of San Vitale at Ravenna by Udo of Metz, considerable trade in cereals, leather, timber and wine. It is
was begun under Charlemagne's auspices in 796 and consecrated also an important banking centre and has several insurance
by Pope Leo III. in 805. After being almost entirely wrecked by societies of reputation.
Norman raiders it was rebuilt, on the original lines, in 983, by the The country immediately surrounding Aix-la-Chapelle presents
emperor Otto III. It is surrounded on the first story by a sixteen- many attractive features. From the Lousberg and the Salvator-
sided gallery (the Hochmunster) adorned by antique marble arid berg to the north, the latter crowned by a chapel, magnificent
granite columns, of various sizes, brought by Charlemagne's views of the city are obtained; while covering the hills 2 m.
orders from Rome, Ravenna and Trier. These were removed by west stretches the Stadtwald, a forest with charming walks and
Napoleon to Paris, but restored to their original positions after drives.
the peace of 181 5. The mosaic
representing Christ surrounded by History. Aix-la-Chapelle the Aquisgranum of the Romans,
is
"the four-and-twenty elders," which originally lined the cupola, named after Apollo Granus, who was worshippedin connexion
had almost entirely perished by the igth century, but was re- with hot springs. As early as A.D. 765 King Pippin had a
" "
stored in 1882 from a copy made in the 1 7th century. Interesting palace here, in which it is probable that Charlemagne was
too are the magnificent west doors, cast in bronze by native born. The greatness of Aix was due to the latter, who between
workmen in 804. Underneath the dome, according to tradition, 777 and 786 built a magnificent palace on the site of that of his
was the tomb of Charlemagne, which, on being opened by Otto father, raised the place to the rank of_the second city of the
III. in1000, disclosed the body of the emperor, vested in white empire, and made it for a while the centre of Western culture
coronation robes and seated on a marble chair. This chair, now and learning. From the coronation of Louis the Pious in 813
placed in the gallery referred to, was used for centuries in the until that of Ferdinand I. in 1 531 the sacring of the German kings
imperial coronation ceremonies. The site of the tomb is marked took place at Aix, and as many as thirty-two emperors and kings
by a stone slab, with the inscription Carlo Magno, and above it were here crowned. In 851, and again in 882, the place was
hangs the famous bronze chandelier presented by the emperor ravaged by the Northmen in their raids up the Rhine. It was
Frederick I. (Barbarossa) in 1168. Charlemagne's bones are not, however, till late in the I2th century (1172-1176) that
preserved in an ornate shrine in the Hungarian Chapel, lying to the city was surrounded with walls by order of the emperor
the north of the octagon. The casket was opened in 1906, at the Frederick I., to whom (in 1 166) and to his grandson Frederick II.
instance of the emperor William II., and the draperies enclosing (in 1215) it owed its first important civic rights. These were
the body were temporarily removed to Berlin, with a view to the stillfurther extended in 1250 by the anti-Caesar William of
reproduction of similar cloth. The Gothic choir, forming the Holland, who had made himself master of the place and of the
more modern portion of the cathedral, was added during the imperial regalia, after a long siege, in 1248. The liberties of the
latter half of the i4th and the beginning of the i sth century, and burghers were, however, still restrained by the presence of a
contains the tomb of the emperor Otto III. The cathedral royal advocatus (Vogt) and bailiff. In 1300 the outer ring of
possesses many relics, the more sacred of which are exhibited walls was completed, the earlier circumvallation being marked
only once every seven years, when they attract large crowds of by the limit of the Altstadt (old city). In the i4th century Aix,
worshippers. now a free city of the Holy Roman Empire, played a conspicuous
Of the other thirty-three churches in the city those of part, especially in the league which, between 1351 and 1387, kept
St Foillan (founded in the I2th century, but twice rebuilt, in the peace between the Meuse and the Rhine. In 1450 an in-
the i sth and i7th
centuries, and restored in 1883) and St Paul, surrection led to the admission of the gilds to a share in the
with beautiful stained-glass windows, are remarkable.
its In municipal government. In the i6th century Aix began to
addition to those already mentioned, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses decline in importance and prosperity. It lay too near the
several fine secular buildings: the Suermondt museum, con- French frontier to be safe, and too remote from the centre of
taining besides other miscellaneous exhibits the fine collection Germany to be convenient, as a capital; and in 1562 the election
of pictures by early German, Dutch and Flemish masters, and coronation of Maximilian II. took place at Frankfort-on-
presented to the town by Bartholomaus Suermondt (d. 1887); Main, a precedent followed till the extinction of the Empire.
the public Library; the theatre; the post-office; and the fine The Reformation, too, brought its troubles. In 1580 Pro-
new central railway station. Among the schools may be men- testantism got the upper hand; the ban of the empire followed
tioned the magnificently equipped Rhenish- Westphalian Poly- and was executed by Ernest of Bavaria, archbishop-elector of
technic School (built 1865-1870) and the school of mining and Cologne in 1 598. A relapse of the city led to a new ban of the
founded in 1897.
electricity, emperor Matthias in 1613, and in the following year Spinola's
There are many fine streets and squares and some handsome Spanish troops brought back the recalcitrant city to the Catholic
public monuments, notably among the last the fountain on the fold. In 1656 a great fire completed the ruin wrought by the
market square surmounted by a statue of Charlemagne, the religious wars. By the treaty of Luneville (1801) Aix was in-
bronze equestrian statue of the emperor William I. facing the corporated with France as chief town of the department of the
theatre, the Kriegerdenkmal (a memorial to those who fell in Roer. By the congress of Vienna it was given to Prussia.
the war of 1870) and the Kongress-Denkmal, a marble hall in The contrast between the new regime and the ancient tradition
antique style erected in 1844 on the Adalberts-Steinweg to of the city was curiously illustrated in 1818 by a scene described
commemorate the famous congress of 1818 (see below). Of the in Metternich's Memoirs, when, before the opening of the
squares, the principal is the Friedrich-Wilhelmplatz, on which congress, Francis I., emperor of Austria, regarded by all Ger-
lies the Eiisenbrunnen with its colonnade and
garden, the chief many as the successor of the Holy Roman emperors, knelt at
resort of visitors taking thebaths and waters. the tomb of Charlemagne amid a worshipping crowd, while the
The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle were known to the Protestant Frederick William III. of Prussia, the new sovereign
Romans and have been celebrated for centuries as specific in "
of the place, stood in the midst, looking very uncomfortable."
the cure of rheumatism, gout and scrofulous disorders. There See Quix, Geschichte der Stadt Aachen (1841); Pick, Aus Aachens
are six in all, of which the
Kaiserquelle, with a temperature of Vergangenheit (Aachen, 1895); Bock, Karls des grossen Pjalzkapellt
136 F., is the chief. In the neighbouring Burtscheid (in- (Cologne, 1867); and Beissel, Aachen als Kurort (1889).
;
corporated in 1897 with Aix-la-Chapelle) are also springs of AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGRESSES OF. Three congresses
far higher
temperature, and this suburb, which has also a have been held at Aix-la-Chapelle: the first in 1668, the
Kurgarten, is largely frequented during the season. second in 1748, the third in 1818.
In respect of trade and industry Aix-la-Chapelle occupies a i. The treaty of the 2nd of May 1668, which put an end t.o
Its cloth and silk manufactures are important, and the War of Devolution,was the outcome of that of St Germain

Kce.
450 AIX-LES-BAINS AIYAR
signed on the isth of April by France and the representatives down on the uncompromising opposition of Great Britain; and
of the powers of the Triple Alliance. The treaty of Aix-la- the main outcome of the congress was the signature, on the
Chapelle left to France all the conquests made in Flanders iSth of November, of two instruments: (i) a secret protocol
"
during the campaign of 1667, with all their appartenances, confirming and renewing the quadruple alliance established by
dtpendances et annexes." a vague provision of which, after the the treaties of Chaumont and Paris (of the 2oth of November
"
peace of Nijmwegen (1680), Louis XIV. took advantage to 1815) against France; (2) a public "declaration of the in-
occupy a number of villages and towns adjudged to him by his tention of the powers to maintain their intimate union,
"
Chambres de reunion as dependencies of the cities and territories strengthened by the ties of Christian brotherhood," of which
acquired in 1668. On the other hand, France restored to Spain the object was the preservation of peace on the basis of respect
the cities of Cambrai, Aire and Saint-Omer, as well as the pro- for treaties. The secret protocol was communicated in confi-
vince of Franche Comte. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was dence to Richelieu; to the declaration France was invited
placed under the guarantee of Great Britain, Sweden and publicly to adhere.
Holland, by a convention signed at the Hague on the 7th of Besides these questions of general policy, the congress con-
May 1669, to which Spain acceded. cerned itself with a number of subjects left unsettled in the
See Jean du Mont, baron de Carlscroon, Corps universel diplo- hurried winding up of the congress of Vienna, or which had
matique (Amst., 1726-1731). arisen since. Of these the most important were the questions
2. On the 24th of April 1748 a congress assembled at Aix-la-
as to the methods to be adopted for the suppression of the slave-
Chapelle for the purpose of bringing to a conclusion the struggle trade and the Barbary pirates. In neither case was any decision
known as the War of Austrian Succession. Between the 3oth of arrived at, owing (i) to the refusal of the other powers to agree
April and the aist of May the preliminaries were agreed to with the British proposal for a reciprocal right of search on
between Great Britain, France and Holland, and to these Maria
the high seas; (2) to the objection of Great Britain to inter-
Theresa, queen of Bohemia and Hungary, the kings of Sardinia national action which would have involved the presence of a
and Spain, the duke of Modena, and the republic of Genoa
Russian squadron in the Mediterranean. In matters of less
successively gave their adhesion. The definitive treaty was
importance the congress was more unanimous. Thus, on the
signed on the i8th of October, Sardinia alone refusing to accede,
urgent appeal of the king of Denmark, the king of Sweden
because the treaty of Worms was not guaranteed. Of the
(Bernadotte) received a peremptory summons to carry out the
provisions of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle the most important terms of the treaty of Kiel; the petition of the elector of Hesse
were those stipulating for (i) a general restitution of conquests,
to be recognized as king was unanimously rejected; and
including Cape Breton to France, Madras to England and the measures were taken to redress the grievances of the German
barrier towns to the Dutch; (2) the assignment to Don Philip
mediatized princes. The more important outstanding questions
of the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla; (3) the
in Germany, e.g. the Baden succession, were after consideration
restoration of the duke of Modena and the republic of Genoa to
reserved for a further conference to be called at Frankfort. In
their former positions; (4) the renewal in favour of Great
addition to these a great variety of questions were considered,
Britain of the Asiento contract of the i6th of March 1713, and
from that of the treatment of Napoleon at St Helena, to the
of the right to send an annual vessel to the Spanish colonies;
grievances of the people of Monaco against their prince and the
(5) the renewal of the article of the treaty of 1718 recognizing An attempt made
position of the Jews in Austria and Prussia.
the Protestant succession in the English throne; (6) the recog-
to introduce the subject of the Spanish colonies was defeated
nition of the emperor Francis and the confirmation of the
i.e. of the right of Maria Theresa to the
by the opposition of Great Britain. Lastly, certain vexatious
pragmatic sanction,
questions of diplomatic etiquette were settled once for all (see
Habsburg succession; (7) the guarantee to Prussia of the duchy DIPLOMACY). The congress, which broke up at the end of
of Silesia and the county of Glatz.
November, is of historical importance mainly as marking the
Spain having raised objections to the Asiento clauses, the
highest point reached in the attempt to govern Europe by an
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was supplemented by that of Madrid international committee of the powers. The detailed study of
(Sth of October 1750), by which Great Britain surrendered her its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost
claims under those clauses in return for a sum of 100,000.
insurmountable obstacles to any really effective international
See A. J. H. de Clercq, Recueil des traites de la France; F. A.
Wenk, Corpus juris gentium recentissimi, 1735-1772, vol. ii. (Leipzig, system.
1786), jp. 337; Comte G. de Garden, Hist, des traites de paix, 1848- AUTHORITIES. F.O. Records (the volumes marked Continent,
1887, in. p. 373- Aix-la-Chapelle, To and from Viscount Castlereagh'); State Papers;
3. The congress or conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, held in the
G. F. de Martens, Nouveau recueil de traites, &c. (Gottingen,
autumn of 1818, was primarily a meeting of the four allied 1817-1842); F. de Martens, Recueil des traites conclus par la
Russie, &c. (1874 in progr.); F. von Gentz, Depeches inedites,
powers Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia to decide
&c., ed. Baron Prokesch-Osten, 3 vols. (1876-1877); Metter-
the question of the withdrawal of the army of occupation from nich, Memoirs; Wellington, Suppl. Despatches; Castlereagh,
France and the nature of the modifications to be introduced Correspondence, &c. (W. A. P.)
in consequence into the relations of the four powers towards AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of
each other, and collectively towards France. The congress, of Savoie, near theLac du Bourget, and 9 m. by rail N. of Chambe'ry.
which the first session was held on the ist of October, was Pop. (1001) 4741. It is 846 ft. above the level of the sea. It
attended by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, the emperor was a celebrated bathing-place, under the name of Aquae
Francis I. of Austria, and Frederick William III. of Prussia, in Gratianae, in the time of the Romans, and possesses numerous
person. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh and ancient remains. The hot springs, which are of sulphureous
the duke of Wellington, Austria by Prince Metternich, Russia by quality, and have a temperature of from 109 to 113 F., are
Counts Capo d'Istria and Nesselrode, Prussia by Prince Harden- still much frequented, attracting annually many thousands of
berg and Count Bernstorff. The due de Richelieu, by favour of visitors. They are used for drinking as well as for bathing
the allies, was present on behalf of France. The evacuation purposes.
of France was agreed to in principle at the first session, the AIYAR, SIR SHESHADRI (1845-1901), native statesman of
consequent treaty being signed on the 9th of October. The Mysore, India, was the son of. a Brahman of Palghat in the
immediate object of the conference being thus readily disposed district of Malabar. He was educated at the provincial school
of, the time of the congress was mainly occupied in discussing at Calicut and the presidency college in Madras, and entered the
the form to be taken by the European alliance, and the " military government service as a translator. In 1868 he was transferred
measures," if any, to be adopted as a precaution against a fresh to Mysore under Runga Charlu, and for thirteen years filled
outburst on the part of France. The proposal of the emperor various offices in that state; but when Mysore was restored to
Alexander I. to establish a " universal union of guarantee " on native rule in i88i,he became personal assistant to Runga Charlu,
the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, after much debate, broke whom hesucceededasdiwaniniSSs. For the next seventeen years
 AIYAR AJANTA
he laboured assiduously to promote the economic and industrial merce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a
development of the state, and proved an able assistant to the library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch,
Maharaja Chamarajendra. By means of railway, irrigation and founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.
mining works, he added greatly to the wealth of the state, and Ajaccio has small manufactures of cigars and macaroni and
put it on a sound financial footing. He retired in 1900,
was similar products, and carries on shipbuilding, sardine-fishing
made K. C.S.I, in 1893 and died on the i3th of September 1901. and coral-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins,
AIYAR, SIR TIRUVARUR MUTUSWAMY (1832-1895), chestnuts and gallic acid. The port is accessible by the largest
native Indian judge of the high court of Madras, was born of ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In 1 904 there entered
poor parents in the village of Vuchuwadi, near Tanjore, on the 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels
z8th of January 1832. His widowed mother was forced by with a tonnage of 202,502. The present town of Ajaccio lies
poverty to remove with Mutuswamy and his brother to Tiruvarar, about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it
where the former learnt Tamil, and soon set to work under the was transferred by the Genoese in 1492. Occupied from 1553
village accountant at a monthly salary of one rupee. About to 1559 by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the treaty
this time he lost his mother, whose memory he cherished with of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year. The town finally passed
reverence and affection to the last. His duty took him to the to the French in 1768. Since 1810 it has been capital of the
court-house of the tehsildar, Mr Naiken, who soon remarked department of Corsica.
his extraordinary intelligence and industry. There was an AJAI6ARH, or ADJYGURH, a native state of India, in Bun-
English school at Tiruvarar, where Mutuswamy managed to delkhand, under the Central India agency. It has an area of
pick up an elementary knowledge of the English language. 771 sq. m., and a population in 1901 of 78,236. The chief,
Mr Naiken then sent him to Sir Henry Montgomery's school who is a Bundela Rajput, bears the title of sawai maharaja.
at Madras, as a companion to his nephew, and there he won He has an estimated revenue of about 15,000, and pays a tribute
prizes and scholarships year after year. In 1854 he won a prize
,
of 460. He resides at the town of Naushahr, at the foot of
students of the Madras presidency
of 500 rupees offered to the the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state takes its name.
by the council of education for the best English essay. This This fort is situated on a very steep hill, more than 800 ft. above
success brought him to the notice of Sir Alexander Arbuthnot the town of the same name; and contains the ruins of temples
and Mr Justice Holloway. He was offered help to proceed to adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. It was captured
England and compete for the civil service, but being a Brahman by the British in 1809. The town is subject to malaria. The
and married, he declined to cross the ocean. Instead he entered state suffered severely from famine in 1868-1869, and again
the subordinate government service, and was employed in such in 1896-1897.
various posts as school-teacher, record-keeper in Tanjore, and AJANTA (more properly AJUNTHA) a village in the dominions
,

in 1856 deputy-inspector of schools. At this time the Madras of the Nizam Hyderabad in India (N. lat. 20 32' by E. long.
of
authorities instituted the examination for the office of pleaders, 75 48'), celebrated for its cave hermitages and halls. The caves
and Mutuswamy came out first in the first examination, even are in a wooded and rugged ravine about 35 m. from the village.
beating Sir T. Madhavarao, his senior by many years. Mutu- Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wagura, a moun-
sw;
iwamy was then appointed in succession district munsiff at tain stream, which forces its way into the valley over a bluff
anquebar, deputy-collector in Tanjore in 1859, sub-judge of on the east, and forms in its descent a beautiful waterfall,
tuth Kanara in 1865, and a magistrate of police at Madras or rather series of waterfalls, 200 ft. high, the sound of which
in 1868. While serving in the last post he passed the examination must have been constantly audible to the dwellers in the
for the degree of bachelor of laws of the local university. He caves. These are about thirty in number, excavated in the
was next employed as a judge of the Madras small causes court, south side of the precipitous bank of the ravine, and vary from
until in 1878 he was raised to the bench of the high court, which 35 to no ft. in elevation above the bed of the torrent. The caves
office he occupied with ability and distinction for over fifteen are of two kinds dwelling-halls and meeting-halls. The former,
years, sometimes acting as the chief justice. He attended by as one enters from the pathway along the sides of the cliff, have
invitation of the viceroy the imperial assemblage at Delhi in a broad verandah, its roof supported by pillars, and giving
1877. In 1878 he received the honour of C.I.E. and in 1893 the towards the interior on to a hall averaging in size about 35 ft.
K.C.I.E. was conferred on him. But he did not live long to by 20 ft. To left and right, and at the back, dormitories are
enjoy this dignity, dying suddenly in 1895. Mutuswamy was excavated opening on to this hall, and in the centre of the back,
too devoted to his offical work to give much time to other facing the entrance, an image of the Buddha usually stands
pursuits. Still he took his full share in the affairs of the Madras in a niche. The number of dormitories varies according to the
university, of which he was nominated a fellow in 1872 and a size of the hall, and in the larger ones pillars support the roof
syndic in 1877, and was well acquainted with English law, on all three sides, forming a sort of cloister running round the
literatureand philosophy. He was through life a staunch hall. The meeting-halls go back into the rock about twice as
Brahman, devout and amiable in character, with a taste for far as the dwelling-halls; the largest of them being 943 ft. from
ancient music of India and the study of the Vedas and other the verandah to the back, and 415 ft. across, including the
ipartments of Sanskrit literature. cloister. They were used as chapter-houses for the meetings of
AJACCIO, the capital of Corsica, on the west coast of the the Buddhist Order. The caves are in three groups, the oldest
and, 210 m. S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 19,021. Ajaccio group being of various dates from 200 B.C. to A.D.20O, the second
:upies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the group belonging, approximately, to the 6th, and the third group
Tthern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio. The harbour, lying to to the 7th century A.D. Most of the interior walls of the caves
the east of the town, is protected on the south by a peninsula were covered with fresco paintings, of a considerable degree of
which carries the citadel and terminates in the Citadel jetty; merit, and somewhat in the style of the early Italian painters.
to the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte, When first discovered, in 1817, these frescoes were in a fair
a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the state of preservation, but they have since been allowed to go
mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thorough- hopelessly to ruin. Fortunately, the school of art in Bombay,
fares converging to the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean especially under the supervision of J. Griffiths, had copied in
and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance. The colours a number of them before the last vestiges had disappeared,
house in which Napoleon I, was born in 1769 is preserved, and and other copies of certain of the paintings have also been made.
his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by These copies are invaluable as being the only evidence we now
street-names and statues. The other buildings, including the have of pictorial art in India before the rise of Hinduism. The
cathedral of the i6th century, are of little interest. The town " "
expression Cave Temples used by Anglo-Indians of such
is the seat of a
bishopric dating at least from the 7th century halls is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery.
d of a prefect. It has tribunals of first instance and of com- Hsiian Tsang informs us that Dinnaga, the celebrated Buddhist
452 AJAX AJMERE
philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books Many illustrious Athenians Cimon, Miltiades, Alcibiades. the
on logic, resided there. In its prime the settlement must have historian Thucydides traced their descent from Ajax.
afforded accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and See D. Bassi, La Leggenda di Aiace Tdamonio (1890); P. Girard,
" '

pupils combined. Very few of the frescoes have been identified, fits de Telamon.
Ajax, 1905, in Rome des etudes grecques, tome 18;
but two are illustrations of stories in Arya Sura's Jataka Mala, J. Vurtheim,
De Ajacis Origine, Cultu, Patria (Leiden, 1907), accord-
ing to whom he and Ajax Oileus, as depicted in epos, were originally
as appears from verses in Buddhist Sanskrit painted beneath When this
one, a Locrian daemon somewhat resembling the giants.
them. spirit put on human form and "became known at the Saroaic Gulf, he
"
See J. Burgess and Bhagwanlal Indraji, Inscriptions from the Case developed into" the greater Ajax, while among the Locrians he
remained the lesser. In the article GREEK ART, fig. 13 (from a
Temples of Western India (Bombay, 1881); J. Fergusson and
black-figured Corinthian vase) represents the suicide of Ajax.
J. Burgess, Cave Temples of Indiz (London, 1880); J. Griffiths,
Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta (London, 2 vols., AJMERE, or AJMER, a city of British India in Rajputaaa,
1896-1897). (T. W. R. D.)
which gives its name to a district and also to a petty province
AJAX (Gr. Alas), a Greek hero, son of Oueus, king of Locris, called Ajmere-Meirwara. It is situated in 26 a/ N. lat and
" lesser " or Locrian
called the Ajax, to distinguish him from 44' E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the
Ajax, son of Telamon. In spite of his small stature, he held his Aravalli mountains. To the north of the city is a large artificial
own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next lake called the Anasagar, whence the water supply of the place
to Achilles in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear. is derived.
But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Tela- The chief object of interest is the darga, or tomb of a famous
monian Ajax, he was the enemy of Odysseus, and in the end the Mahommedan saint named Mayud-uddin. It is situated at the
victim of the vengeance of Athene, who wrecked his ship on his foot of the Taragarh mountain, and consists of a block of white
homeward voyage (Odyssey, iv. 409). A later story gives a more marble buildings without much pretension to architectural
definite account of the offence of which he was guilty. It is said beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress,
that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged Cassandra away by force performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra in accordance with
from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a son. The
a suppliant, and even violated her (Lycopkron, 360, Quintus large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to
Smyrnaeus xiii. 422). For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still
on the coast of Euboea. and he himself was struck by lightning extant. An
ancient Jain temple, now converted into a Mahom-
(Virgil, A en. i. 40). He was said to have lived after his death in medan mosque, is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hul
the island of Leuke. He was worshipped as a national hero by With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the
the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are
left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any
drawn up in battle array. He was the subject of a lost tragedy remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no
by Sophocles. The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the
represented in Greek works of art, for instance on the chest of execution of the ornaments. The summit of Taragarh hill, over-
Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17) and in extant works. hanging Ajmere, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements
AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Cyprus, a legendary hero of of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walk
ancient Greece, To distinguish him from Ajax, son of Ofleus. he are 2 m. in circumference, and the fort can only be approached
was called the " great " or Telamonian Ajax. In Homer's Iliad by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort
he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, second only and the outworks, and by the hfll to the west. On coming into
"
to Achilles in strength and bravery, and the bulwark of the the hands of the F.nglish, the fort was dismantled by order of
Achaeans." He engaged Hector in single combat and, with the Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a sanatorium
aid of Athene, rescued the body of Achilles from the hands of the for the troops at Nasirabad. Ajmere was founded about the
Trojans. In the competition between him and Odysseus for year 145 A.D. by Aji, a Chauhan, who established the dynasty
the armour of Achilles, Agamemnon, at the instigation of Athene, which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of
awarded the prize to Odysseus. This so enraged Ajax that it fortune) while the repeated waves of Maliommedan invasion
caused his death (Odyssey, xL 541). According to a later and swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the
more definite story, his disappointment drove him mad; he crown of Delhi in 1193. Its internal government, however, was
rushed out of his tent and fell upon the flocks of sheep in the camp handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy
under the impression that they were the enemy; on coming to tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi
his senses, he slew himself with the sword which he had received till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509
as a present from Hector. This is the account of his death given the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of
in the Ajax of Sophocles (Pindar, Nemea, 7; Ovid, Met. xiii. i). Mewar and Marwar, and was ultimately conquered in 1 53 2 by the
From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of Hyacinthus, latter prince, who in bis turn in 1559 had to give way before the
which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name AI, also emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Moguls, witk
expressive of lament (Pausanias L 35. 4). His ashes were de- occasional revolts, tifl 1770, when it was ceded to the Mahrattas,
posited in a golden urn on the Rhoetean promontory at the from which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of
entrance of the Hellespont. Like Achilles, he is represented as a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar
living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the
Danube (Pausanias iii. 19. n). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric Mahrattas. In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British in return for
legend is described as the grandson of Aeacus and the great- a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed
grandson of Zeus, was the tutelary hero of the island of Salamis, unbroken peace and a stable government.
where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called The modern city is an important station on the Rajputan*
Aianteia was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this railway, 615 m. from Bombay and 275 m. from Delhi,
wftfc
festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was a branch running due south to the Great Indian Peninsula main
placed, a practice which recalls the Roman Itctisternium. The line. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome
identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a houses. The city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium,
mat ter which concerned the Athenians, after Salamis had come in to former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar lake and
their possession, on which occasion Solon is said to have inserted Ramsur. Oil-making is also a profitable branch of trade. Cotto
a line in the Iliad (ii. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting cloths are manufactured to some extent, for the dyeing of whh
the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic the city has attained a high reputation. The educational instittt
hero; he was worshipped at Athens, where he had a statue in the tions include the Mayo Rajkumar college, opened in
market-place, and the tribe Aiantis was called after his name. of an
training the sons of the nobles of Rajputana, on the lines
 AJMERE-MERWARA AKABA 453
English public school. Population (1901) 73,839, showing an seeds. There are several factories for ginning and pressing
increase of 10 %
in the decade. cotton, the chief trading centres being Beawar and Kekri.
The DISTRICT OF AJMERE, which forms the largest part of the AJODHYA, an ancient city of India, the prehistoric capital
province of Ajmere-Merwara, has an area of 2069 sq.
m. The of Oudh, in the Fyzabad district of the United Provinces. It is
eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by situated on the right bank of the Gogra. In the present day the
gentle undulations, but the western parts, from north-west to old city has almost entirely disappeared, and its site is marked
south-west, are intersected by the great Aravalli range. Many of only by a heap of ruins; but in remote antiquity Ajodhya was
the valleys in this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occa- one of the largest and most magnificent of Indian cities. It is
sional oasis of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile said to have covered an area of 56 m., and was the capital of
cts; among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmere. the kingdom of Kosala, the court of the great king Dasaratha,
i
valley, however, is not only fortunate in possessing a noble the fifty-sixth monarch of the Solar line in descent from Raja
ficial lake, but is protected by the massive walls of the Nag- Manu. The opening chapters of the Ramayana recount the
ithar range or Serpent rock, which forms a barrier against the magnificence of the city, the glories of the monarch and the
ad. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its virtues, wealth and loyalty of his people. Dasaratha was the
Ishoots. Ajmere is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banas father of Rama Chandra, the hero of the epic. A period of
ng the only stream which can be dignified with that name, Buddhist supremacy followed the death of the last king of the
nd it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district Solar dynasty. On the revival of Brahmanism Ajodhya was
as to irrigate the pargana of Samur. Four small streams restored by King Vikramaditya (c. 57 B.C.). Kosala is also
the Sagarmati, Saraswati, Khari and Dai also intersect the famous as the early home of Buddhism, and of the kindred
district. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks. religion of Jainism, and claims to be the birthplace of the
The population in 1901 was 7453, showing a decrease of founders of both these faiths. The Chinese traveller, Hsiian
13 % in the decade. Besides the city of Ajmere, the district Tsang, in the 7th century, found 20 Buddhist temples with
contains the military station of Nasirabad, with a population 3000 monks at Ajodhya among a large Brahmanical popu-
of 22,494. lation. The modern town of Ajodhya contains 96 Hindu temples
AJMERE-MERWARA, a division or petty province of British and 36 Mussulman mosques. Little local trade is carried on,
India, in Rajputana, consisting of the two districts of Ajmere but the great fair of Ramnami held every year is attended by
and Merwara, separated from each other and isolated amid about 500,000 people.
native states. The administration is in the hands of a commis- AKABA, GULF OF, the Sinus Aelaniticus of antiquity, the
sioner, subordinate to the governor-general's agent for Rajputana. eastern of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates
The capital is Ajmere city. The area is 2710 sq. m. The near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petraea
plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmere, may be in a N.N.E. direction, from 28 to 29 32' N., a distance of
considered as the highest point in the plains of Hindustan; loo m., and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 m. The entrance
from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away is contracted by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage
on every side towards river valleys on the east, south, west and isrendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is dangerous
towards the desert region on the north. The Aravalli range is on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden squalls
the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, many of which
which runs between Ajmere and Nasirabad marks the watershed rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 ft. The gulf is a con-
of the continent of India. The rain which falls on one side tinuation southward of the Jordan-' Araba depression. Raised
drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that beaches on the coast show that there has been a considerable
which falls on the other side into the Luni, which discharges elevation of the sea-bed. The only well-sheltered harbour
itself into the Runn of Cutch. The province is on the border of is that of Dahab (the Golden Port) on its western shore,
what may be called the arid " zone " it is the debatable land
;
about 33 m. from the entrance and 29 m. E. of Mount
between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and Sinai. Near the head of the gulf is Jeziret Faraun (medieval
beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps Graye), a rocky islet with the ruins of a castle built by Baldwin
up the Nerbudda valley from Bombay and crossing the table- I. (c. 1115).
land at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and About 25 m. from the head of the gulf and on its eastern side
Kotah and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal is the TOWN OF AKABA, with a picturesque medieval castle, built
river. The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Cutch are de- for the protection of pilgrims on their way from Egypt to Mecca.
prived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those In the neighbourhood are extensive groves of date palms, and
countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited there is an ample supply of good water. Akaba is of considerable
on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli mountains, historical interest and of great antiquity, being the Elath or
leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and Eloth of the Bible, and one of the ports whence Solomon's fleet
still less for Ajmere. It is only when the monsoon is in con- sailed to Ophir. By the Romans, who made it a military post,
siderable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. it was called Aelana. It continued to be the seat of great
The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges commercial activity under the early Moslem caliphs, who
from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Raj- corrupted the name to Haila or Ailat. In the loth century an
putana, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude Arab geographer described it as the great port of Palestine and
of Ajmere. On the varying strength of these two monsoons the the emporium of the Hejaz. In the I2th century the town
rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist in Ajmere- suffered at the hands of Saladin and thereafter fell into decay.
Merwara can never rely upon two good harvests in succession, In 1841 the town was recognized by Turkey, together with the
province subject to such conditions can hardly be free from Sinai peninsula, as part of Egypt. At that time Egyptian
tine or scarcity for
any length of time; accordingly it was pilgrims frequented Akaba in large numbers. In 1892, on the
risited by two famines, one of
unprecedented severity, and one accession of the khedive Abbas II., Turkey resumed possession
scarcity, in the decade 1891-1901. In June 1900 the number of of Akaba, the Egyptian pilgrims having deserted the land route
persons in receipt of relief was 143,000, being more than one- to Mecca in favour of a sea passage. In 1906 the construction
fourth of the total
population. was begun of a branch line joining Akaba to the Mecca railway
Q 1901 the population was 476,912, showing a decrease of and thus giving through communication with Beirut. Early
2% in the decade, due to the results of famine. Among in the same year the Turks occupied Taba, a village at the
Hindus, the Rajputs are land-holders, and the Jats and Gujars are mouth of a small stream 8 m. by land W. by S. of Akaba, near
cultivators. The Jains are traders and money-lenders. The which is the site, not identified, of the Ezion-Geber of Scripture,
aboriginal tribe of Mers are divided between Hindus and Mahom- another of the ports whence the argosies of the Israelites sailed.
medans. The chief crops are millet, wheat, cotton and oil- Taba being on the Egyptian side of the frontier, Great Britain
454 AKA HILLS AKENSIDE
intervened on behalf of Egypt, and in May 1906 secured the perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation.
withdrawal of the Turks. In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclu-
AKA HILLS, a tract of country on the north-east frontier of siveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. Scepti-
India, occupied by an independent tribe called the Akas. It cism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to seek the true
lies north of the Darrang district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, religion in an eclectic system. He accordingly set himself to
and is bounded on the east by the Daphla Hills and on the west obtain information about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting
by independent Bhutia tribes. The Aka country is very difficult that the Portuguese missionaries there should visit him, and
of access, the direct road from the plains leading along the listened to them with intelligent attention when they came. As
precipitous channel of the Bhareli river, which divides the Aka the result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure deism and
from the Daphla country. The Akas are a brave people, and a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The religion thus
the men are strong and well-made. Their reputation as raiders founded, however, having no vital force, never spread beyond the
issufficiently shown in the division of the tribe into two clans, limits of the court, and died with Akbar himself. But though his
"
the Hazari-khoas or eaters of a thousand hearths," and the eclectic system failed, the spirit of toleration which originated it
Kapah-chors or "thieves that lurk in the cotton fields." In produced in other ways many important results, and, indeed,
the early years of British occupation, about 1829, they gave may be said to have done more to establish Akbar's power on a
much trouble; and in 1883 they broke out once more into their secure basis than all his economic and social reforms. He con-
old habits. They raided into the British district of Darrang ciliated the Hindus by giving them freedom of worship; while at
and carried off several native forest officers as hostages. An the same time he strictly prohibited certain barbarous Brah-
expedition was sent against them under General Sale Hill with manical practices, such as trial by ordeal and the burning of
860 troops, which was completely successful. All its objects widows against their will. He also abolished all taxes upon
were satisfactorily accomplished, namely, the recovery of the pilgrims as an interference with the liberty of worship, and the
payment of the fine
captives, the surrender of all firearms, the capitation tax upon Hindus, probably upon similar grounds.
inflicted by government, the complete submission of the tribe Measures like these gained for him during his lifetime the title of
"
and the survey of the country. Guardian of Mankind," and caused him to be held up as a model
AKALKOT, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of to Indian princes of later times, who in the matter of religious
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs, situated between toleration have only too seldom followed his example.
the British district of Sholapur and the nizam's dominions. Akbar was a munificent patron of literature. He established
It forms part of the Deccan table-land, and has a cool and agree- schools throughout his empire for the education of both Hindus
able climate. Area 498 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 82,047, showing and Moslems, and he gathered round him many men of literary
an increase of 8 % in the decade. Estimated revenue, 26,586; talent, among whom may be mentioned the brothers Feizi and
the tribute is 1000. The chief, who is a Mahratta of the Abul Fazl. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate
Bhonsla family, resides at Poona on a pension, while the state is a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the
under British management. latter (see ABUL FAZL) has left, in the Akbar-Nameh, an enduring
The town of Akalkot is situated near the Great Indian Penin- record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar em-
sula railway, which traverses the state. Pop. 8348. ployed Jerome Xavier, a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four
AKBAR, AKHBAR or AKBER, JELLALADIN MAHOMMED Gospels into Persian.
(154 2-1 605), one of the greatest and wisest of the Mogul emperors. The closing years of Akbar's reign were rendered very unhappy
He was born at Umarkot in Sind on the i4th of October 1542, his by the misconduct of his sons. Two of them died in youth, the
father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short victims of intemperance; and the third, Salim, afterwards the
time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve emperor Jahangir, was frequently in rebellion against his father.
Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however,
years' exile, These calamities were keenly felt by Akbar, and may even
he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar suc- have tended to hasten his death, which occurred at Agra on the
ceeded his father in 1556 under the regency of Baira'n Khan, a 1 5th of October 1605. His body was deposited in a magnificent
Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the mausoleum at Sikandra, near Agra.
"
throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army,
See G. B. Malleson, Akbar (" Rulers of India series), 1890.
tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly recovered AKCHA, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The town
empire. Bairam, however, was naturally despotic and cruel; lies 42 m. westward of Balkh on the road to Andkhui. It is
and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary protected by a mud wall and a citadel. Estimated population
to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he did 8000, chiefly Uzbegs. The khanate is small, but well watered and
by a proclamation issued in March 1 560. The discarded regent populous. The rivers rising in the southern mountains, which no
lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to establish an longer reach the Oxus, terminate in vast swamps near Akcha, and
independent principality in Malwa, but at last he was forced to into these the debris of such vegetation as yearly springs up on
cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor not only freely the slopes of the southern hills is washed down in time of flood.
pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him the choice of a AKEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
high place in the army or a suitable escort for a pilgrimage to Elbe, 25 m. E. S. E. of Magdeburg, with a branch line to Cothen
Mecca, and Bairam preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar (8 m.). Pop. (1900) 7358. It has manufactures of cloth,
ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly leather, chemicals and optical instruments; large quantities of
been comprised within the Mogul empire owned his authority, and beetroot sugar are produced in the neighbourhood; and there is
he devoted himself with great determination and success to the a considerable transit trade on the Elbe.
recovery of the revolted provinces. Over each of these, as it was AKENSIDE, MARK
(1721-1770), English poet and physician,
restored, he placed a governor, whom he superintended with was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the gth of November 1721.
vigilance and wisdom. He tried by every means to develop and He was the son of a butcher, and was slightly lame all his life
encourage commerce; he had the land accurately measured for from a wound he received as a child from his father's cleaver.
the purpose of rightly adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest All his relations were dissenters, and, after attending the free
instructions to prevent extortion on the part of the taxgatherers, school of Newcastle, and a dissenting academy in the town,
and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and equit- he was sent (1739) to Edinburgh to study theology with a view
able policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of to becoming a minister, his expenses being paid from a special
Akbar's reign, the empire had more than regained all that it had fund set aside by the dissenting community for the education
"
lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection of their pastors. He had already contributed The Virtuoso,
"
only as before, but to a great degree of peace, order and content- in imitation of Spenser's style and stanza (173?) to the Gentle-
"
ment. Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the man's Magazine, and in 1738 A British Philippic, occasioned
chief difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords by the Insults of the Spaniards, and the present Preparations
 AKERMAN AKHALTSIKH 455
for War" (also published separately). After he had spent himself almost exclusively to his profession. He was an acute
one winter as a student of theology, he entered his name as a and learned physician. He was admitted M.D. at Cambridge
student of medicine. He repaid the money that had been in 1753, fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1754, and
advanced for his theological studies, and with this change of fourth censor in 1755. In June 1755 he read the Gulstonian
mind he seems to have drifted to a mild deism. His politics, lectures before the College, in September 1756 the Croonian
"
says Dr Johnson, were characterized by an impetuous eager- lectures, and in 1759 the Harveian oration. In January 1759
ness to subvert and confound, with very little care what shall he was appointed assistant physician, and two months later
be established," and he is caricatured in the republican doctor principal physician to Christ's Hospital, but he was charged
of Smollett's Peregrine Pickle. He was elected a member of with harsh treatment of the poorer patients, and his unsym-
the Medical Society of Edinburgh in 1740. His ambitions pathetic character prevented the success to which his undeniable
already lay outside his profession, and his gifts as a speaker learning and ability entitled him. At the accession of George III.
made him hope one day to enter parliament. In 1740 he printed both Dyson and Akenside changed their political opinions,
his
"
Ode on the Winter Solstice " in a small volume of poems. and Akenside's conversion to Tory was rewarded by
principles
In 1741 he left Edinburgh for Newcastle and began to call the appointment of physician to the queen. Dyson became
himself surgeon, though it is doubtful whether he practised, secretary to the treasury, lord of the treasury, and in 1774
and from the next year dates his life-long friendship with Jere- privy councillor and cofferer to the household.
miah Dyson (1722-1776). During a visit to Morpeth in 1738 Akenside died on the 23rd of June 1770, at his house in
"
he had conceived the idea of his didactic poem, The Pleasures Burljngton Street, where the last ten years of his life had been
of the Imagination." He had already acquired a considerable spent. His friendship with Dyson puts his character in the most
literary reputation when he came to London about the end of amiable light. Writing to his friend so early as 1 744, Akenside
said that the intimacy had
"
1 743, and offered the work to Dodsley for i 20. Dodsley thought the force of an additional conscience,
the price exorbitant, and only accepted the terms after submitting of a new principle of religion," and there seems to have been no
" break in their affection. He left all his effects and his literary
the MS. to Pope, who assured him that this was no everyday
writer." The three books of this poem appeared in January remains to Dyson, who issued an edition of his poems in 1772.
" This included the revised version of the Pleasures of Imagination,
1744. His aim, Akenside tells us in the preface, was not so
much to give formal precepts, or enter into the way of direct on which the author was engaged at his death. The first book
argumentation, as, by exhibiting the most engaging prospects of this work defines the powers of imagination and discusses
of nature, to enlarge and harmonize the imagination, and by the various kinds of pleasure to be derived from the perception
that means insensibly dispose the minds of men to a similar of beauty; the second distinguishes works of imagination from
taste and habit of thinking in religion, morals and civil life." philosophy; the third describes the pleasure to be found in
Akenside's powers fell short of this lofty design; his imagination the study of man, the sources of ridicule, the operations of the
was not brilliant enough to surmount the difficulties inherent mind, in producing works of imagination, and the influence of
in a poem dealing so largely with abstractions; but the work imagination on morals. The ideas were largely borrowed from
was well received by the general public. His success was not Addison's essays on the imagination and from Lord Shaftesbury.
Professor Dowden complains that
"
unchallenged. Gray wrote to Thomas Wharton that it was his tone is too high-pitched;
"
above the middling," but " often obscure and unintelligible his ideas are too much in the air; they do not nourish them-
id too much infected with the Hutchinson 1 selves in the common heart, the common life of man." Dr
jargon."
Into a note added by Akenside to the passage in the third Johnson praised the blank verse of the poems, but found fault
book dealing with ridicule, William Warburton chose to read with the long and complicated periods. Akenside's verse was
a reflexion on himself. Accordingly he attacked the author better when it was subjected to severer metrical rules. His
of the Pleasures of the Imagination which was published odes are very few of them lyrical in the strict sense, but they are
" "
anonymously in a scathing preface to his Remarks on Several dignified and often musical, while the few inscriptions he
Occasional Reflections, in answer to Dr Middleton (1744).
. . . has left are felicitous in the extreme.
This was answered, nominally by Dyson, in An Epistle to the The best edition of Akenside's Poetical Works is that prepared
Rev. MrWarburton, in which Akenside no doubt had a hand. (1834) by Alexander Dyce for theAldine Edition of the BritishPoets,
and reprinted with small additions in subsequent issues of the series.
It was when he left England in 1744 to secure a
in the press
See Dyce's Life of Akenside prefixed to his edition, also Johnson's
medical degree at Leiden. In little more than a month he had Lives of the Poets, and the Life, Writings and Genius of Akenside
completed the necessary dissertation, De ortu et incremento (1832) by Charles Bucke.
foetushumani, and received his diploma. Returning to England AKERMAN, JOHN YONGE (1806-1873), English antiquarian,
he attempted without success to establish a practice in North-
distinguished chiefly in the department of numismatics, was
ampton. In 1744 he published his Epistle to Curio, attacking born in Wiltshire. He became early known in connexion with
William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) for having abandoned his favourite study, having initiated the Numismatic Journal in
his liberal principles to become a
supporter of the government, 1836. In the following year he became the secretary of the
and in the next year he produced a small volume of Odes on
newly established Numismatic Society. In 1848 he was elected
Several Subjects, in the preface to which he lays claim to correct-
secretary to the Society of Antiquaries, an office which he was
ness and a careful study of the best models. His friend Dyson compelled to resign in 1860 on account. of failing health. Akerman
had meanwhile left the bar, and had become, by purchase,
published a considerable number of works on his special subject,
clerk to the House of Commons. Akenside had come to London the more important being a Catalogue of Roman Coins (1839);
and was trying to make a practice at Hampstead. Dyson took a Numismatic Manual (1840); Roman Coins relating to Britain
a house there, and did all he could to further his friend's interest
(1844); Ancient Coins Hispania, Gallia, Britannia (1846);
in the neighbourhood. But Akenside's arrogance and pedantry and Numismatic Illustrations of the New Testament (1846). He
frustrated these efforts, and Dyson then took a house for him wrote also a Glossary of Words used in Wiltshire (1842) ; Wiltshire
in Bloomsbury Square, making him independent of his profession Tales, illustrative of the Dialect (1853); and Remains of Pagan
by an allowance stated to have been 300 a year, but probably Saxondom
" (1855).
greater, for it is asserted that this income enabled him to keep AKHALTSIKH "new
(Georgian Akhaltsikhe, fortress"), a
a chariot," and to live "
incomparably well." In 1746 he wrote fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, government of Tiths,
his much-praised
"Hymn to the Naiads," and he also became 68 m. E. of Batum, in 41 40' N. lat., 43 i' E. long., on a tribu-
a contributor to
Dodsley's Museum, or Literary and Historical tary of the Kura, at an altitude of 3375 ft. The new town is on
Register. He was now twenty-five years old, and began to devote the right bank of the river, while the old town and the fortress
The reference is to Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), author of are on the opposite bank. There is trade in silk, honey and wax,
an Inquiry into the and brown coal is found in the neighbourhood. The silver
Original oj our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue
filigree work is famous. Pop. (1897) 15,387, of whom many
45 6 AK-HISSAR AKKA
were Armenians, as against 15,977 in 1867. From 1579 to 1828 tribe in Mesopotamia. In the wars of the Taghlibites with the
Akhaltsikh was the capital of Turkish Armenia. In the last- Qaisites he took part in the field, and by his satires. In the
mentioned year it was captured by the Russians. The Turks literary strifebetween his contemporaries Jarir and Ferazdaq
invested it in 1853. he was induced to support the latter poet. Akhtal, Jarir and
"
AK-HISSAR (anc. Thyateira, the town of Thya "), a town Ferazdaq form a trio celebrated among the Arabs, but as to
situated in a fertile plain on the Giirduk Chai (Lycus), in the relative superiority there is dispute. In the 'Abbasid period
Aidin vilayet, 58 m. N.E. of Smyrna. Pop. about 20,000, there is no doubt that Akhtal's Christianity told against his
Mussulmans forming two-thirds. Thyateira was an ancient reputation, but Abu 'Ubaida placed him highest of the three on
town re-peopled with Macedonians by Seleucus about 290 B.C. the ground that amongst his poems there were ten flawless
It became an important station on the Roman road from Per- qasidas (elegies), and ten more nearly so, and that this could
gamum to Laodicea, and one of the "Seven Churches" of Asia not be said of the other two. The chief material of his poems
(Rev. ii. 18), but was never a metropolis or honoured with a consists of panegyric of patrons and satire of rivals, the
neocorate, though made the centre of a conventus by Caracalla. latter being, however, more restrained than was usual at the
The modern town is connected with Smyrna by railway, and time.
exports cotton, wool, opium, cocoons and cereals. The in- The Poetry of al-Akhtal has been published at the Jesuit press in
habitants are Greeks, Armenians and Turks. The Greeks are Beirut, 1891. A full account of the poet and his times is given in
H. Lammens' Le chantre des Omiades (Paris, 1895) (a reprint from
of an especially fine type, physical and moral, and noted all
the Journal Asiatique for 1894). (G. W. T.)
through Anatolia for energy and stability. W. M. Ramsay
believes them to be direct descendants of the ancient Christian
AKHTYRKA, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
near the Vorskla river, connected by a branch (n m.) with the
population; but there is reason to think they are partly sprung
from more recent immigrants who moved in the i8th century railway from Kiev to Kharkov. It has a beautiful cathedral,
built after a plan by Rastrelli in 1753, to which pilgrims resort
from western Greece into the domain of the Karasmans of Manisa
to venerate an ikon of the Virgin. There are manufactures of
and Bergama, as recorded by W. M. Leake. Cotton of excellent
light woollen stuffs and a trade in corn, cattle and the produce
quality is grown in the neighbourhood, and the place is cele-
of domestic industries. The environs are fertile, the orchards
brated for its scarlet dyes.
See W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven Churches (1904) M. Clerc,
;
producing excellent fruit. A fair is held on the 9th of May. The
De rebus Thyatirenorum (1893). place was founded by the Poles in 1642. Pop. (1867) 17,411;
AKHMIM, or EKHMIM, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right (1900) 25,965.
bank of the Nile, 67 m. by river S. of Assiut, and 4 m. above AKKA (TiKKi-TiKKi), a race of African pygmies first seen by
Suhag, on the opposite side of the river, whence there is railway the traveller G. A. Schweinfurth in 1870, when he was in the
communication with Cairo and Assuan. It is the largest town Mangbettu country, N.W. of Albert Nyanza. The home of the
on the east side of the Nile in Upper Egypt, having a population Akka is the dense forest zone of the Aruwimi district of the Congo
in 1007 of 23,795, tof whom about a third were Copts. Akhmim State. They form a branch of the primitive pygmy negroid race,
has several mosques and two Coptic churches, maintains a and appear to be divided into groups, each with its own chief. Of
" "
weekly market, and manufactures cotton goods, notably the all African dwarfs the Akka are believed the best representa-
" "
blue shirts and check shawls with silk fringes worn by the poorer tives of the little people mentioned by Herodotus. Giovanni
classes of Egypt. Outside the walls are the scanty ruins of two Miani, the Italian explorer who followed Schweinfurth, obtained
ancient temples. In Abulfeda's days (i3th century A.D.) a very two young Akka in exchange for a dog and a calf. These, sent to
imposing temple still stood here. Akhmim was the Egyptian Italy in 1873, were respectively 4 ft. 4 in. and 4 ft. 8 in. high,
Apu or Khen-min, in Coptic Shmin, known to the Greeks as while the tallest seen by Schweinfurth did not reach 5 ft. None
Chemmis or Panopolis, capital of the gth or Chemmite nome of of the four Akka brought to Europe in 1874 and 1876 exceeded
Upper Egypt. The ithyphallic Min (Pan) was here worshipped 3 ft. 4 in. The average height of the race would seem to be some-
"
as the strong Horus." Herodotus mentions the temple what under 4 ft., but sufficient measurements have not been
" "
dedicated to Perseus and asserts that Chemmis was remark- taken to allow of a conclusive statement. Schweinfurth says the
able for the celebration of games in honour of that hero, after Akka have very large and almost spherical skulls (this last detail
the manner of the Greeks, at which prizes were given; as a proves to be an exaggeration). They are of the colour of coffee
matter of fact some representations are known of Nubians and slightly roasted, with hair almost the same colour, woolly and
people of Puoni (Somalic coast) clambering up poles before the tufted; they have very projecting jaws, flat noses and protrud-
" "
god Min. Min was especially a god of the desert routes on the ing lips, which give them an ape-like appearance. Marked
east of Egypt, and the trading tribes are likely to have gathered physical features are an abdominal protuberance which makes all
to his festivals for business and pleasure, at Coptos (which was Akka look like pot-bellied children, and a remarkable hollowing
really near to Neapolis, Kena) even more than at Akhmim. of the spine into a curve like an S. Investigation has shown that
Herodotus perhaps confused Coptos with Chemmis. Strabo these are not true racial characteristics, but tend to disappear,
mentions linen-weaving as an ancient industry of Panopolis, the abdominal enlargement subsiding after some weeks of regular
and it is not altogether a coincidence that the cemetery of and wholesome diet. The upper limbs are long, and the hands,
Akhmim is one of the chief sources of the beautiful textiles of according to Schweinfurth, are singularly delicate. The lower
Roman and Coptic age that are brought from Egypt. Monas- limbs are short, relatively to the trunk, and curve in somewhat,
teries abounded in this neighbourhood from a very early date; the feet being bent in too, which gives the Akka a topheavy,
Shenout (Sinuthius) the fiery apostle and prophet of the Coptic
, tottering gait. There is a tendency to steatopygia among the
national church, was a monk of Atrepe (now Suhag), and led the women. The Akka are nomads, living in the forests, where they
populace to the destruction of the pagan edifices. He died in hunt game with poisoned arrows, with pitfalls and springs set
451; some years earlier Nestorius, the ex-patriarch, had suc- everywhere, and with traps built like huts, the roofs of which,
cumbed perhaps to his persecution and to old age, in the neigh- hung by tendrils only, fall in on the animal. They collect ivory
bourhood of Akhmim. Nonnus, the Greek poet, was born at and honey, manufacture poison, and bring these to market to
Panopolis at the end of the 4th century. (F. LL. G.) exchange for cereals, tobacco and iron weapons. They are
AKHTAL [GHIYATH IBN HARITH] (c. 640-710), one of the most courageous hunters, and do not hesitate to attack even elephants,
famous Arabian poets of the Omayyad period, belonged to the both sexes joining in the chase. They are very agile, and are
tribe of Taghlib in Mesopotamia, and was, like his fellow-tribes- said by the neighbouring negroes to leap about in the high grass
men, a Christian, enjoying the freedom of his religion, while like grasshoppers. They are timid as children before strangers,
not taking its duties very seriously. Of his private life few but are declared to be malevolent and treacherous fighters.
In
details are known, save that he was married and divorced, weapons and utensils they are as the surrounding negroes.
dress,
and that he spent part of his time in Damascus, part with his They build round huts of branches and leaves in the forest
 AKKAD AKOLA 457
no way a degenerate but rather a LITERATURE. Schrader, Zur Frage n. d. Ursprung d. altbab-
clearings. They seem in race,
Kultur (1883); Keilinschriflen und Geschichtsforschung, pp. 533 f.;
the forest environment.
people arrested in development by Fried. Delitzsch, Wo lag das Parodies? (1881), p. 198; Paul
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (1895); G. A. Haupt, Akkadische und Sumerische Ketischrifttexte (1881), pp. 133 ff. ;
Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (London, 1873); Dr W. Pleyte, Die Sumerische Akkadische Sprache, Verh. 5-ten Orient. Cong. ii.
el commen-
Chapitres supplementaires du Livre des Marts, traduction pp. 249-287; Die sumerischen Familiengesetze (1879); Zimmern,
taire (Leiden, 1883); Sir H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate Babylonische Busspsalmen (1885), pp. 71 f.; Hommel, Gesch. Bab.
(London, 1902). Assyr. (1885), pp. 240 ff.; Tiele, Bab. Assyr. Gesch. (1888), p. 68;
AKKAD (Gr. versions dpxaS and ix^o), a Hebrew name, W. H. Ward, Hebraica (1886), pp. 79-86; McCurdy, Presb. and Ref.
mentioned only once in the Old Testament (Gen. x. 10), for one Review, Jan. 1891, pp. 58-81 History, Prophecy and the Monuments
;

Akkad, Babel, Erech and Calneh, which

of the four chief cities, (1894), 79-85, 94-110; Hugo Winckler, Untersuchungen zur
altortentalischen Geschtchte ( 1 886) pp. 65 ff. In Rabbinical literature,
constituted the nucleus of the kingdom of Nimrod in the land
,

Louis Ginzberg, in Monatschrift, xliii. 486; and Jewish Encyclopaedia,

of Shinar or Babylonia. This Biblical city, Akkad, was most i. p. 149. (J. D. PR.)

probably identical with the northern Babylonian city

known to us AKKERMAN (in old Slav. Byelgorod, "white town"), a town,
as Agade (not Agane, as formerly read), which was the principal formerly a fortress, of south-west Russia, in the government of
seat of the early Babylonian king Sargon I. (Sargani-Sarali), Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of the estuary (liman) of
whose date given by Nabonidus, the last Semitic king of
is the Dniester, 1 2 m. from the Black Sea. The town stands on the
Babylonia (555-537 B.C.), as 3800 B.C., which is perhaps too site of the ancient Milesian colony of Tyras. Centuries later it
old by 700 or 1000 years.
1
The probably non-Semitic name was rebuilt by the Genoese, who called it Mauro Castro. The
Agade occurs in a number of inscriptions 2 and is now well Turks first acquired possession of it in 1484. It was taken by the
attested as having been the name of an important ancient Russians in 1770, 1774 and 1806, but each time returned to the
capital. The later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form Akkadu ("of Turks, and not definitely annexed to Russia until 1881. A treaty
or belonging to Akkad ") is, in all likelihood, a Semitic loan form concluded here in 1826 between Russia and the Porte secured
from the non-Semitic name Agade, and seems to be an additional considerable advantages to the former. It was the non-observ-
demonstration of the identity of Agade and Akkad. The usual ance of this treaty that led to the war of 1828. The harbour is too
signs denoting Akkadu in the Semitic narrative inscriptions
were shallow to admit vessels of large size, but the of the
" proximity
read in the non-Semitic idiom uri-ki or ur-ki, land of the city," town to Odessa secures for it a thriving business in wine, salt, fish,
which simply meant that Akkadu was the land of the city par wool and tallow. The salt is obtained from the saline lakes
excellence, i.e. of the city of Agade of Sargon I., which
remained (limans) in the neighbourhood. The town, with its suburbs,
3
for a long period the leading city of Babylonia. contains beautiful gardens and vineyards. It is surrounded by
It is quite probable that the non-Semitic name Agade may ramparts, and commanded by a citadel. Pop. (1900) 32,470.
mean "crown (ago) of fire (de)"* in allusion to litar, "the AKHOLINSK, one of the governments belonging to the
brilliantgoddess," the tutelar deity of the morning and evening governor-generalship of the Steppes in Asiatic Russia, formerly
star and the goddess of war and love, whose cult was observed in known as the Kirghiz Steppe; bounded by the government of
very early times in Agade. This fact is again attested by Turgai on the W., by that of Tobolsk on the N., of Semi-pala-
Nabonidus, whose record mentions that the Istar worship of
5
tinsk on the E., and of Syr-darya on the S. Area 229,544 sq. m.,
Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, another of which 4535 are lakes. In the north the government is low
personification of the Istar idea, whose shrine was at Sippar. It and dotted with salt lakes, and is sandy on the banks of the
is significant in this connexion that there were two cities named in the north-east. An undulating plateau stretches
Irtysh
Sippar, one under the protection of Shamash, the sun-gcd, and through the middle, watered by the Ishim and its tributary the
ie under this Anunit, a fact which points strongly to theprobable Nura. The plains gradually rise southwards, where a broad
Sroximity of Sippar and Agade. In fact, it has been thought that spur of the Tarbagatai mountains stretches north-westwards,
Agade-Akkad was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of containing gold, copper and coal. Many lakes, of which the
ie Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of
largest is Teniz, are scattered along the northern slope of these
ippar. hills. Farther south, towards Lake Balkash, on the south-
In the Assyro-Babylonian literature the name Akkadu appears eastern frontier, is a wide waterless desert, Bek-pak-dala, or
part of the royal title in connexion with Sumer; viz. non- Famine Steppe. This section of the government is drained by
mitic: lugal Kengi (kt) Uru (ki)
= sar mat Sumeri u Akkadi, the Sary-su and Chu, the latter on the southern boundary-
king of Sumer and Akkad," which appears to have meant line. The climate is continental and dry, the average tempera-
"
simply king of Babylonia." It is not likely, as many scholars tures at the town of Akmolinsk being for the year 35, January
have thought, that Akkad was ever used geographically as a i -5, July 70; rainfall, only 9 in. The population, which was
distinctive appellation for northern Babylonia, or that the name 686,863 in 1897 (324,587 women), consists chiefly of Russians
Sumer (q.v.) denoted the southern part of the land, because kings in the northern and middle portions, and of Kirghiz (about
10 ruled only over Southern Babylonia used the double title
350,000), who breed cattle, horses and sheep. The urban
king of Sumer and Akkad," which was also employed by population was only 74,069. Agriculture is successfully carried
irthern rulers who never established their sway farther south on in the north, the Siberian railway running between Petro-
.n Nippur, notably the great Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-
pavlovsk and Omsk through a very fertile, well-populated
ileser III. (745-727 B.C.). Professor McCurdy has very reason- region. Steamers ply on the Irtysh. The government is divided
ably suggested
6
that the title "king of Sumer and Akkad" into five districts, the chief towns of which are: Omsk (pop.
indicated merely a claim to the ancient territory and city of 53,050 in 1900), formerly capital of West Siberia, now capital
Akkad together with certain additional territory, but not neces- of thisgovernment and also of the governor-generalship of the
sarily all Babylonia, as was formerly believed. Steppes; Akmolinsk, or Akmolly (9560 in 1897), on the Ishim,
A discussion of the interesting question relating to the non- 260 m. S.S.W. of Omsk, and chief centre for the caravans coming
imitic so-called Sumero-Akkadian language and race will be from Tashkent and Bokhara; Atbasar (3030); Kokchetav
.nd in the article SUMER. (5000); and Petropavlovsk (21,769 in 1901).
1

1
Prince, Nabonidus, p. v. AKOLA, a town and district of India, in Berar, otherwise
In the Sargon inscriptions; Bab. Exped. of the Univ. of Penn. known as the Hyderabad Assigned Districts. The town is on
pi. i, nr. i, line 6; pi. 2, nr. 2, line 5; pi. 3, nr. 3, fine 3b;
also xi. pi. 49, nr. 119 and in Nebuchadnezzar, col. ii. line 50 the Murna tributary of the Purna river, 930 ft. above the sea,
(Hilprecht, Freibrief Neb.); Cun. Texts from Bab. Tablets, pi. i,
Akola proper being on the west bank, and Tajnapetb, containing
nr. 91146, line 3. the government buildings and European residences, on the east
Rogers, "History of Babylonia and Assyria, i. pp. 365, 373-374.
1

bank. It is a station on the Nagpur branch of the Great Indian

Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, pp. 23, 73, Journal
1

Prince,
Biblical Literature, 1906.
Peninsula railway and is 383 m. E.N.E. of Bombay. It had a
I. Rawl.
69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28. population (1901) of 29,289. It is walled, and has a citadel
'
History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. I IO. built in the early years of the i9th century. Akola is one of
 AKRON ALA
the chief centres of the cotton trade in Berar, and has numerous Ephesus to the east, and to its townsmen the Smyrniotes wrote
ginning factories and cotton presses. Among the educational the letter that describes the martyrdom of Polycarp. Cicero,
establishments are a government high school, and an industrial on his way to Cilicia, dated some of his extant correspondence
school supported by a Protestant mission. there; and the place played a considerable part in the frontier
The DISTRICT OF AKOLA as reconstituted in 1905 has an area wars between the Byzantine emperors and the sultanate of
of 4111 sq. m., the population of this area in 1901 being 754,804. Rum. It became an important Seljuk town, and late in the I4th
(Before the alteration of the boundaries the area of the district century passed into Ottoman hands. There Bayezid Yilderim
was 2678 sq. m., and the population 582,540.) The surface of is said by Ali of Yezd to have died after his defeat at Angora.

the country is generally flat, the greater part being situated in The place still enjoys much repute among Turks, as the burial-
the central valley of Berar. On the north it is bounded by the place of Nur-ed-din Khoja. The town has a station on the
Melghat hills. By the addition of Basim and Mangrul taluks in Anatolian railway, about 60 m. from Afium-Kara-Hissar and
1905, the district includes the eastern part of the Ajanta hills, 100 m. from Konia.
with peaks rising to 2000 ft., and the tableland of Basim (?..). AKSU (White Water), a town of the Chinese empire, Eastern
North of the Ajanta hills the country is drained eastward by Turkestan, in 41 7' N. and 79 7' E. of Uch-Turfan and 270 m.
the Puma affluent of the Tapti and its tributaries. None of N.E. of Yarkand, near the left bank of the Aksu river, which
the rivers is navigable. The climate resembles that of Berar takes its origin in the T'ien-shan (Tian-shan) mountains and
generally, but the heat during April to mid-June, when the rains joins the Tarim. It belongs to the series of oases (Uch-Turfan,
begin, is very great, the average temperature at the town of Bai, Koucha, &c.) situated at the southern foot of the eastern
Akola in May for the twenty-five years ending 1901 being 94-4 F. T'ien-shan mountains. The town, which is supposed to have
But even during the hot season the nights are cool. The annual about 6000 houses, is enclosed by a wall. It is an important
rainfall averages 34 in. In the Purna valley the soil is every- centre for caravan routes and has a considerable trade. There
'

where a rich black loam, and nearly the whole of the land is are some cotton manufactures; and the place is celebrated for
cultivated. Very little land is under irrigation. The principal its richly ornamented saddlery made from deerskin. A Chinese
crop is cotton, and the staple grain millet. Wheat and pulses garrison is stationed here, and copper and iron are wrought in
are also grown. The history of Akola is not distinguished from the neighbourhood by exiled Chinese criminals. Extensive
that of the other portions of Berar. In 1317-1318 it was added cattle-breeding is carried on by the inhabitants.
to the Delhi empire, became independent under the Bahmani AKYAB, a city and district in the Arakan division of Burma.
dynasty in 1348, and in 1596 again fell under the sway of the The city is situated at the confluence of the three large rivers
Moguls. In 1724 it came, with the rest of Berar, under the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu, and is the most flourishing city
dominion of the nizam, being assigned to the British in 1853. in the Arakan division. Originally it was a mere fishing village,
AKRON, a city and the county-seat of Summit county, Ohio, but when the British government in 1826 removed the restric-
U.S.A., on the Little Cuyahoga river, about 35 m. S. by E. of tions on trade imposed by the Burmese, Akyab quickly grew
Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 27,601; (1900) 42,728, of whom 7127 into an important seat of maritime commerce. After the cession
were foreign-born (3227 being German, 1104 English, and of Arakan by the treaty of Yandaboo in that year the old capital
641 Irish) (1910) 69,067. It is served by the Baltimore
;
of Myohaung was abandoned as the seat of government, and
& Ohio, the Erie, the Northern Ohio, and the Cleveland, Akyab on the sea-coast selected instead. During the first forty
Akron & Columbus railways, by inter-urban electric lines and years of British rule it increased from a village to a town of
by the Ohio Canal. The city is situated in a region abound- 15,536 inhabitants, and now it is the third port of Burma, with
ing in lakes, springs and hills; it is about 1000 ft. above sea-level, a population in 1901 of 31,687. It contains the usual public
whence its name (from Gr. &Kpov, height); and attracts many buildings and several large rice mills. The chief exports are
summer visitors. It is the seat of Buchtel College (co-educa- rice and oil.

tional; non-sectarian), which was founded by the Ohio Univer- The district lies along the north-eastern shores of the Bay of
salistConvention in 1870, was opened in 1872, and was named Bengal, with an area of 5136 sq. m. and a population in
in honour of its most liberal benefactor, John R. Buchtel (1822- 1901 of 481,666. It forms the northernmost district of Lower
1892), a successful business man who did much to promote the Burma, and consists of the level tract lying between the sea
industrial development of Akron. Buchtel College provides and the Arakan Yoma mountains, and of the broken country
three courses leading to the degrees of A.B., Ph.B. and S.B.; formed by a portion of their western spurs and valleys. The
it has a school of music, a school of art and an academy; in forests form a most important feature of Akyab district and
1908 there were 267 students. Coal is mined in the neigh- contain a valuable supply of timber of many kinds. The central
bourhood. The river furnishes considerable water-power; and part of the district consists of three fertile valleys, watered by
among the city's most important manufactures are rubber and the Myu, Koladaing and Lemyu. These rivers approach each
elastic goods (value, 1905, $13,396,974; 83-9 %
of the total of other at their mouths, and form a vast network of tidal channels,
this industry in the state and 21-3% of the total for the United creeks and islands. Their alluvial valleys yield inexhaustible
States, Akron ranking first among the cities of the country in supplies of rice, which the abundant water carriage brings down
this industry), printing and publishing product (value, 1905, to the port of Akyab at a very cheap rate. The four chief towns
$2,834,639), foundry and machine-shop product (value, 1905, are Khumgchu in the extreme north-east of the district; Kola-
$2,367,764), and pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay (value, 1905, daing in the centre; Arakan, farther down the rivers; and
$1,718,033; nearly twice the value of the output in 1900, Akyab on the coast, where their mouths converge. This dis-
Akron ranking fourth among the cities of the United States in trict passed into the hands of the British, together with the
this industry in 1905). Other important manufactures are food rest of Arakan division, at the dose of the first Burmese war
preparations (especially of oats) and flour and grist mill products. of 1825-1826.
The value of the total manufactured products (under the Akyab was the metropolitan province of the native kingdom
" " In
factory system) in 1905 was $34,004,243, an increase in five of Arakan, and the history of that country centres in it.
years of 54- 5 %. Akron was settled about 1825, was incorporated 1871 the frontier or hill tracts of the district were placed under
as a village in 1836, was made the county-seat in 1842, and in a special administration, with a view to the better government
1865 was chartered as a city. of the wild tribes which inhabit them. (J. G. Sc.)
See S. A. Lane, Fifty Years and over of Akron and Summit County ALA (from Lat. ala, a wing), a word used technically by
"
(Akron, 1892). analogy with its meaning of wing." In physiology, it means
AK-SHEHR (anc. Philomelion), a town in Asia Minor, in the any wing-like process, such as one of the lateral cartilages of the
Konia vilayet, situated at the edge of a fertile plain, on the north nose. In botany, one of the side petals of a papilionaceous
side of the Sultan Dagh. Philomelion was probably a Perga- corolla, &c. In architecture, a side apartment or recess of a
menian foundation on the great Graeco-Roman highway from Roman house (the origin of " aisle ").
 ALABAMA 459
ALABAMA, a southern state of the American Union, situated Climate and Soil. The climate of Alabama is temperate and
between 84 51' and 88 31' W. long, and about 30 13' and 35 fairly uniform. The heat of summer is tempered in the S. by
N. lat., bounded N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia, S. by Florida the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the N. by the elevation
and the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Mississippi. Its total area is above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in
51,998 sq. m., of which 719 are water surface. the S.W. along the coast, and lowest in the N.E. among the
Physical Features. The surface of Alabama in the N. and highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 F., the mean
N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and for the summer 81, and for the winter 52; and at Valley Head,
in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59, the mean for the
picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently
undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward summer 75, and for the winter 41. At Montgomery, in the
the Mississippi and the Gulf. Extending entirely across the central region, the average annual temperature is 66, with a
state of Alabama for about 20 m. S. of its N. boundary, and in winter average of 49, and a summer average of 81. The average
the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the Cumberland Plateau, winter minimum for the entire state is 35, and there is an average
or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad table-lands by of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the
the dissection of rivers. In the N. part of this plateau, W. of freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer
Jackson county, there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands has fallen below zero, as was the case in the remarkable cold
from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea. South of these highlands, wave of the I2th-i3th of February 1899, when an absolute
occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee river, minimum of 17 was registered at Valley Head. The highest
is a delightful country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in temperature ever recorded was 109 in Talladega county in
levation from 500 to 800 ft. To the N.E. of these highlands 1902. The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast
id lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep (62 in.) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state
>w coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations (about 52 in.). During each winter there is usually one fall of
ige from 400 to 1800 ft. In the remainder of this region, snow in the S. and two in the N. but the snow quickly dis-
;

S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, appears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is
ttending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and not covered with snow. Hail-storms occur in the spring and
sing precipitously on the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000 ft. summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and
ibove the sea. Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur through-
J. is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) out the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevail-
ion, which is the S. extremity of the great Appalachian ing winds are from the S. As regards its soil, Alabama may be
[ountain system, and occupies an area within the state of about divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward
sq. m. This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock for one hundred and fifty miles is the outer belt of the Coastal
"
idges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although Plain, also called the Timber Belt," whose soil is sandy and
the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the
"
T.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the Black Prairie,"
iracteristics. In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains, which includes some 13,000 sq. m. and seventeen counties. It
which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having receives its name from (weathered from the weak under-
its soil
maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than lying limestone), which black in colour, almost destitute of
is

[800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W., sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations,
fhere Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region
lese the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp
" Cotton Belt." Between the " "
is also called the Cotton Belt
sts and gently sloping S.E. sides. South-east of the Appa- and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the " Old Land "
lian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the
" "
area a region of resistant rocks whose soils, also derived
ibama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular- from weathering in situ, are of varied fertility, the best coming
iped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from
rith the N. part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region
Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation
"
artion. is the Cereal Belt," embracing the Tennessee Valley and the
about 1000 ft. above the sea. The Piedmont Plateau is a counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark
swland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils,
iplif ted to form a plateau. The remainder of the state is occupied produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.
jy the coastal plain. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal occupation in
lines in the central part of the state, where it has a mean Alabama, giving employment to 64'5%-of the population. The
levation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward farm acreage in 1900 was 20,685,427 acres (62% of the entire
ic S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated surface of the state), of which 8,654,991 acres (41-8%) were
ibove the sea. The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to improved. Under the system of slave labour which existed
W.N.W. by the Tennessee river and its tributaries; all before 1860, the average size of the plantations tended to increase,
)ther parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appa- but since 1860 the reverse has been true, the average plantation
chian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in in 1860 being 346 acres, and in 1900 92-7 acres. The average
le Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa. In the Coastal Plain value per acre of farm land was $11-86 in 1860 and $8-67 in 1900.
re the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed As to method of cultivation, 36-3 per cent of the farms were in 1900
by the Coosa
id Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chatta- managed by the owners, 33-3% by cash renters, 24-4% by share
loochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. tenants, and the remaining 6% by other methods. The chief
~'ie Tombigbee and Alabama unite near the S.W. corner of the " "
product is cotton, cultivated extensively in the Black Belt
ite, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and less extensively in the other portions of the state. Cotton
and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior is a considerable stream has always been the principal source of wealth, the amount of
which joins the Tombigbee from the E. The valleys in the N. its exports at Mobile increasing from 7000 bales in 1818 to
and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain 25,000 bales in 1821, and the total product of the state in 1840
they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces being double that of 1830. This was accompanied by an ex-
above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the tensive employment of slave labour, and from 1820 until 1860
drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and the rate of increase of the blacks was greater than that of the
Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such whites. The success of the economic system was such that in
sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. 1860 the cotton crop of Alabama was nearly 1,000,000 bales
The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the (989,955 bales), being 18-4% of the entire cotton product of the
Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. United States. The disorganization of labour resulting from the
460 ALABAMA
Civil War and the emancipation of slaves, was the cause of the states of the Union in the production of coke, its
product
a temporary decline in the cotton crop. In 1889 the crop again being more than one-tenth of that for the whole country, and
approximated to 1,000,000 bales (915,210 bales, being 12-2% of
the entire crop of the United States), and in 1899 it exceeded
more than one-twentieth (5-2 %
in 1000; 5-7 %
in 1905) of all the
factory products of the state. The demand for coke is due to the
that amount, Alabama being fourth among the states of the rapidly growing iron and steel industry. Great possibilities were
entire country. The total value of the farm products of Alabama also shown for the production of lumber and naval stores.
Ap-
in 1899 was $91,387,409; in 1889, $66,240,190; and in 1879, proximately three-fourths of the total area of the state is wood-
$56,872,994. The average yield per acre has also increased under land. In the
"
Timber Belt " the forests of long leaf pine have an
the system of free labour. In recent years there has been a estimated stand of 21,192 million ft; and in 1905 the product of
tendency to diversify crops, Indian corn, wheat and oats being sawed lumber was valued at $13,563,815. Of this, yellow pine
"
raised extensively in the Cereal Belt." In 1906, according to represented $11,320,909, oak $886,746, and poplar $627,686.
the "Year-Book of the Department of Agriculture, the following In the decade 1800-1900 the number of turpentine factories
were the acreages, yields and values of Alabama's more import- increased from 7 to 152, and their product in 1900 and in
1905
ant crops (excepting cotton): Indian corn, 2,990,387 acres, ranked Alabama third among the states in that industry. The
47,849,392 bushels, $30,623,611; wheat, 98,639 acres, 1,085,029 value of the turpentine and rosin products in 1 905 was $2,434,365.
bushels, $1,019,927; oats, 184,179 acres, 3,167,879 bushels, The manufacture of cotton goods has also developed rapidly.
$1,615,618; hay, 56,350 acres, 109,882 tons, $1,461,431. As late as 1890 there were only 13 cotton mills in Alabama, one
Minerals. The chief feature of Alabama's industrial life since more than the number in 1850; in 1900 there were 31, represent-
1880 has been the exploitation of her iron and coal resources. ing a capital of $11,638,757 and an annual product valued at
The iron ore (found chiefly in the region of which Birmingham is $8,153,136, an increase of 272-2 %
over the product ($2,190,771)
the centre) is primarily red haematite and (much less important) of 1890; in 1905 there were 46 establishments,
representing a
brown haematite; though as regards the latter Alabama ranked capital of $24,758,049 (an increase of 112-7 %
over that of 1000),
first among the states of the Union in 1905 (with
781,561 tons). and having a product (for the year) of $16,760,332, an increase
The total production of all classes of iron ores was 3,782,831 tons of 105-6 % over that for 1900. To encourage the establishment
in 1905, Alabama ranking third in the Union in this respect. of cotton mills the legislature of 1896-1897 exempted from taxa-
The production of bituminous coal has also increased very tion during the succeeding ten years all capital that should be
rapidly. Coal was discovered in the state in 1834, and in
first invested in the manufacture of cotton, provided that $50,000 or
1840 the total production was 946 tons; in 1870 it was 13,200 more be invested in buildings and machinery. Other industries
short tons. The real development of the mines began in 1881 of less importance are flour, fertilizers and tanned leather.
and 1882, and the product increased from 420,000 tons in 1881 Communications. The navigable mileage of the Alabama
to 1,568,000 in 1883. By 1800 it had increased to 4,090,409 tons, rivers is 2000 m., but obstructions often prevent the formation
"
by 1900 to 8,394,275 tons, and by 1905 to 11,866,069 tons, of a continuous route, notably the Muscle Shoals " of the Ten-
valued at $14,387,721, making Alabama sixth of the coal- nessee, extending from a point 10 m. below Decatur to Florence,
producing states. Nearly 85 %
of the coal is produced in three a distance of 38 m. To remove or circumvent these impediments,
counties (Jefferson, Walker and Bibb), though the coal-bearing and to improve the Mobile harbour, the United States govern-
formations cover about 40 %
of the northern half of the state. ment spent, between 1870 and 1004, approximately $12,000,000.
Gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and bauxite have also been As the streams in the mineral region are not navigable, the rail-
2
discovered, but the greater richness of the iron and coal deposits ways are the carriers of its products. Here all the large systems
has prevented their development. of the southern states find an entrance, the Mobile & Ohio, the
Manufactures. The growth of manufactures in Alabama has Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the Louisville & Nashville,
been as remarkable as the revelation of mineral wealth. In 1880 and the 'Frisco system affording communication with the Missis-
the capital invested in manufactures was $9,668,008, little more sippi and the west, and the Southern, Seaboard Air Line, At-
than that ($9,098,181) in 1860; by 1890 it had increased to lantic Coast Line, and the Central of Georgia forming connexions
$46, 1 22, 571, or 377- 1 %;andin 1900 it amounted to $70,3 70,081, with northern and Atlantic states. Mobile, the only seaport of
or 52-6 % more than in iSoo. 1 On account of the proximity of the state, has a channel 30 ft. deep, on which the national govern-
coal, iron and limestone, the manufactures of iron and steel are ment spends large sums of money; yet an increasing amount
the most extensive. In 1895 it was demonstrated that Alabama of Alabama cotton is sent to New Orleans for shipment, and
pig-iron could be sent to Liverpool and sold cheaper than the Pensacola, Florida, receives much of the lumber.
English product, and Birmingham (Alabama) came consequently Population. In 1880 the inhabitants of Alabama numbered
to rank next to Middlesborough and Glasgow among the world 1,262,505; in 1890, 1,513,017, an increase of 17%; in 1900,
centres of the pig-iron trade. The pig-iron produced in the state 1,828,697, a further increase of 20 %. This population is notable
in 1860 was valued at $64,590, in 1870 at $210,258, in 1880 at for its large proportion of negroes (45 -23%), its insignificant
S^oS.SSti, in 1900 at $13,487,769, and in 1905 at $16,614,577. foreign element (-08%), and the small percentage of urban in-
In the production of foundry pig-iron Alabama held first rank habitants (10 %). As regards church membership, the Baptists
both in 1900 and in 1905. The manufacture of steel, though in are much the most numerous, followed by the Methodists, the
its infancy, gave promise of equalling that of iron, and the coke Roman Catholics and the Presbyterians. In 1900 there were
industry is also of growing importance, the product of Alabama 201 incorporated cities, towns and villages in the state, but of
during the five years from 1 896 to 1 901 showing a greater increase, these only nine had a population in excess of 5000, and only three a
relatively, than that of the other states. In 1900 the state ranked population in excess of 25,000. These three were Mobile (38,469),
sixth and in 1905 fifth among the states of the United States in Birmingham (38,415), and Montgomery (30,346), the capital of
the manufactures of iron and steel. In 1005 the value of the the state. Other important cities, with their populations, were
product was 2-7 % of the value of the total iron and steel product Selma (8713), Anniston (9695), Huntsville (8068), Bessemer
of the country, and 22-6 %
of the value of all the state's factory (6358), Tuscaloosa (5094), Talladega (5056), Eufaula (4S3 2 ) and
products. In 1000 and in 1905 Alabama ranked second among Tuskegee (2170). In 1910 the population was 2,138,093.
Government. Alabama has been governed under five con-
1
The special census of manufactures taken in 1905 was confined
to manufacturing establishments conducted under the so-called stitutions, the original constitution of 1819, the revision of 1865,
"
factory system." According to this census the capital invested the constitutions of 1868 and 1875, and the present ,constitution,
was $105,382,859, and the value of products was $109,169,922. which was framed in 1001. The last has a number of notable
The corresponding figures for 1900, if the same standard be taken
provisions. It lengthened the term of service of executive and
for
purposes of comparison, would be $60,165,904 and $72,109,929.
During the five years, therefore, the capital invested in establish- legislative officials from two to four years, made that of the
ments under the factory system increased 75-2 %, and the value of 1
The railway mileage of the state on the 3 1st of December 1906
products 51-4 %. was 4805-58 m.
 ALABAMA

Emery Walker sc

GULF OF MEXICO
 ALABAMA 461
judiciary six years, provided for quadrennial sessions of the under 16 may do more than 48 hours a week of night work. No
legislature, and introduced the office of lieutenant-governor. child of less than 12 isallowed to work more than 66 hours in
The passage of local or special bills by the legislature was pro- any one week. An able-bodied parent who does not work when
hibited. Aprovision intended to prevent lobbying is that no he has the opportunity, unless " idle under strike orders, or
one except legislators and the representatives of the press may lock-outs," and who hires out his minor children, is declared a
be admitted to the floor of the House except by unanimous vagrant and may be fined $500 and imprisoned or sentenced
vote. No executive official can succeed himself in office, and to hard labour for not more than six months.
the governor cannot be elected or appointed to the United States All amendments to the constitution must be approved by a
Senate, or to any state office during his term as governor, or three-fifths vote of each house of the legislature and then ratified
within one year thereafter. Sheriffs whose prisoners suffer mob by the people. The legislature of 1900-1901 established a
violence may be impeached. The constitution eliminated the department of archives and history whose aim is to preserve
negro from politics by a suffrage clause which went into effect documents and historical records.
in 1903. This limits the right to vote to those who can read and Education. Public education for Mobile was authorized by
write any article of the constitution of the United States, and the legislature of 1826, but it was not provided until 1852. Two
have worked or been regularly engaged in some lawful employ- years later (1854) a school system for the entire state was in-
ment, business or occupation, trade or calling for the greater augurated. Its support was derived from public land given by
part of the twelve months next preceding the time they offer to the United States to the state of Alabama for educational pur-
register, unless prevented from labour or ability to read and poses in 1819, and special taxes or tuition fixed by each township.
write by physical disability, or who own property assessed at The Civil War demoralized the nascent system. An important
$300 upon which the taxes have been paid; but those who have step in its revival seemed to be made in the constitution of 1868,
served in the army or navy of the United States or of the Con- which forbade any private recompense for instruction in the
federate States in time of war, their lawful descendants in every public schools and appropriated one-fifth of the state's revenue
" to common schools.
degree, and persons of good character who understand the But the attempt to teach whites and blacks
duties and obligations of citizenship under a republican form in the same schools, and the corruption in the administration of
of government," are relieved from the operation of this law funds, made the results unsatisfactory. The constitution of
provided they registered prior to the 2oth of December 1902. 1875 abolished the one-fifth revenue provision, made the support
The second of these exceptions is known as the " Grandfather of the schools, except that derived from the laud grant of 1819,
Clause." No man may vote in any election who has not by the and poll taxes, depend upon the appropriation of the legislature,
ist of February next preceding that election paid all poll taxes and established separate schools for whites and blacks. Progress
due from him to the state. In 1902 nine-tenths of the negroes has been slow but steady. According to the constitution of
in the state were disqualified from voting. 1 The constitution of 1901 the legislature is required to levy, in addition to the poll
1901 (like that of 1867) and special statutes require separate tax, an annual tax for education at the rate of 30 to 65 cents
schools for white and negro children. A " Jim Crow
"
law was on the hundred dollars' worth of property, and practically
enacted in 1891. Buying, selling or offering to buy or sell a vote every county in the state had made in 1906 an appropriation
has for penalty disfranchisement, and since 1891 the Australian for its schools of a one mill tax on $100. The school fund in 1900
ballot system has been used. The governor, auditor and amounted to $1,000,000, an increase of 37 % over the average
attorney-general are required to prepare and present to each annual fund of the preceding decade; for the year ending the
legislature a general revenue bill, and the secretary of state, with 3oth of September 1907 the amount certified for apportionment
the last two officers, constitute a board of pardons who make by the state was $1,150,261-40, and the total annual expendi-
recommendations to the governor, who, however, is not bound ture was about $1,600,000; in 1906 the school census snowed
to follow their advice in the exercise of his pardoning power. 697,465 children of school age. The legislature of 1907 voted
State officials are forbidden to accept railway passes from rail- an increase of $300,000 in the appropriation for the common
way companies, and individuals are forbidden to receive freight school fund, and granted state-aid for rural school-houses; but
rebates. The constitution of 1901 exempted a homestead of its most important work probably was the establishment of
80 acres of farm land, or of a house and lot not exceeding $2000 county high schools. The rural schools have an annual term
in value, from liability for any debt contracted since the 3oth of of five to seven months only. The percentage of illiterates
July 1868 except for a mortage on it to which the wife con- declined from 50-97 % in 1880 to 41 % in 1890, and 34 % in 1900,
sented; personal property to the value of $1000 is exempted. when Alabama ranked third among the states in illiteracy.
Under the civil code of 1897 the earnings of a wife are her There are also a number of institutions for higher education
"
separate property, and it is provided that no woman, nor any in Alabama. The^mcst important of these are the university
boy under age of twelve years, shall be employed to work or of Alabama (co-educational opened in 1831), at Tuscaloosa,
labour in or about any mine in this state." By acts of 1903 the institution being part of the public school system main-
child labour under 12 years is forbidden in any factory unless tained by the state; the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at
" "
for support of a widowed mother or aged or disabled father," Auburn, a state college for the benefit of agriculture and the
or unless the child is an indigent orphan; " no child under the age mechanic arts," organized in 1872 according to the United
of ten years shall be so employed under any circumstances." States land grant act for the promotion of industrial education;
Certificates of children's ages are necessary before a child is the Southern University (incorporated 1856 Methodist Epis-
employed; false certification is forbidden under penalty of a copal, South), at Greensboro; Howard College (Baptist), at
fine of from $5 to $100 or hard labour not
exceeding three East Lake (Birmingham); Spring Hill College (1830 Roman
months. No child under 13 may do night work at all. No child Catholic), near Mobile; Talladega College (for negroes), at
1
In Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 474, a negro asked that the defendant Talladega; the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
board of registry be required to enrol his name and the names of (for negroes), at Tuskegee; and state normal schools at Florence,
other negroes on the registration lists, and that certain sections of Jacksonville, Troy and Livingston, and, for negroes, at Mont-
the constitution of Alabama be declared void as being
contrary to
the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the federal constitution.
gomery, Tuskegee and Normal.
The Supreme Court dismissed the bill on the grounds that equity Public Institutions. Alabama supports various philanthropic
has no jurisdiction over political matters; that, and penal institutions: a home for Confederate veterans, at
assuming the
fraudulent character of the objectionable constitutional provisions, Mountain Creek; an institution for the deaf, an academy for the
the court was in effect asked to assist in
administering a fraud; blind, and a school for the negro deaf, dumb and blind, all at
* and that relief " must be given by them [the people of the state] or
by the and Talladega; a hospital for the insane, opened in i86c, at Tusca-
legislative political departments of the government of
the United States." The case attracted much attention; and it is loosa; a penitentiary, established in 1839, at Wetumpka; and
often erroneously said that the court upheld the a state industrial school for white boys, at East Lake (Birming-
disfranchising
clauses of the Alabama constitution.
ham) and a state industrial school for white girls at Montevallo.
,
462 ALABAMA
These institutions are managed by trustees who are appointed the territory of modern Alabama was included in the province
by the governor. In addition to the usual method of employing of Carolina, granted by Charles II. to certain of his favourites
convicts in the penitentiary or on state farms, Alabama, like by the charters of 1663 and 1665. English traders of Carolina
other southern states, also hires its convicts to labour for private were frequenting the valley of the Alabama river as early as
individuals. Reports of abuses under this system caused the 1687. Disregarding these claims, however, the French in 1703
legislature in 1001 to order a special investigation, the results of settled on the Mobile river and there erected Fort Louis, which
which led in 1903 to a new system of leasing to contractors, for the next nine years was the seat of government of Louisiana.
whereby the prisoners are kept under the direct supervision of In 1711 Fort Louis was abandoned to the floods of the river,
state officials. In this same year a system of peonage that had and on higher ground was built Fort Conde, the germ of the
grown up in the state attracted wide attention, and a Federal present city of Mobile, and the first permanent white settlement
grand jury at a single term of court indicted a number of men in Alabama. Later, on account of the intrigues of the English
"
for holding persons as peons." Many similar cases were found traders with the Indians, the French as a means of defence
later in other southern states, but those in Alabama being the established the military posts of Fort Toulouse, near the junction
first discovered attracted the most attention. The system came of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and Fort Tombecbe on the
into existence in isolated communities through the connivance Tombigbee river. The grant of Georgia to Oglethorpe and his
of justices of the peace with white farmers. The justices have associates in 1732 included a portion of what is now northern
jurisdiction over petty offences, of which negroes are usually Alabama, and in 1739 Oglethorpe himself visited the Creek
the guilty parties, and the fines imposed would sometimes be Indians west of the Chattahoochee river and made a treaty with
paid by a white farmer, who would thus save the accused from them. The peace of Paris, in 1763, terminated the French
imprisonment, but at the same time would require him to sign occupation, and England came into undisputed possession of
a contract to repay by his labour the sum advanced. By various the region between the Chattahoochee and the Mississippi. The
devices the labourer would then be kept constantly in debt to portion of Alabama below the 3 ist parallel then became a part
his employer and be held in involuntary servitude for an in- of West Florida, and the portion north of this line a part of the
definite time. The " peons " as a rule were negroes, but a few "
Illinois country," set apart, by royal proclamation, for the
white ones were found; and in several instances negroes were use of the Indians. In 1767 the province of West Florida was
found holding members of their own race in peonage. A law extended northward to 32 28' N. lat, and a few years later,
forbidding under severe penalties a labourer from hiring 'himself during the War for Independence, this region fell into the hands
to a second employer without giving notice of a prior contract, of Spain. By the treaty of Versailles, on the 3rd of September
and an employer from hiring a labourer known by him to be 1783, England ceded West Florida to Spain; but by the treaty of
bound by such a contract, had aided in the development of the Paris, signed the same day, she ceded to the United States all
system, though it had been enacted for a different purpose. of this province north of 31, and thus laid the foundation for a
The Federal authorities, as soon as the existence of peonage long controversy. By the treaty of Madrid, in 1 793, Spain ceded
became known, took active measures to stamp it out, and were to the United States her claims to the lands east of the Mississippi
supported by the press and by the leading citizens of the state. between 31 and 32 28' ; and three years later (1798) this dis-
Up to 1907 the state licensed the sale of liquor, and liquor licence trict was organized by Congress as the Mississippi Territory. A
fees were partly turned over to the public school fund; there was strip of land 12 or 14 m. wide near the present northern bound-
a dispensary system in some counties; and in 1907 one-third ary of Alabama and Mississippi was claimed by South Carolina;
of the counties of the state (22 out of 67) were
"
dry." Besides, but in 1787 that state ceded this claim to the general government.
saloons had been forbidden within 5 m. of certain churches and Georgia likewise claimed all the lands between the 3 ist and 35th
school-houses, so that liquor was sold scarcely at all except in parallels from its present western boundary to the Mississippi
incorporated towns, where in many cases local dispensaries were river, and did not surrender its claim until 1802; two years
established. In the 1907 state legislature a county local option later the boundaries of the Mississippi Territory were extended
bill was passed in February, and immediately afterward the so as to include all of the Georgia cession. In 1812 Congress
Sherrod anti-shipping bill was enacted forbidding the acceptance annexed to the Mississippi Territory the Mobile District of
of liquors for shipment, transportation or delivery to prohibition West Florida, claiming that it was included in the Louisiana
districts, and penalising the soliciting of orders for liquor in Purchase; and in the following year General James Wilkinson
" "
dry districts with a punishment of $500 fine and six months' occupied this district with a military force, the Spanish com-
imprisonment with hard labour. In a special session of the mandant offering no resistance. The whole area of the present
legislature in November 1907 a law was passed forbidding the state of Alabama then for the first time became subject to the
sale of liquor within the state, this prohibition to come into effect jurisdiction of the United States. In 1817 the Mississippi
on the ist of January 1909. Territory was divided; the western portion became the state of
Finance. One-half of the income of the state is derived from Mississippi, and the eastern the territory of Alabama, with St
general taxes, the other sources of revenue being licences, a special Stephens, on the Tombigbee river, as the temporary seat of
school tax, poll tax and the lease of the convicts. The state government. In 1819 Alabama was regularly admitted to the
debt, for which legislative corruption in the years 1868-1872 Union as a state.
was largely responsible, amountejd on the ist of October 1906 One of the first problems of the new commonwealth was that
to $9,057,000. Measures for its refunding, but not for its extinc- of finance. Since the amount of money in circulation was not
tion, have been taken. The constitution of 1901 prohibits the sufficient to meet the demands of the increasing population,
increase of the debt for any other purposes than the suppression a system of state banks was instituted. State bonds were issued
of insurrection or resistance to invasion, and the assumption of and public lands were sold to secure capital, and the notes of
corporate debts by cities and towns is also restricted. All banks, the banks, loaned on security, became a medium of exchange.
except national banks, are subject to examination by a public Prospects of an income from the banks led the legislature of 1836
official, and their charters expire within twenty years of their to abolish all taxation for state purposes. This was hardly done,
issue. however, before the panic of 1837 wiped out a large portion of
History. The first Europeans to enter the limits of the present the banks' assets; next came revelations of grossly careless
state of Alabama were Spaniards, who claimed this region as a and even of corrupt management, and in 1843 the banks were
part of Florida. It is possible that a member of Panfilo de placed in liquidation. After disposing of all their available
Narvaez's expedition of 1528 entered what is now southern assets, the state assumed the remaining liabilities, for which
Alabama, but the first fully authenticated visit was that of it had pledged its faith and credit, and these form a part
Hernando de Soto, who made an arduous but fruitless journey ($3,445,000) of its present indebtedness.
along the Coosa, Alabama and Tombigbee rivers in 1539. The The Indian problem was important. With the encroachment
English, too, claimed the region north of the Gulf of Mexico, and of the white settlers upon their hunting-grounds the Creek
 ALABAMA 4-63
Indians began to grow restless, and the great Shawnee chief 1861. After long debate this convention adopted on the nth of
Tecumseh, who visited them in 1811, fomented their discontent. January an ordinance of secession, and Alabama became one
When the outbreak of the second war with Great Britain in 1812 of the Confederate states of America, whose government was
gave the Creeks assurance of British aid they rose in arms, organized at Montgomery on the 4th of February 1861. Yet
massacred several hundred settlers who had taken refuge in secession was opposed by many prominent men, and in North
Fort Mims, near the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee Alabama an attempt was made to organize a neutral state to be
called Nickajack; but with President Lincoln's call to arms
rivers, and in a short time no white family in the Creek country
was safe outside a palisade. The Chickasaw and Choctaw all opposition to secession ended.

Indians, however, remained the faithful allies of the whites, and

In the early part of the Civil War Alabama was not the scene
volunteers from Georgia, South Carolina and Tennessee, and of military operations, yet the state contributed about 120,000
later United States troops, marched to the rescue of the men to the Confederate service, practically all her white popula-
threatened settlements. In the campaign that followed the tion capable of bearing arms, and thirty-nine of these attained
most distinguished services were rendered by General Andrew the rank of general. In 1863 the Federal forces secured a foothold
of in northern Alabama in spite of the opposition of General Nathan
Jackson, whose vigorous measures broke for ever the power
the Creek Confederacy. By the treaty of Fort Jackson (pth B. Forrest, one of the ablest Confederate cavalry leaders. In
of August 1814) the Creeks ceded their claims to about one-half 1864 the defences of Mobile were taken by a Federal fleet, but
of the present state; and cessions by the Cherokees, Chickasaws the city held out until April 1865; in the same month Selma
and Choctaws in 1816 left only about one-fourth of Alabama also fell.

tc the Indians. In 1832 the national government provided for According to the presidential plan of reorganization, a provi-
the removal of the Creeks but before the terms of the contract
;
sional governor for Alabama was appointed in June 1865; a
were effected, the state legislature formed the Indian lands into state convention met in September of the same year, and declared
sunties, and settlers flocked in. This caused a disagreement the ordinance of secession null and void and slavery abolished;
between Alabama and the United States authorities; although a legislature and a governor were elected in November, the
it was amicably settled, it engendered a feeling that the policy legislature was at once recognized by the National government,
)f the national government might not be in harmony with the and the inauguration of the governor-elect was permitted after
interests of the state a feeling which, intensified by the slavery the legislature had, in December, ratified the thirteenth amend-
agitation, did much to cause secession in 1861. ment. But the passage, by the legislature, of vagrancy and
The political history of Alabama may be divided into three apprenticeship laws designed to control the negroes who were
periods, that prior to 1860, the years from 1860 to 1876, and the flocking from the plantations to the cities, and its rejection of
;riod from 1876 onwards. the fourteenth amendment, so intensified the congressional
The first of these is the only period of altogether healthy hostility to the presidential plan that the Alabama senators and
political life. Until 1832 there was only one party in the state, representatives were denied their seats in Congress. In 1867
the Democratic, but the question of nullification caused a division the congressional plan of reconstruction was completed and
that year into the (Jackson) Democratic party and the State's Alabama was placed under military government. The negroes
Rights (Calhoun Democratic) party; about the same time, were now enrolled as voters and large numbers of white citizens
>, there arose, chiefly
in those counties where the proportion were disfranchised. 1 A Black Man's Party, composed of negroes,
>f slaves to freemen was greater and the freemen were most and political adventurers known as "carpet-baggers," was formed,
iristocratic, the Whig party. For some time the Whigs were which co-operated with the Republican party. A constitutional
nearly as numerous as the Democrats, but they never secured convention, controlled by this element, met in November 1867,
mtrol of the state government. The State's Rights men were and framed a constitution which conferred suffrage on negroes
a minority; nevertheless under their active and persistent and disfranchised a large class of whites. The Reconstruction
ider, William L. Yancey (1814-1863), they prevailed upon the Acts of Congress required every new constitution to be ratified
Democrats in 1848 to adopt their most radical views. During by a majority of the legal voters of the state. The whites of
the agitation over the introduction of slavery into the territory Alabama therefore stayed away from the polls, and, after five
acquired from Mexico, Yancey induced the Democratic State days of voting, the constitution wanted 13,550 to secure a
Convention of 1848 to adopt what is known as the " Alabama majority. Congress then enacted that a majority of the
Platform," which declared in substance that neither Congress votes cast should be sufficient, and thus the constitution went
nor the government of a territory had the right to interfere with into effect, the state was admitted to the Union hi June 1868,
slavery in a territory, that those who held opposite views were and a new governor and legislature were elected.
not Democrats, and that the Democrats of Alabama would not The next two years are notable for legislative extravagance
support a candidate for the presidency if he did not agree and corruption. The state endorsed railway bonds at the rate
with them on these questions. This platform was endorsed of $12,000 and$i6,ooo a mile until the state debt had increased
by conventions in Florida and Virginia and by the legislatures from eight millions to seventeen millions of dollars, and similar
of Georgia and Alabama. Old party lines were broken by the corruption characterized local government. The native white
Compromise of 1850. The State's Rights party, joined by many people united, formed a Conservative party and elected a
Democrats, founded the Southern Rights party, which demanded governor and a majority of the lower house of the legislature
the repeal of the Compromise, advocated resistance to future in 1870; but, as the new administration was largely a failure,
encroachments and prepared for secession, while the Whigs, in 1872 there was a reaction in favour of the Radicals, a local
joined by the remaining Democrats, formed the party known term applied to the Republican party, and affairs went from
"
as the Unionists," which unwillingly accepted the Compromise bad to worse. In 1874, however, the power of the Radicals
and denied the " constitutional " right of secession. The was finally broken, the Conservative Democrats electing all
" "
Unionists were successful in the elections of 1851 and 1852, state officials. A
commission appointed to examine the state
but the feeling of uncertainty engendered in the south by the debt found be $25,503,000; by compromise it was reduced
it to
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the course of the slavery to $15, 000,000. A new constitution was adopted in 1875, which
agitation after 1852 led the State Democratic convention of 1856 omitted the guaranty of the previous constitution that no one
to revive the
"
Alabama Platform "; and when the " Alabama should be denied suffrage on account of race, colour or previous
"
Platform failed to secure the formal approval of the Democratic condition of servitude, and forbade the state to engage in internal
National convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, improvements or to give its credit to any private enterprise.
Alabama delegates, followed by those of the other cotton Since 1874 the Democratic party has had constant control
'

states," withdrew. Upon the election of Abraham Lincoln, of the state administration, the Republicans failing to make
jovernor Andrew B. Moore, according to previous instructions nominations for office in 1878 and 1880 and endorsing the ticket
>f the
legislature, called a state convention on the 7th of January The enrolment was
1
104,518 blacks and 61,295 whites.

Ihe
 "ALABAMA" ARBITRATION
of theGreenback party in 1882. The development of mining (Birmingham, 1888) ; Albert J. Pickett's History of Alabama
and manufacturing was accompanied by economic distress
among the farming classes, which found expression in the
Jeffersonian Democratic party, organized in 1892. The regular
Democratic ticket was elected and the new party was then
merged into the Populist party. In 1894 the Republicans
united with the Populists, elected three congressional repre-
sentatives, secured control of many of the counties, but failed
to carry the state, and continued their opposition with less
success in the next campaigns. Partisanship became intense,
and charges of corruption of the ignorant negro electorate were
made. Consequently after division on the subject among the
Democrats themselves, as well as opposition of Republicans and
Populists, a new constitution with restrictions on suffrage was
adopted in 1901.
The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of
Alabama:
Governor of the Territory.
William Wyatt Bibb . . .1 1817-1819 I

Governors of the State.

William Wyatt Bibb 1819-1820
Thomas Bibb 1
Israel Pickens
John Murphy
Gabriel Moore
Samuel B. Moore
John Gayle
Clement C. Clay
Hugh M'Vay 8
Arthur P. Bagby
Benjamin Fitzpatrick'
Joshua L. Martin .

Reuben Chapman
Henry W. Collier
John A. Winston
Andrew B. Moore
John Gill Shorter
Thomas H. Watts
Lewis E. Parsons

Robert M. Patton
Wager Swayne
William H. Smith
Robert B. Lindsay
David P. Lewis
George S. Houston
Ruf us W. Cobb .

Edward A. O'Neal
Thomas Seay
Thomas G. Jones
William C. Gates .

Joseph F. Johnston
William J. Samford
William D. Jelks .

B. B. Comer
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For an elaborate bibliography of Alabama (by
Thomas M. Owen) see theAnnual Report oj the American Historical
Association for 1897 (Washington, 1898).
Information regarding the resources, climate, population and
industries of Alabama may be found in the reports of the United
States Census, and in the publications of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the United States Geological Survey, the
Bulletins of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station (published
at Auburn, from 1888), the Bulletins and Reports of the Alabama
Geological Survey (published at Tuscaloosa and Montgomery), and
in the following works: B. F. Riley's Alabama As It Is (Mont-
gomery, 1893), and Saffold Berney's Handbook of Alabama (2nd ed.,
Birmingham, 1892).
Information concerning the history of the state may be obtained
in William G. Brown's History of Alabama (New York, 1900) ;

Newton W. Bates's History and Civil Government of Alabama (Flor-

ence, Ala., 1892) Willis Brewer's Alabama: Her History, Resources,
;

War Record and Public Men (Montgomery, 1872) A. Davis Smith's ;

and T. A. Deland's Northern Alabama, Historical and Biographical

1
William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and Thomas Bibb, then
president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term of one year
(1820).
*
In 1837 Governor Clay was elected United States Senator, and
Hugh M'Vay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired
term.
1
Until 1845 the term of state officials was one year; from then
until 1901 it was two years; since 1901 it has been four years.
 ALABAMA RIVER 465
questions at issue might be settled. With respect to the"Alabama" treaty should be amended or denounced. In October 1872 Lord
claims the British commissioners suggested that they should be Granville notified to General Schenck, the United States minister,
submitted to arbitration. The American commissioners refused that the British government did not consider that the indirect
"
unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators in the losses were within the submission, and in April the British
consideration of the facts could be first agreed upon." After counter-case was filed without prejudice to this contention. On
some discussion the British commissioners consented that the the 1 5th of June the tribunal reassembled and the American
three following rules should apply. A
neutral government is argument was filed. The British agent then applied for an
bound (i) to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming adjournment of eight months, ostensibly in order that the two
or equipping within its jurisdiction of any vessel, which it has governments might conclude a supplemental convention, it
reasonable ground to believe is intended to cruise or to carry having been meanwhile privately arranged between the arbi-
on war against a power with which it is at peace, and also to use trators that an extra-judicial declaration should be obtained from
like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of the arbitrators on the subject of the direct claims. On the igth
any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such of June Count Sclopis intimated on behalf of all his colleagues
vessel having been specially adapted, in whole or in part, within that, without intending to express any opinion upon the inter-
such jurisdiction, to warlike use; (2) not to permit or suffer pretation of the treaty, they had arrived at the conclusion that
"
either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base the indirect claims did not constitute upon the principles of
of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the international law applicable to such cases a good foundation for
renewal or augmentation of military supplies or arms or the an award or computation of damages between nations." In
recruitment of men; (3) to exercise due diligence in its own ports consequence of this intimation Mr Bancroft Davis informed the
and waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction to prevent tribunal on the 2 5th of June that he was instructed not to press
any violation of the foregoing obligation and duties. The ar- those claims; and accordingly on the 2 7th of June Lord Tenter-
rangements made by the commission were embodied in the treaty den withdrew his application for an adjournment, and the
of Washington, which was signed on the 8th of May 1871, and arbitration was allowed to proceed. The discussion turned
"
approved by the Senate on the 24th of May. Article i, after mainly on the question of the measure of due diligence." The
expressing the regret felt by Her Majesty's government for the United States contended that it must be a diligence commen-
"
escape, in whatever circumstances, of the "Alabama and other surate with the emergency or with the magnitude of the results
vessels from British ports, and for the depredations committed by of negligence. The British government maintained that while
"
these vessels, provided that the claims growing out of the acts the measure of care which a government is bound to use in such
'
generically known as the Alabama
'
of the said vessels, and cases must be dependent more or less upon circumstances, it
"
claims should be referred to a tribunal composed of five arbi- would be unreasonable to require that it should exceed that
trators, one to be named by each of the contracting parties and which the governments of civilized states were accustomed to
the remaining three by the king of Italy, the president of the employ in matters concerning their own security or that of their
Swiss Confederation and the emperor of Brazil respectively. By citizens.
Article 2 all questions submitted were to be decided by a majority The tribunal adopted the view suggested by the United States.
of the arbitrators, and each of the contracting parties was to name It found that Great Britain was legally responsible for all the
" Alabama " and " Florida " and for those
one person to attend as agent. Article 6 provided that the depredations of the
" "
arbitrators should be governed by the three rules quoted above, committed by the Shenandoah after she left Melbourne. In
and by such principles of international law not inconsistent " Alabama " the court was
the case of the unanimous; in the
" "
therewith as the arbitrators should determine to be applicable to case of the Florida Sir A. Cockburn alone, in that of the
" "
the case. By the same article the parties agreed to observe these Shenandoah he and Baron d'ltajuba,dissented from the
rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the majority. In the cases of the other vessels the judgment was
knowledge of other maritime powers. Article 7 provided that in favour of Great Britain. The tribunal decided to award a
the decision should be made within three months from the close sum in gross, and (Sir A. Cockburn again dissenting) fixed the
of theargument, and gave power to the arbitrators to award a damages at $15,500,000 in gold. On the i4th of September
sum in gross in the event of Great Britain being adjudged to be the award was formally published, and signed by all the arbi-
in the wrong. trators except Sir A. Cockburn, who filed a lengthy statement of
The treaty was, on the whole, welcomed in England. The his reasons.
United States appointed Mr C. F. Adams as arbitrator and Mr The stipulation that the three rules should be jointly sub-
J. C. Bancroft Davis as agent. TheBritish government appointed mitted by the two powers to foreign nations has never been
Sir Alexander Cockburn as arbitrator and Lord Tenterden as carried out. For this the British government has been blamed
agent. The arbitrators appointed by the three neutral powers by some. But the general view of continental publicists is,
were Count Sclopis (Italy), M. Staempfli (Switzerland), Baron that the language of the rules was not sufficiently precise to
d'ltajuba (Brazil). The first meeting of the tribunal took place admit of their being generally accepted as a canon of neutral
on the isth of December 1871 in the H6tel de Ville, Geneva. As obligations. (M. H. C.)
soon as the cases had been formally presented, the tribunal ALABAMA RIVER, a river of Alabama, U.S.A., formed by
adjourned till the following June. There followed immediately the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 m. above
a controversy which threatened the collapse of the arbitration. Montgomery. It flows W. as far as Selma, then S.W. until,
It was found that in the American case damages were claimed not about 45 m. from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee to form
only for the property destroyed by the Confederate cruisers, but the Mobile and Tensas rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.
in respect of certain other matters known as " indirect losses," The course of the Alabama is tortuous; its width varies from
viz. the transference of the American marine to the British flag, 200 to 300 yds., its depth from 3 to 7 ft.; its length by the
the enhanced payments of insurance, the expenses of pursuit and United States Survey is 312 m., by steamboat measurement,
the prolongation of the war. But this was not all. The American 420 m. The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber
case revived the charges of " insincere neutrality " and " veiled districts of the state, and railways connect it with the mineral
"
hostility which had figured in the diplomatic correspondence, regions of north central Alabama. The principal tributary of
and had been repudiated by Great Britain. It dwelt at length the Alabama is the Cahaba (about 200 m. long), which enters it
upon such topics as the premature recognition of belligerency, the about 10 m. below Selma. Of the rivers which form the Ala-
unfriendly utterances of British politicians and the material bama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is
assistance afforded to the Confederates by British traders. The navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia (where it is
inclusion of the indirect losses and the other matters just referred formed by the junction of the Oostenaula and Etowah rivers), to
to caused great excitement in England. That they were within about 117 m. above Wetumpka (about 192 m. below Rome and
the treaty was disputed, and it was argued that, if they were, the 26 m. below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction
4 66 ALABASTER
with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been consider- (" To Doctor Alabaster " in Hesperides,
1648) He also published
.

ably improved by the Federal government.

The navigation of (1637) Lexicon Pentaglotton, Hebraicum, Chaldaicum, Syriacum,
the Tallapoosa river (which has its source in Paulding county, Talmudico-Rabbiniccn et Arabicum.
shoals and a See T. Fuller, Worthies of England (ii. 343) J. P. Collier, Bibl.
Georgia, and is about 250 m. long) is prevented by
;

and Crit. Account of the Rarest Books in the English Language (vol. i.
6o-ft. fall at Tallassee, a few miles N. of its junction with the
1865) Pierre Bayle, Dictionary, Historical and Critical (ed. London,
Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year. In
;

1734) also the Athenaeum (December 26, 1903), where Mr Bertram

;

1878 the Federal government undertook to make a channel

the Dobell describes a MS. in his possessioncontaining forty-three sonnets
length of the Alabama 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep; an
amend- by Alabaster.
ment in 1891 provided for a 6-ft. channel at low water, and in ALABASTER, a name applied to two distinct mineral sub-
"
June 1907 this work was reported as 10% completed" at an stances, the one a hydrous sulphate of lime and the other a
expenditure of $303,659. The Mobile river is navigable for carbonate of lime. The former is the alabaster of the present
vessels of about 14 ft. draft. The Alabama is an important day, the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. The
carrier of cotton, cotton seed, fertilizer, cereals, lumber, naval two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their
stores, &c.; and in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the freight tonnage relative hardness. The modern alabaster is so soft as to be
was 417,041 tons. readily scratched even by the finger-nail (hardness=i-s to 2),
ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567-1640), whilst the stone called alabaster by the ancients is too hard to
English Latin poet and scholar, was born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, be scratched in this way (hardness = 3), though it yields readily
in 1567. He was, so Fuller states, a nephew by marriage of to a knife. Moreover, the ancient alabaster, being a carbonate,
Dr John Still, bishop of Bath and Wells. His surname, some- effervesces on being touched with hydrochloric acid, whereas the
times written Arblastier, is one of the many variants of arbalester, modern alabaster when so treated remains practically unaffected.
" "
a cross-bowman. Alabaster was educated at Westminster Ancient Alabaster. This substance, the alabaster of scrip-
school, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1583. He ture, is often termed Oriental alabaster, since the early examples
became a fellow, and in 1592 was incorporated of the university came from the East. The Greek name AXa/3a(rrptr7)s is said to
of Oxford. About 1 592 he produced at Trinity College his Latin be derived from the town of Alabastron, in Egypt, where the
tragedy of Roxana.
1
It is modelled on the tragedies of Seneca, stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name
and is a stiff and spiritless work. Fuller and Anthony a Wood to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and
bestowed exaggerated praise on it, while Samuel Johnson regarded it has been suggested that it may have had an Arabic origin.

it as the only Latin verse worthy of notice produced in England The Oriental alabaster was highly esteemed for making small
before Milton's elegies. Roxana is founded on the La Dalida perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabasira; and this
(Venice, 1567) of Luigi Groto, known as Cieco di Hadria, and has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Ala-
Hallam asserts that it is a plagiarism (Literature of Europe, iii. baster was also employed in Egypt for Canopic jars and various
54). A surreptitious edition in 1632 was followed by an author- other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid sarcophagus,
ized version a plagiarii unguibus vindicata, aucla et agnita ab sculptured in a single block of translucent Oriental alabaster
Authore, Gulielmo Alabastro. One book of an epic poem in Latin from Alabastron, is in the Soane Museum, London. This was
hexameters, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, is preserved in MS. discovered by Giovanni Belzoni, in 1817, in the tomb of Seti I.,
in the library of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. This poem, near Thebes, and was purchased by Sir John Soane, having
"
Elisaeis, Apotheosis poetica, Spenser highly esteemed. Who previously been offered to the British Museum for 2000.
lives that can match that heroick song?" he says in Colin Oriental alabaster is either a stalagmitic deposit, from the
" "
Clout's come home againe, and begs Cynthia to withdraw the floor and walls of limestone-caverns, or a kind of travertine,
poet from his obscurity. In June 1596 Alabaster sailed with deposited from springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, on the expedition to Cadiz in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance which the
the capacity of chaplain, and, while he was in Spain, he became marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as
a Roman Catholic. An account of his change of faith is given onyx-marble or al