Journal of Research in Engineering and Computer Sciences

April 2023, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 43-54

Oil and Gas Pipeline Corrosion Monitoring and

Prevention Techniques in The Niger Delta Region,
Nigeria: A Review
Joseph J. Akpan1, Paul O Udom1, and John F. Wansah2
1. Chemical Engineering, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria
2. Pure and Applied Physics, Federal University Wukari, Taraba State, Nigeria

Abstract:
Corrosion monitoring and prevention has remained a subject of engineering concerns
and investigation for over hundreds of years. Causing an annual lost estimate of 10% of
global materials, consuming over 42 billion dollars within the developed nations and
depleting the economics of developing countries. This has made corrosion
management and prevention a major concern within the oil and gas industry as well as
in the pipeline management and its operational setting. The deployment of corrosion
monitoring techniques changes across pipelines wall by reason of operational
conditions and the environment. In this review, corrosion mechanisms and several
types of corrosion monitoring and preventions techniques were considered with a
recommended approaches adopted by major oil and gas firms in the Niger Delta region
of Nigeria in corrosion monitoring and its prevention.

Keyword: Corrosion, corrosion mechanism, corrosion monitoring, corrosion prevention.

INTRODUCTION
Corrosion in the oil and gas sector has created an enormous economic and environmental impact
within the industry and will continue to rain havoc on installations such as pipelines, storage tanks
and platform’s jackets. Corrosion of metals within the oil and gas and chemical refineries is a
major source of the industry problems as well as a dangerous mode of the system failure. The
world total length of pipelines conveying oil and gas from storage stations, refineries, and
reservoirs across the globe down to their final consumers point is put above three million
kilometres [1].

Cost of Corrosion
The world economic impact indicator of corrosion effect in the oil and gas industry according to
[2] has it that, 10% of worlds metal output is lost to the destructive activities of corrosion yearly.
As put forth by [3], the rate of corrosion in the industrialized countries is estimated to be about 3-
4% of their GDP and this has multiple effects when compared to the developing nations.
Deductively, survey studies have it that the United State in 2003 spent as high as $41.9 billion in
combating corrosion [4], with this figure, one can thought of what is becoming that of a growing
economic.

To get rid of corrosion within the system, is principally by getting the understanding of the
operational system and the oilfields environment with an upended factor contributing to
corrosion problem. To make a meaningful impact in corrosion prevention, checking and control
as well as its mitigation, good knowledge mechanism of corrosion occurrence in the oil and gas
sector is crucial to benefit the exploration activities in the system [5]. Aside the loss of lives
occasioned by pipeline leakages and flaring, corrosion has created a huge overhead cost to
Akpan, et al., 2023

pipeline industries operational activities due to recurrent equipment replacement. These impacts
range from economic costs occasion by downtime to replacement and repairs of corroded parts
[6]. There has been rising cases of fire related incidents owed to oil and gas pipelines leakages
coupling with fire flare-up in the pass decades [7]. Apart from the economic loss, the impacts of
corrosion can equally be seen on loss of lives and properties and environmental effects such as
pollution of water bodies and useful farmland [8]. The structural design and construction of
pipelines have been viewed by some experts as one medium of guiding the challenges of
corrosion against the operational lives of these critical assets [9]. Meeting the materials design
specification is one thing to uphold but creating a good and proper oil and gas monitoring and
maintenance culture will drop hazards and give a degree of dependability (reliability) in the
system operation [10]. From the study of Operational Pigging [11], accidental discharge of
hydrocarbon into the operational environment, causes corrosion problems thereby unnerving the
efforts of the industry operators in combating the tasks. The influences of corrosion in the oil and
gas sector have caused considerable damage and unproductive time of 20-30% in lost from
exploration to production [12].

CORROSION PROCESS MECHANISMS

Corrosion of metals is an environmental factor; it can be defined as the unprompted destruction
and a degenerative condition of operating pipelines of either chemical, electrochemical, or
biochemical contacts within the internal or external environment. Corrosion is a destructive
attack on metallic material through chemical or electrochemical reactions within a period of
environmental interaction [13]. Some forms of corrosion are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig.1: Different forms of Corrosion [14]

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Corrosion has resulted in degenerative condition of oil and gas pipelines whose effects can be
ascribed to pipe material interaction with the external location as well as the internal working
liquid. The premise or foundation of pipeline corrosion existence points to two main mechanisms
of electrochemical or electrolytic corrosion and galvanic corrosion. In electrochemical or
electrolytic corrosion, [15] the effects of corrosion formation are built up between anodic and
cathodic zones. This involves the flow of electrons between the anodic and the cathodic
environments. At anodic area, oxidation action releases electrons, destroying anodic metals by
either dissolving or assuming combining state as oxide. This causes corrosion to occur in anodic
zones. At cathodic zones, there is a reduction process or gain of electrons via an electrolyte, these
events take place instantaneously and give a neutral balance Figs. 2 and 3.

Fig. 2: The electromechanical process of corrosion [16]

Fig. 3: Electron flow paths involving two materials [16]

The galvanic corrosion can be said to be self-created when two different types of metals come in
contact, the married zones create electrolyte by an aqueous fluid, ensuring an ionic conduction
between the two materials. Based on this mechanism, this type of corrosion can be prevented
through the application of metal combination technique in the pipe construction, especially with
class of material closer in the galvanic series in-order to reduce such reaction. Lining layer is also
ideal to be place between the regions, as well as the help of cathodic surface, equation (1) in
corrosion of Zinc.

𝑍𝑛 = 𝑍𝑛2+ +2𝑒 − (1)

Due to the diversity in water flow within the upstream oil and gas sector, pipelines are open to
different formations of water that contain hydrocarbons as well as the condensate water that

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build up due to temperature drop [17]. This significantly aids the electrochemical reaction within
the acidic environment when hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide are dissolves in them. Carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide corrosion mechanism reaction as summarised in equation (2) to
(4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are noted as the root causes of local and general forms of corrosion
[18].

𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3
2𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝐻2 𝐶𝑂32−
𝐻𝐶𝑂3− → 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑂32− (2)

For pipeline polarization because of 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3:

𝐹𝑒 + 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3 → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2 ↑ (3)

Hydrogen embrittlement because of hydrogen sulphide ionization in water:

𝐹𝑒 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → 𝐹𝑒𝑆 + 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒−
𝐻 + + 𝐻 + → 𝐻2 (4)

The above gases develop high pressure and cause cracking or blistering of the pipes while H 2SO4
in hydrogen sulphide H2S reaction results in the production of electrochemical as well as chemical
corrosion.

Types of Pipeline Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion:
Pitting corrosion, otherwise known as pitting, is a form of dangerous localized corrosion which
results in a random creation of trivial cavities or holes on the material. Pitting corrosion is more
dangerous when compared to uniform corrosion in damage as it is harder to perceive, forecast
and guide against. According to [19-20], pitting is a severe state of deterioration on a pipe’s
surface that is located on a partial zone with a fast cavity or holes formation. The mechanisms
behind the form of corrosion can be said to be destructive chemical type causing infiltration,
mechanical damage to the protective inert film and flaws on the material surface.

Crevice Corrosion:
Crevice or crack corrosion is another damaging form of localized corrosion. Crevice corrosion
transpires in the zone underneath deposits where free access to the neighbouring environment is
constrained. It takes place on the connection of metals with metals or metals with non-metals
similar couplings, joints, and gaskets. This reaction starts due to absorption variance of corroded
metal of one exterior part on another. [21]. [22] explains that the electro-potential alterations
result in the biased pitting or crack damaging occurrence. Oxygen softened in oil production mud
backers’ gap and crack attack of material in the protected areas of drill string and is the joint cause
of the disasters and damage under duct protections.

Galvanic Corrosion:
Galvanic corrosion, also known as dissimilar metal corrosion, denotes corrosion mutilation
induced when two varied materials are joined together in a corrosive electrolyte. For galvanic
corrosion to occur, there must be two diverse types of metals in contact, the presence of an
electrolyte and electrical continuity between the materials. This type of corrosion can be formed

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in the area amid the below deposit area and the area deprived of deposit. From the work of [23],
this corrosion can be prevented through the application of industry metal joint technique,
particularly with type nearer in the galvanic sequence to decrease its reaction.

Uniform Corrosion:
Uniform corrosion is considered the most common type of material corrosion. It is a corrosion
outbreak upon the entire material surface that is bare to the corrosive atmosphere ensuing in an
even loss of such metal; this forces the material to become thinner and eventually collapse.
Uniform corrosion is the most noticed form of corrosion with its primary root cause on steels and
other metals being oxygen and the easier preventive procedures of this corrosion are cathodic
protection and surface coating [12].

Stress Corrosion Cracking:

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) occurs because of the concurrent action of stress, alone the static
and tensile of the materials, and the environmental reaction. It is the mutual and synergistic
effects, as well as interaction of mechanical stress with oxidation reaction [24]. Stress corrosion
cracking can be disallowed or lessened by eradicating the stress residual through stress relieving
heat treatment, choice of suitable material or avoiding machining stress alone the surface.

Selective Leaching:
Selective Leaching, otherwise known as ‘De-alloying,’ occurs in the material zone where the metal
surface existence differed metallurgically from another. A good example is brass, as an alloy of
zinc and copper in a solid solution, can disintegrates with the zinc existence selectively detached
from the alloy, parting the copper [25]. It brands the alloy porous and concessions its mechanical
properties. For brass, this may be noticed when the yellowish natural colour turns reddish in its
appearance. So, it is obliging to add a little quantity of tin to the alloy to stop the de-alloying.

CORROSION MONITORING
Corrosion monitoring in the oil and gas industry involves the process of evaluating and supervising
oil and gas components, structures, and processing elements for signs of corrosion. Corrosion
monitoring aims at finding and measuring the corrosivity of process stream conditions of
extending the service life and serviceability of oil and gas assets, increasing operational safety,
and reducing maintenance cost. Monitoring involves the deployment of low-cost techniques in
obtaining a large volume of reasonable quality measurements. The central aim of monitoring of
corrosion is to buy a near real-time signal of the estimated rate of corrosion outbreak on the
pipeline as well as finding transient operating conditions that may lead ultimately to collective
grave impairment. The choice of corrosion monitoring procedures has no central regulation but
is based on the expert logical conclusion and its efficacy [26]. Among other benefits, corrosion
monitoring helps in supplying managerial information relating to the facility maintenance
requirement and operational condition of the plants. Several corrosion monitoring techniques
exist, and virtually all need expert knowledge in their applications.

Corrosion Coupons (weight loss measurement)

The corrosion coupon, widely known as ‘weight loss measurement’ remains one simplest
technique in the field of corrosion monitoring. The weight loss measurement includes revealing a
sample of material known as coupon to a process environment (corrosive medium) within a given
time, and later recovered for further analysis and investigation. The central idea for the analysis
and measurement are to decide the material weight loss and this is expressed as the corrosion

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rate. The ease of measurement associated with this method is what makes the coupon practice
function as a model way of measurement in many corrosions monitoring plans [27]. The corrosion
coupon is extremely multi-purpose and useful because the weight loss coupon can be invented or
fabricated from any available alloy material. The technique is all environment enabling, aid visual
inspection, assessing inhibitor performance and effective in localized corrosion identification and
measurement. Typically, in conducting this technique, the coupon is exposed to a corrosive
medium for a period of ninety (90) days before being taken for further analysis in the laboratory.

Electrical Resistance (ER):

The electrical resistance probe like the coupon monitoring technique offers an elementary
measurement of metal loss, the value of the metal loss can be taken at any period or interval as
often as obligatory while the probe stays enduringly exposed to the corrosive medium. This
monitoring technique enables one to take the change in ohmic resistance of an erosion metal part
that is bare in the corrosive medium. The corrosive action upon the surface of the part crops a
decrease in the cross-sectional area through a consistent increase in its electrical resistance. This
upsurge in resistance can be linked to metal loss and it is a function of time which is the corrosion
rate. ER probe can remain installed in-line through the operational life of an asset while supplying
a direct corrosion rate [28].

Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR):

Linear Polarization Resistance technique is founded on a complex electro-chemical model. The
advantage of this method is that corrosion rate measurement is complete at once. LPR technique
is an immensely powerful tool of corrosion measurement when compared to ER or coupon, where
the fundamental reading is metal loss and requires a certain period of exposure of material within
the medium to determine the corrosion rate [29]. As a setback, LPR cannot be performed in
gases, or in oil suspensions as the method requires relatively clean aqueous electrolytic medium
for a successful operation.

Galvanic (ZRA):
Galvanic monitoring or Zero Resistance Ammeter (ZRA) is another electrochemical corrosion
monitoring method whose probes with two electrodes of different materials are bare to the
process fluid. While in the exposed medium, potential difference is created naturally between the
electrodes, the current produced because of the potential difference relates to the corrosion rate
that is occurring on the electrode couple that is more active [30]. ZRA found its application mostly
in the monitoring of weld decay, bimetallic corrosion, crevice, and pitting attack, as well as
corrosion caused by highly oxidizing natures.

Microbial:
Microbial or biological corrosion monitoring and investigation usually look to address the
presence of Sulphate Reducing Bacterial – SRB. Biological monitoring involves anaerobic bacteria
that devours slulphate from the procedure stream and produce sulphuric acid. Sulphate lessens
bacteria that would cause plain corrosion attack in oil and gas pipeline due to their aptitude to
create enzymes capable of reducing sulphate compound to hydrogen sulphate [31]. There are
certain bacteria organism that promote microbial corrosion in the oil and gas pipelines, which
include carbon dioxide reducing bacteria, sulphate reducing bacteria as well as manganese-
oxidizing reducing bacteria, the most overriding of all is the sulphate reducing bacteria because
of its aptitude of living in the anaerobic medium.

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CORROSION PREVENTION
Corrosion prevention practices or control in oil and gas pipelines are vindictive tactics aim at
cutting corrosion occurrence, it is conducted to thwart pipeline failure and related significances
like environmental pollution as well as minimizing product loss and potential industrial mishap.
According to the National Association of Corrosion Engineering, NACE recommendations, [32]
and [33] agreed that in managing corrosion outbreak on oil and gas pipelines, the following
prevention guards must be put in place. These methods are:

The Choice Material

Material choice or selection is very crucial and pivotal in design consideration for corrosion
prevention. This is so because pipeline corrosion has a direct effect on the pipeline material, as
many of the material in use have the enhanced ability to either improve the asset lifespan or
increase the vulnerability of the pipes to corrosion. PVC, stainless steel, and high-quality alloy
steel materials can enhance the asset lifespan while other pipelines like steel concrete, steel pipes
and cast iron are more prone to corrosion. Nevertheless, carbon steel that has corrosion
resistance alloy coating or use of complete corrosion resistance alloy material is real and endorsed
where high rate of corrosiveness is foreseen [34].

Pipes Coatings and Linings

Pipes coating and lining supply a protective surface for pipelines, it is the simplest and prime to
oil and gas industry technique in controlling corrosion. Coating and lining offer resistance against
bacteria and environmental mushrooms that may attack and mutilate oil pipelines. This
technique is premised on properties such as confrontation to cathodic disbandment, bond to
pipeline surface, resistance to seawater and confrontation to soil stress [35, 36].

Corrosion İnhibitors
This is the application or use of chemical substances in the oil and gas industry to alter process
environment in-order to limit and prevent the formation of corrosion within the seawater. The
oxygen scavenger and biocide chemical are injected into the process water system to eradicate
micro-organisms and bacteria that enhance micro-biologically prejudiced corrosion. This oxygen
scavengers’ chemicals are vaccinated to de-oxygenate the water system which too encourage
corrosion course. Moreover, corrosion inhibitors are used as jabbed in the pipelines either as slug
treatment, continuous booster or as batching with pig trains. The added corrosion inhibitors are
adsorbed on the internal wall of the pipeline to build an inert layer that serves as a shield and
prevent direct contact with pipe liquid [37] and [38].

Cathodic Protection

Fig.4. Cathodic reactive path [39]

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Cathodic protection technique involves the application of direct electrical current that will
counteract peripheral or outside corrosion in relation to metal pipelines. This practice is based on
the code of electrochemical procedure where potential of one metal is dropped to opposite the
flow of current and stops corrosion. This method is typically applicable once a pipeline system is
buried underground or in the water; Fig. 4 demonstrated the cathodic reaction. Cathodic
protection, if executed on a new project pipeline, will help to foresee corrosion from the onset, on
an existing or old pipeline, cathodic protection method hinders the existing corrosion of the pipes
[40]. Cathodic protection (CP) is considered as the most real and effective method of preventing
oxidation of underground metal structures. This is obtained by imposing between the structures
and the ground a small electrical voltage that opposes the flow of electrons and is stronger than
the voltage present in the oxidation process [41]. Cathodic protection is divided into two main
methods: the sacrificial anode (galvanic) and the impressed current.

The Practice in Niger Delta

In recent time, many oil and gas companies have adopted the approach of management in
describing the corrosion monitoring and prevention dealings, in the oil rich Niger Delta region of
Nigeria, giving to her environmental factor and the acidic composition of her water bodies, major
oil and gas firms operating in this region have adopted the used of telemetry system in addition
to other industry best known practices in carrying out the corrosion monitoring and prevention
surveillance in the pipelines, Fig.5. This technique involves the deployment of Cathodic protective
installations whose source of power is driven by solar panel. This monitoring and prevention
installations are set-up along the pipeline route with different test post for online monitoring of
corrosion activities on the pipelines.

This adoption and the engagement of a risk-based method has promoted the involvement of
corrosion sensors, the application of contemporary arrangement capable of detecting on-site
remote pipelines corrosion, propagation of localized and uniform corrosion attack as well as
prompt connection of real-time corrosion and data inspection. These enhance periodic
inspection, updating periodic results and presents opportunity in evaluation of corrosion severity
as well as duration of corrosion attack, in addition, it allows for real-time control of corrosion
conditions within the pipelines. To this end, there is still greater room for future development of
advanced on-line electrochemical monitoring equipment that will offer prospect for real-time and
automated supervision, considering it allied benefits, improved safety, as well as reduction in
operation and maintenance cost.

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The Telemetry Remote System Network

Fig.5. Cathodic Protection and Corrosion Remote Monitoring Component

CONCLUSIONS
The incidence of corrosion in the oil and gas industry has been a subject of great concern that has
resulted in huge investment both in human as well as in technology, in-order to battle the effects
of this menace whose impact has led to product leakages, environmental pollution, and loss of
lives. Nevertheless, with topical improvement in monitoring and prevention practices, aided with
corrosion experts’ decision, corrosion outbreak in oil and gas pipelines can be managed in a bid to
reduce cost and enhance assets performance. In supporting the pipelines integrity, a good
monitoring flow parameter is necessary for enhance performance and assets evaluation, as well
as real-time inspection that will offer information on the corrosion profile of the pipelines. In other
instances, standard corrosion resistance materials must be used for pipes lining while reinforced
composite and PVC materials need to be exploited as an alternate material in pipeline
construction. For industrial best practices, and to achieve a more economical means of extending
the service life of oil and gas pipelines against corrosion attack, we recommended that a good
material coating technique be used in combination with any of the above preventive methods.

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