General Chemistry

Principles and Modern Applications

Petrucci, Harwood, Herring.

Assist. Prof. Tuğçe İNAN

tugceinan@beykent.edu.tr
Room:E2-A51
General Chemistry Fall 2024 1
Chapter 3: Chemical Compounds
3.1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas
3.2 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
3.3 Composition of Chemical Compounds
3.4 Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical Compounds
3.5 Naming Compounds: Organic and Inorganic Compounds
3.6 Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds
3.1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their
Formulas
Two fundamental kinds of chemical bonds hold together the atoms in a compound.
• Covalent bonds involving a sharing of electrons between atoms, give rise to
molecular compounds.
• Ionic bonds, involving a transfer of electrons from one atom to another, give rise
to ionic compounds
Molecular Compounds
Made up of discrete units called molecules, which typically consist of a small number of
nonmetal atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Represented by Chemical Formula

Molecule

CCl4 H2 O
 Formaldehyde
Molecular formulas give the exact number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
Acetic acid
Empirical formulas give the lowest whole- C6H12O6 blood sugar
number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound.

Structural formulas show the order in which

atoms are bonded.

Condensed structural formula, which is written Condensed Formula: CH3COOH

on a single line, unfavorable way of showing how or
the atoms of a molecule are connected.
CH3CO2H
Ball-and-stick model: Atoms are represented by
small balls, and the bonds between atoms by sticks.
Such models help us to visualize distances between
the nuclei of atoms (bond lengths) and the
geometrical shapes of molecules.

A space-filling model shows that the

atoms in a molecule occupy space and
that they are in actual contact with one
another. It is a more accurate
representation of the size and shape of a
molecule because it is constructed to
scale.
Chemical bonds are forces
that draw atoms in a
molecule into direct
contact. The atoms are not
held apart as implied by a
ball-and stick model.
Ionic Compounds
Chemical combination of metal and non-metal atoms.

made up of positive and negative ions joined together by electrostatic

forces of attraction.

Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to form charged
species called ions.
Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic compounds.

+Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively charged ions called

cations.
-Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged ions called
anions.
 The formula unit of an ionic compound
An extended array of Na+ and Cl- ions is the smallest electrically neutral
The simplest formula unit is NaCl. collection of ions.

• The ratio of atoms (ions)

in the formula unit is the
same as in the chemical
formula. Because it is
buried in a vast network
of ions, called a crystal, a
formula unit of an ionic
compound does not exist
as a distinct entity.
• Thus, it is inappropriate
to call a formula unit of
solid sodium chloride a
molecule.
Portion of an ionic crystal and a formula unit of
NaCl
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 9
 Monatomic refers to a substance Noble Gases: Metallic Elements and
consisting of single ionized atoms •Helium (He) their ions
that are not bonded to each other. •Neon (Ne) Gold (Au)
•Argon (Ar) •Silver (Ag)

Polyatomic refers to a molecule or ion that consists of more than one

atom. These can be molecules made up of atoms of the same
element or different elements.
•Water (H₂O): Composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
•Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Composed of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
•Ammonia (NH₃): Composed of one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms.
•Polyatomic Ions:
•Sulfate (SO₄²⁻): Composed of one sulfur atom and four oxygen atoms with a -2 charge.
•Nitrate (NO₃⁻): Composed of one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms with a -1 charge.
•Hydroxide (OH⁻): Composed of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom with a -1 charge.
The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds
Molecular mass is the mass of a molecule in atomic mass units.
Formula mass is the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass units.
 Mole of a Compound
The molar mass is the mass of one mole of compound—one mole of molecules of a
molecular compound and one mole of formula units of an ionic compound.

!!!Molecular mass and molar mass sound similar and

are related, they are not the same. Molecular mass is
the weighted-average mass of one molecule expressed
in atomic mass units, u. Molar mass is the mass of
Avogadro’s number of molecules expressed in grams
per mole, The two terms have the same numerical
value but different units.
The molar mass of halotan C2HBrClF3 is 197.382 g/mol and bromide is 79.904 g/mol.
We speak of an atomic mass or a molecular mass, and molar mass can be expressed in
two ways.
• Hydrogen, for example, has an atomic mass of 1.008 u and a molecular mass of 2.016 u;
its molar mass can be expressed as or 2.016 g H2/mol H2

• Another phenomenon occasionally encountered is the existence of an element in more

than one molecular form, a situation referred to as allotropy.

Thus, oxygen exists in two allotropic forms, the predominantly abundant diatomic oxygen
(O2) and the much less abundant allotrope ozone (O3), The molar mass of ordinary
dioxygen is 31.998 g O2/mol O2 and that of ozone is 47.997 g O3/mol O3 .
 The atoms of some elements are joined
together to form molecules. Bulk samples of
these elements are composed of collections of
molecules

atomic mass or a molecular mass

Molecular forms of elemental sulfur and phosphorus

 Composition of Chemical Compounds
C2HBrClF3 molecular mass is 197.38 u , molar mass 197.38 gr/mol

How many C atoms are present per mole of halothane?

a fire extinguisher and

as an inhalation anesthetic
Calculation Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula
1. Determine the molar mass of the compound
2. Determine the contribution of the given element to the molar mass
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the mass of the
compound as a whole
4. Multiply this ratio by 100% to obtain the mass percent of the element

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 19

EXAMPLE 3-4 Calculating the Mass Percent Composition of a Compound
What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3?
The molar mass of halothane is 197.38 g/mol.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 20

 Percent composition establishes the relative proportions of the elements in a compound on a mass
basis. A chemical formula requires these proportions to be on a mole basis, that is, in terms of
numbers of atoms.

1. Choose an arbitrary sample size (100g).

2. Convert masses to amounts in moles.

3. Write a formula.

4. Convert formula to small whole numbers.

5. Multiply all subscripts by a small whole number to make the subscripts

integral.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 22
Combustion Analysis

𝑦
𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 𝑂𝑧 + 𝑂2 → 𝑥 𝐶𝑂2 + ൗ2 𝐻2 𝑂

(unreacted)
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 23
Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical
Compounds

Metals tend to lose Non-metals tend to

electrons. gain electrons.
Na Na+ + e- Cl + e- Cl-

Reducing agents Oxidizing agents

Oxidation state (oxidation number),* which is related to the number of electrons that an atom
loses, gains, or otherwise appears to use in joining with other atoms in compounds.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Canada Inc. General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Slide 25 of 32

• NaCl. Na atom, a metal, loses one electron to a Cl atom, a nonmetal.
• Na+is in a +1 oxidation state and Cl- is in a -1 state.
• MgCl2 oxidation state of Cl is -1, Mg is +2. Total oxidation state is
+2-1-1 =0
• Cl2 oxidation state of itself is 0.
• Thus, the oxidation state of an atom can vary, depending on the
compounds in which it occurs.
S8 → 0 (rule 1)
Cr2O72− → Cr → +6 (rule 6 for Oxygen which is - 2)
Cl2O → Cl → +1 (rule 6 for Oxygen which is - 2)
1
KO2 → O → − (rule 3 for K which is + 1)
2

Prentice-Hall © 2002
General Chemistry: Chapter 3 Slide 28 of 37
Naming Compounds: Organic and Inorganic Compounds
We cannot give two substances the same name, yet
we do want some similarities in the names of
similar substances.

We need is a systematic method of assigning

names—a system of nomenclature.

Lead (IV) oxide Lead (II) oxide Compounds formed by carbon and hydrogen or carbon
and hydrogen together with oxygen, nitrogen, and a
few other elements are organic compounds.

Compounds that do not fit this description are

inorganic compounds.
Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds
Binary Compounds of Metals and Nonmetals, are those formed between two
elements
write the unmodified name of the metal
• then write the name of the nonmetal, modified to end in -ide

Some metals may form several ions, it is important to

distinguish between them in naming their compounds
The metal iron, for example, forms two common ions,
and The first is called the iron(II) ion, Fe2+ and Fe3+ the
second is the iron(III) ion.

electrically neutral
 An earlier system of nomenclature
that is still used to some extent
applies two different word endings to
distinguish between two binary
compounds containing the same two
elements but in different proportions,
such as Cu2O and CuO.
❑ In the oxidation state of
copper is and in CuO it is is
assigned the name cuprous
oxide, and Cu2O is cupric
oxide.

To use the –ous ending for the lower

oxidation state of the metal and -ic for
the higher oxidation state.
Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals

Molecular compounds
usually write the positive oxidation state element first.
HCl hydrogen chloride not ClH

Some pairs form more than one compound

mono 1 penta 5
di 2 hexa 6
tri 3 hepta 7
tetra 4 octa 8
Binary Acids
Even though hydrogen chloride for pure binary molecular compounds, we sometimes
want to emphasize that their aqueous solutions are acids.

Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.

They are compounds that ionize in water.
The symbol (aq) signifies aqueous solution.

H2S(aq) = hydrosulfuric acid In naming binary acids the prefix hydro- followed by the
HI(aq) = hydroiodic acid name of the other nonmetal modified with an -ic ending.
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq) = hydrobromic acid
HF(aq) = hydrofluoric acid
 Polyatomic Ions
Monatomic ions Cesium ion Cs+ Cobalt(II) ion Co2+
Increasing oxidation state of nonmetal
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Cobalt(III) ion Co3+

Polyatomic ions, two or more atoms are

hypo___ite ___ite ___ate per___ate
joined together by covalent bonds. These ions
are common, especially among the nonmetals.
Increasing number of oxygen atoms :

1. Polyatomic anions are more common than polyatomic cations. The most familiar polyatomic cation is the
ammonium ion, NH4+
2. Very few polyatomic anions carry the –ide ending in their names. Of those listed, only OH-(hydroxide ion) and
CN-(cyanide ion) do. The common endings are -ite and -ate, and some names carry prefixes, hypo- or per-.
3. An element common to many polyatomic anions is oxygen, usually in combination with another nonmetal.
Such anions are called oxoanions.
4. Certain nonmetals (such as Cl, N, P, and S) form a series of oxoanions containing different numbers of oxygen
atoms. Their names are related to the
oxidation state of the nonmetal atom to which the O atoms are bonded, ranging from hypo- (lowest) to per-
(highest).
5. All the common oxoanions of Cl, Br, and I carry a
charge of -1.
6. Some series of oxoanions also contain various numbers
of H atoms and are named accordingly. For example,
HPO4 2- is the hydrogen phosphate ion and the H2PO4-
dihydrogen phosphate ion.
7. The prefix thio- signifies that a sulfur atom has been
substituted for an oxygen atom. (The sulfate ion has one S
and four O atoms; thiosulfate ion has two S and three O
atoms.)
 Oxoacids
• They contain three different
elements—hydrogen and two
other nonmetals.
• Think of oxoacids as
combinations of hydrogen
ions and oxoanions.
• Naming oxoacids is similar to
that outlined for oxoanions,
except that the ending -ous is
used instead of –ite and -ic
instead of -ate.
• Hydrogen of the oxoacid has
been replaced by a metal,
such as sodium. These
compounds are called salts.
 Some Compounds of Greater Complexity

Some complex substances you are certain to encounter are known as hydrates. In
a hydrate, each formula unit of the compound has associated with it a certain
number of water molecules.
This does not mean that the compounds are wet. The water molecules are incorporated
in the solid structure of the compound.

The water present in compounds as water of hydration can generally be removed, in part
or totally, by heating. When the water is totally removed, the resulting compound is said
to be anhydrous (without water). Anhydrous compounds can be used as water
absorbers.

Effect of Moisture Blue anhydrous CoCl2 Pink hexahydrate CoCl2• 6 H2O

Effect of moisture on CoCl2
18.02 g H2O
6 mol H2O x
1 mol H2O
%H2O = x 100%
237.9 g CoCl2• 6 H2O
= 45.45% H2O