INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY • It helps us to ensure

consistency and coherence of

Philosophy came from the Greek words;
our arguments.
“Philos” – to love • MA’AM BETH – “Ang isang
bagay na katotohanan ay hindi
“Sophia” – wisdom
pwedeng maging mali.”
Philosophia – Love of Wisdom

3. Principle of Excluded Middle

Philosophy is the science that by • NO MIDDLE GROUND
natural light or reason studies the • For every claim it is either true
highest causes or principles of all things. or false only.
It investigates the natural capacity to • Without conditions.
think not in one dimensional. It does not
limit the quality of thinking. 4. Principle of Sufficient Reason
• Systematic and organized body of • EXPLANATION
knowledge. • Nothing exists for no sufficient
• Knowing the reason behind reason.
everything. • Everything happens for a
reason.
• Our ideas and actions should
FOUR HIGHEST PRINCIPLES OF
manifest our aspirations.
PHILOSOPHY

1. Principle of Identity
• ESSENCE WESTERN PHILOSOPHY
• The object is the same as itself • Concerned with uncovering the
and it cannot be anything else. truth through systematic
• Whatever is is its own being. argumentation and theory.
• Not being is not being. • There is greater reason rather than
• It is what it is. faith.
• Increased focus on man as an
individual.
2. Principle of Non-Contradiction • Focuses on critical thinking and
• FACTUAL reasoning.
• It is impossible for a person to
exist or not exist at the same PRE-SOCRATICS
time. • FIRST PHILOSOPHERS, they came
• A statement cannot be true or before the time of Socrates.
false at the same time. • Philosophers became pioneers of
• Existing knowledge that we’ve various fields of knowledge:
already verified. history, biology, medicine,
• ARISTOTLE – “We could not mathematics, astronomy, and
know anything that we do physics.
know.” • Philosophers often pondered upon
• Crucial for logical reasoning. the nature of all things and the
means to live a good life.
SOPHISTS • Everything that exists is based on
higher order or plan which he
• Group of individuals that
called logos.
influenced learning in Ancient
• Change is a permanent aspect of
Greece. They taught a way of
the human condition.
argumentation called Eristic.
• No man steps in the same river
• Eristic is based on reasoning, aims
twice.
to win arguments, and are based
on facts.
6. DIOGENES OF SINOPE
• Sophists are excellent public
• “Live like a Beggar.”
speakers.
• Known advocate of living a simple
and virtuous life.
ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS • Not only talk about virtues but
must also show through words and
1. THALES OF MILETUS actions.
• One of his major beliefs was the • A vocal critic of Plato and Aristotle.
ultimate composition of all things • His teachings and views were later
is water. developed by his followers and
influenced the development of
2. ANAXIMANDER Cynicism.
• He agreed with his teacher that
everything comes from a single 7. EPICURUS
basic material which is Apeiron. • He believed that philosophy could
• APEIRON is a material (undefined enable man to live a life of
mass) that has no borders (in happiness.
space) and no quality. It has no • EPICUREANISM – a school of
beginning, and it is eternal. philosophy that believes that
• If all things come from water, why wisdom and simple living will
are there dry things? result in a life free of fear and pain.

3. ANAXIMENES 8. SOCRATES
• Young associate of Anaximander • “The unexamined life is not worth
who followed Thales’s view. living.”
• He believes that it is the air that • “Father of the Western Philosophy”
makes up all the things. • Great contributions to the field of
ethics.
4. PYTHAGORAS • Known critic of intellectuals but
• Known in the modern day for the claims himself “not wise.”
Pythagorean Theorem applied in • Philosophy could enable man to
measuring distance and space. live a life of virtue.
• His teaching emphasized the • The only true wisdom is in
immortality. knowing you know nothing.
• Acknowledging our own ignorance.
5. HERACLITUS
9. PLATO
• A student of Socrates.
 • Known for his dialectic – two 2. HINDUISM
opposing discussed to arrive at • Beliefs in Pantheon of Gods
new knowledge. • Brahma (Creator)
• THEORY OF FORMS proposes • Shiva (Destroyer)
that everything that exists is based • Vishnu (Preserver)
on an idea or template that can • Belief in a cycle of birth and
only be perceived in mind, these rebirth (samsara) or reincarnation.
physical ideas are external and • Good or Bad Karma.
unchanging.
• Man by nature is inquisitive about 3. SHINTOISM
things. • Worship of nature and ancestors.
• Shinto are spirits.
10. ARISTOTLE • ARAGAMI – powerful and vengeful
• Student of Plato. spirits or deities.
• Disagrees with Plato’s Theory of • MIZUKO – deceased baby, infant,
Forms. or fetus.
• Our reality is based on what we • MIZUKO KUYO – performed on
see. behalf of this children and Japan
• DEDUCTIVE REASONING – has many shrines honoring
drawing specific conclusions, facts, Mizuko.
general to specific.
• INDUCTIVE REASONING – 4. BUDDHISM
generalizing, specific to general, • Siddharta Gautama Buddha
based on examples and • One of the world’s largest religions.
observations. • NIRVANA – the highest state one
can retain; it is the state of
enlightenment.
EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
• Closely tied with religious belief.
• Often described as wisdom, 1. DUKKHA – accepting that life is
literature, where stories, sayings, not permanent and will involve
and texts encourage people to suffering.
adopt an ethical and harmonious 2. SAMUDAYA – knowing that there
way of life. are things in life that cause
suffering such as craving and
1. JUDAISM desire.
• Believes in one God (monotheism), 3. NIRODHA – understanding that we
who has a role in the ultimate can end suffering and achieve
destiny of mankind. Nirvana if we detach ourselves
from what we crave and we have
• The Jewish people are God’s
contentment of what we have.
chosen people.
4. MAGGA – knowing we can end
• Living the faith.
suffering by following the eightfold
• The observance of God’s
path.
commandments will result in
rewards. EIGHTFOLD PATH
 1. RIGHT VIEW – to see or 2. GREAT LEARNING – character
understand what they really are and influence of the noble person
and not as you wish them to be. and three central confucion.
2. RIGHT INTENTION – commitment 3. DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN –
to ethical behavior for the good of demonstrate relation of way to
the whole. heaven and human nature.
3. RIGHT SPEECH – to abstain from Humans achieve virtue and
false and slanderous speech, and happiness by living life in
to not speak maliciously against moderation.
others. To abstain from harsh 4. MENCIUS – collection of teachings
words that offend or hurt other of Mencius.
people and to abstain from idle
chatter that lacks purpose or 6. TAOISM
depth. • Emphasis on the unity and
4. RIGHT ACTION – to abstain from harmony among opposite
harming and taking life. elements.
5. RIGHT LIVELIHOOD – specific
activities that harm others and 7. ISLAM
that one should avoid for this • Belief in one God (Allah).
reason; dealing with weapons, • Commitment to faith is shown
dealing in living beings, working in through the practice of the Five
meat production, and selling Pillars.
intoxicants.
FIVE PILLARS
6. RIGHT EFFORT – to prevent the
arising of unwholesome states and 1. Testament of Faith (shahada)
to abandon unwholesome states 2. Daily Prayers (salat)
that have already arisen. 3. Almsgiving (zakat)
7. RIGHT MINDFULNESS – 4. Fasting during the month of
contemplation of the body, Ramadan (sawn)
contemplation of feeling, and 5. Pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca
contemplation of state of mind.
8. RIGHT CONCENTRATION – it is
the practice of meditation. The need to philosophize is traces to a
person’s:
5. CONFUCIUNISM
1. Sense of Wonder
• Contemplation of the order of
2. Sense of Doubt
things can lead to self-
3. The need to make sense of
transformation that leads to the
Challenging Experiences
betterment of the holy family and
4. The Love for Wisdom
society.
• The Mandate of Heaven – divine
source of authority.
WHY IS THERE A NEED TO
FOUR BOOKS PHILOSPHIZE?

1. ANALECTS – collection of sayings, 1. SENSE OF WONDER

speeches, and discussions of • Where did we come from?
Confucius. • Why do we exist?
 • For what purpose were we created? FRAMEWORK

• A way of thinking about the world

is accompanied by the views and
2. SENSE OF DOUBT
beliefs of a person.
• Rene Descartes a French
• Every person have different
Philosopher traced the need to
perspectives, point of views, and
doubt.
beliefs.
• Rejecting or questioning ideas.
• We have different foundations of
• His method of examining ideas
knowledge.
became the basis of critical
thinking and analysis in the
sciences.
INTERNAL QUESTION

• Questions dealing with our own

3. EXPERIENCE correctness and values which can
• Karl Jaspers is a Swiss-German be addressed using our own
Philosopher that believes that man personal framework.
is often confronted by experiences
that challenges his ideas and
frameworks. EXTERNAL QUESTION
• We gain new knowledge because of
• Questions dealing with the very
our experiences.
framework upon which people base
• He called experiences limit
their own beliefs and views.
situations accompanied by feelings
of helplessness and anxiety.
B.) An examination of Particular
Area of Knowledge.
4. DRIVEN BY THE LOVE OF
• The central principle in Philosophy
WISDOM
is the examination and questioning
• To love wisdom is to have an
and is used in the analysis of the
insatiable desire for truth.
frameworks of other areas or
• Socrates exemplifies this sciences.
perspective and is known for
having said “I know that I do not
know…” C.) A distinct area of Knowledge
• MA’AM BETH: “Hindi lahat ng with its own goals, concerns,
bagay alam natin.” and ways of doing things or as a
discipline.

HOW DO WE CHARACTERIZE THE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY? 1. AESTHETICS – beauty and what
A.) A way of Analyzing Ideas and makes us beautiful.
Frameworks. 2. LOGIC – deals with correct
reasoning.
3. EPISTEMOLOGY – the
philosophical study of human
 knowledge, nature, origin, and HOLISTIC THINKING
limits. Derived from the Greek
- Refers to a perspective that
words: episteme (knowledge) and
considers large-scale patterns in
logos (reason). This field is
system.
sometimes referred to as the theory
- Looking at the big picture.
of knowledge.
- Requires an individual to have
4. ETHICS – deals with moral
open mindset.
questions and dilemmas.
- Generalizing.
5. POLITICAL PHILOSPHY – studies
governments and deals with
questions of justice, power, and
PARTIAL THINKING
rights and obligations of citizens.
6. METAPHYSICS – deals with - Focused on specific aspects of a
questions regarding reality and situation.
existence. - Important component of analytical
thinking, as an individual focuses
on certain areas of aspects of a
ETHICS - is the study of values in problem to understand it.
human behavior or the study of moral
problems.
Though Partial Thinking is useful,
• The rightness and wrongness of
Philosophy utilizes holistic
actions.
thinking in making sense of problems
• The kind of things which are good
and issues related to human
or bad.
experience.

A holistic perspective can urge a

VIRTUE - is not taught or acquired person to step back and consider
through education, rather it is merely an general aspects.
awakening seed of good deeds that lay
Adopting a holistic thinking approach
dormant in the heart and mind of a
encourages us not only to be more
person.
critical but also to be more
• Practical Knowledge means that considerate of others’ feelings.
one does not only know the rules
of right living, but only lives them
(walk the talk). REFLECTION – requires a person to
be willing to examine one’s thoughts,
feelings, and actions and to learn
ETHICAL QUESTIONS more about one’s life and experiences.

1. Is an action moral or immoral?

2. What are human rights and how METHODS OF PHILOSPHIZING
do we determine them?
According to Philosophy, if you want
to know the truth, you have to use
not emotions but thinking.
 Thinking is an act of choice that is CLAIMS
not done properly; therefore, we
- Statements that are not evidently
need guidance.
or immediately known to be true
and further examination is
required to establish whether it is
TRUTH
true or false.
- Truth lies at the heart of any
inquiry.
- Knowledge must be truthful to CONCLUSION
gain validity and acceptance.
- Truthful statements can be
- Considered as a kind of quality or
considered as based on facts.
value.
- A final decision or judgement: an
- This means that statements may
opinion or decision formed after a
or may not have truth.
period of thought or research.
- Propositions (panukala) –
- Science considers truth as
statements about the world or
something observable and
reality which may or may not carry
empirical.
truth.

HOW DO WE KNOW IF SOMETHING IS

WHAT IS TRUTH AND WHY IS IT
TRUE?
IMPORTANT?
- What kind of belief is truthful?
KNOWLEDGE
- How do we know that what we
- It is the clear awareness or believe is true?
understanding of something. - We assume that everything we
- It is the product of questions that know about this world is true.
allow for clear answers provided by - Philosophers doubted everything.
facts. In doing so they were able to better
- Our knowledge is comprised of understand the means by which
ideas and beliefs that we know to humans gain knowledge.
be true. - Philosophers questioned what they
- Based on reality. knew and even analyzed their
- Whatever we know is what is methods of knowing in order to
observable or evident. understand themselves and the
world.

JUDGEMENT AND PROPOSITION

BASIS OF DETERMINING TRUTH
JUDGEMENT – mental act which affirms
or denies something. 1. A belief is true if it can be justified
or proven through the use of
PROPOSITION – it is the product of
one’s senses.
judgement.
2. A belief is true if it is based on
facts.
 3. Determining truth requires a FALLACIES – arguments that are based
person to prove a statement on faulty reasoning.
through an action.
4. Claims and beliefs should also be
subjects to tests to determine AD HOMINEN (Against the Man)
truth.
- Attacking the person presenting
the argument instead of the
argument itself.
OPINIONS
- Personal attacking fallacy.
- These statements go beyond
providing facts.
- They provide conclusions or TYPES OF AD HOMINEN
perspectives.
1. ABUSIVE – when you abuse the
- They are also the basis for making
person or use incentives to
arguments and convincing people
attack.
that what they believe is a fact.

2. CIRCUMSTANTIAL – you attack a

person’s situation or
BELIEFS
circumstance that might have
- Statements that express motivated the argument.
convictions that are easily and
clearly explained by facts. 3. GUILT BY ASSOCIATION – it
- To judge the truthfulness of belief, means to associate the person
we must also consider things such with something negative.
as a person’s experiences and
views. 4. TU QOUQOE – it means “you too”,
“you do the same thing”, “look
who’s talking”, to evoke the past
EXPLANATIONS actions of somebody to attack his
- To be true and provide reasons arguments. It is committed when a
why the statement is true. person’s claim is considered false
because it is inconsistent with
that person’s words or actions.
ARGUMENTS

- There are series of states that ARGUMENTUM AD BACCULUM (Appeal

provide reasons to convince the to Force)
reader or listener that a claim or
opinion is truthful. - Arguing using the threat of force or
- These are made with assumption an undesirable event to advance
that the truth of the claim or for.
opinion is still to be determined. - MA’AM BETH – “Dinadaan sa
- They often take the form of dahas.”
statements that are either claims
or facts and are phrased in such a
way they seem reasonable.
ARGUMENTUM AD PASSIONES (Appeal FALLACY OF DIVISION
to Emotion)
- Assuming that what is true for the
- Using emotions such as pity or whole is true for its parts.
sympathy.
BIAS
- The sort of reasoning involves the
substitution of various means of - The personal views of the person
producing strong emotions in place presenting it.
of evidence for a claim. - It refers to tendencies or influences
which affect the view of people.

MOST COMMON BIASES

ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM (Appeal
to the People) • CORRESPONDENCE BIAS
- Tendency to judge a person’s
- The idea is presented as acceptable
personality by his or her actions,
because a lot of people accept it.
without regard for external factors
or influence.
ARGUMENTUM AD ANTIQUITATEM
(Appeal to Tradition) • CONFIRMATION BIAS
- The tendency to look for and
- The idea is accepted because it has
readily accept information which
been true for a long time.
fits one’s own beliefs or views and
to reject ideas or views that go
against it.
PETITIO PRINCIPII (Begging the
Question)
• FRAMING
- Assuming the thing or idea to be - Focusing on a certain aspect of a
proven is true; also known as problem while ignoring other
Circular Argument. aspects.
- When an arguer makes a
statement that assumes that every • HINDSIGHT
question being argued is already - The tendency to see past events as
answered. predictable, or to ascribe a pattern
to historical events.

POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC • CONFLICT OF INTEREST

(Cause-and-Effect) - A person or group is connected to
- Assuming cause and effect or has a vested interest in the
relationship between unrelated issue being discussed.
events.
• CULTURAL BIAS
- Analyzing an event or issue based
FALLACY OF COMPOSITION on one’s cultural standards.
- Assuming that what is true of a
part is true for the whole.