Chapter 1 Electric Charge and Field

1. Show that if two conducting spheres of

radius r1 and r2 are connected with a metallic
wire, the electric field on them is inversely
proportional to the radius.

For r >> a, ignoring a2 in denominator

Charge on the spheres after equilibrium
attained are Q1’ and Q2’ respectively
𝑸′𝟏 𝒓𝟏
=
𝑸′𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑄1
Electric field of sphere 1 , E1 = k
𝑟12
𝑄2
Electric field of sphere 2 , E2 = k The direction of ⃗𝑬
⃗ is opposite to dipole
𝑟22 moment 𝒑
⃗
𝐸1 𝑄1 𝑟22
= × 𝟏 𝟐𝒑 ⃗
𝐸2 𝑄2 𝑟12 ⃗ =
𝑬
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟑
𝑟 𝑟22
= 1 × 𝑟2
𝑟2 1
𝑬𝟏 𝒓𝟐 3. Derive the expression of electric field at
𝑬𝟐
= 𝒓𝟏 an equatorial point on an electric dipole.
𝟏
Hence E ∝
𝒓
2. Derive the expression of electric field at
an axial point of an electric dipole

Magnitude of Net electric field

E = (E1 – E2)
 5. Verification of Gauss’s law using
Coulomb’s Law
A charge +q placed at centre of a sphere of
For r >> a, ignoring a2 in denominator radius r.

The direction of ⃗𝑬 is opposite to

dipole moment 𝒑
⃗
𝟏 𝒑 ⃗ Electric flux through the sphere
⃗𝑬
⃗ =−
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟑
4. Torque on an Electric Dipole in uniform
Electric Field

5. Prove that charge given to a conductor always

resides on its surface using Gauss’s law
By Gauss’s law Flux through the Gaussian Surface λ𝑙
𝒒𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 E (2πr 𝑙) =
εo
𝐝𝐀 =
𝚽 = ∮ 𝐄⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜺𝒐
𝛌
Inside conductor electric field E= 0 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐸= 𝑛̂
Hence 𝚽 = 0 𝟐𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐫
𝐪
Hence 𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 =0 7. Electric field due to uniformly charged
𝛆 𝐨
So qenclosed = 0 thin infinite sheet
Hence all the charge given to a conductor resides on its
surface

6. Derive expression of electric field due to a

line charge of infinite length

Surface charge density= 𝛔

Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface passing
through the sheet with surfaces S1, S2 and S3
Charge within Gaussian surface
qenclosed = 𝛔𝐀
Net flux Φ = ∮ 𝐄⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐀
Net flux 𝚽= 𝚽lef flatt + 𝚽curved + 𝚽right flat
Charge enclosed within Gaussian surface 𝚽= ∫ 𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝐝𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝐝𝐀 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝐝𝐀
𝐒𝟏 𝐒𝟐 𝐒𝟑
qenclosed = 𝛌𝒍 𝚽= ∫𝐒𝟏 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎 + ∫𝐒𝟐 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟗𝟎 + ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝚽= 𝟐 ∫ 𝐄𝐝𝐀
Net flux 𝚽 = ∮ 𝐄 𝐝𝐀
Magnitude of E is constant at every point on the flat
Net flux Φ= Φtop + Φbottom + Φcurved surfaces containing P and P’
𝚽= 𝟐𝐄 ∫ 𝐝𝐀 ( 1)
Φ= ∫𝑺𝟏 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐄
𝐒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐄
⃗ . 𝐝𝐀
𝐒𝟑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝐝𝐀 From Gauss’s law
𝐪
𝚽= 𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝
𝛆
( 2)
𝐨
𝚽= ∫𝐒𝟏 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟗𝟎 + ∫𝐒𝟐 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟗𝟎 + ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎 From (1) and (2)
𝐪
𝟐𝐄 ∫ 𝐝𝐀= 𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝
𝚽= ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐄𝐝𝐀 𝛆𝐨
𝐪𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 𝛔𝐀
𝟐𝐄A = =
Magnitude of E is constant at every point on the 𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
curved surface 𝛔
2E =
𝛆𝐨
𝚽= 𝐄 ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐝𝐀 ( 1) 𝛔
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐄 ̂
𝐧
𝟐𝛆𝐨
From Gauss’s law
𝐪𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝
𝚽= 𝛆𝐨
( 2)

From (1) and (2)

qenclosed
𝐄 ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐝𝐀 =
εo
 10. Electric field just outside(near) a
8. Derive the expression of Electric field due charged solid conductor
to a uniformly charged hollow sphere

A charged conductor with charge density 𝝈

Spherical gaussian surface of radius r
Consider a very small cylindrical gaussian surface
with half length of cylinder inside the conductor
and remaining half ,outside the conductor.

𝚽 = ∫𝐒𝟏 𝐄𝐝𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 + ∫𝐒𝟐 𝐄𝐝𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 + ∫𝐒𝟑 𝐄𝐝𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉

∫𝐒𝟐 𝐄𝐝𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 = 0 E = 0 inside the conductor

∫𝐒𝟑 𝐄𝐝𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉= 0 θ = 90 for curved surface

Φ = ∫S1 EdAcosθ
Φ = ∫S1 EdA ( θ = 0)
= E ∫S1 dA
Φ = EA ( 1)
According to Gauss’s law
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜎𝐴
Φ =
𝜀𝑜
=𝜀 (2)
𝑜
From (1) and (2)
σA
EA = ε
o
𝛔
(iii) Case III: at a point just outside the shell on the ⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
𝒏
𝛆𝐨
surface r ≈R

Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius R. Net

charge enclosed = Q
𝑸
Φ = 𝐄𝟒𝛑𝐑𝟐 =
𝜺𝒐

𝟏 𝑸
E=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝑹𝟐
Chapter 2 : Electric Potential and
2. Electric Potential due to an electric dipole
Capacitance
1. Derivation of Electric potential due to a
point charge

⃗𝑭𝑬𝒙𝒕 = - 𝐹𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝐹𝐸𝑥𝑡 = - qo𝐸⃗
If the test charge is displaced by small displacement
dx towards the source charge
Work done by the external field
dW = ⃗𝑭𝑬𝒙𝒕 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
dW = − 𝒒𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗𝑬.𝒅𝒙
= -qoEdxcos00
( ⃗𝑭
𝑬𝒙𝒕 in the direction of 𝒅𝒙)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= -qoEdx
𝒒 𝒒
= - qo k 𝒙𝟐 dx ( E= k 𝒙𝟐 )
Work done in moving test charge from x= ∞ to x = r
𝒓 𝒒
W= ∫∞ − 𝒒𝒐 𝒌 𝒅𝒙 Now, to calculate (r1 – r2) and r1r2, we draw
𝒙𝟐
𝒓 𝟏
W= - qo 𝒌𝒒 ∫∞ 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 perpendiculars on AC and BD from points A and B

𝟏 𝒓 on line OP respectively.
W = - qo 𝒌q [ - ]
𝒙 ∞
𝟏 𝟏
W= qo 𝒌q [ - ]
𝒓 ∞
𝐤𝐪𝟎 𝐪
W=
𝐫
Hence potential at r due to +q charge
𝑾 𝐪𝟎 𝐤𝐪
V= =
𝒒𝒐 𝐪𝟎 𝐫
𝐤𝐪
V=
𝐫
Similarly potential due to a -q charge at distance r
𝐤𝐪
V= -
𝐫
 ( r >R)
The entire charges can be assumed to be at the
centreO
Then potential at distance r ( >R) from centre
𝑸
VM = k
𝒓
2. Potential at a point P on the surface of shell/
conductor( r= R)
𝐐
VP = k 𝐑
3. Potential at a point S inside the shell(r<R)
𝒅𝑽
E=-
𝒅𝒙
Since E = 0 and differentiation of a constant is zero
𝐝𝐕
Hence 0 = -
𝐝𝐱
So V is constant inside the shell/ conductor and
∆𝐕 = 𝟎 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐰𝐨 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
Hence V at any point inside the surface = V on the
surface of conductor
𝐐
Vs = k 𝐑
It is clear that potential due to dipole depends on
r-2 and not on r-1 (as due to single charge). 4. Relation between electric field and
Special cases potential gradient ( V.V IMP)
Case (i) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on
the side of +q, then θ = 0. Then the electric potential Two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B with
becomes potentials V and V + δV, (where δV is the change in V),
are kept δl distance apart as shown in the figure. Deduce
the relation between the electric field and the potential
gradient between them. Write the two
Case (ii) If the point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on important conclusions concerning the relation between
the side of –q, then θ = 180o, then the electric field and electric potentials.

Case (iii) If the point P lies on the equatorial line of the

dipole, then θ = 90o. Hence

3. Potential due to a uniformly charged spherical

shell/ conducting sphere
Consider a spherical shell of radius R uniformly
charged with charge +Q.
Consider a unit +ve charge ( +1 C) moved from B
to A through a displacement δl against the electric
field without acceleration.
Work done by external force (against the ⃗E )
through small displacement δl
dW= Fext δlcos00 ( Fext and δl in same
1. Potential at a point M outside shell/conductor direction)
 dW = qEδl = 1 x Eδl ( 1) Vinside= kq/R
Also potential difference between two equipotential 7. Derive the expression of Potential energy of
surfaces A and B
two charges in external electric field
VA - VB = V - (V+δV,)
= - δV
Work done in moving +1 C from B to A
dW = q(VA - VB) = 1 x ( - δV )= - δV ( 2)
From (1) and (2)
Eδl = - δV
𝜹𝑽
E=-
𝜹𝒍

Important conclusions
1. Electric field is in the direction where potential
decreases the steepest OR potential decreases in the
direction of electric field.
2. Magnitude of Electric field is equal to change in
potential per unit displacement normal to the
equipotential surface To find the potential energy of a system of two charges
q₁ and q₂ located at 𝒓⃗ 𝟏 and 𝒓
⃗ 𝟐 , respectively, in an
5. Show that Electric field lines are ⊥ to surface of ⃗⃗⃗
external field 𝑬
conductor. Work done in bringing the q1, from ∞ to r₁.
W1 = q₁V(r₁)

Consider two infinitely close points A and B on the

charged conductor surface
PD between A and B
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = displacement from A to B) where r₁₂ is the distance between q₁ and q₂
dV= - 𝐄 𝐝𝐱 (𝐝𝐱
Total Work done in bringing q₂ to r₂
dV = - Edxcos𝛉
Where θ is angle between ⃗E and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dx
Surface of conductor is equipotential surface
dV = 0
Potential energy of the system = the total work done in
0 = - Edxcos𝛉
assembling the configuration
Hence cosθ = 0
𝛉 = 900
Hence 𝐄⃗ ⊥ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
dx
Electric field lines are ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
6. Show that Potential inside a conductor is constant
and equal to the potential on the surface
𝐝𝐕
E = - 𝐝𝐱
Since E = 0 inside a conductor and differentiation
of a constant is zero
𝐝𝐕
Hence 0 = - 𝐝𝐱
So V is constant inside a conductor and
∆V = 0 between two points inside conductor
Hence V at any point inside the surface = V on the
surface of conductor
 Most Unstable equilibrium
Potential energy of dipole = U= - pEcos 𝜽
8. Potential energy of electric dipole in Dipole is said to be in most stable equilibrium when
uniform external electric field and it has Max potential energy . 𝒑⃗ ↑↓ ⃗𝑬⃗ & 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐
hence write expression of stable and Ustable = +pE
unstable equilibrium of dipole
9. Derive the expression of Capacitance of
isolated sphere

Let the dipole be at an angle θ with the external electric

field. Dipole is further rotated by an angle 𝒅𝜽 ,
Work done by electric torque for this small
displacement:
𝒅𝑾𝒆𝒍 = 𝝉𝒅𝜽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟖𝟎

Let dU be the change in electrostatic potential energy

stored. In conservative forces like electrostatic force, If we check the magnitude of C for radius
dU = -dWel R = 6,400 km, equal to that of earth, then we get
dU =- dWEl = pEsin𝜽 only 711 µF. By this we can visualise that how large
a capacitance of 1F is.

10. Derive the Capacitance of Air Parallel

Plate Capacitor

Let 𝜽𝟏 = 90° and correspondingly U₁ = 0.

𝜽𝟐 = 𝜽 and correspondingly U₂ = U. Two infinitely
Substituting these values we get the following long parallel
U - 0 = pE (cos 90° - cos 𝜽)
U= - pEcos 𝜽
Most Stable equilibrium
Potential energy of dipole = U= - pEcos 𝜽
conducting plates of area of plates A and charge
Dipole is said to be in most stable equilibrium when
density 𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝜎 respectively are placed at
it has least potential energy .
distance d.
⃗ ∥ 𝑬
𝒑 ⃗⃗ & 𝜽 = 𝟎𝒐
Electric field outside the capacitor plates is zero
Ustable = -pE Electric field between the capacitor plates
Potential difference between plates

Special Case
If t = d ( space completely filled with dielectric)

11. Capacitance with dielectric material

partially filling the space between plates

12. Capacitance with conductor partially

filling the space between plates

⃗⃗ 𝒐 is the electric field in the region of air.

𝑬
𝑸
𝐄𝐨 = ⃗𝑬
⃗ 𝒐 is the electric field in the region of air.
𝜺𝒐 𝑨
𝑸
For dielectric medium ⃗𝑬
⃗𝒐=
𝐄𝐨 𝑸 𝜺𝒐 𝑨
𝐄𝐝𝐢𝐞𝐥 = =𝑲𝜺 Electric field inside conductor = 0
𝑲 𝒐𝑨
Potential diff between plates Econd = 0
V= Eo𝒙 + Ediel t + E0(d-t-𝒙) Potential difference between plates
V= Eo𝒙 + Econd t + E0(d-t-𝒙)
𝑸 𝑸(𝒅−𝒕−𝒙)
𝑽= 𝒙+
𝜺𝒐 𝑨 𝜺𝒐 𝑨
𝑸(𝒅−𝒕)
V=
𝜺𝒐 𝑨
Using C= Q/V
𝜺𝒐 𝑨
C=
(𝒅−𝒕)
SPECIAIL CASE: Space completely filled
Using C= Q/V with conductor (t= d)
C= ∞
 Let Q be the total charge given to capacitor
13. Force between two plates of then energy stored in capacitor:
capacitor

This work is stored in the capacitor as its potential energy

Here, Eo, is the net magnitude of the electric field

intensity between the plates.
It is equally contributed by both plates. Hence, the
magnitude of the electric field intensity on one
plate due to the other plate will be Eo/2.
Vo is the potential difference between the plates.
Let Fo be the force acting between these two plates. 15. Energy Density of capacitor
The magnitude of Fo can be written as follows: Energy Density u = Energy stored per unit volume
Fo= (Charge on any one plate) x (Electric field between plates of capacitor
Volume of capacitor = Area of plates x distance
intensity on it, due to the other plate)
between plates = Ad
Hence, the magnitude of the force acting between
CV2
the plates can be written as follows: u=½
𝐴𝑑
𝜀𝑜 A 2
V
d
u=½
𝐴𝑑
𝜀𝑜 A 2 2
E 𝑑
d
u==½ ( Putting V=Ed)
𝐴𝑑
14. Energy Stored in a capacitor u=½𝜺𝒐 E2
Let us assume that in a parallel plate
capacitor charge q is stored. 16. Series combination of capacitors
Potential difference between the plates
V= q/C.
If an infinitesimally small amount of charge
dq is further increased then the potential
difference can be assumed as constant for
this small change.
Work done to deposit dq charge through
potential difference V against electric field
between the plates
 Potential energy after switch closed
𝟏
Uf = ( C1 + C2) V2
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 ( C1 + C2) V2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 2
∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 ( C1 + C2) ( )
𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
∆𝐔 = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 ) - 𝟐 𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 (𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
= 𝟐 (C1V12 + C1V22 - 𝟐 (𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 )

Taking LCM and cancelling terms

𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 (𝑽𝟏 −𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
∆𝐔 =
𝟐 (𝑪𝟏 +𝑪𝟐 )
17.Combination of capacitors in parallel
∆𝑼
% loss in energy = 𝑼 x 100
𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍

𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 (𝐕𝟏 −𝐕𝟐 )𝟐
(𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 )
% loss in energy = x 100
𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏𝟐 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐𝟐

Special Case: If charged capacitor connected to

another identical uncharged capacitor C1 =C2 =C,
Q= Q1 +Q2 +Q3
CsV = C1 V + C2 V + C3V V1= V and V2= 0
Cs = C1 + C2 + C3
17. A charged capacitor C1 is disconnected from
battery and connected to an another charged
capacitor C2. Find the expression for Loss in
energy during attaining common potential

Common potential = V/2

Charge in each capacitor = Q/2
𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝐋𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 ∆𝐔 =
𝟒
𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟒
% loss in energy = 𝟏 x 100 = 5
𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐

Potential energy before switch closed

𝟏 𝟏
Ui = ( 𝟐 C1V12 + 𝟐 C1V22 )

When switch closed

𝐂𝟏 𝐕𝟏 +𝐂𝟐 𝐕𝟐
Common potential V = 𝐂𝟏 +𝐂𝟐
18.Two isolated spherical conductors of radius R1
and R2 have charges Q1 and Q2. Show the ratio of Due to this surface charge density depends on the
charge density of two charged spherical conductors curvature of the surface. If the curvature of the surface is
when connected to each other by a conducting uniform then surface charge density will be uniform.
wire is inversely proportional to the radius of the And if the curvature is non-uniform then surface charge
spheres density will be non-uniform.

C1 = 4𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐑 𝟏
C2 = 4𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐑 𝟐
When connected by a conducting wire
Both attain a common potential V
New charges after equilibrium
Q1’ = C1 V
Q2’ = C2 V
𝑸′ 𝑪 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹
Hence 𝑸𝟏′ = 𝑪𝟏 = = 𝑹𝟏 (1)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐

Charge density of spheres after equilibrium attained

𝑸′ 𝐐′
𝝈′𝟏 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟏 𝟐 and 𝛔′𝟐 = 𝟒𝛑𝐑𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐

𝝈′𝟏 𝐐′ 𝟒𝛑𝐑𝟐𝟐
Hence = 𝟒𝛑𝐑𝟏 𝟐 x
𝝈′𝟐 𝟏 𝐐′𝟐

𝛔′𝟏 𝐐′ 𝐑𝟐𝟐
= 𝐐𝟏′ x
𝛔′𝟐 𝟐 𝐑𝟐𝟏

𝛔′𝟏 𝐑𝟐
=
𝛔′𝟐 𝐑𝟏

Hence charge density of a conductor is inversely

proportional to its radius.
 L = Length of conductor
Chapter 3: Current Electricity
1. Derive the expression of drift
velocity of electrons in a conductor
Total charge flowing through volume(AL) of the
When conductor is subjected to an electric field
E, each electron experience a force. conducting wire
F=-eE Q =n x volume x e = nALe
and acquires an acceleration Time taken for charge Q to travel distance 'L'
a = F/m = - eE/m -----(i) with drift velocity vd
Here m = mass of election, e = charge, t=
𝑳
E = electric field. 𝒗𝒅
The average time difference between two 𝑄 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
Current flowing I = = 𝐿
consecutive collisions is known as relaxation 𝑡 𝑣𝑑
time of election. I =neA𝑣𝑑
3. Define mobility of charge. Show that
mobility of electrons is independent of the
small electric field and potential difference
The magnitude of drift velocity of electron
developed per unit applied electric field. It is a scalar
quantity. It is always Positive.

If electric field is increased, drift velocity also

increases proportionally to keep 𝜇𝑒 constant
Using expression of drift velocity we can express
mobility as follows:
𝒆𝑬
𝝉
𝒎
𝜇𝑒 =
𝑬

2. Derive the expression for

Relation of Current and Drift
velocity Hence Mobility only depends on mass of
charge and temperature ( relaxation time) and
independent of electric field or potential difference.

If suppose for a conductor

n = Number of electron per unit volume of the
conductor
A = Area of cross-section
V = potential difference across the conductor
E = electric field inside the conductor
 4. Derivation of Ohm’s law: (iii) For some materials such as Gallium Arsenide (Ga
For a conductor of length 𝑙 and cross-sectional As) there is more than one value of voltage for one value
area A, when potential difference V is applied, of current.
current I flows.

.5. Derive the expression resistivity of a material.

For a conductor of length 𝑙 and cross-sectional

area A, when potential difference V is applied,
current I flows.

. Limitations of Ohm’s law

(i) At high temperature, the V-I graph does

not remain linear.

(ii) In devices like semiconductor diodes , 𝜌𝑙

changing the direction of the voltage applied R=
𝐴
across the device ,the current is not the same
𝒎
and changes Where 𝝆 =
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
 6. Relation between current density 𝐉 A cell of emf ℰ with internal resistance ‘r’ in
⃗ from Ohm’s Law discharging mode. Cell connected to external
and Electric field 𝐄
resistance R.
𝝆𝒍 𝐈 Emf 𝓔 = work done per unit +ve charge in external
V= IR = 𝐈 = 𝛒𝒍 = 𝐉 𝛒𝒍 circuit + work done per unit +ve charge inside cell
𝑨 𝐀
𝑽 𝑾 𝐖
=𝐉 Emf 𝓔 = ( ) 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 +( )
𝝆𝒍
𝒒 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝐪 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝑽 𝟏 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
=𝐉
𝒍 𝛒 𝓔 = 𝑽 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 + 𝒗𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥
𝑽 𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
( = Electric field E and = conductivity 𝛔) The potential difference inside cell (𝑣) is due to the
𝒍 𝛒
E𝛔 = 𝐉 internal resistance offered by the cell when current
⃗
Hence 𝑱 =𝛔 𝐄 flows through it.
This relation is also called the microscopic form of The voltage drop across internal resistance (𝑣)
Ohm’s Law. cannot be measured directly by a voltmeter.
𝓔 =𝐕+𝒗
7. Derive the expression for ELECTRIC
POWER 𝓔 = 𝐕 + 𝐈𝐫 (1)
Charge flowing in the conductor ∆𝑡 Terminal Voltage V = 𝓔 - 𝐈𝐫 (2)
∆𝒒 = 𝑰∆𝒕
Electric energy required 9. Derive the expression of net emf of
∆𝑼 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒙 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄 𝒆
series combination of cells
= 𝑰∆𝒕 𝒙 𝑽
= 𝑰∆𝒕 × 𝑰𝑹
= I2R∆𝒕
This energy is dissipated as heat in pure
resistive conductor
H= I2R∆𝒕
Rate of heat generation or Power
P=∆𝑯/∆𝒕 = I2R V1 , V2 and V3 are terminal voltage across cell 1 , 2
and 3
8. Relation between EMF(𝓔 ) and V1 = 𝜺𝟏 − 𝑰𝒓𝟏
Terminal voltage( V) V2 = 𝛆𝟐 − 𝐈𝐫𝟐
V3 = 𝛆𝟑 − 𝐈𝐫𝟑
Potential difference across AB
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V = 𝛆𝟏 − 𝐈𝐫𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐 − 𝐈𝐫𝟐 + 𝛆𝟑 − 𝐈𝐫𝟑
V =𝛆𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐 + 𝛆𝟑 - 𝐈(𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐫𝟑 )
the external resistance R, then
V = 𝛆𝐒 - 𝐈𝐫𝐬 (2)
Comparing (1) and (2)
𝛆𝐒 = 𝛆𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐 + 𝛆𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝
𝐫𝐬 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐫𝟑
𝜺𝑺 𝛆𝟏 + 𝛆𝟐 + 𝛆𝟑
Current 𝐈 = =
𝑹 +𝒓𝒔 𝐑 + 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐫𝟑
Terminal voltage between A and B due to
combination, V = 𝛆𝐒 - 𝐈𝐫𝐬 OR V= 𝐈R
 .

10. Show that for n identical cells each of emf 12 . Derive the expression for net emf
E and internal resistance r, it is preferred to
connect the cells in series combination if for combination of cells in parallel.
internal resistance is small
Current due to a single cell
𝑬
I’ =
𝑹+𝒓
𝑬
Or I’ = ( for r<< R)
𝑹
For combination of cells in series
Net emf in series 𝛆𝐩 = 𝒏𝛆
Net internal resistance 𝐫𝐩 = nr
𝐧𝛆
Current in circuit 𝐈=
𝐑 +𝐧𝐫
If nr<< R Terminal voltage across cell 1 and 2 will be same
𝐧𝛆 Terminal voltage across cell 1 , V = 𝛆𝟏 − 𝐈𝟏 𝐫𝟏
𝐈= = n𝐈′
𝐑 Terminal voltage across cell 2, V = 𝛆𝟐 − 𝐈𝟐 𝐫𝟐
Hence current due to combination of n cells of small 𝜺𝟏 −𝑽 𝛆𝟐 −𝐕
Hence 𝐈𝟏 = and 𝐈𝟐 =
internal resistance when connected in series 𝒓𝟏 𝐫𝟐
combination gives current in R , n times current due 𝐈= 𝐈𝟏 +𝐈𝟐
𝛆𝟏 −𝐕 𝛆𝟐 −𝐕
to single cell. 𝐈 = +
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝛆𝟏 𝛆𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
11. Derive the condition for maximum 𝐈 = + –V( + )
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
power in external resistance R, connected
in series with n identical cells each of emf If this combination of cells between A and C is
E and internal resistance r. replaced by a single cell of emf εp and internal
Net emf in series 𝛆𝐒 = n𝛆 resistance rp such that it sends the same
Net internal resistance 𝐫𝐬 = nr current I as sent by the combination to the
𝐧𝛆 external resistance R, then
Current 𝐈 =
𝐑 +𝐧𝐫
Power dissipated in external resistance R , 𝐕 = 𝛆𝐩 - 𝐈𝐫𝐩
𝒏𝜺
P = I2 R = ( 𝑹 +𝒏𝒓 )𝟐 R 𝛆𝐩 −𝐕 𝛆𝐩 𝐕
Or 𝐈 = = -
Maximum dissipated in external resistance R, 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝐩
when R = nr Putting the value of I in eqn (1)
𝒏𝟐 𝜺𝟐 𝛆𝐩 𝐕 𝛆𝟏 𝛆𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = . nr - = + - V( + )
(𝟐𝒏𝒓)𝟐 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
Comparing LHS terms with RHS terms
𝛆𝟐 𝛆𝐩 𝛆𝟏 𝛆𝟐 𝐕 𝟏 𝟏
𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = n( ) = + and = V( + )
𝟒𝐫 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝐩 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝛆𝟏 𝛆𝟐
𝛆𝐩 = 𝐫𝐩 ( 𝐫 + 𝐫 ) ( 2)
𝟏 𝟐

𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
and Putting rp =
𝐫𝟏 +𝐫𝟐
𝛆𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝛆𝟐 𝐫𝟏
𝛆𝐩 = ( )
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
13. Show that for n identical cells each of emf
E and internal resistance r, it is preferred to
connect the cells in parallel combination if
internal resistance large.
Current due to a single cell
𝑬
I’=
𝑹+𝒓
𝑬
Or I’= ( for r>>R)
𝒓
15. State the principle of wheatstone
For combination of cells in parallel bridge. Derive the condition for
Net emf in series 𝛆𝐩 = 𝛆
𝒓 balanced bridge.
Net internal resistance 𝐫𝐩 =
𝒏
𝛆 when four resistances P,Q,R and S are connected
Current in circuit 𝐈= 𝐫 with a galvanometer and a cell in the form of
𝐑 +𝐧
𝐧𝛆 bridge as shown in figure , the bridge is said to be
𝐈= balanced when there is no deflection shown by
𝐧𝐑 +𝐫
If r >> nR the galvanometer for this condition P/Q = R/S
𝐧𝛆
𝐈= = n𝐈′
𝐫
Hence current due to combination of n cells of
large internal resistance when connected in
parallel combination gives current in R , n times
current due to single cell.
Hence it is preferred to connect cells of large
internal resistance in parallel combination.
14. Derive the condition for maximum
power in external resistance R, connected
in parallel with n identical cells each of
emf E and internal resistance r
Net emf in parallel 𝛆𝐩 = 𝛆
𝒓
Net internal resistance 𝐫𝐩 =
𝒏

𝛆 Under balanced condition VB = VD and Ig = 0

Current 𝐈 = 𝐫
𝐑 +𝐧
Power dissipated in external resistance R ,
𝜺 𝟐
P = I2 R = ( 𝒓 ) R
𝑹+
𝒏
Maximum dissipated in external resistance R,
𝒓
when R = 𝒏
𝜺𝟐 𝒓
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = .
𝒓 𝟐 𝒏
(𝟐𝒏)

𝛆𝟐
𝐏𝐦𝐚𝐱 = n( )
𝟒𝐫
 Chapter 4 : Moving charges and Magnetic Field
1. State Biot-Savart Law. Write its vector
form

Cos𝜽 components of diametrically opposite pair

of dB cancels out while the sin 𝜽 components
add up.

2. Derive the expression for Magnetic

field at a point on the axis of the coil.
Hence derive the expression of B at
centre of magnetic field.
 centre

Current I flowing throughout the cross-section of the

wire such that current density is constant
P
⃗𝑩
⃗ At a point outside the conductor (r> R)
3. Magnetic field of infinitely long (i)
current carrying conducting Current enclosed by the ampere’s loop = I
wire by Ampere’s Law Taking anticlockwise direction of ampere’s loop ,
Consider a circular Ampearian loop around the ⃗⃗⃗ will be along the tangent and dl
d𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ ∥ B
⃗
infinite current carrying conductor and passing
∮ ⃗𝐁. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐈
through point where B to be found
∮ 𝐁𝐝𝐥𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐈
B∮ 𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐈
B 2𝛑𝐫 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐈
𝛍𝐨 𝐈
B=
𝟐𝛑𝐫
⃗ At a point outside the conductor (r < R)
(ii) 𝐁
⃗⃗⃗ = μo I
⃗ . dl
∮B
Current enclosed by the ampere’s loop = I1
∮ B𝑑𝑙cos0 = μo I
Taking anticlockwise direction of ampere’s loop , ⃗⃗⃗
dl
B∮ dl = μo I ⃗⃗⃗ ∥ B
will be along the tangent and dl ⃗
B 2πr = μo I Since current density is constant
𝐈 𝐈𝟏
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 =
B= 𝛑𝐑𝟐 𝛑𝐫 𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗ = μo I1
⃗ . dl
By Ampere’s law ∮B
𝟐
𝐫 𝐈
4. Derive the expression of Magnetic ∮ 𝐁𝐝𝐥𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎 = 𝛍𝐨 𝟐
𝐑
field due to a solid current carrying B∮ 𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝐨
𝐫𝟐𝐈
𝐑𝟐
cylindrical wire of uniform current 𝐫𝟐𝐈
density B 2𝛑𝐫 = 𝛍𝐨 𝐑𝟐
(i) At a point outside the conductor (r>R)
(ii) At a point inside the conductor (r<R) 𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝐫
B=
𝟐𝛑𝐑𝟐
 5. Derive the expression of 6. Time period and frequency of Circular
motion of charge projected perpendicular to
magnetic field due to a Long
uniform
solenoid using Ampere’s circuital
law
Consider a long solenoid of numbe of turns
per unit length = n

Charge q enters uniform magnetic field B

perpendicular to the field with velocity ‘v’.
Force on charge by magnetic field provides
necessary centripetal force

Centripetal Force = qvB

𝒎𝒗𝟐
= 𝒒𝒗𝑩
𝒓
⃗
The line integral of the magnetic field intensityB
along the selected Ampere’s loop is given by
 The net force on the charged particle in this
7.Helical motion of charge projected at situation is given by:
an angle(≠ 𝟗𝟎) in uniform magnetic ⃗ 𝒏𝒆𝒕 = q𝐄
𝑭 ⃗ + q(𝐯⃗ × 𝐁
⃗ )
field
⃗ + 𝐯⃗ × ⃗𝐁 )
= q (𝐄

9.A charge q of mass m enters ⊥ 𝒕𝒐 a

region of uniform magnetic field B of
length x and comes out of the field. Find
the deviation 𝜽 to cross the field If
𝒗sin𝜽 ⊥ 𝑩 is responsible for circular motion
(i) If x < r (ii) x > r
𝒗cos𝜽 ∥ 𝑩 is responsible for linear motion
(i) If x < r
Combined motion results in helical path The charge will leave the field at an angle θ
Radius of helical path
𝒎𝒗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
r=
𝒒𝑩

Pitch of helix= distance travelled in one revolution

pitch = v𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒙 𝑻
Where Time period of one revoltion
θ=sin−1(x/r)
𝟐𝝅𝒎
T= 𝒎𝒗
𝒒𝑩 r=
𝒒𝑩
8. Motion of Charged Particle in Combination of 𝒙
θ=sin−1( )
Electric and Magnetic Fields 𝒓
𝒙
= sin−1( 𝒎𝒗 )
𝒒𝑩

𝒙𝒒𝑩
θ= sin−1( )
𝒎𝒗

(ii) If x >r

⃗ = q𝑬
Force by electric field 𝑭 ⃗⃗
⃗𝑭 = q(𝒗
⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗ )
Combination of the electric and magnetic forces and
is known as the Lorentz force.
The charge will take a semicircular path and
come out
𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎
10.A particle of charge −q and mass m enters a 11. Derive the expression of force per unit
uniform magnetic field B (perpendicular to length on two infinitely long wires placed
paper inward) at P with a velocity v0 at an
angle α and leaves the field at Q with velocity v at
parallel to each other at distance ‘d’ in
angle β as shown in the figure . Find the vacuum. Hence define 1 ampere current.
expression of PQ and time for the charge inside
the field

B1 = magnetic field due to current I1 in conductor 1

B2 =magnetic field due to current I2 in conductor 2
𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝟏
B1 = (into the plane )
𝟐𝛑𝐝
𝑷𝑴 Conductor 2 placed at distance ‘d’ to right of
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 conductor 1, experiences force by magnetic field B1
𝒓
PM= rsin𝜶 .Force per unit length on wire 2
𝑸𝑴 𝑭𝟐
= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷 = I2 B1 sin90 ( towards left )
𝒍
𝒓 𝐅𝟐
QM= rsin𝜷 = I2 B1 ( towards left)
𝒍
PQ= PM + QM 𝐅𝟐 𝛍 𝐨 𝐈𝟏 𝛍 𝐨 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
PQ = rsin𝜶 + rsin𝜷 = I2 = (towards left)
𝒍 𝟐𝛑𝐝 𝟐𝛑𝐝
𝜶=𝜷 Now
PQ= 2rsin 𝜶 𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝟐
𝒎𝒗 B2 = (out of the plane)
r= 𝟐𝛑𝐝
𝒒𝑩 Force per unit length on wire 1
𝒎𝒗 𝐅𝟏
PQ= 2 sin 𝜶 = I1 B2 sin90 ( towards right )
𝐥
𝒒𝑩 𝑭𝟏
Time spent inside field = t = distance / speed = I1 B2 ( towards right)
𝒍
Distance covered = 2𝝅𝒓 - Arc length PQ 𝑭𝟏 𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝟐 𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
= I1 = (towards right)
=2𝝅𝒓 − ( 𝜶 + 𝜷)𝒓 𝒍 𝟐𝛑𝐝 𝟐𝛑𝐝
=2𝝅𝒓 − ( 𝟐𝜶)𝒓 Hence the two conductors attract each other
Distance =2r(𝝅−∝) 𝑭 𝛍𝐨 𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐
with force per unit length =
𝟐𝒓(𝝅−∝) 𝒍 𝟐𝛑𝐝
t= 𝒗 ❖ Definition of 1 ampere current:
𝒒𝑩𝒓 If I1 =I2 = 1 A and d = 1 m
v= 𝒎 𝐅 𝛍𝐨
t=
𝟐𝒓(𝝅−∝) = = 2 x 10-7 N/m
𝒒𝑩𝒓 𝐥 𝟐𝛑
𝒎
𝟐𝒎(𝝅−∝) 1 ampere is that current which when flowing
t= 𝒒𝑩
through each of the two infinitely long parallel
conductors placed in vacuum at distance 1 m ,
produces between them force per unit length of
2 x 10-7 N/m
12. Derive the expression of Orbital Magnetic 13. Torque on a current carrying coil
Moment of an electron revolving in orbit in placed in uniform magnetic field
an atom, hence define gyromagnetic ratio.

Length = 𝒍, breadth = b
Electron speed of revolution = v Force on PS 𝐹 PS = IbBcosθ 𝑗̂
radius of revolution = r
𝒆 𝐞𝐯 Force on QR ⃗FQR = IbBcosθ (- ĵ )
I= e/T = = ( T= time period)
Hence net force on coil along yy’
𝟐𝝅𝒓/𝒗 𝟐𝛑𝐫
Magnetic dipole moment of electron = 𝝁𝒍 = IA 𝐹 PS + F⃗Q=0
𝐞𝐯
𝛍𝐥 =𝟐𝛑𝐫 x𝛑𝐫 𝟐 No torque due to force on PS and QR
𝐞𝐯𝐫
𝝁𝒍 = Force on PQ ⃗FPQ = I𝑙B k̂
𝟐
Multiplying and dividing by m in eqn Force on SR ⃗FSR = I𝑙B (- k̂ )
emvr Hence net force on coil along ZZ’ axis =
μl =
2m
eL I𝑙B ĵ + I𝑙B (- k̂) = 0
μl = ( L = angular momentum = mvr)
2m But ⃗FPQ and ⃗FSR form a couple force
𝐞𝐋 separated by distance bsinθ as shown in
⃗ 𝒍=-
𝝁
𝟐𝐦 fig b
( -ve sign showns that magnetic moment μ
⃗ l is Torque due to couple force
⃗
opposite to 𝐿
𝝁𝒍 𝒆
τ =|𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒| x ⊥ distance bet 2
= 𝟐𝒎 forces = |𝐹𝑃𝑄 | x TS
𝑳
Ratio of magnetic moment of electron to its angular = I𝑙B x bsinθ
momentum is called gyromagnetic ratio and is
constant. Its value is 8.8 x 1010 C/kg τ=I lb Bsinθ
τ=IABsinθ
For N turns of the coil
τ= NIABsinθ
τ=M Bsinθ ( M= NIA)
⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑩
⃗ =𝑴
𝝉 ⃗⃗
14. State the principle and working of
moving coil galvanometer. Draw the BINA BNA 𝐒𝐢
SV= = =
schematic diagram of MCG. Define
CIR RC 𝐑
Hence current sensitivity of MCG can be increased
current sensitivity, voltage sensitivity . by increasing B, N or A or taking a spring of low
Principle torsional constant C.
The working of a moving coil galvanometer is based
on the fact that when a current carrying coil is
placed inside a magnetic field, the coil experiences a
15. Explain conversion of Galvanometer to
torque that tends to rotate it. The torque experienced Voltmeter with diagram
by the coil is proportional to the current passing
through it.
𝛕= BINASinθ

A high resistance R is connected in series with

galvanometer of resistance G
To convert galvanometer to voltmeter of range
0 to 𝑽
V = max rang of voltmeter
Ig = max galvanometer deflection current
V= Ig (G+R)
𝑽
The restoring torque in the spring 𝛂 twist 𝛟 (rad) R= 𝑰 – G
𝒈
Retorting torque = C𝛟
Where C= twist per unit deflection or restoring
16. Explain Conversion of Galvanometer to
torque per unit twist
Voltmeter with diagram
When the restoring toque in springs becomes equal
A small resistance S ( called shunt) is connected
to torque on the coil by the field the coil stops
in parallel with galvanometer of resistance G
rotating .
To convert galvanometer to ammeter of range
In equilibrium
0 to 𝑰
C𝛟 = BINA
𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
I = max rang of current
❖ Current sensitivity Si = = deflection Ig = max galvanometer deflection current
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
per unit current in the coil
𝛷
Si = SI unit is rad/A
𝐼
𝑩𝑰𝑵𝑨 𝐁𝐍𝐀
Si = =
𝑪𝑰 𝐂
A spring of low torsional constant C increases
current sensitivity. Spring made of phosphor
bronze has low torsional constant
deflection
Voltage sensitivity Si = = deflection per Voltage across G = voltage across shunSt
voltage
IgG = (I-Ig)S
unit volt in the coil
𝐈𝒈 𝐆
SV =
Φ
=
Φ
SI unit is rad/V
S=
𝐈−𝐈𝐠
V IR
 Chapter 5 Magnetism
1. Derive the Relation between relative
This is known as Curie’s law, The constant C is
permeability µr and magnetic susceptibility
called Curie’s constant.
χm Thus, for a paramagnetic material both χ and µr
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟎 = 𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 depend not only on the material, but also on the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 sample temperature. As the field is increased or the
⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 temperature is lowered, the magnetisation
= 𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍
increases until it reaches the saturation value Ms,
⃗𝑩
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝟎 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒎
at which point all the dipoles are perfectly aligned
⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝝁𝒐 𝐻
⃗ + 𝝁𝟎 ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗
with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law is no
⃗ = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐻 longer valid
⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ = 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍

⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐻 + ⃗𝑴
⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗
𝑴
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝐻
⃗ (1+ )
𝐻⃗
⃗⃗
𝑩
𝐻⃗
= 𝝁𝒐 ( 1 + χm)
χm = susceptibility
µ =𝝁𝒐 ( 1 + χ m) 3. Weiss Curie’s Law for ferromagnets turned
µ to paramagnets
= ( 1 + χ m)
𝝁𝒐
With increase in temperature the magnetism of
µ r = ( 1 + χ m) ferromagnets decreases due to thermal agitation of
the magnetic dipoles. As the temperature is further
2. State and derive the Curie Law for increased at a particular high temperature TC the
Paramagnets ferrormagnet turns in to a paramagnet. This
temperature TC is called Curie temperature.
Curie Law states that the magnetisation M of a The modified Curie law for ferromagnets turned
paramagnetic material is directly proportional to the into paramagnets is
magnetising field strength B0 and inversely For temperature T > TC
proportional to the absolute temperature T,
𝐶′
M 𝛼 𝐵𝑜 𝟀=
1 𝑇−𝑇𝐶
M𝛼𝑇
( C’´= Material specific Curie, TC = Curie
𝑩𝒐 temperature)
M= C
𝑻 Hence magnetic susceptibily of a ferromagnet
B o = 𝜇0 𝐻 turned into a paramagnet above the curie
𝜇 𝐻
M= C 0𝑇 temperature is inversely proportional to excess
𝑀 𝜇0 of temperature above the curie temparature.
OR =𝐶
𝐻 𝑇

𝝁𝟎
𝝌= 𝑪
𝑻
1
hence 𝝌 𝛼 𝑇
 Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Induction
𝛆 = - ⃗𝑬 .𝒍

1. Derive the expression of Motional EMF

Replacing - 𝐄 ⃗ =𝒗
⃗ X ⃗𝐁
on a conducting rod placed in uniform
magnetic field 𝛆 =( ⃗𝒗 X ⃗𝑩
⃗ ). 𝒍 This is general formula of emf 𝛆
OR

̂.𝒍
𝛆 = 𝒗𝐁𝒍𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝛈

( 𝛉 = angle between 𝐯⃗ and 𝐁 ⃗. 𝛈 ⃗

̂ is ⊥ to 𝐯⃗ and 𝐁
along the direction of 𝐯⃗ X ⃗𝐁 and direction of 𝐥
from -ve polarity to +ve polarity)

⃗ ⊥ ⃗𝑩
𝒗 ⃗ ⊥𝒍 ̂∥𝒍
𝛉 = 90 and 𝛈

𝛆 = 𝒗𝐁𝒍
2. Derive expression of EMF induced in a
A conducting rod is moved with uniform speed ‘v’
⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝒍
rod by changing area
inside uniform velocity such that 𝒗⃗ ⊥𝑩
Two smooth conducting rails QP and RS. Resistance
Force experienced by electrons
R connected between Q and P. A uniform
⃗ B = -e( 𝒗
𝑭 ⃗ X𝑩 ⃗⃗ ) (1) conducting rod MN of length 𝒍 free to
= e( ⃗𝐁
⃗ X 𝐯⃗ ) slide over the rails QP and RS.
= eBv (- 𝒌̂ × 𝒊̂ ) MN moved towards right with constant velocity v.
𝐅B= eBv (- 𝒋̂ ) = - eBv 𝒋̂
There is a downward force on electrons and they
drift downwards towards end Q.
P acquires + ve polarity and Q acquires -ve polarity.
An emf V is developed across PQ
Due to charge difference, an electric field is set up
along PQ The area QMNR changes to QM’N’R. Hence
Due to downward electric field
magnetic flux through QMNR changes.
𝐅E = -e𝐄⃗ (2) Let in infinitely small time ‘dt’, the distance moved
= -eE(- 𝒋̂) = + eE 𝒋̂
by MN = dx
Hence, the electrons experience an upward electric
Small change in area = 𝐝𝐀 = 𝒍dx
force
𝐝𝛟
At equilibrium Force by magnetic field on electrons Emf induced in rod MN = 𝛆 =
and force by electric field on electrons are equal 𝐝𝐭
𝐝 (𝐁𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎)
and opposite =
𝐅E = - 𝐅B 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐀 𝒍𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱
-e𝐄⃗ = - [-e( 𝐯⃗ X 𝐁
⃗⃗ ) ] = 𝐁 𝐝𝐭 =𝐁 𝐝𝐭 = B𝒍 = B𝐥v
𝐝𝐭
⃗ = 𝒗
-𝐄 ⃗ X ⃗𝐁
⃗ The polarity of emf induced in MN will be given
Potential difference(EMF 𝛆) across PQ of length 𝑙 by Fleming’s right hand rule
 MN acts like a battery with emf 𝛆 = 𝐁𝒍𝒗 Power expended moving rod MN
By right hand rule, M will have +ve polarity and N
will have -ve polarity
Since the circuit is closed, battery sends current in 𝐁𝐥𝐯 2 𝑩𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒗𝟐
resistor R from Q to R and in rod from N to M Power = I2R = ( 𝐑
) R= 𝑹
𝜺 𝑩𝒍𝒗
Current in resistance R , 𝐈= = 4.
𝑹 𝑹 A metallic rod of length ‘𝒍’ is rotated with a angular
frequency ‘𝛚’, with one end hinged at the centre
and the other end at the circumference of a
circular metallic ring, about an axis passing
through the centre and perpendicular to the plane
of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field
3. Derive the expression for Force on rod B parallel to the axis is present everywhere.
MN and Power developed in rod, when it is (a) Obtain the expression for the emf induced
moved with constant speed in uniform between the centre and the ring.
(b) Given that the rod has resistance ‘R’, then how
magnetic field
much power will be generated?

When the rod MN is moved with constant speed v

⃗ ⊥ ⃗B ⊥ l ),
( v
Emf induced in the rod MN (a) Consider a small length element ‘dx’ at distance
𝛆 = 𝐁𝒍𝒗 ‘x’ from centre of the rod.
A current is induced in the rod (from N to M). Linear velocity of length ‘dx’ ,
𝜺 𝑩𝒍𝒗 v’ = 𝛚𝒙
Current flowing in MN= 𝐈= = Small emf induced in length ‘dx’ due to velocity ‘v’
𝑹 𝑹
Current carrying conductor experiences force in d𝛆 = 𝐁𝐯′𝐝𝒙 = 𝐁𝛚𝐱 𝐝𝒙
magnetic field. Integrating both sides
Force on MN In uniform magnetic field due to 𝜺 𝒍
current induced from N to M ∫𝒐 𝒅𝜺 = ∫𝒐 𝑩𝝎 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒍
Blv 𝑩𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒗 𝜺= 𝑩𝝎 ∫𝟎 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
F= I𝑙Bsin90 = I𝑙B = lB =
R 𝑹 𝒙𝟐
𝒍
𝜺 = 𝑩𝝎 ]
𝟐 𝟎
By Fleming’s left hand rule direction of this force
on MN will be left. 𝒍𝟐
𝜺 = 𝑩𝝎
Hence to move the rod with constant speed 𝟐
towards right, an equal and opposite external force (b) Power generated
𝐁 𝟐 𝐥𝟐 𝐯 𝑙2
F= needs to applied. 𝜀2 (𝐵𝜔 2 )2 𝑩𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝒍𝟒
𝐑 P=
𝑅
=
𝑅
= 𝟒𝑹
 6. Derive the formula of Self inductance of
5. Define self inductance. Derive the a plane coil of N turns ( R >>>> thickness of
expression of Self inductance of a solenoid coil)
𝒍 Consider a circular coil of radius R and N turns
(for >> 1)
𝒓 carrying current I .
Self-inductance represents the ability of a Total Φ
Self inductance L =
coil/solenoid to oppose any change in I
Total magnetic field at centre due to N turns
current flowing through it, by induction of
Nμo I
opposing emf in itself. B=
2R
Consider a solenoid of N turns, length 𝑙 and cross- Magnetic flux linked one turn of coil
sectional area A. Nμo I Nμo π I R
Φ' = BA = πR2 =
2R 2
Total flux lined with N turns of the coil
N2 μo π I R
Φ=
2
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝚽
L=
𝐈
𝑵𝟐 𝝁𝒐 𝝅 𝑰 𝑹
A current I flows through the solenoid. 𝟐
Let total flux linked with N turns of solenoid =ϕ = 𝑰
Self inductance 𝐍𝟐 𝛍𝐨 𝛑 𝐑
L=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑵 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
=
ϕ L=
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 I 𝟐
7. Define Mutual Inductance. Derive the
Magnetic field inside solenoid B=𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 expression of mutual inductance of two long
Let flux linked with one turn = ϕ' = BA = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼A coaxial solenoids
𝑁
Where n = number of turns per unit length = Mutual inductance represents the ability of a coil to
𝑙
Flux lined with N turns ϕ = Nμo nIA oppose the change in the current flowing in another
coil placed in its vicinity by producing an opposing
𝛟 𝑵𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝑨 emf
L= =
𝐈 𝑰 Mutual Inductance of two long coaxial solenoids
L = Nμo nA Two long coaxial solenoids
Replacing N= n𝑙 r1 radius of (inner) solenoid S1
r2 = radius of (outer)solenoid S2
L= 𝛍𝐨 𝒏𝟐 𝒍 A r1 < r2
Common length of both solenoids = 𝑙
If solenoid is wound around a material of n1 = number of turns per unit length of solenoid S1
magnetic permeability 𝛍𝐦 and relative n2 = number of turns per unit length of solenoid S2
permeability 𝛍𝐫 A1 = area of cross-section of solenoid S1
A2 = area of cross-section of solenoid S2
L= 𝛍𝐦 𝐧𝟐 𝒍 A
L=𝛍𝐨 𝛍𝐫 𝐧𝟐 𝒍 A
 9.Derive the expression of Energy
Let current I2 flow in outer solenoid S2
Stored in Inductor
Mutual inductance of coil 1 w.r.t 2
When the current through an inductor is changed,
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝟏 𝝓𝟏
M12 = = the battery has to do work against the back emf to
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝟐 𝑰𝟐
𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝟐 𝑰𝟐 increase the current to a steady value I .
B2 =𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝟐 𝑰𝟐 =
𝒍 Rate of work done by battery’ against back emf
Magnetic flux linked in N1 turns of S1 𝐝𝐖
= 𝛆𝐈
ϕ1 = N1 B2A1 𝐝𝐭
μo N2 I2 𝒅𝑾 𝒅𝑰
ϕ1 = N1 A1 =L 𝐈
l 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝟏 dW = L 𝐈 d𝐈
M12 =
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐒𝟐 𝐼
𝛟𝟏 𝑁1
𝜇𝑜 𝑁2 𝐼2
𝐴1 ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼
𝑙
= 𝑰𝟐
𝐈𝟐 𝐼2 I
𝛍𝐨 𝐍𝟐 W= L ∫0 IdI = L
M12 = N1 A1 𝟐
𝒍 This work done by battery is stored in the
OR M12 = n1lμo n2 A1
magnetic field of the inductor
M12 = μo n1n2 𝑙A1
If n1 = n1 = n Energy E =
𝟏
L 𝐈𝟐
M12 = 𝛍𝐨 n2 𝒍A1 𝟐

8.Obtain the expression for the mutual 10. Obtain the expression of energy
inductance of a pair of coaxial circular coils stored per unit volume in inductor
of radii r and R(R >r) placed with their 𝟏
Energy stored in inductor E = L 𝐈𝟐
centres coinciding 𝟐
𝟏 𝐁
E= L( )𝟐 ( magnetic field
𝟐 𝐧𝛍𝐨
inside solenoid B = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼)
1 B
E= μo n2 𝑙A( )2
2 nμo

𝟏 𝐁𝟐
E= 𝒍A
I1 = current in outer coil C1 of radius R 𝟐 𝛍𝐨
Field produced at centre of outer coil B1 is linked Energy per unit volume
with the inner coil also
Magnetic flux linked with inner coil C2 or radius r 𝟏 𝑩𝟐
𝑬 𝒍𝑨
𝟐 𝝁𝒐
𝛟𝟐 = B1A2 =
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏
𝑨𝟐 u= =
𝟐𝑹 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑨𝒍
Total magnetic flux in coil C2
M21 = 𝐁𝟐
Current in coil C1
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 u=
ϕ2 𝐴2 𝟐𝛍𝐨
2𝑅
M21 = =
I1 𝐼1 Energy stored in inductor per unit volume is
μo μo 2
M21 = A2 = πr proportional to square of magnetic field
2R 2R

𝛍𝐨 𝛑𝐫 𝟐
M21 =
𝟐𝐑
11. A long solenoid of radius r consists of n
turns per unit length. A current I = Io sin𝝎𝒕
at flows in the solenoid. A coil of N turns is
wound tightly around it near its centre.
What is:
(a) the induced emf in the coil?
(b) the mutual inductance between the
solenoid and the coil?

(a) Area of the coil is same as solenoid as

it is tightly wound around the
solenoid
Magnetic field produced by solenoid
B=𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
Flux linked with N turns of coil
𝝓 = NBA
𝝓 =N𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝝓 𝒅(𝐍𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐 )
Emf E= − =-
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

E = - N𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝒐 𝝎𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐

𝝓𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
(b) Mutual inductance =
𝑰𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒊𝒅
𝐍𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝑰𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝑴=
𝑰𝒐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑴 = 𝐍𝝁𝒐 𝒏 𝝅𝒓𝟐
 Chapter 7: Alternating Current
𝐈= 𝐈𝐨 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭
1. State the principle and working of AC 𝛆𝐨 𝑵𝑩𝑨𝝎
GENERATOR ( AC DYNAMO) with 𝐈𝐨 = = = peak current
𝐑 𝑹
labelled diagram. Also state the use of
slip rings and carbon brushes.
Carbon Brush: Maintains contact with slip rings to
complete the circuit
Slip rings: Reverses the direction of current in the
load.
after every half rotation of coil
2. Derive the expression of mean value of
current in Half time period
Instantaneous current
𝐈= 𝐈𝐨 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭
Mean current over half time period
𝑻/𝟐
∫𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒕
Imean = 𝑻/𝟐
∫𝟎 𝒅𝒕

𝐓/𝟐
Principle: When a coil is rotated in uniform ∫𝟎 𝐈𝐨 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭
magnetic field, due to time rate of change in =
𝐓/𝟐
magnetic flux emf is induced and current induced in
𝐓/𝟐
the coil. 𝐈𝐨 ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭
Working =
𝐓/𝟐
A coil of N turns placed between N and S poles is 𝐓/𝟐
rotated with uniform angular speed 𝛚 in the −𝟐𝐈𝐨 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭]𝟎
=
magnetic field B. 𝛚𝐓
The angle subtended between 𝐴 of coil and 𝐵 ⃗ at any 𝟐𝛑 𝐓
−𝟐𝐈𝐨 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎)
𝐓 𝟐
instant 𝛉 = 𝛚𝐭 =
As the coil rotates, the angle 𝛚𝐭 changes 𝛚𝐓
−𝟐𝐈𝐨 (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛑 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟎)
continuously. Imean =
𝛚𝐓
Magnetic flux ϕ through coil continuously changes −𝟐𝐈𝐨 (−𝟏−𝟏)
and emf is induced . =
𝛚𝐓
𝛟 = BAcos𝛚𝐭
𝒅𝝓 d 𝟒𝐈𝐨 𝟒𝐈𝐨
ε= − = − (NBAcosωt) = = 𝟐𝛑
𝒅𝒕 dt 𝛚𝐓 𝐱𝐓
𝐓
d
ε= - NBA cosωt = - ωNBA( -sinωt)
dt 𝟐𝐈𝐨
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
ε= NBAωsinωt 𝛑

𝛆= 𝜺𝒐 sin𝛚𝐭
Where 𝛆𝐨 = NBA𝛚 = peak voltage
Current in the armature
ε NBAω sinωt
I= =
R R
 Average Heat produced by Alternating
current in time T in resistor of resistance R
𝑇 T
∫𝑜 𝐻𝑑𝑡 ∫o (I2o sin2 ωt x R)dt
3. Define rms value of current. Derive the HAC = 𝑇 = T
expression of rms current ∫0 𝑑𝑡 ∫0 dt
Root mean square current is equivalent to the DC
𝐼𝑜2 𝑅 T
current which will produce the same amount of = ∫o (sin2 ωt )dt
𝑇
heat in a resistance as produced by AC in one
cycle. I2o R 𝑇 T 𝑇
= ( ∫0 sin2 ωtdt =2 )
T 2
Rms current = Root of mean of square of current
over one cycle 𝐈𝐨𝟐 𝐑
HAC = (2)
𝟐
𝐓
∫𝟎 𝐈 𝟐 𝐝𝐭 From (1) and (2) It is proved
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 = √ 𝐓
∫𝟎 𝐝𝐭
5. Derive the expression of
Average power in one AC cycle
𝐓
∫𝟎 𝐈𝐨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭 V= 𝐕𝐨 sin𝛚𝐭
𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 =√ 𝐓 𝐈 =𝐈𝐨 sin(𝛚𝐭 + 𝛟)
∫𝟎 𝐝𝐭
Instantaneous power P = VI = 𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝐼𝑜 sin(ωt + ϕ)
𝐓 Average power over one time period
∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭
= Io √ 𝟎
T T
∫o Pdt ∫o Vo sinωtIo sin(ωt+ϕ)dt
𝐓 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = T = T
∫0 dt ∫0 dt
𝐓
∫ (𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭)𝐝𝐭
=I𝐨 √ 𝟎 Multiplying and dividing numerator by 2
𝟐𝐓
T 1
∫o 2 Vo Io 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭+𝛟)dt
𝐓 𝐓 =
=
𝑰𝒐 √ ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐭−∫𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭𝐝𝐭 T
√𝟐 𝐓 [using identity 2sinAsinB = cos(A-B) - cos(A+B) ]
𝐓 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 T
Paverage = ∫ [cos(−ϕ) − cos(2ωt + ϕ)]dt
=
𝐈𝐨 √ ∫𝟎 𝐝𝐭 𝐓
(∫𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛚𝐭 𝐝𝐭 = 0)
2𝑇 o
√𝟐 𝐓 Vo Io T T
Paverage = 2T
[ ∫o cosϕ dt − ∫0 cos(2ωt + ϕ)dt ]
𝐈𝐨 (cos(−ϕ)=cosϕ)
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = 0.707𝐈𝐨
√𝟐 T
(∫0 cos(2ωt + ϕ)dt = 0 )

Vo Io T
4. Show that heat produced by DC current of Paverage = 2T
cosϕ ∫0 dt
value 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 in time T flowing through a resistor Vo Io T
Paverage = cosϕ
produces the same average heat produced by 2T
alternating current in one AC cycle. 𝐕𝐨 𝐈𝐨
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛟
Heat produced by DC current Irms in time T in 𝟐

resistor of resistance R Vo Io
Paverage = cosϕ
√2 √2
2 𝐼 𝐈𝐨𝟐
HDC = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R = ( 𝑜 )2 𝑅 = 𝑹 (1) 𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 =𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛟
√2 𝟐
 7. Derive the expression for current
6.Show that AC current through a resistor is in through Inductor when an AC voltage is
phase with AC voltage applied across it. Hence
applied across it. Draw the waveform
draw the waveforms and phasor diagram for
resistance.
and phasor for inductor
Source voltage V = Vo sin𝛚𝐭
Using Kirchhoff’s law
V -IR = 0
V= IR
Vo sinωt = IR
𝑉
I = 𝑅𝑜 sinωt
I= I0 sin𝛚𝐭 Source voltage V = Vo
Hence voltage across resistor V = V0 sin𝛚𝐭 sin𝛚𝐭
Current through resistor I= I0 sin𝛚𝐭 Using Kirchhoff’s law
Phase difference between voltage and current V -VL = 0
𝛟=0 dI
V- Ldt = 0
dI
Ldt = V
dI
Ldt = Vo sinωt

𝑉
dI= 𝑜 sinωt dt
𝐿

Integrating both sides

V
∫ dI = Lo ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
V
I = - ωLo cosωt + C

Since Alternating current is variable with time , it

can not have any constant term. Hence C = 0
𝐕
𝐈 = - 𝛚𝐋𝐨 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭
𝐈 = - 𝐈𝐨 cosωt
V 𝐕
Io = ωLo = 𝐗𝐨
𝐋
𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚𝐋 = Inductive Reactance = resistance offered
by an inductor to AC. Is SI unit is ohm
𝐈 = - 𝐈𝐨 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐭
Using the identity
sin ( A- B) = SinAcosB - SinBcosA
π π π
sin(ωt − 2 )= sinωtcos 2 - sin2 cosωt
= 0 - cosωt
Phasor for AC through resistor π
sin(ωt − 2 )= -cosωt
𝛑
Hence replacing - cos𝛚𝐭 = sin(𝛚𝐭 − ) in
𝟐
equation of I
 𝛑 𝑽𝒐
I = I0sin(𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) I= 𝟏 cosωt
( )
Hence voltage through inductor V= V0sin𝛚𝐭 𝝎𝑪
𝐕𝐨
Current through inductor
𝛑
I = I0 sin(𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) I= cosωt
𝐗𝐂
𝛑
Current in an inductor lags voltage by 𝟐 𝟏
Where 𝑿𝑪 = 𝛚𝐂 = Capacitive reactance = Resistance
offered by capacitor to AC. SI unit is 𝛀
𝐈= 𝐈𝐨 cos𝛚𝐭
𝐕
Where Io = 𝐗𝐨 = peak current in capacitor
𝐂
Hence voltage across capacitor V = 𝐕𝐨 sin𝛚𝐭
Current through capacitor 𝐈= 𝐈𝐨 cos𝛚𝐭
𝝅
𝐈= 𝐈𝐨 sin(𝛚𝐭 + 𝟐 )
𝛑
Phase difference between voltage and current = 𝟐
𝛑
Current leads voltage in capacitor by 𝟐

Phasor for inductor

8.Derive the expression of current in a
capacitor when Alterting voltage applied
through a capacitor. Draw its waveform
and phasor diagram

Source voltage V = 𝐕𝐨 sin𝛚𝐭 .

Let any any instant ‘t’ the charge deposited on
capacitor is Q and Voltage across capacitor at time V
Q = CV
Q = C Vo sinωt
Differentiating both side w.r.t time
𝑑𝑄 dsinωt
= CVo
𝑑𝑡 dt
I= CV0ω cosωt
9.Draw the phasor diagram of RLC series ⃗𝑽𝒐 = 𝐕
⃗𝐑+𝐕 ⃗𝐂+𝐕 ⃗𝐋
combination connected to alternating ⃗𝐂+𝐕
𝐕 ⃗𝐋 =𝐕⃗ 𝐂𝐋
Then𝐕 ⃗𝐨=𝐕⃗𝐑+ 𝐕 ⃗ 𝐂𝐋
voltage and derive the expression of
If 𝐗 𝐂 > 𝐗 𝐋
impedance, current and phase difference 𝐕𝐂 > 𝐕𝐋
in a RLC series circuit. ⃗ 𝑪𝑳 | = 𝑽𝑪 − 𝑽𝑳
|𝑽

⃗ 𝐨 | = √𝐕𝐑𝟐 + (𝐕𝐂 − 𝐕𝐋 )𝟐
|𝐕

Io Z = √Io2 R2 + (Io XC − Io XL )2

Io Z = Io √R2 + (X C − X L )2
Source Z = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
voltage 𝐕 = 𝐕𝐨 sin𝛚𝐭
Z is called the impedance of the circuit. It is the total
𝐕𝐨 = peak voltage of source voltage
resistance offered by R, L and C to AC. Its SI unit is 𝛀
Current in all three element is same Current in circuit/each element
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐨 sin𝛚𝐭 𝐕𝐨 𝐕𝐨
1. Voltage in resistor 𝐈𝐨 = =
𝐙 √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐕 = 𝐕𝐑 sin𝛚𝐭 ( ϕ = 0)
VR = peak voltage across resistor
π Impedance triangle
2. Voltage in inductor leads current by 2
𝝅
𝐕 = 𝐕𝐋 sin (𝛚𝐭 +𝟐 )
𝐕𝐋 = peak voltage across inductor

π
3. Voltage in capacitor lags current by 2
𝛑
𝐕 = 𝐕𝐂 sin (𝛚𝐭 - 𝟐 )
Impedance Z ⃗ is the resultant of 𝑅⃗ and reactance 𝑋𝐶𝐿
VC = peak voltage across inductor
Reactance |𝑿⃗⃗ 𝑪𝑳 | = 𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳
⃗𝑜 | = √𝑽𝟐𝑹 + 𝑽𝟐𝑪𝑳
|𝑉 Phase difference between current Io and source (Vo )
𝐗 𝐂𝐋 XC − XL
VCL = net voltage across L and C tan ϕ = =
𝐑 R
Phasor diagram for RLC series 𝐗𝐂 − 𝐗𝐋
𝛟 = tan-1 ( )
𝐑

If XC > XL , ϕ > 0. Hence current leads voltage

by ϕ and circuit will be predominantly capacitive

If XL > XC , 𝛟 < 0. Hence current lags voltage

by ϕ and circuit will be predominantly inductive
10.Draw the phasor diagram for resonance 𝛚𝐫 =√𝑳𝑪
𝟏

in RLC series circuit and derive expression

for impedance, resonant frequency, 𝟏 𝟏
Or 𝐟𝐫 =𝟐𝛑 √𝐋𝐂
resonant current, average power
Average power at resonance
Pavg = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 cos𝛟
𝐑 𝐑
Power factor cos𝛟 = 𝐙 = 𝐑 = 1

Hence at resonance power factor is maximum = 1

Pavg = 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
=
𝑅
2
=𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 R
Resonance is a special condition of RLC series
circuit, when the impedance in the circuit becomes Phase difference between current 𝐈𝐨 and source
minimum and current in the circuit is maximum voltage (𝐕𝐨 )
𝐗 𝐂𝐋 𝐗𝐂 − 𝐗𝐋 𝟎
𝟏 tan 𝛟 = = =𝐑=0
Z= √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝛚𝐂 − 𝛚𝐋)𝟐 𝐑 𝐑

The source frequency = 𝛚 𝛟= 0

Hence current in circuit and source voltage are in
same phase at resonance
At a certain frequency 𝛚 =𝝎𝒓 ,
𝐗𝐋 = 𝐗𝐂 11.State the principle and working of
And 𝐕𝐋 = 𝐕𝐂 Transformer. With the help of diagram,
( voltage across inductor is 1800 out of phase of
derive the expression of turn ratio
voltage across capacitor )
This frequency ωr is called resonant frequency .
Principle: Transformer is a device based on phenomenon
At resonant frequency 𝛚𝐫
of mutual induction that can change the magnitude of
Z = √𝐑𝟐 alternating voltage
Z= R
Hence the impedance in the circuit is
minimum(=R)
Current in circuit
𝑽𝒐 𝐕𝐨
𝐈𝐨 = =
𝒁 𝐑
Since Z is minimum ,current amplitude Io in the
circuit is maximum .
Resonant Frequency
At resonance 𝜔𝑟
XL = XC
1
ωr L = ω Working: When current flows in primary coil, then it
rC
1 magnetises the soft-iron core. Secondary coil is also
𝜔𝑟 2 = LC
wound on the same core; hence, same magnetic field is
applied on it also. We can approximately say that when
current in the primary coil changes, then rate of 2. Step-Down Transformer : Number of turns in the
change of magnetic flux per turn in each coil is same secondary coil should be LESS than that in the
in primary and secondary primary coil.

If Np and Ns are total number of turns in primary

and secondary coil, respectively, then we can write
the following
If no losses,
Rate of change of magnetic flux with primary = rate
𝑑𝜙
of change of flux in secondary =
𝑑𝑡
𝐝𝛟
Emf Induced in primary |𝛆𝐩 | = 𝐍𝐏 Ns < Np
𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝛟 𝛆𝐬 < 𝛆𝐏 And
Emf Induced in secondary | 𝛆 𝐒 | = 𝐍𝐒
𝐝𝐭
𝐈𝐒 > 𝐈𝐩
𝜺𝑺 𝑵𝑺 Hence, step-up transformer changes high
= voltage and low current into low voltage and
𝜺𝒑 𝑵𝑷
𝐍𝐒
is called the turn ratio high current, respectively.
𝐍𝐏
If we assume that there is no loss of power in this
process, then we can write the following equation:
𝜺𝒑 𝑰𝒑 = 𝜺𝒔 𝑰𝒔
𝜺𝒔 𝑰𝒑 𝑵
𝜺𝒑
= 𝑰 = 𝑵𝒔
𝒔 𝑷

12. Explain working with the diagram of

step down and step up transformer.
We can make two types of transformers as follows:
1. Step-Up Transformer : Number of turns in the
secondary coil should be more than that in the
primary coil.

Ns > Np
𝛆𝐬 > 𝛆𝐏 And
𝐈𝐒 < 𝐈𝐩
Hence, step-up transformer changes low voltage
and high current into high voltage and low current,
respective
 Chapter 8 EM Waves
1.Explain the concept of displacement Maxwell resolved the discrepancy in Ampere’s law
by introducing the concept of displacement current
current hence derive the expression of According to Maxwell
Maxwell Ampere law. During charging/discharging of capacitor, the time
Consider a circular parallel plate capacitor varying electric flux (between the plates) induces
connected to a battery for charging. A steady circulating magnetic field. Hence there can be a
current i(t) in the wire charges the capacitor displacement current imagined between plates
which is the producing this circulating magnetic
field. Rate of change of electric flux is source of
displacement current.
Even though displacement current is a virtual
current, its dimensions are same as real current
He formulated the expression of displacement
current as
𝒅𝝓𝑬
I𝑑 = 𝜺 𝒐
𝒅𝒕
He modified Ampere’s equation as
∮ ⃗𝑩⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
∮ 𝑩. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑰𝒄 + 𝑰𝒅 )
𝐼𝑐 = conduction current due to flow of charge in the
wire outside capacitor
𝐼𝑑 = displacement current due to rate of change of
electric flux between the plates of capacitor.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒄 + 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒅
𝒅𝝓𝑬
∮ 𝑩. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒄 + 𝝁𝒐 𝜺𝒐 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝝓
In diagram (a) Magnetic field 𝐵 at point P on the ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 =𝝁𝒐 (𝑰𝒄 + 𝜺𝒐 𝒅𝒕𝑬)
amperian loop (outside the capacitor) by ampere’s
This is called Maxwell Ampere equation
law
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2.Photons have no mass that yet
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒊(𝒕) (1)
In figure (b) Consider the same amperian loop Electromagnetic Wave carry momentum.
passing through point P but enclosing a pot shaped Explain.
surface whose base passes between the capacitor Relation between total energy of a particle with its
plates. The mouth of the pot containing amperian mass and momentum is given by
loop is open. No current flows within the space E2 = p2c2 + 𝒎𝟐𝒐 c4
between the plates of capacitor. Hence, current For photons rest mass = mo = 0
threading through the pot shaped surface E2 = p2c
i(t) = 0. Magnetic field 𝐵 at point P on the
Or Energy of photon = pc
amperian loop enclosing the pot shaped surface will
Hence momentum of photon/Em wave
be
𝑬
∮ ⃗𝑩⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒊(𝒕) = 0 [ as i(t) = 0] (2) p=
𝒄
Equations (1) and (2) gives two different values Anything which has momentum can exert force and
through the same amperian loop . Hence there is hence pressure on other objects. When EM waves
an ambiguity in Ampere’s law . This ambiguity is due hit a surface, it exerts pressure on the surface
to discontinuity of current between conducting wire Force applied by EM wave on surface
and the space between capacitor plates. ∆𝒑 ∆𝑬
F= =
∆𝒕 𝒄∆𝒕
Here ∆𝑝 is the momentum transported to the
surface.

3.Show that energy density in electric

field and magnetic field for EM wave is
same. Derive the expression of energy
density of EM wave

Energy per unit volume in electric field

(Energy density)
𝟏 𝟏
uE= 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 or 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐𝒐
𝟐 𝟒
Energy per unit volume in magnetic field
𝟏 𝟏
uE = 𝑩𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 or 𝑩𝟐𝒐
𝟐𝝁𝒐 𝟒𝝁𝒐
𝑬𝒐 𝟏
c= and c=
𝑩𝒐 √ 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝒐
𝑩𝒐
Replacing Eo = in uE
√ 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝒐
𝟏
uE = 𝜺 𝑬𝟐
𝟒 𝒐 𝒐
𝟏 𝑩𝟐
= 𝜺𝒐 𝒐
𝟒 𝜺 𝝁 𝒐 𝒐
𝟏
uE = 𝑩𝟐𝒐
𝟒𝝁𝒐
Hence uE = uB
Total energy per unit volume
u= uE + uB
𝟏 𝟏
u = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐𝒐 + 𝑩𝟐𝒐
𝟒 𝟒𝝁𝒐
OR
𝟏 𝑩𝟐𝒐 𝟏
u = 𝜺𝒐 𝑩𝟐
+
𝟒 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝒐 𝟒𝝁𝒐 𝒐
𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑩𝟐𝒐 + 𝑩𝟐
𝟒𝝁𝒐 𝟒𝝁𝒐 𝒐
𝟏
u= 𝑩𝟐
𝟐𝝁𝒐 𝒐
𝟏
OR u = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐𝒐
𝟐
 Chapter 9 Ray Optics
1. DERIVATION OF MIRROR FORMULA
From concave mirror 2.DERIVATION OF MIRROR FORMULA
From convex mirror
2f - v

u-2f

∆𝐀𝐁𝐂 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀′𝐁′𝐂 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫 ∆𝐀𝐁𝐂 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀′𝐁′𝐂 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪
= (1) 𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪
𝑨′𝑩′ 𝑩′𝑪
∆𝐀𝐁𝐏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀′𝐁′𝐍 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝑨′𝑩′
= 𝑩′𝑪 (1)
𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐁 ∆𝐌𝐍𝐅 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∆𝐀′𝐁′𝐅 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐚𝐫
= (2) 𝐌𝐍 𝐍𝐅
𝐀′𝐁′ 𝐏𝐁′ = 𝐁′𝐅
From ( 1) and (2) 𝐀′𝐁′
𝐏𝐁 𝐂𝐁 𝐀𝐁 𝐏𝐅
𝐏𝐁′
=
𝐂𝐁′
=
𝐀′𝐁′ 𝐁′𝐅
(2) (MN= AB, NF= PF)

Using sign convention From ( 1) and (2)

𝐏𝐅 𝐁𝐂
−𝐮 −(𝐮−𝟐𝐟) =
= 𝐁′𝐅 𝐁′𝐂
−𝐯 −(𝟐𝐟−𝐯)
Using sign convention
𝐮 𝐮−𝟐𝐟
= 𝒇 −𝐮∓𝟐𝐟
𝐯 𝟐𝐟−𝐯
=
𝒇−𝐯 𝟐𝐟−𝐯
𝐮(𝟐𝐟 − 𝐯)=𝐯(𝐮 − 𝟐𝐟)
u2f - uv = uv - 2uf 𝐟(𝟐𝐟 − 𝐯)= (𝐟 − 𝐯)(−𝐮 + 𝟐𝐟)
Dividing by uvf 2f2 -fv = -fu +2f2 + uv -2fv
𝟐𝐮𝐟 𝐮𝐯 𝐮𝐯 𝟐𝐮𝐟 fv = -fu + uv
- = 𝐮𝐯𝐟 + 𝐮𝐯𝐟
𝐮𝐯𝐟 𝐮𝐯𝐟 Dividing by uvf
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐 𝐟𝐯 −𝐟𝐮 𝐮𝐯
- = - = + 𝐮𝐯𝐟
𝐯 𝐟 𝐟 𝐮
𝐮𝐯𝐟 𝐮𝐯𝐟
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
+ = 𝐮
=
𝐯
+
𝐟
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = + =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟 𝐯 𝐮 𝐟
 Thus, the image is formed on the back side of
the mirror. Hence, a convex mirror always produces
a virtual image, regardless of the object distance.
3.Show that focal length of spherical mirror
is half the radius of curvature 5.Show that a convex mirror (i) always
produces image formed between focus and
pole and (ii) virtual image formed is always
diminished
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒗 𝒇 𝒖
u<0
𝟏 𝟏
(i) >𝒇
𝒗
Or v < f
Hence image formed between focus and pole
𝟏 𝟏
Also (ii) >𝒖
𝒗
Or v < u
Or v/u < 1
m <1
Hence image formed is diminished
6.Use the mirror equation to deduce
that:(without taking any numerical values)
(a) An object placed between F and P of a
concave mirror produces a real image
beyond C.

4.Show that a convex mirror always produces a

virtual image, independent of the
location of object.
For a convex mirror, the focal length (f) is positive
When the object is placed on the left side of the
mirror, the object distance (u) is negative For image
distance , we have the mirror formula.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒗 𝒇 𝒖
u<0
𝟏
>𝟎
𝒗
Or v > 0

Hence v < 0 and image will be real

 7.Derive the expression for relation
between i,e, A, r and 𝜹 for refraction
through prism

(b) Object placed between F and P of

concave mirror produces virtual and
enlarged image.

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
1 1 1
= −
𝑣 𝑓 𝑢
For concave mirror
f < 0 and u < 0 and u <f
and u< f < 0
Therefore
1 1
− >0
𝑓 𝑢
1
OR 𝑣 >0
Or v > 0
v is always +ve. Image is on the right side of
the mirror. Hence always virtual image.
𝑣
Now m = −
𝑢
Since v> 0 and u < 0
⇒v>u
𝑣
⇒ >1
𝑢
Hence 8.Derive the relation between refractive
m>1
Image formed is enlarged. index and angle of minimum deviation
for a prism.
 total reflect inside denser medium. This
phenomenon is called TIR
Critical angle: The angle of incidence inside
denser medium at which angle of refraction in
rarer medium in 900.
Conditions for TIR
(a) Light should travel from denser to rarer
medium.
(b) Angle of incident inside denser medium
should be greater than critical angle for
pair of media.

At position of minimum deviation

∠𝑖 = ∠𝑒
∠𝑟1 = ∠𝑟2
∠𝐴 = ∠𝑟1 + ∠𝑟2 = 2∠𝑟1
∠𝑨 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
∠𝒓𝟏 = = n12
𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
For critical angle i = 𝜃𝑐
∠𝐴 + ∠𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ∠𝑖 + ∠𝑒 Angle of refraction r = 900
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐
∠𝐴 + ∠𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2∠𝑖 = n12
𝑠𝑖𝑛90
(∠𝐴 + ∠𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐
∠𝒊 = = n12
𝟐 1
Or
At first refracting surface n12 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛
(∠𝑨+ ∠𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) n21 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝟐 𝑛12
n21 = = ∠𝑨 𝟏
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝟐 n21 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒄
∠𝑨+ ∠𝜹𝒎𝒊𝒏
sin ( 𝟐
)
n21 = ∠𝑨
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝟐

9.Define total internal reflection and critical

angle.
State the conditions for TIR
Derive the relation between refractive
index and critical angle 10.Derive the relationship between u, v , R
When light travels from denser to rarer and refractive index for refraction through a
medium, if angle of incidence is greater than convex spherical surface for object placed
the critical angle for the pair of media, light will in rarer medium
11.Derive lens equation by ray
diagram A) Lens formula from convex
lens

∆𝑩𝑨𝑭𝟏 ~ ∆B’A’O
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑨
=
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑶𝑨′

∆𝑶𝑴𝑭𝟐 ~ ∆B’A’F2
𝑶𝑴 𝑶𝑭𝟐
𝑨′ 𝑩 ′ = 𝑭𝟐 𝑨′
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑭𝟐
𝑨′ 𝑩 ′ = 𝑭𝟐 𝑨′
( OM = AB)
 𝑶𝑨 𝑶𝑭𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − =
𝑶𝑨′ 𝑭𝟐 𝑨′ 𝒗 𝒇 𝒖
−𝒖 𝒇 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − =
𝒗 𝒗−𝒇 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
−𝒖(𝒗 − 𝒇) = 𝒗𝒇
−𝒖𝒗 + 𝒖𝒇 = 𝒗𝒇
12.Show that the minimum distance
Dividing by uvf between an object and its real image
−𝒖𝒗 𝒖𝒇 𝒗𝒇 formed by a convex lens is 4f.
+ =
𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇
Let d be the least distance between object and
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 image for a real image formation
+ =
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 13.Define power of a lens. Derive formula
− = of Power of a lens
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
(B) Lens formula from concave lens

∆𝑩𝑨𝑶 ~ ∆B’A’O
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑨
=
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑶𝑨′

∆𝑶𝑴𝑭𝟏 ~ ∆B’A’F1
𝑶𝑴 𝑶𝑭𝟏
=
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑨′𝑭𝟏
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑭𝟏
= ( OM = AB)
𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑭𝟏 𝑨′
𝑶𝑨 𝑶𝑭𝟏
=
𝑶𝑨′ 𝑭𝟏 𝑨′
−𝒖 −𝒇
=
−𝒗 −(𝒇 − 𝒗)
𝒖(𝒇 − 𝒗) = 𝒗𝒇
𝒖𝒇 − 𝒖𝒗 = 𝒗𝒇
Dividing by uvf
𝒖𝒇 𝒖𝒗 𝒗𝒇
− =
𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇 𝒖𝒗𝒇
 15.Derive the Lens Maker’s equation
and Hence lens equation
14.Derive expression of power of
combination of lenses

Adding (1) and (2)

 𝑰𝑩′
Tan 𝜶 = 𝜶 =
𝑪𝑰
𝑶𝑩
𝑪𝑶
M= 𝑰𝑩′
𝑪𝑰
(OB= IB’)
𝑪𝑰 −𝑫 𝑫
M= = = (1)
𝑪𝑶 −𝒖 𝒖
Using Lens equation
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 −𝑫 −𝒖
𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝑫 𝒖
Multiplying LHS and RHS by D
𝑫 𝑫
= −𝟏 + 𝒖
𝒇
This is Lens Maker’s formula 𝑫
=1+𝒇
𝑫
( 2)
𝒖
From (3) and (4) From (1) an (2)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑫
= − M=1+ 𝒇
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

(ii) Normal Adjustment

16.Derive the expression for magnifying
power (angular magnification) of a Object at F
simple microscope for image formed (i)
Least distance of distinct vision (D)
(ii) Normal Adjustment ( Image at ∞)
(i) Image at D

Angular magnification Angular magnification

𝜷 𝜷
M= M=
𝜶 𝜶
For small angles For small angles
𝑶𝑩 𝑶𝑩
Tan 𝜷 = 𝜷 = Tan 𝜷 = 𝜷 =
𝑪𝑶 𝑪𝑶
 𝑶𝟏 𝑩 The eyepiece simply acts as simple
Tan 𝜶 = 𝜶 =
𝑪𝑶𝟏
𝑶𝑩
magnifying glass (simple microscope)
𝑪𝑶 Hence angular magnification of eyepiece
M= 𝑶𝟏 𝑩
𝑪𝑶𝟏
(already derived)
𝑫
(OB= O1B) Me= (1 + ) (ii)
𝒇𝒆
𝑪𝑶𝟏 −𝑫 𝑫
M= = = (1) From (i) and (ii)
𝑪𝑶 −𝒇 𝒇 Total magnification (for image at D)
𝑫 𝑳 𝑫
M= 𝒇 M ≈ (1 + )
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
(ii) Image at Normal adjustment
17.Derive the expression of angular
magnification of simple microscope for
image formed at (i) image at D
(ii) Normal adjustment
(i) Image at D

For image formed at infinity

Total magnification
M= mo × Me
Linear magnification of objective
(By similarities of ∆𝒔)
𝒉 𝑭 𝑩 𝒗 −𝒇
m0 = 𝒊 = 𝑶 𝟏 = 𝒐 𝒐
𝒉𝒐 𝑶𝑭𝑶 𝒇𝒐
Image A1B1 formed at fE
𝒗𝒐 − 𝒇𝒐 ≈ L = tube length
𝑳
m0= (i)
Magnification M of compound microscope = 𝒇𝒐
linear magnification of objective (m0) x The eyepiece simply acts as simple magnifying
Angular magnification of eyepiece(Me) glass (simple microscope)
M= mo × Me Hence angular magnification of eyepiece when
Linear magnification of objective image formed at ∞
𝑫
(By similarities of ∆𝒔) Me= (ii)
𝒇𝒆
𝒉 𝑭 𝑩 𝒗 −𝒇
m0 = 𝒊 = 𝑶 𝟏= 𝒐 𝒐 From (i) and (ii)
𝒉𝒐 𝑶𝑭𝑶 𝒇𝒐
if v0 very close to fe Total magnification (for image at D)
𝑳 𝑫
𝒗𝒐 − 𝒇𝒐 ≈ L = tube length M≈ ×
𝑳 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
m0≈ (i)
𝒇𝒐
18.Derive the expression for an (iii) Normal Adjustment
gular magnification of refracting
telescope for (i) image formed at (D) and
(ii) Normal adjustment

𝜷
M= 𝜷
𝜶
𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
M=
𝜶
𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶 = 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
𝜶 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶 =
𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝛃 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 = 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
𝜷 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
𝑬𝑩𝟏
𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝛃 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 =
𝑬𝑩𝟏
M= = × 𝜷 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏 𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝜶
𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝑬𝑩𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏 M= = ×
𝜶 𝑬𝑩𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝑩𝟏
M= 𝑶𝑩𝟏
𝑬𝑩𝟏
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐
M=
𝑬𝑩𝟏
M = =- 𝒇𝒐
−𝒖𝑬 𝒖𝑬 M =-
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝑬
M =- LENGTH OF TELESCOPE TUBE=
𝒖𝑬
using lens equation for eyepiece DISTANCE BET 2 LENSES = |𝒇𝑶 | + |𝒇𝑬 |
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= - = -
𝒇𝑬 𝒗𝑬 𝒖𝑬 −𝑫 −𝒖𝑬
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇𝑬 −𝑫 𝒖𝑬
Multiplying both sides by 𝒇𝒐
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐
= +
𝒇𝑬 −𝑫 𝒖𝑬
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒐
= +
𝒖𝑬 𝑫 𝒇𝑬
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝑬
M=- (1 + )
𝒇𝑬 𝑫
- sign as virtual image is inverted
LENGTH OF TELESCOPE TUBE=
DISTANCE BET 2 LENSES = |𝒇𝑶 | + |𝒖𝑬 |
|𝒇𝒆 𝑫|
=|𝒇𝑶 | + |𝒇
𝒆 + 𝑫|
19. Explain the principle and working of 20. In an astronomical telescope in normal
Cassegrain telescope. State its advantage adjustment, a straight black line of length L is
drawn on the inside part of the objective lens.
over refracting telescope.
The eyepiece forms a real image of this line.
The Cassegrain telescope is a type The length of this image is I. Show that the
of reflecting telescope which employs a magnification of the telescope is L/I
combination of a primary concave mirror
and a secondary convex mirror into its
design.
In the classic Cassegrain telescope, a
parabolic primary mirror has a hole placed
in its center. While this may seem like a
strange thing to do, the incoming
At normal adjustment distance between the
electromagnetic waves are actually
lenes = fo + fe
captured by the parabolic mirror’s edges 𝑓
Magnification of telescope M = 𝑜 ( 1)
and re-directed to the hyperbolic 𝒇𝒆

secondary mirror where they join. The line on the inside part of objective lens .
The light (or wave) is then refocused back
Objective will not form any image of this line.
Line acts as object for the eyepiece
towards the hole where it converges to a
Hence magnification of telescope M =
focal point – the eyepiece. linear magnification of eyepiece me
M= me
𝒗
me = 𝒆 (2)
−𝒖𝒆
−𝐈
also me= (3)
𝐋
Using lens equation for eyepiece

For eyepiece
ue = -( fo + fe)
1 1 1
= -
𝑓𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑒
Advantages 1 1 1
= +
𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒 𝑢𝑒
1. Larger magnification 1
=
1
+
1
𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒 −( fo + fe)
2. Free of chromatic and spherical
aberration
3. Higher resolution and brighter image
due to large aperture
 Chapter 10 Wave Optics
1. State Huygen’s principle. Using the
principle .Prove the laws of reflection
“ Every point on a wave-front may be
considered a source of secondary spherical
wavelets which spread out in the forward
direction at speed of light. The new wave-front
is tangential surface to all of these secondary
wavelets”

2. Using the principle prove the laws of

refraction For light travelling from rarer to

At time t=0, Point A on the incident wavefront AP

hits the surface first and produce secondary
spherical wavefronts from A which travels in the
same medium with speed of light ‘c’.
At time ‘t’, P on incident wavefront hits the
reflecting surface at A’
Distance travelled PA’ = ct
In same time , the secondary wavefront from A
would grow to a sphere of radius AQ = ct
A’Q = reflected wavefront denser medium
Hence PA’ =AQ = ct n1= ref index of rarer medium 1(rarer)
AA’ = common n2= ref index of denser medium 2(denser)
∠APA′=AQA′=900 OB= incident wavefront travelling with speed v1 in
∆PAA′and ∆QA′A are congruent medium 1( rarer)
Hence ∠PAA′=∠QA′A At time t=0, Point O of incident wavefront strikes
Hence ∠i =∠r the interface and secondary waves from O produced
Hence first law proved. in medium 2
In time ‘t’ point B of incident wavefront OB travels
distance v1t in medium 1 and strikes the interface at
B’. In same time the secondary wavelets from O
grow to a sphere of radius v2t in second
medium(denser).
CB’ = Refracted wavefront( common envelope of all
secondary wavelets in time t)
 BB’ = v1t and OC = v2t 𝑩𝑩′ 𝑶𝑪
sin i = and sin r =
𝑶𝑩′ 𝑶𝑩′
∠BOB' = ∠i & ∠OB'C = ∠r
𝐵𝐵′ 𝑂𝐶 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢 𝐁𝐁′ 𝐯𝟏 𝐭 𝟏 𝐯
sin i =
𝑂𝐵′
and sin r =
𝑂𝐵′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫
=
𝐎𝐂
=
𝐯𝟐
=
𝐭 𝐯
(1)
𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢 𝐁𝐁′ 𝐯𝟏 𝐭 𝐯𝟏
= = = (1) 𝐯𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫 𝐎𝐂 𝐯𝟐 𝐭 𝐯𝟐 Also = n21 (2)
𝐯𝟏 𝐯𝟐
Also = n21 (2)
𝐯𝟐 From (1) and (2)
From (1) and (2)
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
=n21 =n21
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫
This is Snell’s law
3. Using the principle prove the laws of
refraction .For light travelling from denser 4.Two monochromatic waves emanating from
to rarer medium two coherent sources have the displacement at
a point represented by y1 = acosωt and
y2 = acos(ωt + 𝛟 ) where is the phase
difference between two displacements. Show
that the resultant amplitude at a given point
due to superposition is given by
𝛟
A = 4a2cos2( ). Hence obtain the condition for
𝟐
constructive and destructive interference.
Given
y1 = acosωt
y2 = acos(ωt + 𝛟 )
Resultant y = y1 + y2
y = acosωt + acos (ωt +𝛟)
y = a[cosωt + cos (ωt + 𝛟 )]
n1= ref index of denser medium 1(denser) 𝑨+𝑩 𝑨−𝑩
Using Cos A + Cos B = 2cos( )cos ( )
𝟐 𝟐
n2= ref index of rarer medium 2(rarer) ϕ −ϕ
y = 2acos(ωt + ) )cos( )
𝟐 𝟐
OB= incident wavefront travelling with speed v1 ϕ ϕ
[ replacing cos(− )= cos( )]
in medium 1( denser) 𝟐 𝟐
ϕ ϕ
or y = 2acos cos(ωt + )
In time ‘t’ point B of incident wavefront OB travels 𝟐 𝟐
ϕ
distance v1t in medium 1 and strikes the interface let 2acos( )= A = resultant amplitude
𝟐
at B’. In same time the secondary wavelets from O Hence Displacement of the resultant wave at
grow to a sphere of radius v2t in second the given point
medium(rarer). ϕ
y = Acos(ωt + )
𝟐
ϕ
(v2 > v1) Where A=2acos( )
𝟐
CB’ = Refracted wavefront( common envelope of all Squaring both sides
ϕ
secondary wavelets in time t) A2 = 4a2cos2( )
𝟐
BB’ = v1t and OC = v2t Hence proved.

∠BOB' = ∠i & ∠OB'C = ∠r

1. Condition for constructive interference
ϕ
Amplitude A=2acos( 𝟐 )
For amplitude to be maximum
ϕ
cos( 𝟐 )= ± 1 ( for crest +1 and trough-1)
Phase difference 𝛟=0,2π,4π,6π.......
𝛟=2nπ ( n=0,1,2,3...)
Path difference
𝜆
∆x=2𝜋 ϕ
λ
∆x=2π 2nπ
∆x=nλ (n=0,1,2,3.......)
Path difference ∆x=0, λ,2λ,3λ,4λ….

2. Condition for destructive interference

ϕ
A=2acos( 𝟐 )
For resultant amplitude to be 0
ϕ
cos( 𝟐 )= 0
𝛟=π, 3π, 5π.......
𝛟=(2n−1)π ( n=1,2,3...)

Path difference
λ
∆x=2π ϕ
λ
∆x=2π (2n-1)π
𝛌
∆x=(2n−1)𝟐 (n=1,2,3.......)
Path difference ∆x= λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, 7λ/2....

5.Show that in interference of two waves

each of frequency 𝝎,amplitude ‘a’ and
intensity 𝐈𝒐 , the intensity of resultant
wave ranges from 0 to 4𝐈𝒐
 Chapter 11: Dual Nature and Photoelectric Effect
1. Write Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation 2.Explain how you will find value of ‘h’ from
and hence derive the relation between Einstein's equation
stopping potential and cut off wavelength 𝛎0= threshold frequency, Vo =stopping
potential, ν = freq of incident wave
for a metal K.Emax = hν−h𝛎0
When a photon of energy h𝛎 for (ν > ν0) falls on a eVo = h𝛎−h𝛎0
metal surface, the energy of photon is absorbed by eVo = h 𝛎 - 𝛟
𝒉 𝛟
the electron ans is used in two ways: V0 = 𝛎-
(i) A part of energy is used as work function 𝒆 𝐞
Plotting graph between stopping potential V0 (on y
𝛟 = 𝐡𝛎o to remove electrons from surface
axis) and frequency (ν) on (X axis)
(ii) The remaining part of the energy is used in
y = mx + c
giving velocity ‘vmax’ to the emitted electrons.
Comparing y = V0 (quantity on y axis) and
This is equal to the maximum
𝟏𝟐
x = ν ( quantity on x axis)
KEmax (= 𝟐 m𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 )of the photoelectrons where m is 𝐡
Slope m =
the mass of photoelectron. 𝐞
𝛟
According the law of conservation of energy Intercept on y axis c = -
𝐞
hν =hνo + KEmax (ν > ν0) Hence graph of V0 vs ν will be a straight line
or Hence KEmax = hν -hνo Value of
c c
or KEmax = h -h Planck's
λ λo
or eVo = hν -hνo
𝐜 𝐜
Or eVo =h -𝐡
𝛌 𝛌𝐨

2.Verifty laws of reflection using Einstein’s

photoelectric effect equation

KEmax = h𝛎 -𝐡𝛎o
i) If 𝛎 < 𝛎o, max KE is negative, which is not
possible. Therefore, for photoelectric emission to constant
take placeonly if 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝛎 > 𝛎o h = slope x e
ϕ
ii) Since one photon emits one electron, so the Intercept on Y axis = - e
number photoelectrons emitted per second is Hence work function ϕ = intercept (Y axis) x e
directly proportional to the intensity of incident
light.
iii) h 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛎o are constant in the equation . Hence It
is that K.E. max of the photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the frequency of the incident light.
iv) Photoelectric emission is due to collision
between a photon and an electron. As such there
can not be any significant time lag between the
incidence of photon and emission of photoelectron.
i.e. the process is instantaneous. It is found that
delay is only 10-8 seconds.
3.Explain Bohr’s Postulate of quantisation 𝒉
𝝀=
of angular momentum of orbits using De- √𝟐𝒎𝑲
Brogle’s Hypothesis If the electron is accelerated through a
potential difference V
KE = qV =eV ( V=potential difference)
𝒉
𝝀=
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
𝝀= Å
√𝑽
(this formula valid only for electron)
For any other charge ‘q’ accelerated through a
potential difference B use the formula
𝒉
𝝀=
√𝟐𝒒𝑽𝒎

5. An electron and alpha particle have the same

de- Broglie wavelength associated with them. How
are their kinetic energies related to each other?

4. Derive the relation between de-Broglie

wavelength and Potential difference V through
which a charge is accelerated to attain velocity
‘v
𝒉
De Broglie wavelength 𝝀=
𝒎𝒗
K.E of charge moving with velocity v
K= ½ mv2
𝟐𝑲
velocity v= √ 𝒎
𝒉
𝝀=
𝟐𝑲
𝒎√
𝒎
 Chapter 12 Atoms

1.Define impact parameter. Draw the 2.Derive the expression of DISTANCE OF

diagram showing deviation of alpha CLOSEST APPROACH BY RUTHERFORD’S
particles in Rutherford’s experiment and EXPERIMENT
mark the impact parameter. State the
equation which relates scattering angle
with impact parameter

The trajectory traced by an 𝛂 particle depends on

the impact parameter ‘b’ of collision.
The impact parameter is defined as the
perpendicular distance of the velocity vector 𝐯⃗
( of the projectile 𝛂 particle) from a parallel When the 𝛼 particle approaches closest to the
central line of the nucleus of the target.Smaller nucleus then by conservation of mechanical energy,
the value of impact parameter ‘b’, larger the all of its kinetc energy is converted to electrostatic
scattering ∠ 𝛉. potential energy. Let maximum velocity ‘v’ be given
to 𝛼 particle to appoach the closest distance ‘d

𝐾𝐸𝛼 = PEat distance d

𝒌𝒁𝒆 ×𝟐𝒆
PEat distance d=
𝒅
(charge on target nucles = Ze, charge of 𝛼 = 2e )
𝒌𝒁𝒆 ×𝟐𝒆
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐾𝐸𝛼 =
𝒅
Distance of closest of approach ‘d’
𝟐𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
d= ( KE is in joules)
𝑲𝑬𝜶
𝟒𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
or d =
𝒎∝ 𝒗𝟐∝

(when velocity of ∝ particle is given)

if KE is given in eV then ( Direct formula – no need
to convert eV to J)
𝟐𝒌𝒁𝒆
d=
𝑲𝑬𝜶 (𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝑽)

Putting Z = 79 for gold, 𝐾𝐸𝛼 = 5.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 and values

of all othe constants in above formula

Distance of closest approach d = 41.2 f

LEARN THIS DIAGRAM
 3.Derive the expression of Orbital velocity 𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
KEn =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝟐𝒓𝒏
= 𝟐𝒓𝒏
and orbital radius by Rutherford’s
planetary model Total energy = U + KE
𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒁𝒆𝟐
En = - 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝒏
+ 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝟐𝒓𝒏
𝒁𝒆𝟐
En = - 𝟖𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝒏
For hydrogen Z=1
𝒆𝟐
En = -
𝟖𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝒏
𝒌𝒆𝟐
Or En = - 𝟐𝒓𝒏

𝒓𝒏= radius of the nth orbit 5.Derive the expression of Radius of

𝒗𝒏= velocity of the electron in nth orbit electron in nth orbit in Bohr’s model
Charge of nucleus = Ze , Charge on electron in nth
orbit = e Electron revolving in orbit of radius rn with
Felectical = Fcentripetal velocity vn
𝒁𝒆𝟐 = 𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝟐
𝒏
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
𝒏 𝒓𝒏
𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 𝒓𝒏 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝐦𝐞 𝒗𝟐𝒏
And Velocity of electron in nth orbit

𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒗𝒏 = √
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝒏

𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒗𝒏 = √
𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝒏
Coulomb force between -e and +Ze = Centripetal
force
𝑍𝑒 2 2
4.Derive the expression of total energy of k =
𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑛
electron in an atom using Rutherford’s 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛
𝒆𝟐
model En = - 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
𝟖𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝒏 rn= 𝑚 2 (1)
th
Electrostatic Potential Energy (U) of electron n orbit 𝑒 𝑣𝑛
of radius rn in hydrogen atom By Bohr’s 2nd postulate
𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝑛ℎ
Un = - =- me 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝒏 𝒓𝒏
𝑛ℎ
(charge on electron = - e & charge of nucleus = +Ze) vn= 2𝜋𝑚
th 𝑒 𝑟𝑛
Kinetic energy (KE) of electron n orbit of radius rn
putting the value of vn in equation (1)
with velocity vn
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝟐
𝒏
𝟏 rn = 𝒏𝒉 =
KEn= 𝟐m𝒗𝟐𝒏 𝒎( ) 𝟐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉 𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝒏
𝒁𝒆𝟐
Putting 𝒗𝒏 = √ in eqn of KEn
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒎𝒆 𝒓𝒏
 𝒏𝟐 𝒉 𝟐 𝛆𝐨 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐 7. Show that energy of nth orbit in Hydrogen
rn= = atom by Bohr’s Model is given by
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆 𝐙𝐞𝟐 𝛑𝐦𝐞
𝐙 𝟐 𝐦 𝐞𝟑
For hydrogen atom En = - 𝟐 𝐞𝟐 𝟐
𝟖𝛆𝐨 𝐧 𝐡
rn = 0.529n2 Å
This radius is called Bohr’s radius By Rutherford’s Model
For Hydrogen like Atoms 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝟎.𝟓𝟐𝟗 𝐧𝟐
Total energy of nth orbit En = -
𝟐𝒓𝒏
rn = Å Putting the value of radius of nth orbit by Bohr’s
𝐙
𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
model rn= in Energy formula
6.Show that velocity of electron in 𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐 𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐦
hydrogen atom in 1st orbit is 𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐
En = -
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝟐. 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎/𝒔 by Bohr’s Model 𝟐(
𝒌𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝒆
)

𝐙𝐞𝟐 𝐦𝐞 𝐯𝐧𝟐 2π2 Z2 me k2 e4

k = En = -
𝐫𝐧𝟐 𝐫𝐧 n2 h2
1
𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐 Putting k =
Vn= √ 4πε0
𝐦𝐞 𝐫𝐧
By Bohr’s 2nd postulate 𝒁 𝟐 𝒎𝒆 𝒆 𝟒
En = - (in joule )
𝐧𝐡 𝟖𝜺𝟐𝒐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
m𝐫𝐧 =
𝟐𝛑𝐯𝐧 𝐙 𝟐 𝐦𝐞 𝐞𝟑
OR En = - ( in eV)
Velocity vn= √
𝐤𝐙𝐞𝟐 𝟖𝛆𝟐𝐨 𝐧𝟐 𝐡𝟐
𝐧𝐡
𝟐𝛑𝐯𝐧 Putting all values of constants energy
Squaring both sides and solving of nth orbit

𝐙 𝐤𝟐𝛑 𝐞𝟐 𝐙 𝐞𝟐 𝟏 For hydrogen like atoms

v n= = (putting k=𝟒𝛑𝛆 )
𝐧𝐡 𝟐𝛆𝐨 𝐧𝐡 𝐨 𝟏𝟑.𝟔 𝐙 𝟐
En = - eV
For Hydrogen like atoms 𝐧𝟐
For Hydrogen atom
vn= 𝟐. 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 𝐙
) 𝟏𝟑.𝟔
(𝐧 En = - eV ( -ve sign as e- bound
𝒏𝟐
For hydrogen, velocity in nth orbit to nucleus)

𝟐.𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔
vn= ( ) m/s
𝐧

For hydrogen , velocity in 1st orbit

vn= 𝟐. 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟔 m/s

8.Derive the expression of wavelength 9.Derive an expression for the frequency of
radiation emitted when a hydrogen atom de-
of light emitted due to transition of excites from level n to level (n – 1). Also
electron from higher orbit to lower show that for large values of n, this
orbit by Bohr’s model.Hence write the frequency equals to classical frequency of
equations of wavelength for hydrogen series. revolution of an electron.
E = En - E(n-1)
According to Bohr’s third postulate, when an 𝑚 𝑒4 𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4
electron in hydrogen atom makes transition from h𝜈 = - 8𝜀2𝑛𝑒 2ℎ2 - (- 8𝜀𝑜2 (𝑛−1)2 ℎ2
)
𝑜
higher energy level Eh with quantum number 𝑛𝐻 to a
𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4
lower energy level El with quantum number nL , the ℎ𝜈 = [ 1 - 1 ]
energy difference is carried by a photon of 8𝜀𝑜2 ℎ2 (𝑛−1)2 𝑛2
frequency 𝝂 such that 𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4
𝜈= 2 3 [ 1 2 - 12 ]
8𝜀𝑜 ℎ (𝑛−1) 𝑛
Energy of photon = energy difference = ℎ𝜈 4 2 2
𝑚𝑒 𝑒 𝑛 −𝑛 −1+2𝑛
𝜈= [ ]
ℎ𝜈 = Eh - El 8𝜀𝑜2 ℎ3 𝑛2 (𝑛−1)2
𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4 2𝑛−1
= −
𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4
- (-
𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4
) 𝜈= [ ]
2ℎ
8𝜀𝑜2 𝑛𝐻 2 8𝜀𝑜2 𝑛𝐿2 ℎ 2 8𝜀𝑜2 ℎ3 𝑛2 (𝑛−1)
2

When n is large, 2n - 1 ≈ 2n and (n - 1)2 ≈ n2

𝑚𝑒 𝑒4 𝑚𝑒 𝒆𝟒 𝑚𝑒 𝑒 4 2𝑛
ℎ𝜈 = - 𝜈= 2 3[ 2 2]
8𝜀𝑜2 𝑛𝐿2 ℎ2 2 ℎ2
8𝜀𝑜2 𝑛𝐻
8𝜀𝑜 ℎ 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑐 𝐦𝐞 𝐞𝟒 1 1 𝒆 𝟒 𝒎𝒆
𝐡 = ( - ) 𝝂= 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 (1)
𝜆 𝟖𝛆𝟐
𝐨𝐡
𝟐 𝑛𝐿2 2
𝑛𝐻 𝟒𝜺𝒐 𝒏 𝒉
Classical frequecy of revolution of electron in
1 me e4 1 1 orbit ( number of revolutions per unit time)
= ( - )
λ 8cε2
oh
3 n2 n2 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
L H Time period of revolution T= =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 v
= R’ ( - ) 1 v
𝛌 𝐧𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝟐𝐇 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑇 ⇛ 𝜈 = (v =
2𝜋𝑟
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 speed of revolution) (2)
= 1.097 x 107 ( - ) In Bohr’s model for hydrogen (Z=1) speed
𝛌 𝐧𝟐𝐋 𝐧𝟐𝐇
e2 ε n2 h2
v= and r= eo2πm
2εo nh e
Replacing v and r in eqn (2)
𝑒2
v 2𝜀𝑜 𝑛ℎ
𝜈= = 𝜀 𝑛 2 ℎ2
2πr 2𝜋𝑚 𝑜2
𝑒 𝜋𝑚𝑒

𝒆 𝟒 𝒎𝒆
𝝂= (3)
𝟒𝜺𝟐𝒐 𝒏𝟑 𝒉𝟑

hence from (`1) and (3) proved

10.Obtain the first Bohr’s radius and the
ground state energy of a muonic hydrogen
atom i.e., an atom similar to hydrogen with
one proton but a negatively charged muon
(µ–) of mass about 207me orbits around a
proton.
In Bohr's model, the radius of electron in nth orbit,
𝜺𝒐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
rn=
𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝝅𝒎𝒆
here it is clear that radius of a orbit is inversely
proportional to mass of the particle revolving in
orbit.
In the given muonic hydrogen atom, instead of
electron , a negatively charged muon of mass 207me
revolves around a nucleus with one
proton(hydrogen nucleus).
Therefore radius of electron and muon can be
written as,
Taking Z=1 for hydrogen and muonic hydrogen
𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒 1
= =
𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑜𝑛 207
𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑜𝑛 =
207
so, as we know, radius of Bohr’s first orbit is
approximately, 0.53 A° = 5.3 × 10-11 m
so,𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒐𝒏 = 5.3 × 10-11/207 = 2.5 × 10-13 m
similarly of energy electron in nth orbit is given
𝒁𝟐 𝒆𝟒 𝒎𝒆
by, En= −
𝟖𝜺𝟐𝒐 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
Taking Z=1 for hydrogen and muonic
hydrogen
𝑬𝒎𝒖𝒐𝒏 𝒎
= 𝒎𝒖𝒐𝒏
𝑬𝒆 𝒎𝒆
𝐸𝑚𝑢𝑜𝑛 = 207 Ee

we know, energy of electron in 1st orbit is -13.6eV

so, E muon = 207x (-13.6 eV) = - 2.8 keV

 Chp 13 Nuclei

1.Show that the radius of nuclei is 3. Draw the B.E/nucleon vs mass number graph
proportional to mass number and write two important conclusions from the
graph

𝟏
R 𝜶 𝑨𝟑

2.Show that Nuclear density is (i) When we move from heavy nuclei region
independent of the mass number to middle region, we find that there will
be a gain in overall binding energy and
hence release of energy. This indicates
The radius of the spherical nucleus=R
that energy can be released when a
A= Mass number heavy nucleus breaks into two roughly
equal fragments/nuclear fission.
𝟒 (ii) Similarly, when we move from lighter
V= 𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝑨
𝟑
𝟒
nuclei to heavier nuclei, we find that
V= 𝝅𝒓𝟑𝒐 𝑨 there will be gain in overall binding
𝟑
energy and hence release of energy. This
indicates that energy can be released
when two lighter
nuclei fuse together to form heavy
nucleus/nuclear fusion.
 Chapter 14 Semiconductor
1.Derive the expression of
Conductivity of Semiconductor Effect of temperature on Semiconductor
Consider a semiconductor solid of length 𝑙,
• With increase in temperature the nh and
cross-section area A connected to battery of
ne increases as more covalent bonds break.
voltage
• 𝜇 ℎ and 𝜇 𝑒 decrease due to increase in
vh = drift velocity of holes
ve = drift velocity of electrons collision frequency
𝒗 • But increase in nh and ne is much larger that
𝜇ℎ = mobility of holes = 𝒉
𝑬
𝒗𝒆
decrease in 𝜇 ℎ and 𝜇 𝑒 .
𝜇𝑒 = mobility of electrons = • Decrease in 𝜇 ℎ and 𝜇 𝑒 Has not much
𝑬
influence
Hence with increase in temperature the
conductivity of semiconductors increases.

𝑉
Electric field set up inside E= 𝑙
Total current 𝐼 = hole current + electron current
𝐼= Ih + Ie
= nhAevh + neAeve
𝐼 = eA(nhvh + neve) (1)
𝑉 𝐸𝑙 𝐸𝐴
Also, 𝐼=𝑅= 𝑙= (2)
𝜌 𝜌
𝐴
From 1 and 2
𝐸𝐴
= eA(nhvh + neve)
𝜌
𝐸
= e(nh𝑣h + ne𝑣 e)
𝜌
Replacing 𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇 𝑒 E
and 𝑣ℎ = 𝜇 ℎ E
𝐸
= e(𝑛 ℎ 𝜇 ℎ E + ne 𝜇 𝑒 E)
𝜌
1
= e(𝑛 ℎ 𝜇 ℎ + ne 𝜇 𝑒 )
𝜌
Or 𝝈 = e(𝒏 𝒉 𝝁 𝒉 + 𝒏 𝒆 𝝁 𝒆 )
Resistivity
𝟏
𝝆=
e (𝑛 ℎ 𝜇 ℎ + 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒 )

Conductivity
𝝈 = e(nh 𝝁 𝒉 + 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇 𝑒 )