ENERGY CONVERSION

Electron charge –shift constant 2 3 Mass electron –shift constant 3 3

Mass proton –shift constant 3 1 Permittivity –shift constant 1 4
Permeability –shift constant 1 5
Coulumb’s First Law of Electrostatics –like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each
other.
Coulumb’s Second Law of Electrostatics –the force of attraction and repulsion between charges is directly
proportional to the product of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

Electric Unit Magnetic Unit

Force 𝑞1 𝑞2 N ∅1 ∅2 N
𝐹= 𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑑2 4𝜋𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑑2
Field Strength/ 𝑞 𝑁 ∅ 𝑁
𝐸= 𝐻=
Field intensity 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑑2 𝐶 4𝜋𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑑2 𝑊𝑏
Flux density 𝑞 𝑞 𝐶 ∅ ∅ 𝑊𝑏
𝐷= = 𝐵= =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑑2 𝑚2 𝐴 4𝜋𝑑2 𝑚2

𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻

F= Force (Newton) F= Force (Newton)

q= charge (coulomb) ∅= pole (Weber)
𝜀𝑜 = permittivity in free space(shift constant 1 4) 𝜇𝑜 = permeability in free space (shift constant 1 5)

𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity 𝜇𝑟 = relative permeability

d = distance between two bodies (m) d = distance between two bodies (m)

In CGS unit:
F= Force (dyne, 1 N = 100000 dynes)
q= charge (statcoulumb, 1C = 3x109 sC)
𝜀𝑜 = permittivity in free space (1)
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity
d = distance between two bodies (cm)
 System of Units (Magnetism)
Parameters SI CGS English
F At Gb At
1𝐴𝑡 = 0.4𝜋 𝐺𝑏
∅ 𝑘𝑔−𝑚2 Mx lines
Wb( )
𝑠2 −𝐴
1 𝑊𝑏 = 1 × 108 𝑀𝑥, 1 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 1 𝑀𝑥
R 𝐴𝑡 𝐺𝑏 𝐴𝑡
𝑊𝑏 𝑀𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
H 𝐴𝑡 𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚2 𝐺𝑏 𝐴𝑡
( 2 ) = 𝑂𝑒
𝑚 𝑠 − 𝐴2 𝑐𝑚 𝑖𝑛
B 𝑊𝑏 𝑀𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2 𝑖𝑛2
𝜇0 𝑊𝑏 𝑀𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
4𝜋 × 10−7 1 3.1919
𝐴𝑡 − 𝑚 𝐺𝑏 − 𝑐𝑚 𝐴𝑡 − 𝑖𝑛

Electrostatic Potential
𝑞
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑑
V= potential (v) 𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity
q= charge (coulomb) d = distance between two bodies (m)
𝜀𝑜 = permittivity in free space(shift constant 1 4)

Permeability –degree of magnetization, responsible for magnetism/ electromagnetism phenomenon.

Permeability in free space –shift constant 1 5
Relative permeability –depends on medium used. (𝜇𝑟 = 1 vacuum)
Absolute permeability
𝜇 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
Permittivity –measures of how an electric field affects and is affected by a dielectric medium.
Permittivity in free space –shift constant 1 4
Relative permittivity (𝜀𝑟 = 1 vacuum)
Laws of Forces:
1st law: like charges/poles repel each other whereas unlike charges attract each other.
2nd law: Force between two charges/poles is:
(a) Directly proportional to their pole/charge strengths
(b) Inversely proportional to the square of their distance
(c) Inversely proportional to the absolute permeability/permittivity of the medium used
Electromagnetism
Force on a Moving charged particle

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Force on a current in a wire
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Ampere’s circuital law

Field Intensity/Strength Field Density
Rod 𝐼 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐻= 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

Solenoid 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= 𝐵=
𝑙 𝑙

Toroid 𝑁𝐼 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐻= 𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟 𝑙

Law of parallel cords

1st: Same direction of current –attract, opposite direction of current –repel
2nd: Force is:
(a) Directly to the product of currents (d) Inversely to the distance between
(b) Directly to the length them
(c) Directly to 𝜇
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝑙𝑖1 𝑖2 𝐿
𝐹= 𝐹 = (2 × 10−7 )𝑖1 𝑖2
2𝜋𝑑 → 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑

Magnetic Circuits

+
Cross-sectional area
F +
F R
- -

Mean length path

Magnetomotive force (F) –produced by passing an electric current through a solenoid.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝐼 = ∅𝑅 = 𝐻𝑙
Magnetic Flux (∅) –number of lines of flux flowing in a magnetic circuit.

Reluctance (R) –opposes the flux flow (number of R= no. of distinct area + no of distinct material)
𝑙 𝐹
𝑅= =
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐴 ∅
Field Strength
𝑁𝐼 ∅
𝐻= =
𝑙 𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴
Reluctivity
1
ʊ=
𝜇𝑟 𝜇0
Permeance
1
𝑃=
𝑅
Fringing Effect
Recctangular:

𝐴𝑔 = (𝑙 + 𝑎)(𝑤 + 𝑎)

a=length of gap
Leakage Effect
∅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝐿. 𝐶. =
∅𝑔𝑎𝑝

∅𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘 = ∅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 − ∅𝑔𝑎𝑝

Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 = 𝑁∅
𝑑∅
𝑒=𝑁
𝑑𝑡
1
𝐸 = 𝐿𝑖 2 ; 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2
1
𝐸 = 𝐶𝑣 2 ; 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
2
Dynamically induced emf
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑒 = ʊ𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟𝑎𝑑
ʊ−
𝑠
𝐵2
𝑊= 𝑙𝐴
2𝜇0
Statically induced emf
1st:
𝐿𝑖 = 𝑁∅
2nd:
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴𝑁 2
𝐿=
𝑙
3rd:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑∅
𝐿 =𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑒=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑𝐵
𝐿=𝑁 = 𝑁𝐴
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
Mutually induced
1st:
𝑁𝐵 ∅𝐴 𝑁𝐴 ∅𝐵
𝑀= =
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐵
2nd:
𝜇𝑟 𝜇𝑜 𝐴𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵
𝑀= =
𝑙 𝑅
3rd:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑∅
𝑀 = 𝑁𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑒=𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑀=
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Inductance in Series
Aiding: Opposing:

𝐿 𝑇𝐴 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀 𝐿 𝑇𝑂 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
Inductance in Parallel
Aiding: Opposing:
𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
𝐿 𝑇𝐴 = 𝐿 𝑇𝑂 =
𝐿1 +𝐿2 − 2𝑀 𝐿1 +𝐿2 + 2𝑀
Coefficient of Coupling

𝑀 = 𝑘√𝐿1 𝐿2

𝐵2 𝑙𝐴 𝐵𝐻𝐴𝑙
𝑊= 𝑊=
2𝜇𝑜 2
DC Machines
DC Generators –mechanical to electrical
1.a. Series wound

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑙
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑙 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠 )

1.b. Shunt Wound

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑙 + 𝐼𝑓

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
2. a. Compound –Short Shunt

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑙

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑙 𝑅𝑠

2.b. Compound –Long Shunt

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑙

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠 )

Brush contact drop

In actual:

 0.05V/brush for metal graphite  2 V/brush for carbon

Generated Emf
𝑍𝑃∅𝑁
𝐸𝑔 =
𝑎60
Where:
Z=no. of conductors P=no. of poles
∅=flux per pole N=speed in rpm

𝛼=parallel path (wave: 𝛼=2m, lap: 𝛼=mP; m=type of plex)

D.C. Motors –electrical to mechanical
Back EMF
𝑍𝑃∅𝑁
𝐸𝑏 =
𝑎60

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑙
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝐼𝑙 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠 )

𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎

𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝑙 𝑅𝑠
 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠 )

Torque
Armature:
2𝜋𝑇𝐴 𝑁
𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎 =
60
Shaft:
2𝜋𝑇𝑠ℎ 𝑁
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 =
60