Bernoulli Equation

Static and Dynamic Pressures

• The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy
(and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change.

• This phenomenon can be made more visible by multiplying the Bernoulli

equation by the density,

• Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents
some kind of pressure

129
 Bernoulli Equation
Static and Dynamic Pressures

• Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents
some kind of pressure

• P is the static pressure which represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of

the fluid (same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables).

𝒗𝟐
• is the dynamic pressure which represents the pressure rise when the fluid
𝟐
in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.

• is the hydrostatic pressure, which depends on the reference level selected;

130
it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on pressure.
 Bernoulli Equation
Static and Dynamic Pressures
• The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total
pressure.

• Therefore, the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a
streamline is constant.

• The sum of the static and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure,
and it is expressed as

• The stagnation pressure represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is
brought to a complete stop isentropically 131
 Bernoulli Equation
Static and Dynamic Pressures
Pressure gauges
• Lets try to illustrate this further using the
operation of a pressure gauge.

• Pressure gauges are instruments designed to

measure the pressure of media in a system.

• Measuring the pressure in your system is a

critical quality step to ensure consistency of a
product and safety check to be aware of leaks or
building pressure in a system.

• Pressure represents the amount of force applied

perpendicular to a surface per unit area. 132
 Bernoulli Equation
Static and Dynamic Pressures
Pressure gauges
• In a stagnant liquid or gas (fluid
statics), this is the amount of force
applied to the wall of the
container at a given point.

• Static pressure is uniform in all

directions.

• However, a moving fluid applies

additional pressure in the
direction of the flow while having
negligible impact on the surfaces
parallel to the flow direction 133

(Figure).
 Bernoulli Equation
Static and Dynamic Pressures
Pressure gauges
• This additional pressure is called
dynamic pressure.

• The total pressure of a flow (also

called stagnation pressure) is the
sum of static and dynamic pressure
in that flow.

• If an instrument is facing the flow

direction, it measures the total
pressure of the flow.

• Typical pressure gauges are 134

designed to measure static pressure
in a system.
 Bernoulli Equation
Fluid Heads
• It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically
using heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli
equation.

• This is done by dividing each term of

the Bernoulli equation by g to give

• where H is the total head for the flow

135
 Bernoulli Equation
Fluid Heads

• Each term in this equation has the dimension of length and represents some
kind of “head” of a flowing fluid as follows:

𝑷
• is the pressure head;
𝝆𝒈

𝒗𝟐
• is the velocity head;
𝟐𝒈
• z is the elevation head;

136
 Bernoulli Equation
Fluid Heads

• Each term in this equation has the dimension of length and represents some
kind of “head” of a flowing fluid as follows:

𝑷
• is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that produces
𝝆𝒈
the static pressure P.

𝒗𝟐
• is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to reach
𝟐𝒈
the velocity, v during frictionless free fall.
137
• z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.
 Bernoulli Equation
Limitations of the Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli equation is one of the most frequently used and misused
equations in fluid mechanics.

• Therefore, it is important to understand the restrictions and limitations on its

use. These include

1. It is applicable to steady flow only therefore, it should not be used during

the turbulent and shut-down periods (static).

2. Frictional effects are significant near solid surfaces, and thus the Bernoulli
equation is usually applicable along a streamline in the core region of the
flow, but not along a streamline close to the surface

3. The equation is not applicable in a flow that involves shaft work such as
138
a
pump, turbine, or impeller unit since such devices destroy the streamlines.
Bernoulli Equation
Limitations of the Bernoulli Equation
4. The equation is applicable to incompressible flows (satisfied by liquids)
only which was an assumption made during the its derivation of the Bernoulli
equation (density is constant).

5. The equation is not applicable to flow sections that involve significant

temperature change such as heating or cooling since the density of a gas is
inversely proportional to temperature.

6. The equation is applicable to flow along a streamline but not flows with
rotations or vortex.

139
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Example 1

• A garden hose attached with a nozzle is

used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner
diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it
reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit
(Figure). If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket
with water, determine

• (a) the volume and mass flow rates of

water through the hose, and
• (b) the average velocity of water at the
nozzle exit.
140
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 1

Assumptions
• Water is an incompressible substance.
• Flow through the hose is steady.
• There is no waste of water by splashing.

Properties: Density of water is 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/L.

141
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 1 (continued)
• a) Noting that 10 gal of water are discharged in 50 s, the volume and mass flow
rates of water are:

142
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 1 (continued)

• (b) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is:

• The volume flow rate through the hose and the nozzle is constant.
• Then the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit becomes:

143
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Example 2

• Water is flowing from a hose attached to a water

main at 400 kPa gauge. A child places his thumb
to cover most of the hose outlet, causing a thin jet
of high-speed water to emerge.

• If the hose is held upward, what is the maximum

height that the jet could achieve?

144
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 2
Assumptions
• The flow exiting into the air is steady, incompressible, and irrotational.
• The water pressure in the hose near the outlet is equal to the water main
pressure.
• The surface tension effects are negligible.
• The friction between the water and air is negligible.
• The irreversibilities that may occur at the outlet of the hose due to abrupt
expansion are negligible.

Properties: Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

145
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 2 (continued)
• The velocity inside the hose is relatively low ( ) and we take the hose
outlet as the reference level ( ).

• At the top of the water trajectory , and atmospheric pressure pertains.

• The Bernoulli equation:

• Simplifies to
146
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 2 (continued)

• Substituting and solving for :

147
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Example 3

• A large tank open to the atmosphere is filled

with water to a height of 5 m from the outlet
tap. A tap near the bottom of the tank is now
opened, and water flows out from the smooth
and rounded outlet.

• Determine the water velocity at the outlet.

148
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 3

Assumptions
• The flow exiting is steady, incompressible, and irrotational.

Properties: Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

• This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to
each other without involving any pumps, turbines, and large frictional losses
therefore it is suitable to use the Bernoulli equation.

149
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 3 (continued)

• We take point 1 to be at the free surface of water so that (open to the

atmosphere), (the tank is large relative to the outlet), and
(we take the reference level at the center of the outlet). Also,
(water discharges into the atmosphere)..

• The Bernoulli equation:

• Simplifies to

150
 Bernoulli Equation
Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
Solution 3 (continued)

• Solving for and substituting,:

• Therefore, the water leaves the tank with an initial velocity of 9.9 m/s

151
4. Fluid flow and fluid friction

152
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Basic concepts
• Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in practice.

• These applications include:

• The hot and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes.

• Municipal water is distributed by extensive piping networks.

• Oil and natural gas are transported hundreds of miles by large pipelines.

• Blood is carried throughout our bodies by arteries and veins.

• The cooling water in an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in the

radiator where it is cooled as it flows. 153
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Basic concepts
• The fluid (liquid or gas) in these applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or
pump through a flow section.

• We pay particular attention to friction which is directly related to the, pressure

drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.

• The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement.

• A typical piping system involves

• pipes of different diameters connected to each other by various fittings to
route the fluid,
• valves to control the flow rate,
• pumps to pressurize the fluid.
154
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Basic concepts
• The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used interchangeably for flow
sections.

• In general,

• flow sections of circular cross section are referred to as pipes (especially

when the fluid is a liquid), and

• flow sections of non-circular cross section as ducts (especially when the fluid
is a gas).

• Small diameter pipes are usually referred to as tubes.

155
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Basic concepts
• You have probably noticed that most fluids, especially liquids, are transported in
circular pipes.

• This is because pipes with a circular cross section can withstand large pressure
differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing significant
distortion.

• Noncircular pipes are usually used in applications where the pressure difference is
relatively small.

156
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Reynolds Number
Remember
• Some flows are smooth and orderly while
others are rather chaotic.

• The highly ordered fluid motion characterized

by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar.

• The highly disordered fluid motion that

typically occurs at high velocities and is
characterized by velocity fluctuations is
called turbulent.

• A flow that alternates between being laminar

and turbulent is called transitional. 157
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Reynolds Number
• The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface
roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature, type of fluid and a few other
factors.

• Osborne Reynolds discovered in the 1880s that the flow regime (laminar or
turbulent) depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the
fluid.

• This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a
circular pipe as

158
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Reynolds Number

• Where:
• = average flow velocity (m/s),

• D = characteristic length of the geometry (diameter in this case, in m),

• = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s)

159
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Reynolds Number
• It certainly is desirable to have precise values of Reynolds numbers for laminar,
transitional, and turbulent flows, but this is not the case in practice.

• It turns out that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow also depends on the
degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and
fluctuations in the flow.

• Under most practical conditions, the flow in a circular pipe is

• Laminar flow:
• Transitional flow:
• Turbulent flow:
160
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
• A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop (ΔP) since it
is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.

• The pressure drop for laminar flow can be expressed as

• A pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure loss, and
it is called pressure loss to emphasize that it is a loss.

• Note from the equation that the pressure drop is proportional to the viscosity µ of
the fluid, and would be zero if there were no friction.
161
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
• In practice, it is found convenient to express the pressure loss for all types of fully
developed internal flows (laminar or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes,
smooth or rough surfaces, horizontal or inclined pipes) as

• Where is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor

162
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
• The Darcy-Weisbach friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a circular
pipe can be expressed as

• This equation shows that in laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the
Reynolds number only and is independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.

163
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
• In the analysis of piping systems, pressure losses are commonly expressed in
terms of the equivalent fluid column height, called the head loss 𝑳 .

• Noting from fluid statics that and thus a pressure difference of

∆
corresponds to a fluid height of , the pipe head loss is obtained by
dividing by to give

• The head loss represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised
by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe.
164

• The head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear
stress.
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Note
• The Pressure loss and Head loss equations are valid for both laminar and
turbulent flows in both circular and noncircular pipes.

• However, Friction factor equation is valid only for fully developed laminar flow
in circular pipes.

• Once the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required pumping power to
overcome the pressure loss is determined from

• Where is the volumetric flow rate and is the mass flow rate
165
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Horizontal pipes
• The average velocity for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe is

• Then the volume flow rate for laminar flow through a horizontal pipe of
diameter D and length L becomes

166

• This equation is known as Poiseuille’s law (Poiseuille’s equation)

 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Horizontal pipes
• The Poiseuille’s law can be stated as

• For a specified flow rate, the pressure drop and as a result the required
pumping power is proportional to the length of the pipe and the viscosity of
the fluid, but it is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius
(or diameter) of the pipe.

167
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Horizontal pipes
• Therefore, the pumping power
requirement for a piping system can be
reduced by a factor of 16 by doubling
the pipe diameter.

• However, the benefits of the reduction

in the energy costs must be weighed
against the increased cost of
construction due to using a larger-
diameter pipe.

168
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Horizontal pipes
• The pressure drop ΔP equals the
pressure loss in the case of a
horizontal pipe, but this is not the case
for inclined pipes or pipes with
variable cross-sectional area.

169
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Pressure Drop and Head Loss
Inclined pipes
• For relations for inclined pipes, the only additional parameter is the additional
force resulting from the fluid weight in the flow direction.

• The average velocity for laminar flow in an inclined pipe is

• Then the volume flow rate for laminar flow through an inclined pipe of
diameter D and length L becomes

170
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Example 1
• Oil at 20°C is flowing steadily
through a 5-cm-diameter 40-m-long pipe. The pressure at the pipe inlet and
outlet are measured to be 745 and 97 kPa, respectively.
1. Determine the flow rate of oil through the pipe assuming the pipe is
• (a) horizontal,
• (b) inclined 15° upward,
• (c) inclined 15° downward.
2. Verify that the flow through the pipe is laminar.

171
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Assumptions
• The flow is steady and incompressible.
• The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed.
• The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors.
• The piping section involves no work devices such as a pump or a turbine.

• Analysis
• The pressure drop across the pipe and the pipe cross-sectional area are

172
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• (a) The flow rate for all three cases can be determined with the equation for
inclined pipes,

• Note that is the angle the pipe makes with horizontal. Therefore for the
horizontal case, and Therefore the expression becomes

173
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• (b) For uphill flow with an inclination of 15°, we have 15°, and the
expression remains

174
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• (c) For uphill flow with an inclination of 15°, we have 15°, and the
expression remains

175
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• The flow rate is the highest for the downhill flow case, as expected. The average
fluid velocity and the Reynolds number in this case are

• which is much less than 2300. Therefore, the flow is laminar for all three cases
176
and the analysis is valid
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Note the following
• Note that the flow is driven by the combined effect of pressure difference and
gravity.

• As can be seen from the flow rates we calculated, gravity opposes uphill flow,
but enhances downhill flow.

• Gravity has no effect on the flow rate in the horizontal case.

• Downhill flow can occur even in the absence of an applied pressure difference.

177
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Note the following
• For the case of P1 - P2 = 97 kPa (i.e., no applied pressure difference), the
pressure throughout the entire pipe would remain constant at 97 kPa.

• The fluid would flow through the pipe at a rate of 0.00043 m3/s under the
influence of gravity.

• The flow rate increases as the tilt angle of the pipe from the horizontal is
increased in the negative direction and would reach its maximum value when
the pipe is vertical.

178
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Example 2
• Water at 40°F ( 62.42 lbm/ft3 and lbm/ft · s) is flowing
through a 0.12-in (= 0.010 ft) diameter 30-ft-long horizontal pipe steadily at an
average velocity of 3.0 ft/s (Fig. 8–18).

• Determine
• (a) the head loss,
• (b) the pressure drop, and
• (c) the pumping power requirement to overcome

179
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Assumptions
• The flow is steady and incompressible.
• The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully developed.
• The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors.

• Analysis
• (a) First we need to determine the flow regime. The Reynolds number is

which is less than 2300. 180

 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• Therefore, the flow is laminar. Then the friction factor and the head loss become
is

• Therefore the head loss would be:

181
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• (b) Noting that the pipe is horizontal and its diameter is constant, the pressure
drop in the pipe is due entirely to the frictional losses and is equivalent to the
pressure loss,

182
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• (c) The volume flow rate and the pumping power requirements are

• Therefore, power input in the amount of 0.30 W is needed to overcome the

frictional losses in the flow due to viscosity.
183
 Fluid flow and fluid friction
Computations
Solution
• Analysis
• The pressure rise provided by a pump is often listed by a pump manufacturer in
units of head.

• Thus, the pump in this flow needs to provide 14.9 ft of water head in order to
overcome the irreversible head loss.

184