Module 1: Introduction to Computer Systems

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Computer Systems

Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Computer
3.2 Descriptions of Computer Systems
3.3 Classifications and Types of Computer Systems
3.4 Historical Generation Advancement of computer systems
3.5 Comparison between Hardware and Software

4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises
7.0 References and Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
Today, almost everyone uses computers directly or indirectly to solve
diverse problems ranging from word processing to internet-based
applications. For instance, your access to this course material is
through the use of computers and computer applications. This course
is about the study of computer hardware, which is the physical part of
the computer system. This module addresses the introductory theories
about computer systems. It also deals with interconnectivity and
relationship with the significant modules of a standard computer
system. In this Unit, we shall discuss some fundamental concepts
relating to a computer system. The Unit also explains the computer
device and system configuration.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concepts of computer systems
 Observe the interconnectivity of subsystems in a computer
system
 3.0 Main contents

3.1 Definition of a Computer

A computer can be described as an electronic device that can receive

data, process the data, and produce the result as the outcome.
Conventionally, the received data is known as the input, while the
result of the processing is known as output or information. A
computer also can store data and information in its memory for future
use. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 1.

INPUT (DATA) PROCESSING OUTPUT (INFORMATION)

(Computer)

Figure 1 Computer Device Data Flow Process

Basically, a computer is divided into two major parts, namely, hardware and
software. This configuration is like dividing human beings into body and
spirit/soul. The body is the hardware, while the software is the spirit or soul.
While the hardware, the physical or most visible part, is tangible, the
software is intangible. Typically, the software resides and operates within the
hardware. Essentially, hardware is the physical part of the computer, while
software is the code that runs on the computer.
Computers can process numerical data in the form of 0’s and 1’s or simply
in binary digital format. This digital format is the basis of the machine
language, which differs from human-readable languages. Depending on the
software capability, they can solve repetitive computational jobs with a high
level of accuracy and timeliness.

3.2 Description of a Computer System

A computer system involves a complete suite of hardware and software
resources as well as the users that operate the computer system. While a
computer system does the primary function of a computer device, different
kinds of computer systems can handle certain specific additional
functionalities. This will be addressed later in this Module.
Ideally, a full-fledged computer system comprises users, application
software, systems software, operating system, and hardware, as shown in
Figure 2.

Users

Application
Software

Systems software

Operating system

Hardware

Figure 2 Architecture of a Computer System

In Figure 2, each computer system part is known as a subsystem, which is

made up of more than one component. For instance, the users’ subsystem
comprises expert users, programmers/developers, and end-users.
The main focus of this course is the hardware subsystem. It is the bedrock of
other subsystems.

3.3 Classifications and Types of computers

You must have been aware that many kinds and types of computers exist for
different applications and computational needs. Can you identify some of
these? Essentially, computers can be categorized according to their
processing power, internal design, applicability, and physical size while
maintaining their basic functionalities. These categories are as follows:
 Personal computers
Popularly shortened as PC, personal computers are common, cheaper,
versatile, small, and portable in sizes. They are single-user computers
based on different kinds of microprocessors. Laptops are PCs that
consume less power due to their miniaturized integrated internal
 components. We shall discuss processors and their types later in this
course.

Today, many students, office workers, and business people use

personal computers to carry out many tasks. Such tasks include word
processing, graphical designs, desktop publishing, accounting
operations, spreadsheets, video editing, and teleconferencing.

It should be noted that the specifications of personal computers have

evolved over the years due to the explosion in the human population and
advancements in software and hardware components.

 Workstations
These computers are relatively more powerful than PCs in terms of
computational capability. They are also single-user-based. Although a
workstation is like a personal computer, it has higher specifications
and better quality. These high-end computers are often used to
execute complex and large computational jobs in lesser time, so they
are usually more costly than PCs. These types of computers are found
in research laboratories, research institutions, universities, Space,
automotive, and manufacturing industries.

Note that the specifications of workstation computers have also evolved

over the years due to software and task requirements.

 Minicomputers
Minicomputers are multi-users-based computers. They support an
extensive array of users concurrently and are usually able to handle
larger complex or/and large computational jobs. PCs and
workstations are traditionally connected to minicomputers in a
network for the joint execution of tasks, processes, and programs.
Minicomputers are not portable. They belong to large organizations
such as the Nigerian National Space Research and Development
Agency (NASRDA), National Identity Management Commission
(NIMC), Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), national astronautics and
space administration (NASA), European Space Agency (ESA),
among others. During your next industrial training, you may wish to
visit such an organization to see such computers.
It should be noted that the specifications of minicomputers computers have
also evolved over the years due to software and hardware advancement.

 Mainframe
Mainframe computers are larger, expensive, and more powerful multi-user
systems. They simultaneously support thousands of users than
minicomputers. They have higher specifications in terms of processing
speed and storage. They are pretty huge and expensive. Mainframe
computers are mostly found in large corporations, enterprises, and
government organizations where many IT professionals and workers use
them simultaneously to solve grand challenge computational problems
They are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for governments
and large enterprises
It should be noted that the specifications of mainframe computers have also
evolved over the years. International Business Machine (IBM) is one of the
earliest manufacturers of computer systems. Figure 3 shows the System z9
computer, a line of mainframe manufactured by IBM in 2005.

Figure 3 IBM System z9

 Supercomputer
Although these computers are similar to the mainframe, they are
extremely the fastest and can be used to perform hundreds of millions
of instructions per second. They are designed to solve grand
challenge problems that are often data- and computationally
intensive. These problems include DNA sequencing, human genome,
Space exploration, Mars mission, national population census, national
electoral system, national database systems, banking applications and
database, health informatics, etc. A typical supercomputer can solve
up to ten trillion individual calculations per second.
It is important to note that the specifications of supercomputers have also
evolved over the years. Usually, supercomputers are the most powerful
computers that exist at a time in human history. Today, China and the USA
are the leading manufacturers and users of supercomputers globally. This
fact is available at the https://www.top500.org/ website.

Till early 2021, Fugaku, the Chinese exascale system, was known to be the
world's fastest supercomputer on Top500. From the beginning of 2022, the
Intel and Cray of the Argonne National Laboratory startedd working hard on
the design and development of Aurora, the desired fastest supercomputer
planned to be commissioned within the year. The project is under the
sponsorship of the United States Department of Energy. Figure 4 shows a
typical structure of a computer system.

Figure 4 Computer system

These categories of computers spread across the generational phases and

development of computer systems of all history.

3.4 Historical Generations Advancements of Computers

Computer history precisely dates back to 1833, when Charles Babbage, a
mathematician, invented the first runner of digital programmable and
general-purpose computers. Barely a century later, the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was invented by John W. Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert. This computer was the first general-purpose electronic
computer.
The entire historical advancement of computer hardware technology was
clearly partitioned into time-frame, periods, or generations according to a
specific range of improvements. These generations are as follows:

a) First Generation: 1940-1956

This generation showcased the use of vacuum tubes for logic circuitry
through the flow of electrical current. Magnetic drums were used for data
transfer and storage. During this period, machine language was developed
for systematic programming. ENIAC was among the systems developed
during this period. The drawbacks of the systems include slower speed,
excessive heat, and high cost. Figure 5 shows a typical first-generation
computer.

Figure 5 First Generation Computers

b) Second Generation: 1957-1963

In this generation, transistors were used as the significant switching devices,
thus making computers smaller, faster, and energy-efficient. The
programming format was assembly languages. Figure 6 shows a typical
second-generation computer.
Figure 6 Second Generation Computer

c) Third Generation 1964-1971

Integrated circuits (IC) were developed and used as the switching devices
for data flow. A single IC contains several numbers of transistors, capacitors,
and resistors in the entire circuitry. Thus, computers became smaller, faster
in processing, and generally efficient. High-level programming languages
were also introduced during this period. Figure 7 shows a typical third-
generation computer.
Prominent computers in the third generation were PDP (Personal Data
Processor), IBM-168/360/370 series, Honeywell-6000 series

Figure 7 Third Generation computer

d) Fourth Generation Computers 1972-1990

The fourth-generation computers were based on the successful invention and
development of microprocessors as the central processing units (CPU).
Personal and portable computers were manufactured due to the production
of miniatured computing components. As a result, the Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits technology was implemented to design the
microprocessors and other kinds of switching devices. Intel was the first
company to design and develop microprocessors. The details of the
microprocessors or CPU will be discussed later in this course. Efficient
high-level programming languages were also developed, such as Java, C++,
C#, VB.NET, among others. Figure 8 shows a typical example of the fourth
Generation Computer.

Figure 8 Fourth Generation Computers

e) Fifth Generation Computers 1990 to date

The fifth-generation computers were designed using superconductors and

miniaturized components. Very-large-scale integration, multi-core technologies,
and artificial intelligence concepts were also incorporated into these computers.
Future computers will advance more in machine learning, expert systems,
natural language processing, neural networks, advanced parallel computation,
robotics, and fuzzy logic designs. Virtual reality, fault-tolerance, and artificial
intelligence dominate the fifth-generation computers' hardware and software
designs.
In this generation, robots are being manufactured as integrated computing
devices to support or replace human beings in the challenging, dangerous, and
tedious working environments. Examples of these robots are satellites, Sophia,
robocop, and mars rover. Find out what these robots do and identify other kinds
of robots. Figures 9 and 10 show examples of fifth-generation computers.
 Figure 9 Fifth generation computer - Laptop

Figure 10 Fifth generation computer - Robot

3.5 Comparison between Hardware and Software

Table 1 in this section shows the comparison between hardware and software.

Table 1 The comparison of hardware to software

Hardware Software

Hardware is a tangible physical parts Software is a set of instructions or codes that

computer system control the functions of a computer

Hardware devices are manufactured Software, applications are developed

Hardware cannot function without

software. software needs hardware to operate
Hardware Software

As Hardware are physical, electronic We can see and also use the software but can’t
device, we can see and touch hardware. actually touch them.

Von Neumann architecture for

computer framework This adopts software models

computer viruses do not affect

computer Computer viruses can corrupt codes

Yes, hardware can do not bare metals It can be downloaded, copied and transferred

If hardware is damaged, it can be When software is damaged, corrupt it can be

replaced with a new one recovered from backup

Examples include Keyboard, Mouse,

Monitor, Printer, CPU, Hard disk, Examples include Ms Word, Excel, Power
RAM, ROM etc. Point, Photoshop, MySQL etc.

4.0 Conclusion
A computer has been described as an electronic device capable of
receiving data, processing the data, and generating the output result
on time. A computer system comprises software and hardware. Some
basic categories of computers include supercomputers, mainframe,
minicomputer, desktop computers, and personal computers.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about some fundamental computer system
concepts.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. What is a computer?
ii. Mention the first manufacturer of the microprocessors
iii. What does ENIAC stand for? Who invented ENIAC? In what
generation was ENIAC manufactured?
iv. What is the primary purpose of manufacturing robots?
Answers
 i. A computer can be described as an electronic device that can
receive data, process the data, and produce the result as the
outcome.
ii. Intel was the first company to design and develop
microprocessors.
iii. ENIAC is an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator, and
Computer was invented by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert. This computer was the first general-purpose electronic
computer
iv. The robots are being manufactured as computing devices that
can
replace human beings with working in difficult, dangerous, and
boring environments with less human intervention.

7.0 References / Literature

Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1):
22–52. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305
Őren, Tuncer (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From
Abacus to Holonic Agents" (PDF). Turk J Elec Engin. 9 (1): 63–70.
https://www.top500.org/

Unit 2: Computer Software

Content

1.0 Introduction
Do you realize that computer hardware cannot work without
software? You have learned from Unit 1 that software is the soul or
intangible component of the computer system. When you drive your motor
car, you can control the operations and direction of movement of the
vehicle. That is what software does precisely to the computer hardware. In
this Unit 2, you will study the detailed professional description of the
software and the types that are available to the users. You have certainly
used several kinds of software directly or indirectly over the years. Relax
well as we discuss this vital subject matter in computer systems.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the definition and relevance of computer software
 Know some types of computer software

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Descriptions of Computer Software

The software can simply be described as a set of codes or programs
involving a combination of well-defined instructions, scripts, procedures,
documentation, and data that can manipulate and execute predefined tasks
on a computer system or smart devices. The smart devices include PCs,
tablets, PDA, Automated teller machines, mobile phones, smart TVs, and
other microcontroller-based embedded systems or smart devices.
Computer hardware devices cannot operate or function without software.
This inter-relationship between hardware and software is shown in figure
2.0. You need also to understand that a software suite comprises programs,
also known as a set of codes, design specifications, documentation, and
users’ manuals.

3.2 Types of Computer Software

Since the inception of the computer age, there have been several kinds of
software serving different purposes ranging from hardware control, users’
operations, and management of hardware to the entire system control. Most
times, the users, developers, manufacturers, and programmers determine the
availability of different kinds of software that are used in the computer
systems.
Generally, the software can be classified into application software, system
software, utility software, operating system, and firmware. All these forms
of software are available in computer systems and software engineering
environments to support ICT facilities, computer users, programmers, and
developers, among others. Figure 11 shows the classifications of software.
Let us go through all these now.
 Software

Application Utility software Firm ware

Software

Systems software Operating system

Figure 11 Classifications of Computer Software

(a) Operating system

Operating system software is software that interfaces between system
hardware, application software, and the users. It is analogous to a company
secretary or receptionist that interacts between the guests and other workers
or offices of the organization. On arrival, the guests may be directed to an
appropriate employee or office that can meet the needs of the guests. Thus,
without the roles of operating systems, the computer hardware cannot be
used, controlled, and manipulated by the users. Effective communication
between hardware and users is essential for both parties.
Essentially, the operating systems enable the management of all the
computer resources. These resources include memory, files, processes,
peripheral devices, security features, processors, storage devices, networking
functionalities, and job scheduling.
Operating systems (OS) can be broadly categorized as single-users and
multi-users. While a single-users OS allows one user at a time, a multi-user
OS allows more than one user to operate a computer at a time. We also have
single-tasking and multi-tasking operating systems. Tasks are processes or
jobs running by the computer central processing unit. Now, you should be
able to differentiate between single-tasking and multi-tasking. A single-user
OS may be single-tasking, e.g. (MS Windows 95) or multi-tasking (e.g., MS
Windows 7, 8, 9,10,11). MS here means Microsoft, one of the prominent
software developer companies in the world today.
Examples of single-users operating systems are MS-DOS, Windows 95,
Windows NT, Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, etc.
Examples of multi-user operating systems are Mainframes, IBM AS400,
Linux & Unix Distributed OS, etc.

(b) Application software

An application (app) software is a computer program suite specifically
designed and developed to solve a particular problem, perform a job or
execute an activity in various human endeavours. Mostly, applications
manipulate or work on data, text, numbers, audio, graphics, and video
concerning the objectives of the operations.
Examples of application software are MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google
Chrome, Photoshop, MySQL, etc.

(c) Firmware
Firmware is a kind of software that enables low-level control for a specific
micro-controller-based hardware device. Firmware software is mostly used
for embedded systems operations and control. Today, many
electrical/electronic appliances such as washing machines and air
conditioning units have firmware running in their computing systems.

4.0 Conclusion
It is important to note that a computer system or computing device is
broadly divided into hardware and software. While hardware refers to
the physical components or parts, the software is the soft part, non-
tangible, or simply codes and programs that drive the hardware. The
computer hardware machines cannot function without the software.
Thus, the software helps to achieve the functions of a computer.
Types of the software include systems software, operating systems,
application software, and utility software.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about software, types of software, and
software applications.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. How would you describe computer software?
ii. Distinguish between firmware and operating systems
 Answer
i. The software can simply be described as a set of codes or
programs involving a combination of well-defined
instructions, scripts, procedures, documentation, and data
that can manipulate and execute predefined tasks on a
computer system.
ii. Firmware is a kind of software that enables low-level
control for a specific micro-controller-based hardware
device. Firmware software is mainly used for embedded
systems operations and control. Operating system software
is software that interfaces between system hardware,
application software, and the users.

7.0 References and Further Reading

Stallings (2005). Operating Systems, Internals and Design Principles.

Pearson: Prentice Hall.

Gagne, Silberschatz Galvin (2012). Operating Systems Concepts.

New York: Wiley. p. 716. ISBN 978-1118063330.
https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/software/