INDEX

WRITE ANY TWO PROJECT

Date of Date of
SL.NO Experiment Page No. Remarks
Experiment Submission
1 Drug Addiction

2 Pollination
3 The Way Blood Works
4 Eye Diseases
 Write Any Two Project
1. Drug Addiction

Abstract
Drug abuse, also called substance abuse or chemical abuse, is a disorder that is characterized by a
destructive pattern of using a substance that leads to significant problems or distress. Teens are
increasingly engaging in prescription drug abuse, particularly narcotics (which are prescribed to
relieve severe pain), and stimulant medications, which treat conditions like attention deficit disorder
and narcolepsy.
Any substance, other than food, used in the prevention, diagnosis, all aviation or treatment of a
disease is called a drug. Drug is also known as a medicine. Generally, the term drugs applied to any
stimulating or depressing substance that can be habituating or addictive. A drug, broadly speaking,
can be categorized in many ways; hard or soft, uppers or downers, addictive or non-addictive, most
harmful or least harmful, legal or illegal.

Classification of Drugs
There are a large number of drugs on which people become dependent. These are classifies into
four major groups: sedatives and tranquillizers, opiate narcotics, stimulations and hallucinogens.
Some Harmful Drugs
1. Heroin:
Commonly used as smack Heroin is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white, odorless, bitter
crystalline compound. This is obtained by acetylation of morphine which is extracted from latex of
poppy plant Papaver somniferum. Generally taken by snorting and injection, heroin is a depressant
and slows down body function.

2. Cannabinoids:
Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescences of the plant Cannabis sativa. The flower
tops, leaves and the resin of the plant are used in various combinations to produce marijuana,
hashish, charas and ganja. Generally taken by inhalation and oral ingestion, these are known for
their effects on cardiovascular system of the body.

3. Cocaine:
It is obtained from coca plant Erythroxylum coca, native to South America. It interferes with the
transport of the neuro-transmitter dopamine. Cocaine, commonly called coke or crack is usually
snorted. It has the potent stimulating action on central nervous system, producing sense of euphoria
and increased energy. Excessive dosage of cocaine causes hallucinations.
How drug addiction Begin?
There are many factors that lead people to drug addiction.
1. Curiosity: Frequent references to drugs by public media create curiosity for having a personal
experience of the drugs.
2. Friend’s pressure: Frequent appreciation of drug experience by friends allures others to start the
use of drugs.
3. Frustration and Depression: Some people start taking drugs to get relief from frustration and
depression.
4. Desire for More Work: Students sometimes take drugs to keep awake the whole night to prepare
for examination. It is not desirable as it may cause mental breakdown.
5. Looking for a Different World: A wrong notion that the drugs open up a new world tempts some
young pupils to start taking-drugs.
6. Relief from Pain: A prolonged use of pain-relieving drugs with physician’s advice at times leads to
addiction.
7. Family History: Children may take to drugs by seeing their elders in the family.
8. Excitement and Adventure: The young take to drugs to satisfy their instinct for excitement and
adventure.

Smoking, Drinking and Use of Drugs

Smoking and drinking and use of drugs frequently or regularly are social diseases. Young people
take to these habits for fun, show off or curiosity, as an adventure or feeling of freedom, or as a
gesture of defiance against the elders who themselves indulge in these activities but check the
youngsters. Temporary escape from the life problems and mental relaxation felt on taking the drugs
in the beginning increase people’s interest in them. Soon they become habitual and find in difficult to
leave. The daily dose to get the desired effect increases with time.

Short-Term Effects
• Loss of appetite
• Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
• Contracted blood vessels
• Increased rate of breathing
• Dilated pupils
• Disturbed sleep patterns
• Nausea
• Hyperstimulation
• Bizarre, erratic, sometimes violent behavior
• Hallucinations, hyperexcitability, irritability
• Tactile hallucination that creates the illusion of bugs burrowing under the skin
• Intense euphoria
• Anxiety and paranoia
• Depression
• Intense drug craving
• Panic and psychosis
• Convulsions, seizures and sudden death from high doses (even one time)

Long-Term Effects
• Permanent damage to blood vessels of ear and brain, high blood pressure, leading to heart
attacks, strokes and death
• Liver, kidney and lung damage
• Respiratory failure
• Infectious diseases and abscesses if injected
• Malnutrition, weight loss
• Auditory and tactile hallucinations
• Sexual problems, reproductive damage and infertility (for both men and women)
• Disorientation, apathy, confused exhaustion
• Irritability and mood disturbances
• Increased frequency of risky behavior
• Delirium or psychosis
• Severe depression
• Tolerance and addiction (even after just one use)
Harm caused by Drugs:
Tobacco
Sources:
It is a native of South Africa, where the Red Indian first started smoking. Now the tobacco plant has
spread the world over. It has large, quote to Lancelot leaves and terminal clusters of tubular, white or
pink flowers.
Modes of Use:
Tobacco is used for smoking, chewing and snuffing. Its main stimulating component is poisonous
volatile alkaid nicotine, which causes addiction. Nicotine synthesis occurs in the roots of the plant but
it is stored in the leaves. The leaves contain 2 to 8% nicotine. Inhaling tobacco smoke from cigars,
cigarettes, biddies, pipes and hubble-bubble is called smoking. Cigar is a roll of tobacco leaf.
Cigarette is cut tobacco wrapped in paper. Bidi is tobacco wrapped. In a piece of leaf. Tobacco
smoke is drawn directly from pipe and through water is hubble-bubble. Smoking may give some
temporary relief to the strained nerves but in the long run it proves a dangerous health hazard. The
quantity of nicotine contained in one cigar may prove fatal if injected intravenously into a person.
When smoked only 10% of the smoke is inhaled. Hence, no immediate ill effect is observed.
Smokers may develop a physiological craving for nicotine and then they cannot give up smoking.

Effect of Nicotine:
Nicotine is a low concentration.
(i) Stimulates conduction of nerve impulses.
(ii) Relaxes the muscles.
(iii) Releases adrenaline, increasing heart beat rate and pressure.
(iv) Increased blood pressure due to smoking chances the risk of heart diseases.
(v) Retards fetal growth in expecting mothers and
(vi) Causes tobacco addiction. High concentration of nicotine paralyses nerve cells.

Harmful components of Tobacco Smoke:

Besides the poisonous nicotine, the tobacco smoke contains carbon-monoxide, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and tar.

Other Effects:
(i) Smoking affects economy:
A smoker not only waste money, but also runs risk of burns and fires.

(ii) Smoking mars personality:

Teeth may become stained. Lips may get discolored and breath becomes foul. A person with a
cigarette hanging from the mouth look odd.

(iii) Smoking is annoying to others:

Cigarette smoke is quite annoying to non-smokers. It may prove even more harmful to them. A
smoker should avoid smoking. When in the company of non smokers. A smoker makes the nearby
people passive smokers through inhaling smoke released by him.

Alcohol
An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, although in
chemistry the definition of alcohol includes many other compounds. Ethanol is a centrally-acting drug
with a depressant effect. Beer is an alcoholic beverage and thus has the same harmful effects as
other kinds of alcohol, depending on the quantity consumed.

Reasons for Drinking:

• Psychological factors are curiosity, poor stress
control, escape from reality, poor impulse control, low self – esteem, positive attitudes towards
alcohol, to get rid of problems, to overcome loneliness, relief from tension and to gain courage.
• Social factors are peer pressure, modeling, easy availability of alcohol in the market, party culture,
family environment (Parent/s drinking alcohol), lack of family support, to keep up social norms and to
show their masculinity.
• Biological factors are genetic vulnerability like family history of alcoholism in parents or near
relatives and to get sleep.

Impact of Drinking Alcohol:

Unlike other foods, alcohol does not require digestion. When one drinks, alcohol is absorbed directly
into the bloodstream through the walls of the stomach and the intestine.
Once alcohol enters the bloodstream it circulates throughout the body. Alcohol is metabolized in the
liver and is changed to carbon dioxide, water and some calories of energy which gets converted into
fat. A small amount of alcohol goes out of the body through breath, urine and sweat. Regular,
excessive use of alcohol causes acute and chronic problems related to health, occupation, family
and social relationships.

Health Problems:
Alcohol can damage every system of our body.
Gastro intestinal system (stomach and intestines): Increased acid secretion leading to acidity, ulcers,
gastritis, and cancer
Liver : Hepatitis, jaundice and vomiting of blood due to cirrhosis of liver, liver cancer, acute liver
failure.
Pancreas : Pancreatic damage due to inflammation of pancreas and acute pancreatitis leading to
sudden death.
Central nervous system: (brain and spinal cord): Permanent damage of brain resulting in memory
disturbances, other nervous problems, fits and mental illnesses.
Cardio vascular system: High blood pressure, increased tendency to heart attacks, enlargement of
the heart.
Hangovers: Excessive drinking can lead to hangovers, thus causing problems like headache,
nausea, vomit and body aches.
Weight gain: alcohol consumption in larger quantities can lead to weight gain, because alcoholic
beverages are usually high in calories.
Weak immune system: alcohol consumption makes your immune system weak, thus making your
body more susceptible to infections.
Cancer: alcohol when consumed in excessive quantities puts you at a higher risk of developing
cancer
Fetal alcohol syndrome: Drinking alcohol in pregnancy may cause the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(physical abnormalities, growth retardation and developmental delay).

Sources:
Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, flammable, colorless liquid having a penetrating odor and burning taste. It
is one of the products of the distillation of fermented grains, fruit juices and starches with the help of
yeast enzymes. It is the principal constituent and the in toxicating principle of wines.

Modes of Use:
Alcohol is taken in low concentration, as the beer, toddy and wine and in relatively high
concentration as arrack, brandy, whisky, rum, gin, vodka etc.

CONCLUSIONS
 2. Pollination

Abstract
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of a plant,
thereby enabling fertilization to take place. Like all livingorganisms, seed plants have a single major
purpose: to pass their genetic information on to the next generation. The reproductive unit is the
seed, and pollination is an essential step in the production of seeds in all spermatophytes (seed
plants).For the process of pollination to be successful, a pollen grain produced by the anther, the
male part of a flower, must be transferred to a stigma, the female part of the flower, of a plant of the
same species. The process is rather different in angiosperms (flowering plants) from what it is in
gymnosperms (other seed plants). In angiosperms, after the pollen grain has landed on the stigma, it
creates a pollen tube which grows down the style until it reaches the ovary. Sperm cells from the
pollen grain then move along the pollen tube, enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilise it,
resulting in the production of a seed.
A successful angiosperm pollen grain (gametophyte) containing the male gametes is transported to
the stigma, where it germinates and its pollen tube grows down the style to the ovary. Its two
gametes travel down the tube to where the gametophyte(s) containing the female gametes are held
within the carpel. One nucleus fuses with the polar bodies to produce the endosperm tissues, and
the other with the ovule to produce the embryoHence the term: "double fertilization".

Introduction
In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, but exposed on the surface of a dedicated
support organ, such as the scale of a cone, so that the penetration of carpel tissue is unnecessary.
Details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes
of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly
to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm that are unable to swim
but are conveyed to the egg along a pollen tube.
The study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology,
and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector was first
addressed in the 18th century by Christian KonradSprengel. It is important in horticulture and
agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization: the result of pollination. The study of
pollination by insects is known as anthecology.

Process
Pollen germination has three stages; hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen
grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be more easily transported
from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature
germination does not take place in the anther. Hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen
grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane.
Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, which
eventually become concentrated at the point from which the pollen tube will emerge. Hydration and
activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow.
In conifers, the reproductive structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones
(male) or ovulate cones (female), but some species are monoecious and others dioecious. A pollen
cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on (or borne on) reproductive structures called
sporophylls. Spore mother cells in the microsporangia divide by meiosis to form haploid microspores
that develop further by two mitotic divisions into immature male gametophytes (pollen grains). The
four resulting cells consist of a large tube cell that forms the pollen tube, a generative cell that will
produce two sperm by mitosis, and two prothallial cells that degenerate. These cells comprise a very
reduced microgametophyte, that is contained within the resistant wall of the pollen grain.

The pollen grains are dispersed by the wind to the female, ovulate cone that is made up of many
overlapping scales (sporophylls, and thus megasporophylls), each protecting two ovules, each of
which consists of a megasporangium (the nucellus) wrapped in two layers of tissue, the integument
and the cupule, that were derived from highly modified branches of ancestral gymnosperms. When a
pollen grain lands close enough to the tip of an ovule, it is drawn in through the micropyle( a pore in
the integuments covering the tip of the ovule) often by means of a drop of liquid known as a
pollination drop.
The pollen enters a pollen chamber close to the nucellus, and there it may wait for a year before it
germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows through the wall of the megasporangium (=nucellus)
where fertilisation takes place. During this time, the megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to
form four haploid cells, three of which degenerate. The surviving one develops as a megaspore and
divides repeatedly to form an immature female gametophyte (egg sac). Two or three archegonia
containing an egg then develop inside the gametophyte. Meanwhile, in the spring of the second year
two sperm cells are produced by mitosis of the body cell of the male gametophyte. The pollen tube
elongates and pierces and grows through the megasporangium wall and delivers the sperm cells to
the female gametophyte inside. Fertilisation takes place when the nucleus of one of the sperm cells
enters the egg cell in the megagametophyte’sarchegonium.
In flowering plants, the anthers of the flower produce microspores by meiosis. These undergo
mitosis to form male gametophytes, each of which contains two haploid cells. Meanwhile, the ovules
produce megaspores by meiosis, further division of these form the female gametophytes, which are
very strongly reduced, each consisting only of a few cells, one of which is the egg. When a pollen
grain adheres to the stigma of a carpel it germinates, developing a pollen tube that grows through
the tissues of the style, entering the ovule through the micropyle. When the tube reaches the egg
sac, two sperm cells pass through it into the female gametophyte and fertilisation takes place

Fertilization

Types of Pollination
»»Depending on the source of pollen, pollination can be classified into 2 types –
Self-pollination and Cross Pollination (Xenogamy).Self Pollination is further divided into Autogamy
and Geitonogamy. Depending on agent of Pollination, pollination can be classified into abiotic
pollination and biotic pollination.
• Self Pollination is the type of Pollination in which pollen grains are transferred from anther to the
stigma of the same flower (Autogamy) or pollen grains are transferred from anther to the stigma of
different flower of the same plant (Geitonogamy).
• Cross Pollination or Xenogamy is the type of pollination in which pollen grains are transferred from
anther to the stigma of a different plant.

On the Basis of Pollinating Agent

• Abiotic pollination refers to situations where pollination is mediated without the involvement of other
organisms. The most common form of abiotic pollination, anemophily, is pollination by wind. Wind
pollination is very imprecise, with a minute proportion of pollen grains landing by chance on a
suitable receptive stigma, the rest being wasted in the environment. This form of pollination is used
by grasses, most conifers, and many deciduous trees. Hydrophily is pollination by water, and occurs
in aquatic plants which release their pollen directly into the surrounding water. About 80% of all plant
pollination is biotic. In gymnosperms, biotic pollination is generally incidental when it occurs, though
some gymnosperms and their pollinators are mutually adapted for pollination. The best-known
examples probably are members of the order Cycadales and associated species of beetles.
Of the abiotically pollinated species of plant, 98% are anemophilous and 2% hydrophilous, their
pollen being transported by water.It is thought that among angiosperms, entomophily is the primitive
state; this is indicated by the vestigial nectaries in the wind-pollinated Urtica and other plants, and
the presence of fragrances in some of these plants. Of the angiosperms, grasses, sedges, rushes
and catkin-bearing plants are in general wind pollinated. Other flowering plants are mostly biotic, the
pollen being carried by animal vectors. However a number of plants in multiple families have
secondarily adopted wind pollination in contrast to other members of their groups. Some plants are
intermediate between the two pollination methods. common heather is regularly pollinated by
insects, but produce clouds of pollen and some wind pollination is inevitable, and the hoary plantain
is primarily wind pollinated, but is also visited by insects which pollinate it.

• Biotic
More commonly, the process of pollination requires pollinators: organisms that carry or move the
pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil (stigma) of
another. This is biotic pollination.[9] The various flower traits (and combinations thereof) that
differentially attract one type of pollinator or another are known as pollination syndromes.[10] At least
100,000 species of animal, and possibly as many as 200,000, act as pollinators of the estimated
250,000 species of flowering plants in the world.[7] The majority of these pollinators are insects, but
about 1,500 species of birds and mammals have been reported to visit flowers and may transfer
pollen between them. Besides birds and bats which are the most frequent visitors, these include
monkeys, lemurs, squirrels, rodents and possums.Entomophily, pollination by insects, often occurs
on plants that have developed colored petals and a strong scent to attract insects such as, bees,
wasps and occasionally ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), moths and butterflies
(Lepidoptera), and flies (Diptera).
The existence of insect pollination dates back to the dinosaurera.Inzoophily, pollination is performed
by vertebrates such as birds and bats, particularly, hummingbirds, sunbirds, spiderhunters,
honeyeaters, and fruit bats. Ornithophily or bird pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by
birds. Chiropterophily or bat pollination is the pollination of flowering plants by bats. Plants adapted
to use bats or moths as pollinators typically have white petals, strong scent and flower at night,
whereas plants that use birds as pollinators tend to produce copious nectar and have red
petals.Insect pollinators such as honey bees (Apismellifera), bumblebees (Bombusterrestris),and
butterflies (Thymelicusflavus) have been observed to engage in flower constancy, which means they
are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants. This can be beneficial for the pollinators,
as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during interspecific flights and pollinators from
clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species. It also improves the probability that the
pollinator will find productive flowers easily accessible and recognisable by familiar clues.

Mechanism
Pollination can be accomplished by cross-pollination or by self-pollination:
Cross-pollination, also called allogamy, occurs when pollen is delivered from the stamen of one
flower to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species. Plants adapted for cross-
pollination have several mechanisms to prevent self-pollination; the reproductive organs may be
arranged in such a way that self-fertilisation is unlikely, or the stamens and carpels may mature at
different timesModes of Cross Pollination:
The agencies which transfer pollen grains from anthers of one flower to the stigma of a different
flowers are as follows: WIND (Anemophily), WATER (Hydrophily), INSECTS (Entomophily), BIRDS
(Ornithophily)' and BATS (Cheiropterophily).

(1) Anemophily:
Anemophilous plants produce enormous amount of.pollen grains: A single plant of Mercurialis
annually has been estimated to produce 1,352,000,000 pollen grains. Anemophilous plants bear
small and inconspicuous flower. The pollen grains are small, light, smooth and dry. Pollen of some
plants are said to be blown to 1,300 km. In some plants as Pinus, pollen grains are winged.
The flowers are usually unisexual in some plants e.g. Mulberry is borne in independent catkins which
can sway freely and shake off their pollen in air. The flowers may be borne on long axis (as in
grasses) much above the leaves.
The anther is versatile so as to oscillate in all directions at the tip of filament. In Urticaceae filaments
are very long. Anempohilous flowers have adequate devices to catch the air-borne-pollen grains with
utmost efficiency. For this the stigma is usually large and feathery (as in grasses) and brush like as
in Typha.

(2) Hydrophily:
It is of two types:
(a) Hypohydrogamy:
Includes plants which are pollinated inside the water, e.g. Ceratophyllum, Najas.
(b) Epihydrogamy:
Vallisneriaspiralis (ribbon weed) is a submerged dioecious plant. The flowers are borne under water.
When mature, the male flower get detached from the parent plant and float on the surface of water.
The pistillate flowers also develop under water, at the time of pollination, they are brought to the
surface by their long and slender stalks. As it arrives on the surface it forms a cuplike depression. If
male flowers floating on water get lodged into the depression, the pollination takes place. After
pollination, the stalk of the pistillate flower undergoes spiral torsion bringing the pollinated flower
under water once more.

(3) Entomophily:
Some of the insects which help in pollination are bees, flies, wasps, moths and beetles. Bees, flies
and beetles visit flowers which open after sunset. Bees probably carry out 80% of all pollination done
by insects. Bee pollinated flowers are coloured, possess special smell and/or produce nectar. Pollen
grains are sticky or with spinousexine. Also the stigma is sticky and bees are colour blind for red.

(4) Ornithophily:
Tiny birds like humming birds and honey thrushes (hardly 1 inch long) feeds on the nectar of flower
like Bignonia, Erythrina is visited by crows.

(5) Chiropteriphily:
Bauhinia megalandra of Java and Anthocephalus are pollinated by bats.

(6) Malcophily:
Many aroids which are usually pollinated by Diptera are also pollinated by snails.
• Self-pollination occurs when pollen from one flower pollinates the same flower or other flowers of
the same individual. It is thought to have evolved under conditions when pollinators were not reliable
vectors for pollen transport, and is most often seen in short-lived annual species and plants that
colonize new locations. Self-pollination may include autogamy, where pollen is transferred to the
female part of the same flower; or geitonogamy, when pollen is transferred to another flower on the
same plant. Plants adapted to self-fertilize often have similar stamen and carpel lengths. Plants that
can pollinate themselves and produce viable offspring are called self-fertile. Plants that cannot
fertilize themselves are called self-sterile, a condition which mandates cross-pollination for the
production of offspring.
• Cleistogamy: is self-pollination that occurs before the flower opens. The pollen is released from the
anther within the flower or the pollen on the anther grows a tube down the style to the ovules. It is a
type of sexual breeding, in contrast to asexual systems such as apomixis. Some cleistogamous
flowers never open, in contrast to chasmogamous flowers that open and are then pollinated.
Cleistogamous flowers are by necessity found on self-compatible or self-fertile plants.[23] Although
certain orchids and grasses are entirely cleistogamous, other plants resort to this strategy under
adverse conditions. Often there may be a mixture of both cleistogamous and chasmogamous
flowers, sometimes on different parts of the plant and sometimes in mixed inflorescences. The
ground bean produces cleistogamous flowers below ground, and mixed cleistogamous and
chasmogamous flowers above.

Pollen vectors
Biotic pollen vectors are animals, usually insects, but also reptiles, birds, mammals, and sundry
others, that routinely transport pollen and play a role in pollination. This is usually as a result of their
activities when visiting plants for feeding, breeding or shelter. The pollen adheres to the vector's
body parts such as face, legs, mouthparts, hair, feathers, and moist spots; depending on the
particular vector. Such transport is vital to the pollination of many plant species.
Any kind of animal that often visits or encounters flowers is likely to be a pollen vector to some
extent. For example, a crab spider that stops at one flower for a time and then moves on, might carry
pollen incidentally, but most pollen vectors of significant interest are those that routinely visit the
flowers for some functional activity. They might feed on pollen, or plant organs, or on plant
secretions such as nectar, and carry out acts of pollination on the way. Many plants bear flowers that
favour certain types of pollinator over all others. This need not always be an effective strategy,
because some flowers that are of such a shape that they favor pollinators that pass by their anthers
and stigmata on the way to the nectar, may get robbed by ants that are small enough to bypass the
normal channels, or by short-tongued bees that bite through the bases of deep corolla tubes to
extract nectar at the end opposite to the anthers and stigma.
Some pollinator species can show huge variation in pollination effectiveness because their ability to
carry pollen is impacted by some morphological trait. This is the case in the white-lined sphinx moth,
in which short-tongued morphs collect pollen on their heads but long-tongued morphs do not carry
any pollen. Some flowers have specialized mechanisms to trap pollinators to increase effectiveness.
Other flowers will attract pollinators by odor. For example, bee species such as Euglossacordata are
attracted to orchids this way, and it has been suggested that the bees will become intoxicated during
these visits to the orchid flowers, which last up to 90 minutes. However, in general, plants that rely
on pollen vectors tend to be adapted to their particular type of vector, for example day-pollinated
species tend to be brightly coloured, but if they are pollinated largely by birds or specialist mammals,
they tend to be larger and have larger nectar rewards than species that are strictly insect-pollinated.
They also tend to spread their rewards over longer periods, having long flowering seasons; their
specialist pollinators would be likely to starve if the pollination season were too short
CONCLUSIONS
Pollination management is a branch of agriculture that seeks to protect and enhance present
pollinators and often involves the culture and addition of pollinators in monoculture situations, such
as commercial fruit orchards. The largest managed pollination event in the world is in
Californianalmond orchards, where nearly half (about one million hives) of the US honey bees are
trucked to the almond orchards each spring. New York's apple crop requires about 30,000 hives;
Maine's blueberry crop uses about 50,000 hives each year.
Bees are also brought to commercial plantings of cucumbers, squash, melons, strawberries, and
many other crops. Honey bees are not the only managed pollinators: a few other species of bees are
also raised as pollinators. The alfalfa leafcutter bee is an important pollinator for alfalfaseed in
western United States and Canada. Bumblebees are increasingly raised and used extensively for
greenhousetomatoes and other crops.
The ecological and financial importance of natural pollination by insects to agriculturalcrops,
improving their quality and quantity, becomes more and more appreciated and has given rise to new
financial opportunities. The vicinity of a forest or wild grasslands with native pollinators near
agricultural crops, such as apples, almonds or coffee can improve their yield by about 20%. The
benefits of native pollinators may result in forest owners demanding payment for their contribution in
the improved crop results – a simple example of the economic value of ecological services. Farmers
can also raise native crops in order to promote native bee pollinator species as shown with L.
vierecki in Delaware and L. leucozonium in southwest Virginia.

3.The Way Blood Works

Abstract
A thorough experiment investigating the major components of and within the human blood, and
using it to peak at the side effects of specific haemolytic transfusion reactions. These reactions were
tested by combining all major blood groups with O Positive, in order to find the agglutination (or
clumping) levels, as well as how long it took for the reaction to occur, within different blood types.
These results were thoroughly analyzed, and furthermore contrasted, using several books and other
reliable resources, in order to come to a detailed conclusion on why and how these results came to
be. Learning about several other blood disorders, as well as the immune system, heart, and relevant
issues today, this experiment is sure to astonish you with its many practical applications, and
knowledgeable foundation

Problem
A haemolytic transfusion reaction occurs when there is a matching antigen and antibody type in your
blood. As you can see to the right, this reaction can lead to agglutination in your blood vessels,
therefore restricting blood flow. This will have fatal consequences. In this experiment, I will determine
the effect when each blood group is mixed with O positive , and compare whether the haemolytic
transfusion reaction varies in accordance to the blood type mixed (For example, A negative + O
positive VS. B positive + O positive).
Depending on the result, particular blood disorders and causes can be easily identified within
different types of people, victims will be able to understand the precautions and risks they may face
when receiving a blood transfusion, and developing countries can be further educated in medical
technology and research. This can encourage a lower death rate in most countries, and promote a
healthy lifestyle for everyone. Moreover, this experiment will determine how long it takes for a
reaction to occur within the human body, if a blood transfusion goes wrong, to effectively compare
severity levels between various blood types.

Question
If I change the blood type, and presence of the Rh antigen (to make the blood groups positive or
negative), in combination with the blood type O positive, what will happen to the severity of the
haemolytic transfusion reaction the victim may encounter?

Hypothesis:
Well, I predict that if the A and B antibody, located in the plasma of the O victim`s blood, will be
combined with both the A and B antigen, located on the surface of the red blood cells, of the donors
blood (group AB), then the haemolytic transfusion reaction will be the most severe amongst all blood
types.
I expect that this will happen because of several significant factors relating the composition of blood
in the body. Primarily, each of the antigens, when combined with their matching antibody will
immediately agglutinate and generate clumps in the body, thereby restricting blood flow. I perceive
that if only the A or B blood group is mixed with O Positive recipient’s blood, the haemolytic
transfusion reaction will be only half as severe, as only one of the two possible antigens is able to
combine with the identical antibody. As we know, the AB positive blood group has all of the possible
antigens (A, B, Rh), and the O Positive blood group has both of the antibodies (A and B). Karl
Landsteiner, the founder of blood groups, has also determined that antigens and antibodies bind
when similar types are present within the blood stream, therefore supporting my prediction that the
mixture of AB Positive and O Positive, to be the most severe, amongst all.

The Materials Required

Materials that were used in this project can be costly, but luckily you have two options - buy the
materials OR... find out the staggering results right here on this web! Both are equal, just one is
more time consuming. Either way its good to know what materials I used, or what you could use, to
better understand the meaning of the results obtained, and witness for yourself how accurate they
really are!
Carolina ABO Rh Blood Typing with Synthetic Blood Kit … #1-$43.95
Mixing Sticks … #12
Synthetic Anti A Serum … #1
Synthetic Anti B Serum … #1
Synthetic Anti Rh Serum … #1
Blood Typing Slides … #4
Blood Samples (A ,B, O, Rh) … #4 [1 of each]
Safety Goggles … #1 - $5.00
Apron … #1 - $2.00
Magnifying Glass … #1 - $10.00
Safety Gloves … #1 - $1.00

OBSERVATIONS
In this tab you will discover the observations that I recorded throughout my experiment, in two forms
– tables & graphs. Select the type of observations you would like to see below, and you will be
shown the results in the type of form you have chosen. There is more than one table or graph. You
can select the next or previous button(s) to see more information in the format you specified. If you
would like to return to this page you can do so by clicking the “Observations” link in the Navigational
Guide, or the “Back” button on the slide you are already in. This way, you can see both types of data
at your leisure. Hope you enjoy, while investigating the formation of your blood stream, and how it
protects itself.
Conclusion
Well, when I changed the blood type, and presence or absence of the Rh antigen (to make a blood
group positive or negative), in combination with the blood group O positive, I discovered that the
haemolytic reaction was higher when the blood group had more antigens, as well as the Rh
antibody. Therefore, when the blood group AB positive was combined with O positive, the reaction
was the strongest, and occurred within the smallest amount of time. In addition, I discovered that
when the reaction was severe, it took less time for the blood to agglutinate, then when the reaction
between the antigens and antibodies were weak.
For example, when the blood group AB positive was combined with O positive, the reaction level
was ten and the time taken was only two seconds; however, when the blood group A negative was
combined, the reaction level was a meagre five, yet the time taken for the blood cells to agglutinate
was nine seconds! Therefore, the data supports my hypothesis made before the commencement of
this experiment, and I accept my prediction.
 4. Eye Diseases

Abstract
The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure. As a sense organ, the mammalian
eye allows vision. Human eyes help provide a three dimensional, moving image, normally colored in
daylight. Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color
differentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can differentiate between about 10
million colors and is possibly capable of detecting a single photon. Similar to the eyes of other
mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive
light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the
hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.
The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of the
anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior segment is made up of the cornea, iris and
lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior segment,
composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is
typically about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter, and 1/2 mm (500 um) in thickness near its center. The
posterior chamber constitutes the remaining five-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24 mm. The
cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus. The iris is the pigmented circular
structure concentrically surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The
size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator
and sphincter muscles Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then
through the lens.
The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary muscle.
Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are
converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve and interpreted
as sight and vision.
Eye Diseases
There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related changes that may affect the eyes and
surrounding structures. As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be attributed solely to the
aging process. Most of these anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With
aging, the quality of vision worsens due to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye. While
there are many changes of significance in the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important
changes seem to be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing capability
(presbyopia).
The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can reach the retina. The extent to which the
pupil dilates decreases with age, leading to a substantial decrease in light received at the retina. In
comparison to younger people, it is as though older persons are constantly wearing medium-density
sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided tasks on which performance varies with
illumination, older persons require extra lighting. Certain ocular diseases can come from sexually
transmitted diseases such as herpes and genital warts. If contact between the eye and area of
infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted to the eye.
With aging, a prominent white ring develops in the periphery of the cornea called arcussenilis. Aging
causes laxity, downward shift of eyelid tissues and atrophy of the orbital fat. These changes
contribute to the etiology of several eyelid disorders such as ectropion, entropion, dermatochalasis,
and ptosis. The vitreous gel undergoes liquefaction (posterior vitreous detachment or PVD) and its
opacities — visible as floaters — gradually increase in number.
Various eye care professionals, including ophthalmologists, optometrists, and opticians, are involved
in the treatment and management of ocular and vision disorders. A Snellen chart is one type of eye
chart used to measure visual acuity. At the conclusion of a complete eye examination, the eye
doctor might provide the patient with an eyeglass prescription for corrective lenses. Some disorders
of the eyes for which corrective lenses are prescribed include myopia (near-sightedness) which
affects about one-third of the human population, hyperopia (far-sightedness) which affects about one
quarter of the population, astigmatism, and presbyopia (the loss of focusing range during aging).

Types Of Eye Disorders

Visual Impairment
Visual impairment, also known as vision impairment or vision loss, is a decreased ability to see to a
degree that causes problems not fixable by usual means, such as glasses. Some also include those
who have a decreased ability to see because they do not have access to glasses or contact lenses.
Visual impairment is often defined as a best corrected visual acuity of worse than either 20/40 or
20/60. The term blindness is used for complete or nearly complete vision loss. Visual impairment
may cause people difficulties with normal daily activities such as driving, reading, socializing, and
walking.

Amblyopia
Amblyopia, also called lazy eye, is a disorder of sight due to the eye and brain not working well
together. It results in decreased vision in an eye that otherwise typically appears normal. It is the
most common cause of decreased vision in a single eye among children and younger adults.
The cause of amblyopia can be any condition that interferes with focusing during early childhood.
This can occur from poor alignment of the eyes, an eye being irregularly shaped such that focusing
is difficult, one eye being more nearsighted or farsighted than the other, or clouding of the lens of an
eye. After the underlying cause is fixed, vision is not fully restored as the mechanism also involves
the brain. Amblyopia can be difficult to detect and therefore vision testing is recommended for all
children around the ages of four to five.
Many people with amblyopia, especially those who only have a mild form, are not aware they have
the condition until tested at older ages, since the vision in their stronger eye is normal. People
typically have poor stereo vision, however, since it requires both eyes. Those with amblyopia further
may have, on the affected eye, poor pattern recognition, poor visual acuity, and low sensitivity to
contrast and motion
Amblyopia is characterized by several functional abnormalities in spatial vision, including reductions
in visual acuity (VA), contrast sensitivity function (CSF), and vernier acuity as well as spatial
distortion, abnormal spatial interactions, and impaired contour detection. In addition, individuals with
amblyopia suffer from binocular abnormalities such as impaired stereoacuity (stereoscopic acuity)
and abnormal binocular summation. Also, a crowding phenomenon is present. These deficits are
usually specific to the amblyopic eye. However, sub-clinical deficits of the "better" eye have also
been demonstrated.Treatment of strabismic or anisometropic amblyopia consists of correcting the
optical deficit (wearing the necessary spectacle prescription) and often forcing use of the amblyopic
eye, by patching the good eye, or instilling topicalatropine in the good eye, or both.

Presbyopia
Presbyopia is a natural occurrence where near vision becomes blurred, making it hard to focus while
doing things like reading, using a mobile phone, or working on the computer. It is not a disease or
illness; in fact, it is very common with age.
In young people, the eye’s lens is soft and flexible, readily changing shape to see images from
different distances. As you age, the crystalline lens in your eye hardens and loses elasticity. With
this loss of flexibility, your eyes are less able to adjust properly to focus near objects.

Symptoms of Presbyopia
People commonly mistake the symptoms of presbyopia for longsightedness. However, the two
conditions have different causes: longsightedness is a result of a misshapen cornea, whereas
presbyopia is due to the loss of flexibility in the lens.
The telltale symptom of presbyopia is blurred vision while reading, sewing, using a mobile phone, or
doing anything that requires near vision.

Treatment for Presbyopia

There are many options for people with presbyopia, including contact lenses. Recent technologies
allow people who are entering into presbyopia to continue wearing contact lenses, instead of having
to switch to bifocals, or reading glasses.
Common treatments for presbyopia include:
• Magnifiers
• Bifocal or varifocal spectacles
• Reading glasses

Near-Sightedness
Near-Sightedness, also known as short-sightedness and myopia, is a condition of the eye where
light focuses in front of, instead of on, the retina. This causes distant objects to be blurry while close
objects appear normal. Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. Severe near-
sightedness increases the risk of retinal detachment, cataracts, and glaucoma.
The underlying cause is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk
factors include doing work that involves focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, and a
family history of the condition. It is also associated with a high socioeconomic class. The underlying
mechanism involves the length of the eyeball being too long or less commonly the lens being too
strong. It is a type of refractive error. Diagnosis is by eye examination.
There is tentative evidence that near-sightedness can be prevented by having young children spend
more time outside. This may be related to natural light exposure. Near-sightedness can be corrected
with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or surgery. Eyeglasses are the easiest and safest method of
correction. Contact lenses can provide a wider field of vision; however are associated with a risk of
infection. Refractive surgery permanently changes the shape of the cornea.Myopia presents with
blurry distance vision, but generally gives good near vision. In high myopia, even near vision is
affected as objects must be extremely close to the eyes to see clearly, and people with myopia
cannot read without their glasses prescribed for distance.

Far-Sightedness
Far-Sightedness, also known as long-sightedness and hyperopia, is a condition of the eye in which
light is focused behind, instead of on, the retina. This causes close objects to be blurry, while far
objects may appear normal. As the condition worsens, objects at all distances may be blurred.]
Other symptoms may include headaches and eye strain. People with hyperopia can also experience
accommodative dysfunction, binocular dysfunction, amblyopia, and strabismus.
The cause is an imperfection in the eye: often when the eyeball is too short, or the lens cannot
become round enough. It is a type of refractive error .
Correction is usually achieved by the use of convex corrective lenses. For near objects, the eye has
to accommodate even more. Depending on the degree of hyperopia and the age of the person,
which directly relates to the eye's accommodative ability, the symptoms can be different.

Far-sightedness primarily affects young children, with rates of 8% at 6 years and 1% at 15 years.The
signs and symptoms of far-sightedness are blurry vision, headaches, and eye strain. The common
symptom is eye strain. Difficulty seeing with both eyes (binocular vision) may occur, as well as
difficulty with depth perception.As hyperopia is the result of the visual image being focused behind
the retina, it has two main causes:
Low converging power of eye lens because of weak action of ciliary muscles.Abnormal shape of the
cornea.

Cataract
Cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye which leads to a decrease in vision. Cataracts often
develop slowly and can affect one or both eyes. Symptoms may include faded colors, blurry vision,
halos around light, trouble with bright lights, and trouble seeing at night.This may result in trouble
driving, reading, or recognizing faces. Poor vision caused by cataracts may also result in an
increased risk of falling and depression.Cataracts are the cause of half of blindness and 33% of
visual impairment worldwide.
Cataracts are most commonly due to aging but may also occur due to trauma or radiation exposure,
be present from birth, or occur following eye surgery for other problems. Risk factors include
diabetes, smoking tobacco, prolonged exposure to sunlight, and alcohol. Either clumps of protein or
yellow-brown pigment may be deposited in the lens reducing the transmission of light to the retina at
the back of the eye. Diagnosis is by an eye examination.

Prevention includes wearing sunglasses and not smoking. Early on the symptoms may be improved
with glasses. If this does not help, surgery to remove the cloudy lens and replace it with an artificial
lens is the only effective treatment. Surgery is only needed if the cataracts are causing problems and
generally results in an improved quality of life. Cataract surgery is not readily available in many
countries, which is especially true for women, those living in rural areas, and those who do not know
how to read.
About 20 million people are blind due to cataracts. It is the cause of approximately 5% of blindness
in the United States and nearly 60% of blindness in parts of Africa and South America. Blindness
from cataracts occurs in about 10 to 40 per 100,000 children in the developing world, and 1 to 4 per
100,000 children in the developed world. Cataracts become more common with age. More than half
the people in the United States had cataracts by the age of 80.

Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a group of eye diseases which result in damage to the optic nerve and vision loss. The
most common type is open-angle glaucoma with less common types including closed-angle
glaucoma and normal-tension glaucoma. Open-angle glaucoma develops slowly over time and there
is no pain. Side vision may begin to decrease followed by central vision resulting in blindness if not
treated. Closed-angle glaucoma can present gradually or suddenly. The sudden presentation may
involve severe eye pain, blurred vision, mid-dilated pupil, redness of the eye, and nausea. Vision
loss from glaucoma, once it has occurred, is permanent.
Risk factors for glaucoma include increased pressure in the eye, a family history of the condition,
migraines, high blood pressure, and obesity. For eye pressures a value of greater than 21 mmHg or
2.8 kPa is often used with higher pressures leading to a greater risk. However, some may have high
eye pressure for years and never develop damage. Conversely, optic nerve damage may occur with
normal pressure, known as normal-tension glaucoma. The mechanism of open-angle glaucoma is
believed to be slow exit of aqueous humor through the trabecular meshwork while in closed-angle
glaucoma the iris blocks the trabecular meshwork. Diagnosis is by a dilated eye examination. Often
the optic nerve shows an abnormal amount of cupping. If treated early it is possible to slow or stop
the progression of disease with medication, laser treatment, or surgery. The goal of these treatments
is to decrease eye pressure. A number of different classes of glaucoma medication are available.
Laser treatments may be effective in both open-angle and closed-angle glaucoma. A number of
types of glaucoma surgeries may be used in people who do not respond sufficiently to other
measures. Treatment of closed-angle glaucoma is a medical emergency.

About 11 to 67 million people have glaucoma globally. The disease affects about 2 million people in
the United States. It occurs more commonly among older people. Closed-angle glaucoma is more
common in women. Glaucoma has been called the "silent thief of sight" because the loss of vision
usually occurs slowly over a long period of time.Worldwide, glaucoma is the second-leading cause of
blindness after cataracts. The word "glaucoma" is from ancient Greek glaukos which means blue,
green, or gray. In English, the word was used as early as 1587 but did not become commonly used
until after 1850, when the development of the ophthalmoscope allowed people to see the optic nerve
damage.

Diabetic Retinopathy
Diabetic Retinopathy, also known as diabetic eye disease, is when damage occurs to the retina due
to diabetes. It can eventually lead to blindness.It is an ocular manifestation of diabetes, a systemic
disease, which affects up to 80 percent of all patients who have had diabetes for 20 years or more.
Despite these intimidating statistics, research indicates that at least 90% of these new cases could
be reduced if there were proper and vigilant treatment and monitoring of the eyes. The longer a
person has diabetes, the higher his or her chances of developing diabetic retinopathy.
Each year in the United States, diabetic retinopathy accounts for 12% of all new cases of blindness.
It is also the leading cause of blindness for people aged 20 to 64 years.Diabetic retinopathy often
has no early warning signs. Even macular edema, which can cause rapid vision loss, may not have
any warning signs for some time. In general, however, a person with macular edema is likely to have
blurred vision, making it hard to do things like read or drive. In some cases, the vision will get better
or worse during the day.

Macular Degeneration
Macular Degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), is a
medical condition which may result in blurred or no vision in the center of the visual field. Early on
there are often no symptoms. Over time, however, some people experience a gradual worsening of
vision that may affect one or both eyes. While it does not result in complete blindness, loss of central
vision can make it hard to recognize faces, drive, read, or perform other activities of daily life. Visual
hallucinations may also occur but these do not represent a mental illness.
Macular degeneration typically occurs in older people. Genetic factors and smoking also play a role.
It is due to damage to the macula of the retina. Diagnosis is by a complete eye exam. The severity is
divided into early, intermediate, and late types.[1] The late type is additionally divided into "dry" and
"wet" forms with the dry form making up 90% of cases.
Prevention includes exercising, eating well, and not smoking. Antioxidant vitamins and minerals do
not appear to be useful for prevention. There is no cure or treatment that returns vision already lost.
In the wet form, anti-VEGF medication injected into the eye or less commonly laser coagulation or
photodynamic therapy may slow worsening. Supplements in those who already have the disease
may slow progression.
In 2010 it affected 23.5 million people globally. In 2013 moderate to severe disease affected 13.4
million and it is the fourth most common cause of blindness after cataracts, preterm birth, and
glaucoma.. It most commonly occurs in people over the age of fifty and in the United States is the
most common cause of vision loss in this age group. About 0.4% of people between 50 and 60 have
the disease, while it occurs in 0.7% of people 60 to 70, 2.3% of those 70 to 80, and nearly 12% of
people over 80 years old

CONCLUSIONS
EYE DISORDER PIE CHART