F1 History Lesson Notes_121209

O-LEVEL HISTORY LESSON
NOTES-BY MWL DANDA B.A

0755235507-JAN 2018
ORDINARY LEVEL(FORM I-IV) HIST LESSON NOTES –MWL DANDA,B.A-0755235507 Page 1 of 253
FORM ONE
SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY
Meaning and Importance of History

Background of the topic
History is an academic subject taught as part of a primary and secondary education. This chapter
tackles the significance of history as a discipline in both primary and secondary levels. It gives
the basics of history and lays a solidfoundation of this subject. It traces the different definitions
of history, the importance of studying history as a subject as well as the different ways by which
information that constitutes history is obtained.
The Meaning of History
Explain the meaning of History
Definitions of history
Various definitions have been put forward to define history as a discipline some of them are:
History is a record of events pertaining to human activities, his social, economic and
political development from the past the present and the future.
History refers to the study of past events, present situation and prediction of the future or
it is the study of changes in the process of material production.
History is defined as knowledge that entails chronologically presented narrations about
human activities pertaining to social, economic, technological and political aspects from the past
to the future.
In general history can also refer to an academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and
analyse the sequences of past events and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect
that determine them. It‟s the record of human activities which enable man to survival and attain
essential needs from the environment.
The basic needs of humankind include food shelter and clothing. Due to social, political, cultural,
economic and technological transformations humankind's activities have to change from time to
time.
Actions taken against nature aim to change natural objects into conditions that can satisfy human
needs; these activities against nature are what we call material production. Material production
includes can be observed in sharpening of sticks to make a spear, digging trenches to trap wild
animals and many more.
The Importance of Studying History
Explain the importance of studying History
Studying history is important because it allows us to:
Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that
influenced this development. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events,
conditions and factors that shaped the past and those which have shaped the present conditions of
the world in order to predict the future.
Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive which is why journalists and writers of
sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only
when one knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful.
Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological
advancements made by African societies before and after colonial rulership.
Developthebasic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective
participation in human developmental activities. Studying history also helps us to understand and
appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by African people to regain their independence
and resist neo-colonialism
Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and
interdependence, conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political
development of Africa. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between
African‟s development problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation
and economic exploitation at various stages in history.
Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting
plot. It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way people do
enjoy to know the history of particular topics.
Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroines and traitors. This make
history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy.
Enlightens people about the advantages of certain economic practices for example, the way the
development in the world today is measured by the industrial revolution that took place in
Europe in 1750
Understand the level of development at different stages of human development. Without history
it is very difficult to determine or to tell what humans were doing in the past. Therefore, it is
through history that one can extensively understand the level of development that humans have
reached at in a given period in time.
Helps us learn about technological transformations, for example primitive livelihood to advanced
livelihood (using of stones and wood tools to iron tools)
Understand how humans adapted to their environment and how the struggled to earn a living
from the environment. This therefore looks at the long struggle of man by exercises of his reason
to understand the environment and to act up on it.
Understand the relationship that existed between humans, and between humans and the
environment.
Acquire skills in historical issues and becoming professionals in history, some people such as
archaeologists and historians study history for career purposes.
Sources of History
Identify sources of History

Sources of history refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires
an inter-disciplinary approach in order to get the actual historical information. Replying on a
single source of history evidence will not satisfy your curiosity as one source links you to the
other. It is therefore crystal clear that no single source of history can stand on its own.
Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical
knowledge:
1. Oral traditions
2. Historical sites
3. Written records
4. Archives
5. Museums
6. Archaeology
7. Linguistic studies
8. Anthropology
9. Ethnographic sources
The Functions, Advantages and Limitations of the following Sources of

History; Oral Traditions, Historical Sites, Written Records, Archives
Assess the functions, advantages and limitations of the following sources of history; oral
traditions, historical sites, written records, archives
Oral traditions
This refers to the history handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. It is
usually done by talking and listening usually to elders who are believed to be more
knowledgeable about past events. It is also the study of our past as revealed by what has been
handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. Its manner of transmission
differs from written sources thus making it a historical source of a special nature. Oral traditions
are widely used in areas where people did not practice the art of writing.
Types of oral traditions

Cultural practices e.g. art, music, religion riddles an jokes
Proverbs, superstitions, poems and stories
Narrations of past events (primary and secondary sources)
Advantages of oral traditions

Can easily be understood by everyone, oral traditions does not segregate; it can be understood by
everyone. It is therefore convenient for both the educated and the uneducated as it only requires
one to listen as long as it is in a language that everyone can understand.
It is accessible as in every area narrators are present,; here the historian is in better position to
assess the value and his reliability source because he is working with the living people. At any
time and place the historians or the person who is searching material can easily access the
information as the information are available
It is cheap or costs less.Generally, elderly people are are willing to provide information free of
charge, this makes the source cheap. One does not need to pay his/her grandfather/mother in
order for them to tell one a story. In many societies people used to sit beside a fire and the elders
will tell them about whathappened in the past and this was passed over from one generation to
the other.
Helps in the reconstruction of history, it does require several sources in order to tell a story, oral
traditions bridge the gap as it is provides evidence to written sources or primary source. Many
historical sources including the most ancient ones were based on oral traditions.
It is two way traffic form of communication. This means that when someone does not understand
questioning is possible, this therefore makes it a live and interactive source and interesting source of
historical information.
Avails us with unwritten or un documented history. Through oral tradition it is easy to reveal
information which is not documented or recorded. In African history the major source of
information is passed through oral traditions simply because much of what was taking place was
not written down.
Bridges the gap left by other sources of history. As artifacts cannot talk it is oral tradition that
does the talking there by filling in the gaps that might have been left by other sources.
First handinformation. Many people who tell stories through different oral tradition are the
primary source or the people who were present at the scene of the matter. This therefore means
that the historian will be in a position of getting firsthand information from the respondent.
Disadvantages of oral tradition

Can easily be lost if someone who knows the data dies.In many societies it is the elderly who
have the information which is passed over from generation to generation, in case the elder dies it
means the information he/she had has disappeared with that person.
Language barrier.As oral tradition involves the passing down of history by use of the word of
mouth, the problem of a language barrier is a big hindrance. For example, a person who might
have valuable information might be using a language the historian does not understand this
therefore will limit the process of communication.
Cannot stand on its own. Poems, stories, jokes etc. do not tell history directly they simply
contain valuable information of how people produced and reproduced themselves leaving out the
important aspects of the historical touch. It therefore gives the historian a hard time to
supplement and analyse the given informationcritically.
Their reliability is rather problematic. It is impossible to judge how much is true history and
how much only folklore fiction, legends and myth. This can be evidenced in the stories that are
told to young children for example stories of the hare, the lion and many others. Therefore, it is
difficult to distinguish what is the fact and what is imaginary.
Conscientiousness of that person. Is he/she transmitting them the way he heard them or he
corrected them for some purpose or other. It is very difficult to understand if someone is telling
you the event as he was told or is he adding in other information.
Variation in language. In some instances different languages might have similar words but with
differing meanings. This will therefore result confusion on the side of the historian or researcher
as some of the information might be lost.
Most of narrations are centered on people of status in society. Kings, chiefs, queens are often
talked about in such stories, there is often little consideration about the masses.
Its preservation in many societies mainly depends on the power of the memories of successive
generations of human beings. All oral traditions are influenced by the culture of the society that
produce them, this means that the traditions that exist in a given society chiefly depend on the
political organisation of a given society.
Other disadvantages include:

i. Can also pass over immoral cultural acts.
ii. Translation might be difficult because some languages have become extinct.
iii. It requires too much patience, attention and the power of the memory.
iv. Usually is limited to a given locality and to recent information.
v. Easily awakens hatred amongst different societies.
vi. Full of biases.
vii. It can be time consuming if the narrators are in accessible.
Historical sites
These do contain remains which show humanity's physical development, activities and the tools
they made and used. The major function of historical sites is to make historical facts more practical.
There are two types of historical sites namely;
i. Areas with physical remains of man and his artifacts.
ii. Ancient towns with both ruins of old buildings and old buildings which still exist.
Examples of historical sites with physical remains of man and his artifacts include the
following:
i. Olduvai Gorge, Isimila, Engaruka and Kondoa Irangi in Tanzania.
ii. Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntusi and Magogi in Uganda.
iii. Olorgesailie Gilgil and Lake Turkana in Kenya.
iv. Koobi for a in Ethiopia.
v. Ingombe-Ilede in Zambia.
vi. Ishango in the D.R.C.
On the other hand examples of ancient towns in Africa with ruins of old buildings and existing
old buildings include:
i. Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne and Audaghost in West Africa.
ii. Bagamoyo, Zanzibar and Kilwa in Tanzania.
iii. Lamu and Mombasa in Kenya.
THrough the study of historical sites we can reveal the works of art by previous generations for
example rock paintings etc. As time elapses more historical sites are being discovered due to
extensive research being carried out. The remains that are discovered in the historical sites are
worked on by archaeologists.
The major function of historical sites is to represent actual materials of man‟s existence and
preserving the material remains of man for the coming generation, plus acting as symbol of
social heritage and referral point to the society that are concerned.
Advantages of historical sites

As a symbol of social cultural heritage of different societies. Here the society concerned will be
symbolized in the site.
Historical sites do break the boredom that is evidenced in the theoretical nature of history as a
discipline. In this sense history is given a practical touch as people can see or observe what they
were studying practically for example past human tools, rock paintings and human remains.
Helps in the building or the reconstruction of history, as they bridge the gaps that might have
been left by other sources.
The sites also act as a source of revenue for both the government and private individuals. This is
achieved when they act as centre of tourism, and when the tourists visit.
The sites act as avenues for research for archaeologists and other scientists. People who carry
out research in regards to man‟s past will use historical sites as their libraries and laboratories,
for example Dr. Leakey and his wife.
Generally, discoveries from historical sites can be used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels
of technology, economic development and political organisation reached past societies in
different times and environments.
Disadvantages of historical sites

It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in the historical sites, for example, rock
paintings can bring about different interpretations between historians.
Historical sites cannot stand on their own to tell history. This means that historical sites do not
fully cater for all historical information required even for societies without documented history.
History found in the sites cannot be interpreted by everyone andrequires a qualified personnel to
interpret the information.
Historical sites are located in remote areas which are not accessible. This makes it time
consuming and expensive working on them. Places where the historical sites are located are
often also poorly developed.
The historical sites maydisappear, as they are often destroyed by natural hazards and changes in
the earth like weathering and denudation.
Many of the sites are selected on the basis of probability, for example it is assumed that early
man lived in caves where there was water nearby and plenty of animals to hunt, fish or catch.
This therefore brings in the issue of try and fail that in turn becomes costly in terms of time and
resources.
Examples of historical sites in East Africa include:
i. Nsongezi- western Uganda
ii. Magosi- eastern Uganda
iii. Biggobyamugenyi (Biggo)- central Uganda
iv. Lolui, Mubende in Uganda
v. Rusinga Island- southern Uganda
vi. Olorgesailie- Kenya
vii. Lake Rudolf- Kenya
viii. Njoro in Kenya
ix. Bagamoyo- Tanzania coast
x. Kilwa- Tanzania coast
xi. Isimila- central Tanzania
xii. Kondoa- central Tanzania
xiii. Lake Eyasi southern Tanzania
xiv. Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania etc.
Written records
This refers to the history which has been written down or documented. This is the most common
and modern source of history as it cuts across different boundaries. It is the principle source of
materials for historians in east Africa as they have been valuable for the past 200 years or
less.The written records are grouped into two the primary sources and secondary sources as for
the historians it is better to first deal with the secondary source and then handle the primary sources.
Written records include: Books, letters, magazines, newspapers, minutes of meetings, official
and private documents, official publications by the governments and parliaments of the colonial
powers, peace treaties and other agreements concluded by the great powers between one another
and African chiefs, legislative acts, edicts, dispatches of the colonial administration, documents
from African companies and individual merchants, letters etc.
It also include books written by contemporaries, produced by aliens, narrative of explores,
reminiscences of soldiers, missionaries or colonial officials, the impressionistic sung of the
journalists and the imaginative reconstruction of the novelists. The written records can easily be
accessed in the libraries, schools, colleges, archives and in some offices.
Functions of written records
Reconstruction of history, history can be reconstructed through a multidisciplinary approach. The
written records play an important role of constructing history as they do bridge the gaps that
might be left by other sources.
To collect and preserve written historical information, as this is the modern and most common
source of historical information it plays the function of preserving written records so that those
who come in the future will also be able to use this source of historical information.
Advantages of written records

Covers a wide section of ideas and different views. Different aspects concerning different views
can easily be accessed in one written material for example a text book can contain historical
information concerning different aspects and areas. Therefore, this simplifies the work of the
historian as he will concentrate on that one source and discover a variety of given information.
Therefore, it‟s true to say that written records cover a wide coverage as different aspects can be
commented up on.
It is easily accessible, as almost all areas have books, written materials are like a stone thrown
into a pull causing ripples that flow out right across its surface.This therefore means that in at
least any place there is at least a written source of something. In addition to that written records
are easy to keep and to retrieve, the accessibility therefore simplifies the work of the historian as
she/he has the material at their disposal.
Usually well explained and well elaborated. Many written records for such as textbooks are well
researched, explained and elaborated by the authors. This therefore gives the person using the
source actual and vivid material. Usually contains well-researched and concrete data which gives
confidence to the researcher or historian
Bridges the gap left by other sources . The written records as a source of historical information
play an important role of bridging or filling in the gaps that have been left by other sources. As it
is well known that no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history the written
records do fill up the gap that other sources might have left. For example it gives evidences to
oral traditions.
Cannot easilydisappear.As in the case of oral traditions, if the narrator dies the historical
information is most likely to follow him on the deathbed, for written records this is not the case
as material that is written down is very difficult to fade away as it is documented and usually in
many copies.
It is very helpful when carrying outresearch. For researchpurposes the most helpful source can
be found in written records as it has guidelines, which help theresearcher in his/her research. As
the information in most cases is well researched and elaborative this gives the researcher ample
time in his research.
Easy to get valuable and rare information. It is mainly from written sources that valuable and
rare information can be obtained. Many written records are very important as they provide
evidence were needed.
Easy to make references. If written material is well organised; many of the written sources act as
reference material for the different needs and written records as a source of reference.
Disadvantages of written records

It is expensive. Written records require a lot of time and resources to prepare, this makes them
expensive to produce as compared to oral tradition. Also purchasing the written material is very
costly.
Can easily be distorted or misunderstood. As written records are in most cases written in English
which recipients might easily misunderstand. Also there might be distortion in the sense that
writers might be biased when writing or they might have different approaches on to the same issue.
Applicable to educated people only. Written records are limited to a few people in a society. As
the people who do not know how to read and write will not benefit from this source of history as
he/she will not understand what has been written. This therefore makes it limited to a given
section of people.
Based mainly on the writer's opinion. Many writers are biased in the sense that they write in their
favour of example Eurocentric and Afro centric ideas.
Historians cannot be expected to come to the same conclusion, thistherefore means that written
records are continuously rewritten and revised Unless the historian is able to sort out relevant
information many written records contain some information that might be irrelevant to the
historian there by wasting a lot of time in a given source. Generally, it is very difficult to
understand history unless you understand the historian himself first.
Archives
This refers to collections of private and public documents. This means the place where such
documents are kept or found. Archives are collections of public and private documents.
They includes books, and the written records of early missionaries, explores, traders and
colonialists kept in books or files. Examples of archives include: Arusha in Tanzania, Entebe
national archives in Uganda. They also contained current records of government, parties and
other organisations. The major function of archives is to collect and preserve historical information
Advantages of archives
It is the best method of collecting and preserving historical information. Most written documents
which do contain historical information are preserved in the archives for future use.
It archives a variety of information. It is very easy to get historical information of different
people and issues at a given time without wasting time and resources.
Getting firsthand information is possible, as the documents in archives are the extract materials
that were written by the people concerned. For example political parties documents, memories etc.
It is very easy to get and identify the exact date of historical events, such as the travels of Vasco
Da Gama, African resistance, the scramble for and partition of Africa plus many other important
occurrences.
Understanding the ideas and the literacy level of the past is very easy. This can be done by
analysing the documents in archives and relating them with what we have at the present time and
also borrowing ideas from them. For example a current government can use a document of a
former government to recognise itself.
Disadvantages of archives
Preserving documents is very expensive. This therefore makes the source more expensive as
compared to other sources. Keeping the documents in archives requires much attention and care.
This method is also discriminative, as it is only the literate (educated) that can utilise the
information as it is usually written in a language that someone who is not educated might not
understand.
Societies whose information was not documented will not be represented. Societies with no
recorded past will not be represented.
Retrieving information from the archives is not easy, as it requires a lot of time and perseverance.
This therefore makes it hectic on the side of the impatient historian.
Archives are not evenly distributed when compared to other methods like oral tradition. For
example, in Tanzania one has to travel to either Dar es Salaam or Arusha in order to find an
archive.
Generally, in the case of societies without history that is written down the archives is less
meaningless as there is not any trace of their history in that place. This therefore means that such
a community will have it history missing in action.
Museums
Museums are special places created for preserving historical information. These are places where
information about people and past events are stored.
Specialists in a museum who help explain objects to the people are called Museum Curators.
They date and arrange the remains and artifacts which demonstrate in the easiest way possible
the technological, cultural, economical and social development of the people.
Museums are created to preserve historical information and also act as tourist centers. Museums
contain a collection of all sorts of items which show cultural, social, political, technological and
economical developments from the past to the present.
There national, regional, district and local museums of East Africa. Examples of museum in
Tanzania are Kalenga in Iringa, Bujora in Mwanza and Halwego and Handebezyo in Ukerwe. In
Kenya the Hyrax Hill museum site in Nakuru district, Kawanda in Uganda and many others.
Advantages of museums
They preserve the historical information and material, Itis in the museum that many of historical
remains are preserved for future use and referral.
They contain a variety of historical items. It is only in the museum that one can be find a variety
of historical remains ranging from artifacts to written records and oral tradition. Therefore a
museum is relatively important to historical study.
Museums provide objects that give history a practical touch, as they working as teaching aids.
Students of history have the opportunity to put into practice what they study as they see the
objects in museums.
It is possible to learn about the development of technology of early man from museums.The
curators play an important role in explaining artifacts to the people and how they were used.
Museums arouse creativity and craftsmanship on the side of the learner. This comes about as the
learner sees more and more remains and became more eager to discover more.
Note other advantages may include:
i. Attracts tourists.
ii. Generating income for the people working in the museums and the government.
iii. Source of foreign exchange.
iv. Provision of employment for example the museum curators.
v. Easy to identify the social, political and economic developments of a given society from the
museum.
vi. Many of the museum act as the major source of information for those carrying out research for
educational purposes.
Disadvantages of museums
They are very expensive to maintain and build. Starting up and maintaining A museum requires a
lot of funds. Obtaining and maintaining artifacts is also relatively expensive.
Require skilled manpower to operate. Museum curators should have historical bearings and
know about the artifacts in the museum.
Distortion of historical information, in the museum is possible when the curator is biased. The
curator will therefore distort the historical information, as he is subjective in the way he
interprets the historical facts.
Attitude of the people affects the museum so much that some museums have been forced to be
closed. People are not visiting museums due to unknown reasons, a case in point the Hyrax site
museum in Kenya says that it receives only 10-20 customers on a busy weekend which is very
small number compared to the inputs in the museum.
Poor preservation of artifacts, for example the pieces of cloth, chains if not well handled can
distort the information and the relevance of the historical facts. Due to poor preservation many
museums have lost their historical artifacts to the fires other unforeseen circumstances costing
them dearly.
Archaeology
This refers to the science that deals with the study of past materials historical remain of man. Or
it is a study of artifacts that have been dug from the earth. Artifacts are the remains of the
material culture made by the people of the past. People who study archaeology are
called archaeologists.
Archaeologists like Dr. Leaky have concentrated on the period of early man; others like Dr.
Posnansnky have worked on sites relating to the Chwezi Empire, Chittick and Kirk man have
excavated coastal sites of the 12th
-16th centuries. How they carry out their excavations is a long story.
Excavation is a long and laborious process as each piece of the material found has to be
examined carefully and recorded so that the archaeologists can give a complete reconstruction. A
historian studies the artifacts with the hope of reconstructing patterns of settlement, level of
technology and skills acquired by the inhabitants of the site after excavating them.
Archaeologists removes layer after layer carefully recording all what they find and in try to
explain the relationship between the different objects.
The major function of archaeology is that it reveals important information about man through the
different stages of his transformation. Not only that but also plays the function of arousing
curiosity of searching past historical information on the side of historian.
Advantages of archaeology
It provides evidence or authenticity on to historical facts, as the remains are examined
thoroughly by the concerned there by supplementing the other sources which might be lacking evidence.
Knowledge of artifacts is exposed after excavation. For example pottery, building, rooting plus
telling us a great deal about the life and culture of the people long ago through uncovering the
buried objects.
Archaeology simplifies the past as it helps us to know the past relationships between different
people such as in trading activities immigration, emigration, birth and death plus political relations.
It is probably the only source that can help us in knowing when and how people lived in a
certain place and at what time. This is attained through the use of carbon dating which is a
scientific method of finding out the age of dating objects and artifacts .
Archaeology helps us to reveal the technology, pastoral agriculture and commercial activities of
the past societies. This is achieved through cross examining the remains excavated by the archaeologists.
Archaeology is relatively important in supplementing facts that are given by other sources of
history. As no source can stand on its own to tell history, therefore it can be reconstructed by the
use of archaeology.
Disadvantages of archaeology
Archaeology demands much patience.Many artifacts are fragile and delicate which calls a lot of
care in the handling of for example fossils.
It involves many processes to obtain data out of remains,. For example in excavations require
radioactive elements and many other procedures which make the process very expensive.
Archaeology consumes a lot of time.The archaeologists or researchers take a lot of time during
the preparation for excavation, testing the artifacts and in the interpretation of the data.
The remains that are excavated cannot tell the full details of a given historical phenomenon. It is
therefore clear that one cannot fully depend on archaeology as the complete source of history.
Generally, the first discovery of an archaeological find or of an archaeological site is commonly
found by an ordinary person who does not have the techniques of excavating the remains.
During the excavation process remains of less historical importance for example a richly
furnished royal tomb, works of art of great beauty are not seen as important. Excavation is not a
treasure hunt, what they are seeking for is knowledge, information and data which will enable
them fill up the picture of the past more accurately.
Linguistic studies
This means the study of language. It refers to study and analysis of languages, their sounds,
structure and formation. There is a relationship between the different and various language
groups. It is believed that people who speak the same language have been in close contact in the
past. Linguistics can suggest approximately when and how the language spoke in East Africa
came into existence.
Languages are never static but constantly changing and adapting some survive while others die.
For proper classification and grouping the people of East Africa the work done by the linguistics
is a principal way. Many linguists insists that the original language of mankind consisted of a
few short words, possibly not over 200, since many now use only about 300.
Advantages of linguistic study

Linguistic studies are a lubricant of oral tradition, as it is through oral tradition that given
information is acquired from the different sources. This therefore shows the interconnectedness
between different sources of history.
Through the linguistics it is possible to tell the possible origin of our languages and how the
languages have been distorted. As languages that we do use need to be understood in order to
understand who we are and where we are going.
Bridging the gaps left by other sources. Linguistic studies assist in bridging the gaps that are left
by other sources. Basing on the fact that the reconstruction of history requires an
interdisciplinary approach therefore linguistic studies are relatively important like other sources.
Assists in the development of language. It assists in the discovery of different links between the
people of a given communities. Through the use of languages it‟s possible to say that at one time
the people in the world lived together due to the similarity of some words in the different languages.
Language barrier is the major factor that is limiting linguistics. It is clear that not everyone
understands all the different languages. It is therefore possible that useful historical information
might not be understood due to the language problem.
It might result to the omission of some important information, thereby creating a gap in historical
information. In the process of translating given historical information from one language to another
It is expensive in terms of time and money, because is not easy to learn a given language this
therefore means that one has to take a given period of time and resources in terms of finance to
learn a given language.
It can easily be diluted by external influences. Different languages have been influenced by
external forces which causes those languages to change drastically from their original forms and
this therefore disturbs the historian in his effort to reconstruct history. For example many Swahili
words have been mixed with other languages.
Anthropology
This is concerned with the study of existing social institutions and their relationships. The
scientific study of the origin, behavior, physical, social and cultural development of humans. The
study is concerned with present day societies but much of it can be used in interpreting the past
especially where we have a good reason to believe on that societies in certain areas have not
altered so much in recent times.
It is no coincidence that anthropology has its roots in the Renaissance; it is a discipline that is
firmly grounded in the modern era, no longer drawing on metaphysics but instead looking to the
here and now of human existence. Combining philosophical ambitions with physiological and
psychological questions, thus from its beginning, anthropology looked at issues which are today
considered medical, psychological and philosophical as well as anthropological in the modern sense.
An anthropologist is a person who studies the above aspects of society; he has to live among
those people and learn their culture thereby enabling him to understand the aspects of life of a
certain society and to determine the truth about that society.
Advantages of anthropology
Helps the historian to find traces of the past in the present social structures of the
society. Therefore using the current reliable information helps us to understand how the past was.
Helps the historian to reconstruct the past elements of all cultures. The historian studies the
information and research techniques used by the anthropologist to arrive at a certain conclusion.
Generally, anthropology enables a comparison of social institutions of various societies which
helps the historian in tracing the original homeland of social features.
Disadvantages of anthropology
A comparison of the social institutions of various societies over a wide area might indicate the
influence of one culture upon another and the time when these cultures developed and spread
which may create misunderstanding and hatred between the different societies
The works of anthropology are very limited to time and environment. Inthe present people may
be living in a condition far different from what their ancestors lived; in the long run the
anthropologist will not get the necessary information required in his study.
The knowledge of the anthropologist in this case is very important as one can easily exaggerate
or underestimate or interpret basing on his knowledge a thing that will affect the whole process
of trying to reconstruct history. This therefore means that objectivity of history does not mean
objectivity of facts but interpretation.
This method is too tiresome. The anthropologist has to live among the people and learn their
culture which enables him to understand all the different aspects of life of a given society and to
determine whether it is authentic and worth studying.
Ethnographic sources
This is another source of history which is not commonly used and usually neglected by many
scholars however, it is relatively important as other sources. Ethnographic evidence does involve
two aspects the material and immaterial.
The material things in nature are the artifacts while the immaterial include culture, custom and
beliefs or cultural evidence which is written down. Under this the historian is mostly interested in
cultural documents because of the unique characteristics as they are timeless
NOTE:As already elaborated no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history
but rather it requires interdisciplinary approach for successful history reconstruction. This
means that no source is better than the other on the side of the historian carrying out his/her
research in any field of study but rather each supplement the other.
Dating in history
Refers to the assigning of dates or time on given historical events or facts, to record history
properly a good knowledge of dating or calendar is needed. Historians divide time into seconds,
minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, age, periods, centuries, millennia and generation.
A decade is a period of ten years. A century is a period of hundred years. Millennium is a period
of thousand years. A generation is the average of time between one groups of period in a family
to another group of family. Period is determined by one continuous event, which is in year.
Age refers to a period based on man‟s activities and the types of tools that are being used. In
history there are different ages namely:
i. Stone age
ii. Iron age
iii. Industrial age
iv. Nuclear age
v. Copper age
vi. Bronze age
Ways of determining dates
There are two sets of ways to determine dates.
i. Local methods
ii. Scientific methods
Local methods are simple methods whereby dates are fixed through;
i. recalling facts relating events
ii. tracing family chronologies
iii. tracing the origin of languages
Scientific methods involve experiment in laboratories whereby material remains are studied through such
processes as;
i. Radio Active Dating (Radio metric)
ii. Radio Carbon Dating (Radio Carbon 14)
Dividing time is in starting of 0, which is the year when Jesus Christ was born .A.D. (Anno
Domino) is the years after the birth of Jesus Christ and they are known as years of the Lord. B.C.
are years before the birth of Jesus Christ. (Before Christ)
1 day =24 hours

1 week =7 days
1 year =12 month
1 month =4 weeks
1 year= 365/366 days
1 decade =10 years
1 century =100 years or 10 decades
1Millenium =1000 years
Muslims start their calendar at Hijra A.H (Al Hijra or after Hijra) this is when Prophet
Muhammad S.A.W fled from Mecca to Medina in order to spread Islam in the year 622 A.D.He
was born in the year 570 A.D. and died in the year 632 A.D.
Historians use chronological order of events, periods and ages such as family tree, time lines,
time charts and time graphs to tell time.
TABLE SHOWING TIME PERIODS AND THEIR DURATION

Methods of dating in history
Carbon 14
This is the scientific method of determining dates in history and it is the most common and
modern method of determining dates in history. The archaeologists commonly use this method
after discovering remains.
Radiocarbon dating
During the life time all living animals and vegetable matter absorbs a minute amount radioactive
carbon (carbon 14) from the atmosphere. After death the level of carbon 14 in the object
gradually declines at a steady, measurable rate. Thus by measuring the amount of carbon 14 in
ancient fragments of the former living matter such as born or charcoal, scientists are able to
calculate the approximate age of the object. The results are never very accurate but they are an
invaluable aid to the archaeologists concerning more with the chronology than with the very
precise dates.
Language dating
Historical events can be dated by the use of language. Here some word used in a given language
can help to understand when a given event occurred. For example in Kiswahili there are some
words that are used that they do tell when a given events took place for example the use of the
word „Karafuu‟ marks the beginning of the use of cloves in East Africa.
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millennium 1000 years or 10 centuries
A generation
A group of people born in the same period, or it refers to the average differences in age between a child
and his/her parents.
Remembering changes and event dating

Events can help in dating history for example famine, harvesting period, tsunami, hurricanes etc.
By using these changes one is able to tell what event took place and also reflect the time at which
that event took place.
Order of eventdating
This shows the arrangement of events in series for example family and clan chronology (family
tree), chronological order of events (time line, time graph and time chart)
TIME LINE
1
300 BC 200 BC 100BC 100 AD 1000 AD 1800
TIME CHART
COLUMN I COLUMN II
PERIOD (YEARS) EVENTS
1000AD The discovery of iron
1498 Vasco Da Gama arrived at the cape
1500 Emergence of Ntemi system of organization
1698 Fall of fort Jesus
1700 End of Portuguese rule in East Africa
1741 Mombasa establishes itself as an independence sheikhdom
1840 Sultan Said shifts his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar
1800 The industrial revolution in Europe
1900 Signing of the Buganda agreement
1961 Independence of Tanganyika
1964 The Zanzibar revolution
1992 Multiparty politics in Tanzania
1999 Death of Mwl. Julius Nyerere
EVOLUTION OF MAN
The Meaning of Evolution of Man

Explain the meaning of evolution of man
Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike
ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people
originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.
One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved
over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex
brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more
recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate
cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.
The Theory of Evolution of Man and the Religious Theory of Creation of
Man
Explain the theory of evolution of man and the religious theory of creation of man
The Theory of Evolution of Man
The story of human evolution began in Africa about six million years ago and it describes the
very long process that our ancestors went through to ultimately become modern humans. This
process has been uncovered by studying fossils and understanding the underlying theory of
evolution, and while new fossils are uncovered every decade revealing new chapters, scientists
agree about the basic story.
Evolution means the changes that occur in a population over time. In this definition, a
“population” means a group of the samespeciesthat share a specific location and habitat.
Evolutionary changes always occur on the genetic level. In other words, evolution is a process
that results in changes that are passed on or inherited from generation to generation. It does not,
for example, describe how people can change their muscle mass by lifting weights.
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When successful, these genetic changes or adaptations, which happen when genes mutate and/or
combine in different ways during reproduction, help organisms survive, reproduce, and raise
offspring. Some individuals inherit characteristics that make them more successful at surviving
and having babies. These advantageous characteristics tend to appear more frequently in the
population (because those individuals with less advantageous characteristics are more likely to
die without reproducing), and over time these changes become common throughout that
population, ultimately leading to new species.
Early Stone Age

The Types of Tools Used during the Old Stone Age
Describe the types of tools used during the old stone age
This lasted from 1.5 millions years up to 750,000 years ago. At this time man was involved in
hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables
and meat. The tools made at this time involved chopping tools, pebbles, and hand axes.
The tools made were not very sharp but important for defending themselves against wild animals
and digging up plant roots
Some remains of these tools were found in East Africa in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Ologa and
Nsongezi Rock shelter in Uganda
The Physical Changes of Man during the Old Stone Age
Describe the physical changes of man during the old stone age
During the Old Stone Age, man had the ability to walk with two limbs though he could not stand
upright. Additionally, he also had a hairy body, brain capacity of 650-775cc and a skull similar
to that of the modern man but much larger. Generally, man was practical and skillful.
How Man Obtained Food during the Old Stone Age
Explain how man obtained food during the old stone age
At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on
collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat
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Middle Stone Age

This is recorded from around 750,000 years to 50,000 years ago
During that time tools made were sharper compared to the Early or Old Stone Age.
The Types of Tools used during the Middle Stone Age and their Functions
Describe the types of tools used during the middle stone age and their functions
During the middle stone age, man used smaller and sharper tools than those used during the Old
Stone Age. Such tools included spears and knives used for different activities like defense and
security as well as in food preparation. During this age, fire was discovered and as a result man
started to eat roasted food.
The Physical Changes of Man during the Middle Stone Age
Describe the physical changes of man during the middle stone age
Man experienced physical changes during all the ages. During the middle stone age, man had an
upright posture and brain capacity between 775cc and 1225cc. During this age, man was
characterized by thick jaws, increased intelligence and skills, as compared to the Old Stone Age.
How Man Obtained Food during the Middle Stone Age
Explain how man obtained food during the middle stone age
In order to fulfill their basic needs humans used stone tools like stone hammers, stone cores,
sharp stone flakes that offered useful cutting edges, etc.
The Advantages of the Invention and Uses of Fire
Explain the advantages of the invention and uses of fire
During the Mesolithic revolution, the most important discovery made was the discovery of fire.
This discovery had a lot of advantages to man. Man used fire to roast food, clear vegetation, keep
himself warm,Chasing wild animals (to defend himself).
New Stone Age
The Type of Tools Used during the Late Stone Age and their Uses
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Describe the type of tools used during the late stone age and their uses
It started from around 50,000 BC up to the first Millennium, while at this stage man used much
sharper tools than in Early or Middle Stone Ages.
At this time man started farming and animal keeping. Due to that it was the time when man
started to have settlements.
Another development at this time was painting and drawings for example in Caves, evidence of
this can be seen in Amboni caves (Tanga), Kondoa (Dodoma) and Irangi (Singida)
The Physical Changes of Man during the Late Stone Age
Describe the physical changes of man during the late stone age
During the late Stone Age, human beings were a direct ancestor of modern man. They had the
ability to think as their brain capacity ranged between 1300cc and 1500cc. Also, they had an
ability to make and use more advanced tools compared to those made and used by their
ancestors. It was in this era that man was more intelligent than their ancestors had slightly thick
jaws.
Major Changes in Man's Way of Life during the Late Stone Age
Appraise major changes in man's way of life during the late stone age
At this time surplus food was available, this facilitated the increase of the human population and
the emergence of village settlements.
Iron Age
This was the time when man started to make and use iron tools. Iron age in Africa started more
on the first millennium in a few societies e.g. in East Africa, while other societies like western
Sudan States (Ghana, Mali, Soghai), Axum, Egypt, Nubi, and Meroe for North Africa
How Iron was Discovered
Explain how iron was discovered
Iron was discovered through particular stones which become hot and cool and finally change to a
hard matter known as iron. In East Africa, the iron age is believed to have begun around
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1000AD. Famous early iron sites were discovered in Engaruka within the rift valley in Northern
Tanzania. Other sites include Uvinza, Karagwe, Ugweno, Iteso and western shores of lake
Victoria.
The Advantages of using Iron Tools
Appraise the advantages of using iron tools
Iron age helped societies to progress and develop more (that is it had more positive effects than
negative effects) some of these effects were:
It created the division of labor in African societies e.g. some started working in local industries.
Others became traders and crop producers.
It also increased the production of food crops in Africa. (This was due to the making of more
useful farm equipments).
It helped with the formation of permanent settlements to those societies that adopted iron
technology (crop producers).
Africa started to develop Economically through activities such as industry, agriculture, mining
and trading.
It also led to the expansion of states in Africa (stronger societies started to conquer other states)
e.g. the Buganda and Ghana.
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TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC

ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT
This chapter will focus on the different economic levels of development achieved by man from
the period of pre-history specifically enlightening on the three-litchis of the continent of Africa
up to 19th century. Also to examine the factors that influenced the existed economic activities as
well as the impact of such activities on the respective society
The economic activities in pre-colonial Africa
The environment as an entity does influence economic activities and there is a strong relationship
between the environment and economic activities. Several economic activities developed
amongst the different people of Africa ranging from:
Agriculture which involved the growing of crops and rearing of animals.
Handcrafts industries which depended on skilss or hand to make and produce goods.
Mining concerning with the process of extracting underground minerals for man‟s use.
Trading involving the buying and exchanging of goods and services.
Fishing, lumbering, Hunting and gathering all these differed from area to area. Basing on
the environment and the skills that the people living in a given community were gifted with.
Agriculture
It is believed that in Africa, agriculture started about 6000 years ago. The use of discovered tools
and weapons led to the development of crop cultivation and domestication of animals. True plant
domestication probably began when the weakest plant were rejected and only seeds from the
strongest plants were set aside for re-sowing mainly yielding grasses (cereals) and the same
applied to animal domestication.
The Relationship between Agriculture, the Environment and Technological
Development
34
Show the relationship between agriculture, the environment and technological development
Contributions of technological development to development of
agriculture;
After a through look into different agricultural practices that existed in Africa, it is equally
paramount to know the contributions of technology to the development of agriculture in Africa.
The increased use of iron tools amongst the different societies of Africa, led to the increase
of land for cultivation, which resulted into increased agricultural productivity. The food storage
skills insured an insurance against loss of future crops through natural disasters such as drought
or flood thus food supply throughout the year. Some communities whose soils easily exhausted
developed the use of manure which renewed the land and thus increased production. The
development and use of irrigation opened up the once un-cultivatable to be productive for
agriculture once again.
Not only did the technological improvement contribute to the development of agriculture but
also the environment had the great bearing on the development of agriculture in Africa.
The reliable rainfall supplemented with the fertile soils in given areas resulted in the
development of permanent crop agriculture or cultivation accompanied with increased
agricultural production
Pest free and disease free areas were suitable for both crop and animal husbandry, as they
would attract settlement. Also in place is the availability of iron technology in given societies
making it possible for the making of iron tools which advanced on the methods of production
and thus increased productivity.
It ensured man with reliable food supplies, The impacts of agricultural development are
immeasurable as it ensured man with reliable food supplies, permanent settlement, labour
specialization and surplus production and thus increase in population.
Farming was not suitable in every environment, the disadvantage of settled farming may also
have been apparent through farming could support a larger population; it left the people more
exposed to the dangers of famine caused by natural disasters such as drought and floods.
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The Types of Agricultural Practices in Africa
Explain the types of agricultural practices in Africa
Different types of agriculture developed in the different African
societies these included:
Permanent crop cultivation
Mixed farming
Pastoralism
Shifting cultivation
Successful agriculture depended on the ecology or natural fertility of the soil, adequate rainfall,
technical skills of the famers and the ability to find most suitable and successful crops. However,
this was not a simple task as it required patience and the ability to learn more from experience. It
was the trial and error system.
Permanent crop cultivation
This involved the growing of perennial crops as potatoes, bananas, yam, beans and maize on a
permanent basis. This was majorly employed in areas where there was extra land. Not every
society could practice this form of agriculture but the environment dictated the terms.
Areas that received heavy and reliable rainfall were free from pests and diseases, having fertile
soil did serve best for permanent crop cultivation. With the development of iron technology
societies which practiced this moved from communalism to feudalism. In East Africa it was
majorly practiced in the interlacustrine regions such as Buganda, Kagera Kenyan highlands,
Ankole around Mount Kilimanjaro, parts of Kigoma and rungwe. In West Africa in the Fante,
Yoruba, Ashanti, Ife and Akwam.
With the development of permanent crop cultivation people begn to live in larger, more
permanent settlement, the permanence of settlement quickened the development of instrument
production, there were increase in population as a result of improved diet, food supply became
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more regular and abundant, brought important social as well as technical changes many
developed into centralised states for example Fante, Benin, Oyo and Meroe.
Lastly was the development of handcrafts industries such as iron smelting and social
differentiation.
Mixed farming
This is an agricultural system which involves growing of crops and rearing of animals on the
same piece of land. It evolved in areas which supported both pastoralism and crop cultivation.
Crops grown in this agricultural practice included cereals such as millet, sorghum, cassava and
maize animals kept included cattle, goats, sheep, cows and donkey.
The mixed farmers existed because the areas they lived had unreliable rainfall and their soils
could easily be exhausted so one thing had to supplement the other. Mixed farmers in East Africa
included the Gogo, Sangu, Sukuma, Kurya and Fipa in Tanzania, Luyia in Southwest Kenya, the
Basoga and Gisu of Eastern Uganda. The relation of production was mainly communal with low
production, division of labour based on age and sex
The mixed farmers in East Africa demonstrated achievement in their practices as they developed
centralised political organisations for example the Busoga in Uganda under Omuloki, specialised
in different activities. Specialisation in these societies resulted into development of trade, at first
it was among the mixed farmers and later it resulted in the formation of long distance trade.
Shifting cultivation
This involves spending a given period of time working on land and moving from one area that is
exhausted to a new fresh piece of land. It was mainly practiced by the people who lived in
grassland plateaus for example Miombo wood land savanna in central Tanzania were the rainfall
was little and unreliable and the soil could be easily exhausted
These soils could support the growth of cassava, sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, pumpkins
plus many more other crops.the rearing of livestock was made difficult due to the fact that these
areas were infected with tsetse flies and other livestock diseases. The soils that easily became
exhausted necessitated people to move from one place to another in search of the fertile piece of
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land. However people in some communities were living a settled life even if they were practicing
this type of agriculture.
Pastoralism
This involves the keeping of livestock. The herding of domestic animals (cattle, sheep or goats),
which were real and potential source of food particularly; milk, meat, animal skins and the herds
were also exchanged with the different neighboring societies.
Areas with semi arid and arid conditions like scanty rainfall, (rainfall that is just enough to
support the growth of pasture), poor soils which could only support pastoralism as the major
economic activity within the area. In East Africa the dry areas include the lift valley areas of
Tanzania and Kenya comprising of societies like the Maasai, Nyaturu, Barbaig and the
karamanjong in Uganda.
Where the people were largely pastoralists their settlement tended to be less permanent as they
moved in search of varying season pastures and water.
These people had no centralised political system they used the age set system in their production
and they also kept large herds because of their use value and prestige.
How Agriculture Changed Man's Life
Explain how agriculture changed man's life
The development of agriculture changed man's life in various ways, for instance;
with the development of permanent crop cultivation people began to live in permanent
settlement,
there was increase of population,
development of instruments of productions,
development of centralized states,
development of trade, and
the division of labour.
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Handicrafts,Industries and Mining in Pre-Colonial Africa

Handcrafts can be defined as the art of using your skills and hand to designs and fashion things,
or it's an activity done with on's hands requiring artistic skills. Such goods may include tools,
baskets, and cloth to mention but a few. In pre-colonial Africa different hand crafts industries
emerged as man specialized on to other activities apart from agriculture. These included iron
making industries, basketry, spinning and weaving cloth making, carving, canoe making and
many more.
The Meaning of Handcrafts, Industries, and Mining
Explain the meaning of handcrafts, industries, and mining
Mining industries:
Are industries which involve the process of extracting underground minerals such as copper,
gold, tin and salt mining industries.
An industry is a place where transformation of raw materials into finished goods is carried out.
The natural resources that existed in a given society determined the nature of industries to be
found in a given area.
The Types of Industries and Their Advantages in Pre-Africa
Differentiate the types of industries and their advantages in pre-Africa
Types of industries
Iron industries
Salt making
Copper industry
Handcrafts industries
Iron industries.
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The discovery of iron resulted in drastic socio-political and economic changes. The people who
were dealing in iron were called blacksmiths a person whose job is to make and repair things
made with iron, learns how to identify rocks containing iron ore.
In the way of trying to maintain monopoly over the knowledge of iron making it was kept as a
secret and in many societies it was even ritualised (made a religious thing). Different society had
different beliefs as many believed that the women were not allowed to furnace as it was
presumed that the iron would be spoilt.
Methods of obtaining and processing iron:
Blacksmiths identified the rocks that were bore iron ore collecting them and smelting the iron
found in the trenches or clay furnaces. They had to use charcoal fuel and maintained the high
temperatures in the furnaces by fanning the live charcoal with bellows. The smelted iron was
then shaped into different forms and tools like spear heads, knives, axes, panga and wire. The
places where the iron industries were found included the Venda people of Northern Transvaal,
the Mashona people of Zimbabwe, the Iteso of Eastern Uganda, along Kilambo falls, Futa
Djalon, Meroe and many others.
Salt making industries
Salt is not only a food ingredient but was also used to preserve food. The increased use of salt
resulted into the development of trade and agriculture as salt led to more food production, the use
of salt was found in almost all communities as it was important in different communities.
Methods of obtaining and processing salt:
There are four methods of obtaining and processing salt in different communities, these included:
Traditional method
Under the tradition method salt was obtained from the reeds growing in marshy areas, gathered,
dried and burnt to ashes. The ashes were then collected, filtered and the liquid was boiled to
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evaporate, the residue was used as salt. The Manganja people settled along Lake Nyasa
commonly used this method.
Mining of salt bearing rocks
Rocks contained salt was dug out and the crystals were used. In here the rocks that contain salt
are identified and are dug out, it is probably the most commonly used method of obtaining and
processing salt. Place were it is used include Kasese, Bilma, Taghaza, Katwe and many others.
Boiling and evaporation
Under this method as the spring waters boil underneath the earth's surface, they do evaporate and
spill over the land surface where they cool to form salt crystals which crystals are used as salt.
This was commonly practiced in Uvinza, Shinyanga and also among the Venda people.
Developed among the coastal regions
Along the coastal regions salty waters were trapped into pans and left to evaporate the heat of the
sun. The crystals that did remain behind after the evaporation of salty waters were then used as
salt.
Gold industries
Gold is one of the most precious minerals and it was not found in every area as other minerals
which makes it precious and valuable. The communities that mined gold showed drastic social,
political and economic developments.
Methods of obtaining and processing gold
Panning method
This method was commonly carried out along the river beds where alluvial gold was extracted. It
was somehow tiresome as people had to try several times in order to obtain the mineral. This
method was common among the Sabi people living along river Zambezi
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Shaft method
This method was commonly used in the areas with gold veins. Here the gold was dug out by
using wooden, stone and iron hammers, then collected in wooden baskets and taken to furnaces
were it was turned into different ornaments such as bangles, earrings plus many more.
Copper industries
The copper industry is believed to be the oldest industry that existed in almost all pre colonial
African societies. Different societies did participate to the industries due to the fact that the
copper existed in their communities.
Methods used in obtaining and processing copper
Identification of a copper belt
The copper was dug out and then taken to the furnaces where it was smelted. The smelted copper
was turned into different tools which were relatively important to the society for example wire
traps, knives axes etc. the areas that carried out this included places where the copper belt were
found for example the Katanga copper belt and Kasese.
Handcrafts industries
Cloth making industries (weaving and spinning):
These industries were concerned with making clothes and developed in areas where cloth
making materials were available. Spinning and wearing, making of bark –cloth developed in
areas with cotton and appropriate tree barks.
Famous spinning and weaving societies in Africa include Yoruba people of West Africa,
Sumbawanga in Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique as well as the people found in Lake Rukwa
valley in Tanzania as for bark cloth areas North of Lake Victoria, interlacustrine societies for
example in Buganda they used the Mvule tree to make (Olubugo) bark cloth which was very
expensive and it was only the rich and the nobles who could afford it
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Basketry and carpentry

Closely associated with agrarian societies whose style of life was more complex and
sophisticated and in places that were privileged with palm and special reeds holding vessels
specialised in the making of baskets and mats plus special leather work was needed for making
leather clothes, sandals, bags, and beddings from animal skins and hides. It‟s associated with
pastoralists such as Tuareg, Beja, Ajar, and Somali who made tents.
Canoe making
The art of making canoes developed in areas bordering lakes, rivers and oceans. Different
societies who carried this had their major economic activity as fishing which in many cases
supplemented agriculture.
This therefore means that nature of resources available in a given society determined the nature
of handcrafts industry present in that society.
Trade in pre colonial Africa
Trade refers to the exchange of goods or services with money or other goods or is the buying and
selling of goods
The development of agriculture brought important economic changes as people were now able to
produce surplus food which is more than needed to feed their own immediate family thus the
surplus could be traded between neighboring settlement in exchange for raw materials luxuries
and other items not produced within the community
It is clear that societies are not fully self sufficient. Therefore, interactions say between
pastoralists with cultivators and agriculturalists with craftsmen in order to exchange goods are
required. The major means of distributions from one hand to another were through gifts, tributes
and taxation.
The exchanges carried out were not aimed at getting profit but it was after the use value of
commodities and also strengthening relations. For example a person who exchanged his cattle
with millet was not in search of profit.
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Before the emergence of groups of people who specialised in trade the exchange system was
barter this involved the exchange of goods for goods.
As societies developed trade development was also inevitable basing on the fact that some
societies were not having specific resources which could only be obtained through the exchange.
Increase in surplus production supplemented with the development of industries, the presence of
safe routes and the regional specialisation not forgetting the love for adventure cemented the
development and expansion of trading activities in pre colonial Africa.
The expansion of trading activities resulted into two major types of trade emerging in pre
colonial Africa.
1. The local trade (internal exchange relations). This developed within given community.
2. Regional trade (long distance trade). Where there emerged groups of people who
specialized and could buy goods from producers in order to sell them later at a profit.
The Uses of Different Types of Minerals in Pre-Colonial Africa
Explain the uses of different types of minerals in pre-colonial Africa
All in all the handcrafts and mining industries had far reaching effects to the communities and
societies of pre colonial Africa. Increased food production was evident as tool of production was
improved up on through the technological development, trade was also increased as the volume
of food traded and the demand increased this in turn acted as a source of income to many
societies which later rose socially, politically and economically more settled populations and
communities new political system and organizations, the blacksmith became recognized,
influential and famous people in the society, the iron tools could dig and cut faster and deeper
than the stone tools and many others.
Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa

The Basis of Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa
Explain the basis of trade in pre-colonial Africa
Local trade
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This was conducted from the village among the homogenous community, it did not require
specific places to act as a markets, there was no need of middle men as goods passed freely from
the hands of producers to consumers.
Many pre colonial African societies at first developed this trade as it availed them with the
commodities they needed with much ease. People living within a given community exchanged
commodities amongst themselves in order to fill the missing link; for example, cultivators could
exchange their food with the livestock from the pastoralists, other commodities exchanged
included iron tools, ornaments, animal skins and agricultural produce.
Generally speaking, the exchange which started with the intention to cement the existing social
bonds amongst the different societies resulted in the growth of several industries, simulation of
production for goods required in the exchange. It also led to the increase in incomes of the
people who actively participated in the trade, the emergence and development of relationships
among people of different localities for example the Sukuma trading with the Maasai and also
the availability of all goods in the community brought about by increased production and the
expansion in the exchanges.
The Types of Trade, Types of Commodities and the Societies Involved
Identify the types of trade, types of commodities and the societies involved
Regional trade
Trade between East and Central Africa started from the 1st millennium AD as they traded in
raffia cloth, ivory and hides, copper from Katanga exchanged with salt from Uvinza.
This was concerned with the exchange of goods with people from different regions. This called
for specialisation and dealt with the commodities which were relatively scarce and geographical
un evenly distributed among the people of different ethnic groups. Regional trade involved
different regions in the trading process. In East and Central Africa it came to be known as long
distance trade while in West Africa it was called trans Saharan trade.
Long Distance Trade
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It is called long distance trade simply because it was carried out long distance as people/traders
had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim
was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to
use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.
Professional traders (trade being their major occupation) came from Yao, Chewa and Bissa of
Central Africa. Imbangala and vimbundu from Angola, Dyula merchants and the Marabouts of
West Africa. In East Africa the Nyamwezi, Yao and Kamba were famous long distance traders,
through trading and supplying ivory, slaves and copper to the exterior of East Africa Indian
ocean coast. This organisation required fixed places to act as markets and the use of middlemen
as the entrepreneurs.
In East Africa it was mainly carried out during the dry season and during the rainy season they
settled down for agricultural activities.
By the10th century AD the Yao and Chewa were exporting ivory and iron to the coast. The
Shona of Zimbabwe exported ivory and gold to the coast which were then exported to the Far
East and then return they imported glass wear, cowrie's shells, beads, cotton cloth and porcelain
from the far and Middle East. They used organised caravans for security reasons and distance
standard currency such as bars of iron or copper and slabs of salt.
The long distance trade was a blessing for many societies in East and Central Africa as it gave
rise to the notorious and professional long distance traders like Tip Tippu, Mzilikazi, and Mlosi
etc
In addition to that prominent rulers such as Muteesa of Bugnanda, Mirambo of Unyamwezi,
Kimweri of Usambara and Mkwawa of the Uhehe were able to conquer and rule weaker and
neighboring societies. All this was facilitated by the acquisition of fire arms and ammunition
which were important commodities from the East coast.
Expansion and consolidation of various kingdoms for example Buganda, Bunyoro, Yao and
Nyamwezi led many of the participants to became very rich and famous from the huge profits
that were enjoyed from the trade.
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The trade acted as a stepping stone for the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa. Many of
the traders preaching Islam at the same time carrying their trading activities. Slave trade paved
its way to the interior as the interior was exposed to traders.
The Trans Saharan Trade
Trans Saharan trade is also sometimes referred to as caravan trade. It was carried out across the
Sahara desert. The trade involved different zones ranging from forest i.e. involving the forest
states such as Benin, Oyo, Kanem Bornu and many more, the savannah belt which involved the
Western Sudanic states such as Ghana, Mali and Songhai, the Sahara desert and the North
Africa, the Mediterranean world and Europe.
Factors for the rise of the Trans Saharan Trade (causes)
The introduction and use of the camels, which were introduced in Africa during 100A.D.
CamelS replaced horses and donkeys as they were more resistant to desert conditions and could
also move faster to the desert. This therefore facilitated the development of the trade as a more
efficient means of transport had been introduced
Political development that during the 7th and 16th century. This includesthe Western
Sudanic states whose rulers promoted the expansion of the trade. They ensured this by giving a
leading hand, security, freedom of movement and also encouraging people to prepare the goods
that were necessary in the trade a thing that did not existed before.
The conquest of North Africa by the Arabs, between 641 and 708 the Arabs conquered North
Africa, astraders naturally they introduced their trading system and on top of that they increased
the use of camels in North Africa and in the Sahara desert.
Development of production, in various regions of the Sudanic zone the production increased it
meant that the supplies of commodity to be used in the trade were available. As no single
community is self-sufficient this meant that the different communities had to depend on each
other for various raw materials and goods.
Organization of the trade:
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commodities used; different regions had different commodities that they concentrated on, from
Europe and Muslim North Africa included manufactured goods, textile, copper, silver, woolen
garments, brass, tin and horses
From the Sahara were salt mined at Bilma, Taghaza, Taoden, Idjil and Awlil, copper mined at
Takkeda, tobacco and dates inclusive.
The savannah region had millet, sorghum, wheat, gum and ostrich feathers and livestock as well
as gold that were mined from Wangara.
The forest zone was well known for gold mines at Akan and Lobi, kola nuts, ivory and the
slaves.
The first medium of exchange was the barter system where goods were exchanged for goods but
as the people became professional traders the medium of exchange also changed the traders
started using cowries and at a later stage they started using the French franc and then the Spanish
and Australian dollars.
As caravans were organised they had to follow specific trade routes that gave them a sense of
direction on their way through the trade. The major trade route that was used included;
From Ghat and Tripoli to Ehyot.
From Ghana to Morocco via Audaghast.
From Timbuktu to Tunis via Taghaza.
From Borno to Tripoli.
From Kano to Tunis and Tripoli via Agades.
From Timbuktu to Tunis via Wangala, Ghademes and Ghat.
The Impact of the Following Types of Trade: Local Trade, Regional Trade
Appraise the impact of the following types of trade: local trade, regional trade
Impacts of the Trans Saharan Trade
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Contributed to the formation of West African states and kingdoms, the profits that were raised
from trade helped in the development of different states, these were got through the taking over
charge or control over the trade routes and every one using that route had to pay tax or tributes.
For example Ghana Empire conquered Audaghast in 990 A.D. in view of controlling the salt
mines in that area, Mali and Songhai extended their control as far as Taghaza and Takedda for
economic reasons. It is therefore true to say that trade facilitated the rise and consolidation of the
different states.
The spread of Islam was greatly accelerated by the Trans Saharan Trade in West and North
Africa. The traders were serving two masters at a go as they were traders and also acted as
teachers of Islam (evangelists) a thing that improved on the literacy rates in the region.
Growth of towns and cities, due to the trade many areas which were once villages turned into
towns in what is known as urbanisation. Small villages turned into large towns and cities such as
Kumbi Saleh, Gao, Kano, Jenne, Timbuktu plus many others.
Improvement of political administrations, the caravan trade also improved political
administration of the different kingdoms through the use and employment of well educated
Muslim traders who had been attracted by the trade. Many of the states were also applying the
Islamic ways of administration in their different areas or jurisdiction
Exploitation of natural resources, as the influx of the Whites increased, this marked the
beginning of the exploitation of natural resources that were endowed in Africa. It is also believed
that this was the time of unequal exchange between Africa and Europe began.
Provision of constant and regular source of income, The attractive profits from trade provided
constant and regular source of income for the different states. This was mainly raised from the
custom duties that imposed on the imports and over goods of great political importance such as
horse and the different metals that were imported into the state.
Trade also provided the sources for undertaking wars of conquest and expansion through the
supply of effective means of war fare, such as horses and metals that could be used in the making
and designing arms as spears, arrows head and axes.
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The Trans Saharan Trade

This was the trading relation between the people of Western Sudan (Sudanic/Savannah region)
and the people of North Africa passing across the Sahara desert. Camels were used as the means
of transport during this trade. Societies that participated in the Trans Saharan Trade included;
The Berbers of North Africa and brought them to West Africa via the Sahara desert.
The Arabs and the European stationed in the Mediterranean costs of North Africa. These
supplied goods to the Berbers and Tuaregs who in turn sold them to the people of West Africa.
The said Arabs and purchased the items brought from West Africa.
The West African tribes of both the Sudanic region and the forest regions to include the
Mandika, Fulani, Hausa, Edo etc. these supplied items to the Berbers and Tuaregs who crossed
the Sahara and purchased the items brought from North Africa.
Commodities involved
From North Africa the commodities were:
Cotton and silk clothes
Swords
Guns and gunpowder
Horses, etc.
from West Africa the commodities were:
slaves
ivory
ostrich feathers
kola nuts
Gold
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Salt
Food stuff
Trans Saharan trade was firstly carried out through barter system and there after some media of
exchange like cowries shells, silver, coins, etc. replaced the barter system.
Trade routes
The Trans Saharan Trade was carried out via the routes namely:
The western routes
The Central route
The Eastern route
The Western route emerged from Fez in Morocco via Siljilmasa, Taghaza, Taoden, Walata, and
Audaghost up to Timbuktu. This route was famous because of salt mines at Taghaza and gold
mines Wangara.
The central route emerged at Tunis in Tunisia via Tuat, Taotek, Tadmekket, Timbuktu, Gao, and
Kano up to Katsina.
The Eastern route to the other hand emerged from Triplin in Libya, Alexandria and Cairo in
Egypt to Bilma via Murzuk, Ghat and Agades. This route was significant because of salt mines
in Bilma.
Factors for growth of Trans Saharan Trade
Several factors contributed to the growth and development of Trans Saharan trade. These
include:-
Political stability in both North Africa and West Africa, hence a conducive ground forthe
trade activities to flourish.
The desire by European traders of such items as ivory, gold and slaves which were tobe
obtained only from Western Sudan.
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The desire of European commodities by the people of Western Sudan.

Production of surplus commodities such as kola nuts, salt, fish and other food stuffsin
Western Sudan. These had to be exported to other regions including NorthAmerica.
The introduction and use of camels as animals of transportation, these were able tocarry
huge quantities than horses and human porters. They were also tolerable indesert conditions.
Factors for the fall of Trans Saharan Trade
By the second half of the 19th century, the trans Saharan trade was almost collapse of this trade
was a result of the following factors:
Introduction of trans Atlantic trade which altered the trade route of Trans Saharan Trade.
The emergence of other sources of salt and gold needed by European traders due
toopening up of mines in the Americas.
Scarcity of water in the desert discouraged the voyages via the desert.
Eruption of wars (jihad) in the Maghreb region particularly Morocco. This disrupted the
trade.
Colonisation of West African states by European powers in the last quarter of
19thcentury deteriorated the trading relations with North Africa
Effects of the Trans Saharan Trade
The Trans Saharan Trade had to a lot of effects as follows:-
It led to development and growth of towns and cities in both North Africa and
theWestern Sudan, example being Walata, Kano, and Timbuktu etc.
It led to emergence of rich merchants classes in Western Sudan as these merchants
accumulated a lot of wealth from the trade.
It led to the spread of Islam, Arabic culture and language in Western Sudan.
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It led to intermarriages between the people of Western Sudan, the Arabs and AfroArabs
from North Africa.
It led to the growth and consolidation of Sudanic states namely Ghana, Mali, Songhaiand
Kanem Bornu.vi. It stimulated the state of warfare between Western Sudanic states and forest
states dueto the desire for slaves.
Mining and hand craft industries
Mining
This is the extraction of minerals from the underground parent rocks. By the period before and
around the 19th century, minerals that were being mined in Africa include the following:-
Copper
Gold
Iron
Bronze
Silver
Salt.
Most of the minerals were to be taken to handcraft industries where they were then processed
into different items. Some other minerals such as salt were to be consumed directly while some
other minerals were to be used as media of exchange in trading activities.
Prominent areas in Africa where mining activities were being practiced include the following:-
Katanga in Zaire where there were copper mines.
Tshikapa in Zaire, Machili, Lusu, Klambo falls and Ingombe ilede.
Gokomere, Mabven, Malapiti and Chivi in the Limpompo valley of Zimbabwe iron
wasmined.
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Mashona and Matebele lands in Zimbabwe as well as Ashanti in Ghana where gold
wasbeing mined.
Uvinza in Western Tanzania and Taghaza in Mauritania where there were extraction
ofsalts.
Hand crafts industries
These were factories that manufactured different items through the use of machines operated
manually (by hand). Such industries include those that dealt with metal works namely:
Iron processing industries
Copper processing industries
Salt making industries
The said metal working industries were mainly located near their respective mining areas.
Prominent societies that were experts in metal works include:
The people of Chipembe, and Kalomo in Zambia, the people of Mwavarambo,Phopo and
Nkope Bay in Malawi as well as the Yoruba and the Edo of Nigeriawho were experts in iron
smelting industries.
The Shona and Ndebele of Zimbabwe, the Akan and the Asante of Ghana whowere
famous in gold coast smithing industries.
The Manganja of Malawi and the people of Taghaza were experts in salt making
industries.
Other industries apart from metal work industries dealt with cotton and raffia cloth making
among the Fulbe, the Felleme and Trakrur of Senegal and among the societies Guinea and
Zimbabwe.
Other industries were those dealing with Basketry, Pottery and wood carving. Wood carving
industries were common among the Makonde of Tanzania and the Yoruba of Nigeria.
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Items made from the said handcraft industries were to be sold in exchange with other products
like agricultural products, animal products etc.
THE MAP OF TRANS SAHARAN TRADE ROUTES
BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITIES TO DO
1. Define the following terms Technology Agriculture Trade Environment Development
2. List the four agricultural processes that were carried out among the different societies in
East Africa.
3. Mention any four advantages and effects of agriculture to the different African societies.
4. Mention the different handcrafts that existed in pre colonial African societies.
5. Outline the different types of trade that where present in the pre colonial African
societies.
6. What factors contributed to the development of trans Saharan trade?
7. Mention the different regions that participated in the Trans Saharan trade.
8. Mention four notorious and professional long distance traders.
9. List the different methods in the obtaining and processing of salt in the pre colonial
African societies.
10. What factors gave rise to the Trans Saharan trade?
11. List four principles of trade routes that were used in trans Saharan slave trade.
12. What were the impacts or effects of trans Saharan trade?
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DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
SYSTEMS
Kinship Of Clan Organization

The Meaning of the Kinship or Clans
explain the meaning of the kinship or clan
Prior to European colonisation in the late 19th century, Africa had a very long history of state
building as well as a rich variety of social formations that were decentralised or stateless.
The Social, Political and Economic Organization of Kinship or Clans
explain the social, political and economic organization of kinship or clan
Clan Organisation
Leaders in the clan organisation were chosen by a heritage system that was either matrilineal or
patrilineal. Matrilineal systems are based on the mother‟s side and patrilineal systems are based
on father‟s side e.g. of matrilineal societies are Makonde and Zanaki, while the Sukuma and Pare
are good examples of patrilineal societies.
The clan leader had a lot of functions such as:
Note: The clan leaders in Africa had local names e.g. Sukuma – Mtemi, Nyakyusa- Malafyale.
Chiefdom or Chieftain Organization
Therefore, the chiefdom organisation system was adopted by many societies that were under clan
organisation. This included the Sukuma, Chagga, Nyakyusa, etc.
The functions of a chief in these societies were similar to that of the clan leader the difference is
the chief had a larger area.
Age set system was a type of organisation which involved age and sex in distribution of
activities.
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Looking at the Maasai; they were organised as follows:
1. Soldiers
2. Increasing the herds of cattle by raiding from other societies
3. Moving with their cattle in need of water and gras
.
1. Religious leaders
2. Distributed resources e.g. Cattle
State organisation were systems of administration adopted by few African societies while having
administrative organs, army and judiciary. Each organ was responsible for different activities.
State Africa can be grouped as follows:
Interlacustrine Region
Buganda
Bunyoro Kital
Others include
Hehe
Nyamwezi
Western Sudanic State
Ghana
Sangai
Dahomey
Fulani
Oyo
Central Africa
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Nubiii
Ethiopia
Age-set System
The Meaning of Age-Set System
Explain the meaning of age-set system
Age set is a social system or organization which involves age and sex in the distribution of
activities and duties. Therefore age, sex and gender are highly considered in division of labor and
specialization. Examples of tribes that practiced age set are the Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong
in Uganda and Nandi in Kenya.
The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Societies which Practiced
the Age-Set System
Explain the social, political and economic organization of societies which practiced the age-set
system
The social, political and economical organization of societies that practiced age set organization
was based on age and sex in the division and specialization of labor. The main economic activity
in age set system societies was livestock keeping which resulted in a semi-nomadic life. The
tribes which practiced the age set system were Maasai in Tanzania, Karamajong in Uganda and
Nandi in Kenya.
Age set covered a specific group of years for example.
a. Children group aged 0-8 years were regarded as non producers group.They were not
directly involve in production.
b. Youth group 8-18 years their main responsibility was to graze animal, trading young
animals and milking cattle they were assisted by women.
c. Moran group (people between youth and adults aged between 35 years) and above these
were solders of the society and the society and the main responsibilities of the Moran were as
follows; i. To protect the whole society as trained solders. ii. To protect live stock against
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dangerous animals and raiders. iii. To increase the number of animals through raiding their
neighbours; iv. To travel with their herds in search for water and pastures;
d. Laibons this is the group of elders aged 40 years and above it consisted of elders who
were divided in groups namely;Junior elders; Elders and senior elders.Responsibilities of elders
included:
To control live stock and the properties on behalf of their communities.
To enable norms and ethics to govern the society.
They were top overseeds of all the spiritual and political matters of the community.
They were responsible for counseling other members of the society.
To settle disputes among the society members.
They were regarded as retired producers of the society but their ideas and skills were
highly appreciated.
Ntemiship
The Meaning of the Ntemiship System
Explain the meaning of the ntemiship system
Ntemiship is a socio-political organization or system characterized by being made up of
separated groups. The word Ntemiship is derived from the word Kutema which means split
apart. The ruler in a Ntemiship system was called Mtemi. The Nyamwezi tribe practiced the
Ntemiship system.
The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Ntemiship
Explain the social, political and economic organization of ntemiship
Ntemi comes from the word ”kutema” which means opening up of new land. It also means
finding a locality Ntemi was the name given to a leader who organized the action of opening up
new land and controlled the people.Ntemiship was being practiced in Unyamwezi by 1300 AD.It
then spread in the neighbouring such as the sukuma,sangu,hehe,kimbu,gogo and bena of
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Tanzania.There were about 300 Ntemiship in Tanzania in the 18th C. Among the sukuma, the
ruler in Ntemiship organization was called Ntemi. He became Ntemi because he founder he was
founder of the locality.He was chosen by a counsel of elders choosing a person to become Ntemi
depended on his wisdom courage and experience.
Responsibilities of the Ntemi:
1. He was the top authority in the political and matters provided over all guidance in the
community.
2. He enforced proper uses of resources such as land,water,forest resources etc.
3. He was the overseer of the community food reserve.
4. He settled disputes in the community.
5. He had the religious power.He led the people in his community in performing religious
and offering sacrificies to the sprits.
6. To collect tributes from his subjects.
7. He provided over all guidance in the society.
State Organisation
The Meaning of State Organisation
Explain the meaning of state organization
State formation in Africa
Environmental factor
Location of a place e.g. in trading while some of the African States were near to the trading
towns as they obtained tax and commodities.
Iron technology in Africa also helped in the development and rise of Africa states e.g. By Iron
they made weapons like spears, Arrows, guns etc. weapons were useful on conquering small
states eg. Buganda conquered Bunyaro-Kutoro, Nyankole.
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Some states had good leadership and they were able to organise their states e.g. Shaka Zulu,
Mirambo of Nyamwezi, Mkwawa of Hehe. Tunkumanin of Ghana, Sunsiata of Mali etc.
Men belonging to African societies were involved in long and short distance trade which led to:
Outbreak of wars and migration
Formal governments
Prime minister, council of elders, Provision chief, general commander and others like Abakungu,
Abalangira.
Some states rose up due to the influence of the Islamic religion e.g. through the use of Jihad
while states were turned into Islamic states. For instance in West Africa we see the Sokoto
caliphate (under Uthman Dan fodio) who managed to conquer several states in the forest zone.
Some of African tribes had strong armies and had improved weapons for conquering other states.
It is said that before the White man‟s intrusion, Ghana had about 20,000 experienced soldiers
and Mali had 10,000 soldiers.
Fall of some states in Africa
Increase in size of states led to poor organisation and state management e.g. Ghana and
other states.
Wars and conquest while some of the states were conquered by strong states e.g. In
Mfecane war about 100 states were conquered by Zulu.
Slave trade in Africa also affected a lot of weak states while strong states managed to
conquer small states e.g. Fulani in West Africa declined due to this.
The system of obtaining leaders through heritage did not lead to the development of
states but the fall of states that were following this system.
The conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims in some societies while non-
Muslimsocieties being conjured by the Muslim societies.
Weak leaders in some societies failed to organise their states leding to their decline.
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STATES ORGANISATION
TYPES OF STATES IN AFRICA
1. Decentralised states (Non centralised)
2. Centralised states.
These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other classes in domination of
wealth and political power.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DECENTRALISED STATES
1. Most decentralised societies were small in terms of population and area.
2. Decentralised states had no political connection with a large kingdom.
3. Each village was politically separated and was not politically connected to neighbouring
villages.
4. Most decentralised societies did not have a system of chiefs.
5. Council of elders were religious leaders . Organisational structure of kinship ties lineage
groups.
CENTRALISED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES
Some African societies were large empires governed by kings, who had near absolute power. For
Example:
1. North Africa – Egypt, Nubia, Axum in North East
2. Ghana, Mali, Soghai and Kaneroi Burnu in Western
3. Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Tero in East Africa
CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALISED POLITICAL
SYSTEMS
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1. Presence of a king or queen.

2. The clan had to pay tribute to the monarchy
3. Availability of enough food to feed the settled population
4. The centralised authority was responsible for solving social disputes.
Example: Ancient Egypt
Origins:According to archaeological evidence, the Egyptian state arose between 1500 and 500
BC. The evidence also show that by this time there were already villages of self sufficient
producers who grew wheat, barley and kept animals. These producers formed permanent
settlements as they increased in population.
The Factors that gave Rise to Centralised States and Non-Centralised States
Appraise the factors that gave rise to centralized states and non-centralized states
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE EGYPTIAN STATE
1. The development of agriculture and pastoralism
2. Specialization of labour
3. The rise of Nemes who united the upper and the lower Egypt
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Strong Army
7. Development of productive forces
Therefore any one with the following rose to power:
1. Anyone who could control disasters by rituals and charms
2. Anyone who had experience and stored knowledge of floods
3. Anyone who had knowledge of predicting floods
CLASSES IN THE EGYPTIAN STATE
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1. The ruling class- Consisted of the Pharaoh who was at the top followed by the nobility,
priests, court officials and other officials- Followed by administrators of the people called the
Vizier.
2. The working class
3. The peasants and slaves
ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia started as a small kingdom known as Axum, was founded near the red sea coast by a
dynasty of Sabean from the other side of the Red Sea. The Ethiopia arose around 1000 BC
FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF THE ETHIOPIAN STATE
1. Strong leadership
2. Agriculture
3. Unity among the people
4. Growth of local industries
5. Strong army
6. Taxation
7. Christianity
CLASSES IN ETHIOPIA
1. Feudal Lords
2. Peasants (tenants and serfs)
3. Slaves.
Feudalism was consolidated by the introduction of Christianity during the 4th AD and King
Ezana was the first to be converted. King Zangwe built 30 churches. A descendant of King
Solomon and Queen Sheba.
Expansion done by 3 emperors (leaders):
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1. Zangwe Dynasty – 12th C – 13th C
2. King Theodire – 19th C – 1855 – 1868
3. Menelik II – 19th C – 1889 – 1913 Menelik II made Addis Ababa his Capital
THE KINGDOM OF NUBIA
Nubia lay in the area that cut across the borders of modern Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia. The
Nubian State arose around 200 BC. It was called Kush and its capital was Napata. In 3rd C the
capital shifted to Meroe.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE/GROWTH OF THE NUBIAN
STATE
1. Agricultural activities
2. Trade
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold and Ivory
DECLINE OF NUBIA
1. Feudal lords were against the peasants
2. Attacks by Muslims
3. Disunity
WESTERN SUDANIC STATES
The early State in western Sudan was established in the region between the Sahara desert and the
forest region of the South. The most important states are Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem
Bornu
GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN
SUDANIC STATES
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1. Geographical location
2. Iron technology
3. The growth of population
5. Taxation
6. Trans - Saharan trade
7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold
8. Good centralised government
9. Capable leaders
10. Strong army
GHANA EMPIRE
During its rise Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans.
The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title
emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Koumbi Saleh.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANIAN EMPIRE
2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold
3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt
4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.
5. Common language.
FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE
1. Almoravids constant attacks
2. Disunity among people
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3. Jihad wars
4. Lack of stable system of royal successions
5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali
MALI EMPIRE
Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana
and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kagaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell under
Sundiata‟s rulership. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niani and
the title of the ruler was Mansa.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI
1. The fall of Ghanaian empire
2. Control of gold fields of Bure
3. Strong army
5. Trans – Saharan trade
6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mauna Kan Kan Musa
7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities.
DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE
1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV
2. Empire became too large to control
3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they
foughtagainst each other.
4. Attacks by Tuaregs
5. Civil wars
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6. The rise of Songhai empire

SONGHAI EMPIRE
In the late 15th Century the Songhai empire originally the Gao, conquered neighbouring states
under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its
capital at around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were
Sunni Alli, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.
FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE
1. Agriculture activities
2. Strong army
3. Trans – Sahara trade
4. Good administration
5. Taxation
6. Islamic faith
DECLINE OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE
1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud
2. The Moroccan invasion
3. The empire was too large to control
4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs
5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic
FOREST STATES
THE BENIN EMPIRE
Benin empire was a very small state made up of the Edo speaking people. The highest authority
at the time were chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the „Kings of the Sky‟ and the
administrative centre was Ubinu. Between 1388 – 1431 there was a series of civil wars which
divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan left for exile and
established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he sent his son,
Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne.
EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE
By 15th C the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE
1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of whom was Ewuare
2. Good centralized system of Government
3. Trade
4. Unity
5. Development of Handicraft Industry
DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE
Introduction of slave trade
Trans- Atlantic trade
Firearms introduced through European trade caused tribal wars that led to the finaldecline
of the Benin Empire.
THE EMPIRE OF OYO
Oyo empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 – 1431. The people of Oyo were
Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alaafin. The Bashoran was
the leader of the army.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE
1. It had organised political system headed by a number of great Alafins
2. Strong organised army
5. Slave trade
6. Dahomey tributary
DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE
1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon
2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey
3. Civil wars and disunity
DAHOMEY EMPIRE
Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. it was founded by the Fon people. It had
good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey.
THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C
1. Growth of centralised and powerful monarchy
2. Boyul succession system was effective
3. Strong army
4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja
5. Control of slave trade
DECLINE OF DAHOMEY
Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.
ASANTE EMPIRE
Asante or Ashanti empire was found as a result of emergence of several cities in the region of
Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa
who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante
union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE
3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu
4. Well organised political system
5. Trade
DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.
The Organisation of Centralised and Non-Centralised States
Explain the organization of centralized and non-centralized states
CENTRALISED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA
Example: Onya empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of
Munikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza which the Portuguese
later baptised Sutrador.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE
1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology
2. Trade
3. Taxation
5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power
DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE
The arrival of the Portuguese

Slave trade
Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy
inPortugal. His son Mzingo Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of
thePortuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.
MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM
This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura
of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa which means „Master of
conquered lands‟. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his
son Matope inherited, after Matope‟s death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA
2. Good leadership of Mutola
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold
4. They controlled trade routes
5. Trading centres
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA
1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade
2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi
3. Rebellion from local people
After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other chief who
wanted power so that chief rebelled and caused civil war.
THE LUBA STATE
This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from
Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom,
Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave rise to the Luba lineage of
Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.
REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE
1. Centralised system of administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and
external trade
2. The development of trade
4. The presence of iron technology
THE LUNDA STATE
The centre of the empire lay in the valley of Nkala river. The Luba kings took the title of
Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantagaand. Ilunga
Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first
paramount ruler of the Lunda State.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE
1. Iron technology
4. Good leadership
5. Trade.
The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans
FORM TWO
INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA
Social and Economic Factors for Interactions

Interaction can be defined as the way in which people from a given community came into contact
with another community. As humans cannot fully live alone due to the progressing day to day
needs; interaction is inevitable among people because through interaction we was able to access
different requirements. However, aspects of socio-economic development further strengthened
the need for interaction.
The Social Factors which gave Rise to Interactions among the People of
Africa
Explain the social factors which gave rise to interactions among the people of Africa
Political and social factors
War: Some interactions were brutal and hostile as some strong communities attacked the
weaker ones in order to control them. Some societies succeeded in their struggle while others
failed. For example, from 1820s Egypt was in constant attacks to control the North-east and East
Africa.
Migration: As communities grew in number this lead to a scarcity of resources, which
forced others to migrate in search of resources that were and meeting other people with whom
they created new social relations for example the Bantu migration and the Ngoni migration.
Intermarriage: This occurs when two people of different groups married and can be seen
in the broader context of mixing of different groups in marriage, cohabitation or sexual relations.
Therefore, this made African people interact and begin new communities.
Religion:Africans had their traditional African religions which acted as a symbol of unity
and togetherness. Their religions brought them together.
Music and games:African societies had a rich history of music and games, as people from
different communities interacted on different occasions sharing their experiences; this was
mainly for entertainment and recreational purposes.
The Economic Factors that gave Rise to the Interactions among the People of
Africa
Explain the economic factors that gave Rise to the interactions among the people of Africa
Economic factors
Trade: Different societies had to move in search of commodities which led to interaction.
For example, people of Zambia, Mozambique and Rwanda had trade links with people of East
Africa and in North Africa people interacted with West Africans through Trans-Saharan trade.
Search for new land: Areas that were not conducive for human settlement and production
activities were left behind and those that with conducive conditions like fertile soil and good
climate did attract many people. For example agricultural community did shift from areas that
were infertile to those areas with reliable rainfall and fertile soil.
The Impact of the Economic Interactions
Explain the impact of the economic interactions
The economic impacts of the interaction can be grouped into two as positive and negative
impacts as elaborated below:
Positive economic impacts
Development of technical skills and new ideas: Interaction led people of Africa from
different communities to share their skills and ideas for economic growth.
Growth of new towns and cities:Interaction among African people led to the development
of new towns as most of the populated areas grew economically due to the population increase
and production activities such as trade and agricultural activities.
Foundation for future economic development:The foundation was made through
improvement of infrastructures and social services which aimed to meet the socio-economic
demands of the growing population.
Intensification of agricultural production to meet the demand on the market: Following
the market demands for agricultural products as they were highly demanded then intensification
of agricultural production was inevitable.
Negative economic impacts
Overexploitation of African resources: Interaction among African people resulted in

overexploitation of African resources through trade which was unequal in nature.
Emergence of classes among the Africans: Classes emerged dividing poor Africans from
rich Africans who accumulated wealth from different economic, social and political activities.
Exposure of Africa to the outside world:African country and its resources came to be
exposed to the outside world due to interaction.Decrease of productive manpower due to slave
trade; through interaction the outsiders started to take slaves from Africa to their mother
countries as labor power.
Impacts of social interaction
Population increase: Areas that attracted large numbers of people became highly
populated, especially productive areas. The increased population resulted into socio-economic
development in the given areas which facilitated immigration.
Emergence of new languages: Asdifferent people interacted new languages emerged. For
example, the Swahili language emerged due to interaction between Arabs, Africans and
Europeans.
The Coming of the Ngoni
Who were the Ngoni?
The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa. They
were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide‟s leadership. But when Shaka defeated Zwide,
one part of his group in 1840s moved to East Africa into two groups of the Maseko and Tuta
under Zwangendaba. They moved to Tanzania from Natal and Swaziland between 1840s due to
“Mfecane” (time of trouble). They are currently settled in south west Tanzania around Songea
town.
The Ngoni invasions illustrate the influence of external forces on the lives of the indigenous
people. However, the Ngoni brought innovation and changes such as military techniques, skill
and weapons. A study of the Ngoni will enable students to appreciate the current settlement
patterns and way of the life of the southern Tanzania.
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The Causes of the Ngoni Migration
Explain the causes of the Ngoni migration
Reasons for the Ngoni migration
The Ngoni migrated due to the tyrannical and dictatorial rule of Shaka: The Zulu ruler
was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order
were killed. Due to this some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.
External pressure from the British and Boers: They moved because of external pressure
from the British and Boers in the South who were moving Northwards occupying their land.
It was due to overpopulation: Thiswas caused by the fertility of soils and the reliability of
rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.
Pastoralism reason: Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle and northwards
looking for pasture and water for their animals. So they wanted to look for more fertile land for
their cattle. They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.
The influence of their leaders: Men like Zwangendaba, Maputo and Zulugama provided
good leadership. This encouraged them to move onwards.
Overstocking: It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were
having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal other people‟s cattle. For
example they went on driving away and confiscating other people‟s cattle during their conquest
and expansionist wars.
Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments:These were powerful
military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood. They believed that
they could have other territories through migration.
Movement and settlement of the Ngoni to East Africa
They began their movement from South-East Africa in Northern Zulu land under the leadership
of Zwangendaba in 1820. The Ngoni migration took place in the 19th century, and was the last
major movement of Bantu people into East Africa
There were three groups of the Ngoni in East Africa as:-
The Ngoni Tuta
The Ngoni Ngwangara

The Ngoni Maseko
They then crossed river Zambezi and river Limpompo and moved northwards in search of new
land. Later in 1835 they divided into two groups. The one group under the leadership of
Zwangendaba passed west of Lake Malawi and settled at Ufipa in 1840. They were attracted to
this area here because of the many herds of cattle around.
Zwangendaba led the biggest Ngoni group that entered in East Africa. They crossed the Zambezi
River, moved through Malawi and Zambia until they reached the fipa plateau in around 1840‟s.
Zwangendaba died here in around 1845, and his followers splint up into five sections.
Three sections returned south to Zambia and Malawi while the other two such as Tuta and
Gwangara sections remained at ufipa. Another group under the leadership of Induna Maputo
(Maseko Ngoni) passed East of Lake Malawi and settled at Songea. When Zwangendaba died
around 1845, the Ufipa Ngoni disagreed and split into five groups.
Whereby the two groups remained in East Africa such as Tuta and Gwangara Ngoni, three
groups moved out of East Africa that is to say, one group moved to Malawi and the two moved
back to Zambia.
The Tuta Ngoni, the smallest group left in Ufipa, moved northwards fighting and crashing with
the Holoholo near Lake Tanganyika, they disrupted the trade route between Tabora and Ujiji. In
the1850s they invaded the Nyamwezi capturing many and incorporating them in their ranks.
They finally settled at Kahama South of Lke Victoria.
The Gwangara Ngoni under the leadership of Zulugama moved eastwards to Songea where they
met the Maseko Ngoni. The two groups fought and the Maseko Ngoni were defeated and pushed
out of Songea in 1860‟s.
Some Maseko moved back to Mozambique while others moved to Kilombero valley where they
became known as the Mbunga. Another splinter group moved to Newala, Masasi and Tunduru.
From Songea the Ngoni raided widely, finally settling southern Tanzania among the Bena, Hehe
and Sangu. The Ngoni migration which started around 1820s had ended by the year 1860s.
Why were the Ngoni successful in defeating/conquering the people

of East Africa
The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong:On their way they absorbed or fought off the
people they encountered, capturing the young for worries and young women for wives.They had
good military organization with age-regiments calledimpis” (strong army).
The Ngoni had a large, well trained and disciplined army; they were grouped in age-regiments
which were maintained for long periods.The Ngoni did not cultivate but rather lived by
plundering from others this enabled them to have a standing army always ready for battle.
They had superior weapons such as the short stabbing spear (Assegai) and big cowhide shields,
which only left soldiers face exposed to the enemy, protected the worriers. Instead of the long
throwing spears which had to be thrown one by one, the Ngoni adopted short stabbing spears and
clubs known as Assegai, copied from Shaka the Zulu.
On the other hand their enemy used the long throwing spear. They used this for close hand to
hand combat, and the warriors could be protected by the large cow-hides shields which left only
the warrior‟s face exposed to the enemies.
They had superior military tactics such as cow horn method (semi-circle), which was unfamiliar
in East Africa. They fought in organised age regiments and could attack their enemies using the
cow horn formation. They also chose clear open spaces for fighting and liked attacking their
enemies during nights.
They met small and fragmented societies, which were unable to challenge their military
organisation. Slave trade had undermined most of the communities of southern Tanzania.The
Ngoni were successful due to their determination. They were determined to conquer and
obtained places for settlement. This was due to the fact that they were already chased away from
their homeland, and their only alternative was to get determined and fight any people they came
across.
The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much resistance. The
Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak ad
lived in small groups, which could not resist/challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni
invasion.
Disunity among the East African peoplewholived in isolated societies, made it easy for Ngoni to
defeat them.
The Ngoni were fully united under their commanders. They were successful because of their
unity and solidarity. They mixed freely with the non-Ngoni speaking people.They had strong
military leaders for example, Zwangendaba, Induna and Maputo who were able to unite and
command the Ngoni.
They used assimilation policy, i.e. they absorbed the people they defeated. They would force the
captured men from other tribes to join them and became Ngoni warriors.They also made
themselves fearful to their enemies by wearing the skeletons of their victims.
The Ngoni military organisation
The Ngoni were small group of people but were able to make their presence and authority fell by
the local people because of their leadership, outstanding military efficiency and their capacity to
absorb conquered people into their armies.
Militarily the Ngoni were organised in large standing armies and age regiments; people of the
same age trained together, which brought unity and efficiency.They used the short stabbing
spears called assegai rather than the long throwing spears which meant that the warriors could
attack more effectively at a close range
They used large cow hide shields, which could not be easily penetrated by spears. They used the
cow horn method of surrounding an enemy and attacking from all sides giving the enemy little
chance to escape.
They often fought on their feet and in open areas for easy movement. They moved in a large
numbers which helped them to outnumber their enemies who were often caught unaware, they
used to absorb and assimilate all conquered people.
The Social, Political and Economic Effects of the Ngoni Migration
Explain the social, political and economic effects of the Ngoni migration
Effects of Ngoni invasion or migration in East Africa
Positive effects
The Ngoni invasion led to the rise on outstanding leaders to prominence. These included
Mirambo, Nyungu ya Mawe and Mkwawa, who used the Ngoni military tactics to build their
states.
Many small Ntemi chiefdoms came together (united) and formed large political units
under strong leaders to fight the Ngoni for example Sangu and Hehe (re-organisation).
There was formation of new societies/tribe like the Mbunga.
The Hehe under Mkwawa were able to resist the Germans.
There was spread of Ngoni customs and culture for example initiation ceremonies where
girls were taught sex educations and circumcision.
It led to formation of a large Ngoni society in East Africa as they absorbed many people.
It led to the ormation of some societies by those who used Ngoni tactics for example
Nyamwezi under Mirambo.
It led to the introduction of new weapons eg. assegai, cowhides and shields.
From the Ngoni invasion people learned how to become organised from smaller
disorganised society, to well organised bigger political systems. These were to be under the
control and leadership of organised, strong and efficient rulers such as the Sangu chief, Hehe etc.
There were intermarriages between Ngoni and Nyamwezi which subsequently led to
improved relationships between the invaders and indigenous people and an increased population.
Negative effects
They caused the loss of lives leading to depopulation in some areas where they got
warriors this was especially in southern Tanzania. This was due to the killing of people in the
expansionist wars e.g. the Mariti remnants of Rugarugas killed so many people.
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They introduced military organisation and tactics to such an extent that the Ngoni lost
their superiority. e.g Holoholo were able to defeat the Tuta Ngoni when they re attacked them.
Their movement led to wider spread of devastation, depopulation and displacement of
people.
They destroyed the economy of the people of southern Tanzania when they grabbed their
cattle (the Ngoni were cattle plunderers). The Ngoni invasion led to poverty, i.e. it led to the
creation of the class of poor people as their property continued to be destroyed and persistently
looted during the wars.
The Ngoni led to formation of refugees who lived by plundering and killing i.e. the
Mariti and Rugaruga who were later used by ambitious men like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe
to form their empires.
The Tuta Ngoni on their movement northwards, disrupted the trade particularly between
Tabora and Ujiji.
There was loss of peoples‟ language, culture and customs (detribalisation of people), i.e.
the raids caused many people to become homeless and tribe less. This led to people losing their
identity. In addition, such groups became terrorists who lived by war, plunder and hunting for
ivory. They included the “Rugaruga” who began hiring their services as mercenaries to any chief
willing to pay them.
Ngoni disturbances disrupted normal cultivation leading to famine. There was
widespread famine due to the scotched-earth policy of fighting circumstances, crop could neither
be planted nor harvested, and people were forced to abandon farming.
They led to insecurity since the new weapons and military tactics increased warfare and
aggression in East Africa.
The Ngoni intensified slave trade in East Africa, this was because they displaced people
from their homes and so making it easy for slave raiders to catch and sell them.
It led to increased warfare among the African societies, including those areas that had
been peaceful before.
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12
SOCIAL-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
Social Organisation and Production

Economic production in the pre colonial Africa can only be analysed when we look into modes
of production in the pre colonial African society. This consists of the productive forces and
relations of production. Examples of modes of production existed in the pre colonial African
societies were communal mode of production, feudal modal of production and slave mode of
production.
The Meaning of Social Organisation and Production
Explain the meaning of social organization and production
Social organisation
Can be defined as the mode of production existing in a given place at a given period of time.
Modes of production involve productive forces that are human labour, instrument of labour,
economic activities and objects of labour and production.
Types of Social Organisations and Production; Communalism

Mode of production
Refers to the varied ways that human being collectively produce the means of subsistence in
order to survive and enhance social being. Therefore in this topic we shall fully analyze
characteristics of various mode of production in the pre colonial African societies. The
followings are the modes of production existed in the pre colonial African societies.
The Meaning and Origins of Communalism in Africa
Explain the meaning and origins of communalism in Africa
Communal mode of production
13
This was the first mode of production to exist in pre colonial African societies and is divided into
two namely:
1. Primitive communalism The first mode of production through which all societies passed
was primitive communalism. It is called "primitive‟ because of the low level of productive
forces and "communalism‟ because there was no exploitation of man by man. This mode of
production existed for much longer period than any other mode as it ranged from theemergence
of man more than one million years ago.
2. Advanced communalism During that era man advanced in his tools through various
discoveries like iron tools. It is because of this technological advancement that is why it came to
be known as advancement communalism.
Characteristics of primitive communalism
Low level of production:With crude tools like stone and little knowledge, man hardly mastered
his surroundings. He managed to get basic needs such as food, clothes and shelter. Due to low
level of development in science and technology people produced food for their day to day use;
hence there was no surplus of production.
Collective ownership: Members of the community jointly owned the major means of production
including land, tools and animals. The clan leader headed the members of the clan. However,
communal societies were not stratified as a result all commodities produced were shared equally
for there was no exploitation.
Absence of specialisation:People were obliged to do all the jobs including making tools,
hunting, looking for foods, preparing shelters and clothes. The division of labour was based on
gender and age, men hunted and collected food while women were responsible for cooking,
taking care of the young, sick and old people.
Full democracy: All decision making was arrived at by all adult members of the group
regardless of their gender.
Generally, people lived together according to blood relations in small groups by tracing their
origin from the same ancestor. Each group was separated from the other by large tracts of land.
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Transition from primitive communalism to advanced

communalism
During primitive communalism all the time man largely depended on nature so as to increase his
labour productivity.
Domestication of animal and plants or emergence of Neolithic revolution in the late age of the
Stone Age; this was the greatest revolution made so far for the first time by man.
Development of permanent settlement: Even with nomadic pastoralist or shifting cultivation
the area of operation became limited as the number of people increased due to the Neolithic
revolution. Hence the production increased with the population following this permanent
settlement was inevitable.
Advanced production of tools like hand hoes, panga, axe and other iron tools resulted from the
Neolithic revolution
Land continued to belong to the community but agriculture became the major economic activity.
Transition from advanced communalism to feudalism mode of
production
African societies were not static, but they underwent transformations, which were influenced by
the environment, climate and soil fertility, the growth of population and the increase of
productive forces all which paved the way for a new mode of production.
Such factors caused societies' transitions from communalism to feudalism, by the 19th century
some societies were practicing feudalism. However, groups such as the Tindiga of Tanzania,
Khoisan of Kalahari maintained their communal mode of production.
Some societies lived in areas with good climate and fertile soils. Such societies included the
Mandika and the Yoruba in the forest of savannah regions, Bunyoro, Buganda, Ankore, Toro,
Tutsi, Haya, Hutu and Waha of East Africa as well as the Zulu and the Nguni in South Africa.
15
Reliable rainfall and fertile soils allowed the expansion of agriculture and the cultivation of
permanent crops e.g. bananas in Buganda.
The cultivation of permanent crops led to the growth of permanent settlements which ensured
surplus production.
The advancement of science and technology led to the discovery of iron. From iron people made
strong and sharper tools than stone tools which increased the rate of production.
The growth in population led to an increase in food production and the standard of living.
Population increase resulted in shortage of land and caused overcrowding this also led to the rise
of highly centralised states that developed standing armies which later carried out constant raids.
Shortage of land and its increase in value contribution to the development of productive forces
since they were conditioned to produce everything in small areas.
Such factors threatened the communal mode of production and led to feudalism, since land was
privately owned by people. This created classes of land owners and those who were landless
within the community. Organisation of labour was then dictated by land controllers at the
expense of the landless who worked for the land owners in order to be paid. Also, the
distribution of products was not equal; as land controllers took the highest shares for themselves.
Furthermore societies underwent a transformation from communalism to feudalism systems due
to the fact that some societies become strong and conquered weaker societies.
The Meaning and Origins of Slavery in Africa
Explain the meaning and origins of slavery in Africa
Slavery mode of production
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are
forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or
birth and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work and to demand compensation
Historically, slavery was institutionally recognised by many societies but in more recent times
slavery has been outlawed in most societies continues through the practices of debt bondage,
16
indentured servitude, serfdom, domestic servant kept in captivity, adopted children are
sometimes forced to work as slaves as well as child soldiers and forced marriage.
Slavery is a condition in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was considered
by law as property, or chattel, and was deprived of most rights ordinarily enjoyed by free
persons.
There is no consensus on what the slave was or on how the institution of slavery should be
defined. Nevertheless, there is general agreement among historians, anthropologist, economists,
sociologist and others who study slavery that most of the following characteristics should be
present in order to term a person a slave. The slave was a species of property; thus he belonged
to someone else.
The Characteristicsof Slavery as well as the Use of Slaves
Explain the features of slavery as well as the use of slaves
Characteristics of slavery mode of production
Existence of two classes example; slave masters and slaves
Low productive forces
Existence of political institution
Surplus production
Exploitation
Private ownership of major means of production
Feudalism
The Meaning and Origins of Feudalism in Africa
Explain the meaning and origins of feudalism in Africa
Feudalism
17
Was the third mode of production but the second in exploitation of land. Feudalism is derived
from the Latin word feudum which means a piece of land; it's so because this mode of production
was largely based on land as a major means of production. According to Marxist feudalism came
from the womb of the slavery mode of production because it bases on exploitation of the lower
class.
Features of feudalism
Feudal rent:The feudal lords exploited the peasants through the payment of rent. This was paid
in kind and in labour.
Private ownership of productive forces: Thisincluded land, tools, cattle and women who were
privately owned by feudal lords
Agriculture became the major economic activity: Following the discovery of iron technology
productive forces were improved drastically.
A Prognostic social class:This was based on exploitation of one class i.e. feudal lords of tenants
or peasants.
Direct subordination of the lower social class to the upper class of feudal lords.
Division of labour and specialisation: Basedon gender and age
Inheritance:Created as a means to determine one's position in society according to birth, it
determined who became a leader and who a subject.
Improved productive forces:Especially tools applied in agriculture and military warfare, this
was brought about by iron technology.
Generally, African kingdoms such as Buganda and some forest states of West Africa, used
means of production centered around either land or livestock-especially cattle-peasants could use
the land freely but they were required to pay rent.
How Production was Organised under Feudalism
Explain how production was organized under feudalism
18
Under the feudal economic system, production was organised within the kingdom; people
organised their activities on the basis of extended families. Each household head was responsible
for the organisation of labour in his family based on social and material requirements. Labour
was organised on the basis of age, gender and specialization.
The Merits and Demerits of the System of Power Sharing under Feudalism
Assess the merits and demerits of the system of power sharing under feudalism
Merits of feudalism
The rich supported the poor with food during drought and famine.
There was peace in the state as the rich classes maintained law and order
The societies were highly stratified, with each class of people knowing their
positionknowing their position and role
Everyone had a means of earning the living because the landowners gave all poor
peoplein the society a piece f land to cultivate.
The weak people in the society were protected by the king or the rich landowners
forexample among the Rwandese, the Tutsi had an obligation to protect their tenants theHutu.
Demerits of feudalism
The rich exploited labour force of the poor
Only a few people in society owned land
There was inequality in society between the rich and the poor
The peasants were forced to undertake military duties and endanger their lives for their
land lords
It encouraged inter-community warfare as landlords fought in order to increase their land
and vassals
Basic assignment
1. Explain the term social organisation and production
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2. Identify the types of social organizations and production that existed in Africa up to
the19th century
3. What is communalism mode of production?
4. Identify the characteristics of communalism
5. Show examples of the societies that had communalism up to the 19th century
6. What is slavery and slave mode of production?
7. Explain the features of slavery in Africa
8. Show areas where slavery was practiced in Africa
9. What is feudalism as mode of production?
10. Explain the characteristics of feudalism
11. Show societies in east Africa that had feudalism up to the 19th century
12. Explain the feudal relation (forms of feudalism) that existed in the following areas.i)
Interlacustrine region of Lake Victoriaii) Indian Ocean coast of East Africa.
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AFRICAN AND THE EXTERNAL WORLD
Early Contacts with the Middle East and Far East
Contacts with the Middle East and Far East began as early as 200BC. Early foreigners to visit the
African coast were people from Asia including countries like Syria, Arabia, India, Burma,
Thailand, China, Spice Islands and Egypt from North Africa. Availability of goods such as ivory,
gold, animal skins and slaves was one of the motives which attracted the traders to visit the East
African Coast.
Historically, contacts between East Africa and Middle and Far East go as far back as 200 BC.
Evidence is shown through archeological excavations. These have revealed remains of pottery,
porcelain, cons, beads and tombs along the East Africa Coast which are believed to originate
from Middle and Far East. Another piece of evidence from the book “Periplus of the Ertythrean
Sea” or a Guide Book to the Indian Ocean, written in the 1st CAD by early Greek Trades, contain
details about life at the East African Coast.
Regular trading contacts began around 8th CAD. Most of the traders came from China, Indonesia,
(East Indies) and India. Later in the 10th C, traders also came from Arabia, Persia (Iran), Syria
and Egypt. Their commercial activities covered the whole of the Eastern Coast of Africa between
Mogadishu and Sofala.
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The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa, Middle East
and Far East
Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa, middle east and far east
Motive of the contact
Availability of goods such as ivory, gold, animal skins and slaves which had attracted the
traders.
The discovery of the power of wind and its patterns i.e. the Monsoon which helped to
drive their vessels across the Indian Ocean to East Africa (South West Monsoon, November, to
April) and back to their home lands (North East Monsoon, May to October).
Development of marine vessels technology.They could contract large dhows which
enabled them to carry huge quality of goods.
Acceptance by the local people along the coast.They expected to benefit in the trading
relationship.
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Constant warfare in the Middle East especially Persia made Arabs flee to East Africa
their survival depended on trade.
The Major Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact between
Africa, Middle East and Far East
Identify the major commodities which were exchanged during the contacts between Africa,
middle east and far east
Commodities (export) from Eastern Africa
GOLD form Mwanamutapa Empire was brought to the coast at Sofala. The gold traders
(foreigners) had to pay tax to the rulers of Kilwa.
Ivory - Was brought to the coast at may points
Slaves - Were brought to the coast at many points
opper - Was brought to the coast from Katanga
Cum Copal - Was found on the coastal area opposite
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Other Goods - Rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, beeswax

Imports to East Africa
From India-Cotton clothes, beads and iron implements
From Maldives Islands-Cowries shells which were used as money and also as ornaments
From China -Silk clothes, porcelain
From Arab and Persia -Swords, daggers (weapons), glassware and Persian rugs.
From East Indies (Malaysia or Spice Islands) - Spices
From Burma and Thailand - Stone ware i.e. pots and jars
Means of transport
The foreigners travelled in dhows which were driven with the help of Monsoon winds. The
North East Monsoons (Winter Monsoons) blew between the months of November and April and
brought the traders to Eastern Africa, South East Monsoons (Sumer Monsoons) which blew
between the month of May and October took them back to their homes.
The Social and Economic Effects of the Contacts between the People of
Africa, The Middle and Far East
Explain the social and economic effects of the contacts between the people of Africa the middle
and far east
The rise of Coastal City states
By the 13th C, trade along the Coast of East Africa was strengthened and gave rise to city states.
Many Arabs settled in the area for commercial purposes. The settlements grew into towns/cities:
Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Pemba, Malindi, Mogadishu, Lamu, Sofala, Pate and Kismayu.
Intermarriage
The Arabs, mainly intermarried with Africans within their Coastal settlements.The outcome of
this racial mingling was the emergence of the Swahili people
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The Growth/Emergence of the Kiswahili Language

This resulted from the mixture of Bantu and Arabic words
Introduction of New Arts and Crafts
Buildings along the Coast eg. Houses, palaces, mosques were built in Arabic and Persian styles
(using stones)
Introduction of Islam
The Arab traders brought their religion with them.Therefore several coastal Africans were
converted to the Islam faith.The Africans copied Arabic styles of dressing – men dressed in
kanzu and women in baibui.
The Coastal Towns (Cosatal City States) 1000 AD-1500 AD
The coming of the Asian traders to East Africa especially Arabs led to the development of
Coastal towns such as Mogadishu, Merka, Brava, Kismayu, Lamu, Pate, Malindi, Mombasa,
Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia, Kilwa and Sofala.
Political control
There was never a single united empire on the coast, no „Zenji Empire‟ as sometimes
believed.Each town retained its own rulers though many were dominated at different times by
the most powerful settlements. Many had ruling families descending from Persia or Arabian
rulers.
The Leading Coastal Towns
Mogadishu
It was the first to gain wealth and importance due to its position in the North, This
enabled it to control the sea route to the South and to dominate the trade from the rest of East
Africa.
It is said to have been founded in the 11th Century by a group of people from Persian
Gulf.
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It became an important Islamic centre.
It gradually declined as towns such as Kilwa and Mombasa gained importance.
Kilwa
For many centuries it became important because it controlled most of the trade along the
coast.
Its greatness reached the highest peak in the 13th Century when it gained control over
gold trade from Sofala. it built huge beautiful stone buildings eg. The Husuni Kubwa Palace and
Friday Mosque.
It also became an important Islamic Centre. Kilwa was the first coastal state to mint its
own coins. It declined at about 1490 A.D.
Zanzibar
It is believed to be the first coastal stop in East African coast to be settled by foreigners.
It was free from Kilwa and had Arab rulers who were able to establish strong control over
the people.
Having powerful rulers, it became an important trading centre and in the 15th Century it
began to mint its own coins.
Mombasa
Mombasa was an export centre for Ivory and slaves before 15th Century.
Its importance and wealth was a result of its trade with India
The rulers were Swahili and the African element in its culture was strong.
Malindi
It was an important market centre for exporting iron which came from mainland Kenya.
It accepted Islam religion and the rule of Sultans. The people copied new ways of
Government administration from Arabs.
THE DECLINE OF THE COASTAL CITY STATES
Trade between East Africa, Middle and Far East was disturbed by Portuguese invasion along the
coast in the 16th Century and 17th Century. The Portuguese attempted of capture and control the
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Indian Ocean trade and this led to wars.The Portuguese invasion on the East African coast
caused four major changes in the pattern of trade:
There was diversion of the major trade routes especially in connection to with copper and
gold. These items were now shipped overseas from Sofala southwards and through the Atlantic
Ocean.
Conflict developed between African gold miners and Portuguese traders. The Portuguese
sought control of gold production and this was resisted by African miners and there was a
decline in the output of gold.
Portuguese imposed trading licenses and permits on African and Arab traders. This led to
further decline of trade between East Africa and Asia.
Coastal City states such as Kilwa began to decline because their prosperity depended on
gold trade. This meant the African and Arab traders who acted as middlemen also lost business.
Contacts with Europe (The Portuguese, Dutch Settlement at the Cape)

The Social and Economic Motives of Contact between Africa and Portugal
Explain the social and economic motives of the contacts between Africa and the Portuguese
The Portuguese
The contact between Africans and Portuguese dates back as far as 15th Century:
The Portuguese led by Vasco da Gama reached the East coast in 1498.They were the first
Western Europeans to enter the Coast from the South.
The Portuguese managed to reach this region in their attempt to explore a sea route to
India around the continent of Africa.
Their search for a sea route was supported by Prince Henry the navigator, the son of King
John of Portugal.
The Commodities which were Exchanged during the Contact
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Identify the commodities which were exchanged during the contacts

Commodities which were exchanged during the contact
The important commodities involved during the contact included, copper, gold, silver,
spices and ivory from Africa and invaluable goods from Europe such as wines alcohol, mirrors,
glassware etc.
The Social and Economic Impact of the Portuguese in Africa
Explain the social and economic impact of the Portuguese to Africa
Economic Motives
Need to exploit valuable resources believed to exist in Africa such as gold, silver and
ivory.
To create a Portuguese empire in the African coasts.
To secure the sources of gold that existed in Africa. Several regions of Africa such as
Akan in West were the main sources of gold.
To find a sea route to India and Far East (famous for Spices) and this was in response the
closure of the land routes to Asia by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Need to monopolise Indian Ocean trade which for a long period was dominated by Arabs,
Chinese, Indonesians and Indians merchants. The trade was profitable.
Need to control strategic points: East Africa provided bases for military troops in the
mission of the Portuguese of controlling the East.
Social Motives
Religious: Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity in Africa and prevent further spread
of Islam in Africa.
Personal initiative of the King of Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator who sponsored
and encouraged the Pioneer Voyages.
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Exploration: At the end of 13th Century Western Europe had experienced the period of
learning new knowledge and discoveries.This made people start to explore unknown land and
sailing unmapped areas.
The Reasons for the Fall of the Portuguese Rule in East Africa and its Impact
Explain the reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa and its impact
The reasons for the fall of the Portuguese rule in East Africa
Resistances: The mounting resistance from the coast by feudal lords and traders who
wanted to protect their political and economic interests.
Attacks from the interior tribes such as the Zimba and the Segeju from the Zambezi
Regions.
The rivalries from the Dutch and the English merchants who had interests in Eastern
trade.This brought about competition.These rivalries reduced Portugal's power in the East
African Coast.
Portuguese weakness: Portugal was a small country without enough qualified and
competent personnel to administer overseas business.
Tropical disease: The Portuguese suffered from tropical diseases and harsh climatic
conditions.This made the area become unfavorable for the Portuguese settlements.
The Portuguese rule over East Africa ended in 1698 when Portuguese witnessed the fall
of Fort Jesus in Mombasa which was their headquarters and one of the strongest Portuguese
garrisons.
Impact of the Portuguese in Africa
Social Impact
The introduction of new crops in Africa such as maize and cassava which became staple
food for many people in Africa.
Introduction of Portuguese words in Kiswahili language, such as meza, leso, gereza,
mvinyo etc.
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Decline of Coastal City states example Mombasa, Kilwa, Gedi which were once very rich
and prominent.
Insecurity and loss of properties, due to the frequent conquest resistances and wars.
Spread of Christianity into parts of Africa.
Economic Impact
The decline of Indian Ocean trade because of diversion of major trade routes through the
Atlantic Ocean.
The exposure of Africa to international trade. Africa became known to Europe and
America due to explorations made by the Portuguese.
The decline of gold production in Mwenemutapa (Zimbabwe) after development of the
conflict between Africa miners and the Portuguese.
Building of forts such as Fort Jesus in Mombasa attracts tourists in Kenya and generates
income for the country.
Dutch Settlement at the Cape

The Motives of the Dutch Settlement at the Cape
Explain the motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape
Southern Africa became the site of the earliest European settlement in the modern African
history in 1652, when employees of the Dutch East Indian Company established a supply base on
the shore of Table Bay, the site of the modern city of Cape Town.
Over the next 150 years, Dutch settlers on the land surrounding Table Bay and to the east along
the coast, creating Cape colony.
As the Dutch settlements expanded, they encountered both indigenous Stone Age Khoisan and
Iron Age Bantu African peoples. The earliest encounters were with Khoisan who were
decimated, enslaved or forced to flee.
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As subsequent generations of Europeans expanded further to the east, they encountered Bantu
(mostly Xhosa) to became trading partners as well as armed opponents.
The Dutch settlers, called Boers (from the Dutch word for farmer)created very large farms and
found it necessary to import labour, so Cape colony imported slaves while much of the rest of
Africa exported them.
In their determination to reach the center of trade in India and the Far East, European merchants
succeeded to around the southern tip of Africa in the 5th century.
A Portuguese merchant explorer known as Vasco Da Gama was the first to around the southern
Africa cape in 1498. The southern cape was called the Cape of Good Hope because it was
important in European trade with Asia. Sailors from Europe to the Far East and from the Far East
to Europe used the following as a convenient stopping place for:
Refueling their ships
Getting fresh water
The climate at the cape was good and conducive for European settlement so the Whites started to
establish their settlement there, the first White to make permanent settlement in the cape came
from Holland in 1652.
The coming of Whites in South Africa is related to the economic development in Europe in the
16th and 17th century. This was a period of merchant capital i.e. mercantilism in Europe, trading
transaction within and outside Europe were important in the development of European
economies.
By 1652 the Dutch East Indian Company established the fort at Table Bay with the aim of
supplying fresh produce to ship sailing to and from the East Indies. Gradually the settlers in the
Cape Province started to spread further into the interior as they increased production of fresh
fruits and other food stuff.
Having settled in the Cape land the White settlers became involved in barter trade with the
indigenous inhabitants who by then were Khoi and San. Settlers used metal, beads, tobacco spirit
to obtain cattle from the Khoi.
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Besides the barter trade the White settlers also raided the Khoi herds, robbing bands of white
stock farmer entered Khoi and Xhosa areas and shot people and returned to their settlements.
They grabbed Khoi and Xhosaby force foragricultural land becausethey needed land to feed their
animals after raiding them from Africans.
Motives of the Dutch settlement at the Cape
The need to control Indian Ocean trade which was dominated by the Portuguese
The need to establish farms
Favourable climatic conditions
Availability of raw materials for trade
The Impact of Dutch Settlements at the Cape
Discuss the impact of Dutch settlement at the Cape
The impact of the Dutch settlement at the Cape
Enslavement of Africans: The Dutch East India Company provided slaves from West
Africa and West India to provide labour for their plantations and livestock. Boers had established
large plantations where they kept animals and grew crops like potatoes, watermelon, pumpkins,
pineapple and cucumbers.
Displacement of African people: Africans were forced to move from their normal
productive areas to unproductive areas. Hence the Dutch displaced the native Africans from the
fertile areas and took their livestock by force.
Social segregation: The Dutch thought themselves superior to Africans, they exploited
and mistreated Africans as they were regarded as stupid,uncivilised and faithless thus, laying the
foundation of racial segregation.
Expansion of Europeans settlement: Dutch activities led other Europeans like British and
French to come to South Africa. However, the Dutch population grew dramatically, for example
in 1652 Van Riebeeck arrived at the Cape with a few people, by 1662 the Dutch community had
grown to 120 people and in 1685 the population increased to 150 Dutch families.
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The increase of warfare: There were frequent wars between the Africans and the Dutch
because the Dutch wanted to rule the Africans and take their land while the Africans demanded
freedom. 1779 to 1781, 1789 to 1793 and 1799 to1803 there were Kaffir wars between the Dutch
and the Xhosa.
Introduction of a new culture: The Dutch introduced a new culture to the Africans and
ignored the indigenous culture. For example the new language known as Afrikaans based on the
Dutch language and some words from other languages like Portuguese and Khoikhoi languages
was born.
Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-Board and Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Slave trade in east Africa
Slave trade refers to the selling and buying of human beings as commodities. Africa experienced
two types of slave trade.
1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.
2. The Trans Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.
Main peoples involved:
Arab traders
European merchants
African chiefs e.g. Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe
The Nyamwezi
The Kamba
The Yao
Baganda
Banyoro
Khartoumers
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A SKETCH MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE AFRICAN PARTICIPANTS IN

SLAVE TRADE
The Reasons for the Expansion of Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean Sea-
Board from the 18th Century
Explain the reasons for the expansion of slave trade in the Indian ocean sea-board from the 18th
century
Expansion of the Indian Ocean slave trade
Slavery was practiced since ancient times in Africa. In East Africa slavery was introduced during
trade contacts with the Middle East and Far East as early as 2 AD. However slavery was only
practiced on a small scale. Slaves were used as farm laborers, domestic servants, guards or
soldiers but they were also entitled to some rights. Furthermore slave trade expanded in East
Africa during the 18th century.
Reasons for the expansion of slave trade in East Africa during the
18th century
Great demands for slaves as soldiers and domestic servants in the Muslim nations of
Arabia. Thus the slaves had to come from non Muslim regions like the interior of East Africa.
There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa,Mikindani and
Mombasa.
Slaves were needed as porters, they ferried goods such as ivory and gold from theinterior
of Africa to the coast, especially to the American, Indian and British traders whotook part in it.
Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in
Brazil. In the first half of 18th century Portuguese expanded their plantations. So their source of
slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate hence they came in East Africa.
High demand for slave labour in French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion
Island. Initially the French depended slaves fro Mozambique but by the 1770s the demand
exceeded supply as a result the French came further North to East Africa in search of slaves.
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The Techniques Used to obtain Slaves
Explain the techniques used to get slaves
Ways/techniques of obtaining slaves
Caravans organised by local chiefs: The local chief sold domestic slaves in exchange for
goods like beads, guns and glass. E.g. Mirambo and Isike of Nyamwezi, Nyungu yaMawe of the
Kimbu, Machemba of the Yao, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mkwawa ofthe Hehe.
Selling of criminals, debtors, tax offenders and social misfits in society by the local
chiefsto the Arab slave traders.
Prisoners of war could be sold off especially after inter-community wars.
Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders
Raiding villages or weak communities: This would begin at night with gun shots and
people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.
Through inter tribe wars many African became destitute and these would be captured by
the slave traders
Ambush, they were captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.
Slaves were acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar
Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and
benefits from the Arab Swahili traders
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES
The Social and Economic Effects of Slave Trade on the African Societies
Assess the social and economic effects of slave trade on the African societies
Social and economic effects/impact of slave trade on the people of
East Africa
Positive effects
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Introduction of new foods, the food introduced through trade routes such foods were maize,
pawpaw, rice and groundnuts both at the coast and in the interior.
The increase of farming plantations, in some areas especially the clove plantations were slaves
worked.
The interior was opened to the outside world this later encouraged the coming of the European
missionaries. Many European Christian missionaries came to east Africa to preach against slave
trade and to campaign for its abolition.
The trade routes became permanent routes and inland roads which led to growth of
communication network.
Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in
Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.
Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread,
especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.
Formation of the new race called Swahili; this race was formed through intermarriages between
Arabs and some Africans.
Growth of towns, there was growth of towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.
Slave trade encouraged large scale trade whereby contact was established between the trade
masters and indigenous/local population.
Africans were dispersed to other parts of the world e.g. Arabia, America and West Indies. In
Africa Sierra Leone and Liberia were founded to accommodate former slaves from Europe and
America.
Negative effects
Depopulation of Africans: The people who would have great leaders and empire builders were
killed. It is estimated that over 15 to 30 millions of people were sold into slavery while millions
died in the process being transported.
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Misery, suffering and a lower quality of life for the people in East Africa. This is because they
were reduced to commodities and could be bought and sold.
Destruction of villages and families and broken up by slave raiders and never to be reunited, this
later resulted in to loss of identity.
Diseases broke out among the slaves, for example the Spaniards introduced syphilis which
spread to other traders.
Displacement of people: Many people became homeless and destitute and stayed in Europe with
no identity.
Disruption of economic activities: This is because the young and able craftsmen, traders and
farmers were carried off, causing economic stagnation as the economic workforce depleted.
Progress slowed down which resulted in famine, poverty and destitution and helplessness.
There was a decline in production of traditional goods such as coffee, beans, bark cloth and iron
which greatly hindered the cash economy.
Decline of African industries, which also faced a lot of competition from imported manufactured
goods for example the bark cloth and iron working industries.
Introduced of guns to the interior, which caused a lot of insecurity and increased incidences of
wars for territorial expansion
Clans and tribe units, languages were broken and inter tribal peace was disturbed for example
Swahili language replaced the traditional languages in the interior.
The Psychological Effects of Slavery on its Victims
Assess the psychological effects of slavery on its victims
Slavery reduced Africans to more objects. The Arab slave traders and Caucasian slave owners
looked down upon dark-skinned people. They considered them to be inferior and closer to
animals than other races. Slaves were greatly mistreated. They worked for long hours under
harsh conditions for no pay. They were punished severely for small mistakes and were even
killed at their masters will. All of these resulted in psychological effects some of them being:
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Damage of slave's self worth

Inferiority complex before their masters
Sufferings due to difficult work
Separation of families and homes
Loneliness
Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.Traumatize due to severe
punishment
Insecurity
Fear and doubts
Triangular slave trade
The Atlantic slave trade is customarily divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic
system.
The first Atlantic system
The first Atlantic system was the trade of enslaved Africans primarily to South American
colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for
all Atlantic slave trade.
It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was
temporarily united with Spain.
While the Portuguese traders enslaved people themselves, the Spanish empire relied on the
Asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from other countries) the license to trade enslaved
people to their colonies.
During the first Atlantic system most of these traders were Portuguese, giving them a
nearmonopoly during the era, although some Dutch, English Spanish and French traders also
participated in the slave trade after the union, Portugal was weakened with its colonial empire
being attacked by the Dutch and British.
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The second Atlantic system

The second Atlantic system was the trade of enslave Africans by mostly British, Portuguese,
Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.
The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and Americas a number
of European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World.
Amongst the proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins
Origin of Trans Atlantic slave trade
Te Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built
a fort on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and
Senegal. Most of these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain.
By 1471 the Portuguese expanded their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they
built Elmina castle to serve as their base there.
Factors for the rise of triangular slave trade
The rise of capitalism: This mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another.
Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage
of capitalism mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to
accumulate wealth.
Discovery of marine technology: The invention of gun powder, ship building, compass direction,
and motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the
transportation of the commodities and slave dealers.
The discovery of the new world by Christopher Columbus on 24 October 1492 opened a new
chapter as far as slave trade was concerned it brought high sky demand of cheap labour to work
in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.
The inability of indigenous people to provide cheap labour: Diseases such as smallpox
eliminated the natives completely. In other cases such as south in south Carolina, Virginia and
new England the need for alliances with native tribe coupled with the availability of enslaved
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Africans at affordable prices (beginning in the early 18th century for these colonies) resulted in a
shift away from native American slavery. Native Americans were very reluctant to provide
labour and most of them had been affected with plagues and war and they were very few in
numbers. So Africans were the best alternative, therefore the rise of triangular slave trade.
Climatic conditions of the New World meant that Africans could easily live there since they
were used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from
Europe and Asia. They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.
Prior knowledge about African continent brought by explores: Before the establishment of slave
trade many explorers like Vasco Da Gama and Vasco Diaz-all from Portugal-had already
navigated Africa and had discovered many sea routes between Africa and the outsiders such
prior knowledge helped them to use Africans as slaves.
The expensiveness of White slaves: Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists
depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from
Europe who proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid
anything apart from their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.
The basic reasons for the constant shortage of labour was that, with large amounts of cheap land
available and lots of landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to
become landowners after a relatively short time, thus increasing the need for workers as slaves.
Accessibility between the New World and the West African coast, the distance from West Africa
to the New World is very narrow bridged with Atlantic Ocean. Thus easy transportation of slaves
from Africa
The establishment of more plantations in the New World which called for more demands of
slaves initially it was only Portugal and the Dutch that had established plantations but towards
the mid of 17th century France and Britain joined. This increased the demand for cheap labour.
The profitability factor: This acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade
based on unequal exchange imagine exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold, ivory
with guns, mirrors and cloth.
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Accumulation of wealth: Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to
sustain super profits obtained and in addition to that, many crops could not be sold for profit, or
even grown in Europe.
Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more cost effective
than producing them on the European mainland. A vast amount of labour was needed for the
plantations in the intensive growing, harvesting and processing of these prized tropical crops.
Western Africa (part of which became known as "the slave coast‟ and later central Africa,
became a source for enslaved people to meet the demands of labour.
The existence of seasonal winds and currents like the north east trade wind, north equatorial
current, the south west and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the
vessels of the merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.
Impact of the Triangular slave trade
Social effects
Depopulation: Many people died during slave raids or were sent abroad as slaves.
E.g.400 millions of people were lost in Africa whereby 150 to 200 million were from Eastand
Central Africa.
Separation of families: Some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while
trying to escape and some were taken away as slaves.
Fear and suspicion due to frequent wars, raids and ambushes.
Intermarriage between the foreigners and indigenous people.
Political effects
Decline of states, some states declined because they were weakened when their subjects
were captured and sold as slaves. For example Wanyasa were greatly weakened by frequent
slave raids from their Yao neighbours.
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The rise of states: Some strong states arose due to accumulation of wealth from slave
trade. E.g. the Yao state under Machemba, Nyamwezi under Mirambo and Bugandakingdom
under Kabaka Mutesa.
Economic effects
Destruction of African subsistence economy: This was because many people engaged in
the slave trade as slave dealers or they were taken as slaves so the activities like handcrafts,iron
working, salt mining and pottery destructed.
Land alienation: Africans were robbed of their best arable land and were turned into serfs
and tenants who had to sell off their labour to Arab land owners for their survival. Watumbatu
and Waamidu provided their labour in coconut and cloves plantations.
Decline of production due to loss of manpower: Slave masters picked strong and healthy
people leaving behind the old, sick and weak who could not work.
The Origins and Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Africa
Explain the origins and impact of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in Africa
ACTIVITY TO DO
1. Mention five commodities that were brought by early traders from the Far East and
theMiddle East.
2. Outline positive and negative effects of the contacts between people of Africa and
thosefrom the Far East and Middle East.
3. What were the reasons for the Dutch to settle at the Cape?
4. Explain the causes and effects of triangular slave trade5. Mention five ways used to
obtain and abolish slave trade in Africa.
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INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM
At the end of this topic student should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism
2. Explain the demands of industrial capitalism
3. Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for
colonisation
Demands of Industrial Capitalism

The Meaning of Industrial Capitalism
Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism
Capitalism is the social, political and economic system based on private ownership of the major
means of production. It first developed in Europe during the fifteenth century when feudalism
collapsed.
Under the capitalism system companies and individuals own and direct most of the resources
used in production of goods and services. Capitalism underwent different stages before reaching
its maturity. These stages included:
Commercial or mercantile capitalism
Industrial capitalism
Monopoly capitalism
The commercial or mercantile capitalism took place between the year 1500 and 1750 this was
capitalism based on trade. The merchants obtained wealth through trade activities. A lot of
wealth was accumulated during this period and therefore increased new demands that resulted
into development of another stage of capitalism known as industrial capitalism.
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The next stage was industrial capitalism; this was the period when machines begun to be used for
production in industries. The transition to industrial capitalism was the period when mercantile
capitalism was giving way to industrial capitalism.
The transition was manifested by five major events namely:
Political revolution
Agrarian revolution
Demographic revolution
Commercial revolution
Transport revolution
Therefore, the above mentioned revolution created a conducive condition for capitalism to enter
in the second stage; industrial capitalism. This new stage was characterised by intensive
competition among the industrial capitalists. They were competing in terms of production of
goods and profit maximisation. This stage of industrial capitalism took place between the 1750s
and 1870s.
The Demands of Industrial Capitalism
Explain the demands of industrial capitalism
There were several demands of industrial capitalism, but most of them were mainly economic.
These included:
The need for raw materials
Markets
Areas for investment
Cheap labour
At the period of industrial capitalism there were also changes in the methods of production of
commodities that the world was demanding in increasing quantities.
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The new methods of production involved the invention of machinery and the investment of huge
capital. Industrial capitalism began in England by the end of eighteenth century; other countries
such as French, Italy, German and Belgium were growing into industrial nations.
This necessitated the high demand of industrial capitalism to advance several demands as
explained below:
The need for raw materials
This was caused by increasing production due to expansion of industries which needed large
quantities of raw materials supply. These materials included cotton, coffee, tea, iron ore, palm
oil, sisal, sugar cane, tobacco and rubber.
The available raw materials could not meet the demand. At the same time they could not be
produced in Europe at large quantities. This resulted into the search and control of the sources of
raw materials.
The need for markets
Due to the investment of capital in production, industrial goods flooded the European markets.
Overproduction and under consumption became a critical problem among the industrial
capitalists hence they were forced to look for markets outside Europe
Areas for investment
Due to unreliable markets and high concentration of capital in Europe, profit marginalization
occurred. As a solution new areas for investment were needed among other areas, Africa
provided the best areas for investment of such capital
In Africa the tropical crops could do better compared to other countries it was also a good source
for non agricultural raw materials such as minerals and forest products.
Need for cheap labour
45
Due to labour consciousness caused by working class in Europe and Britain in particular, the
need to search for cheap labour become important. This was a measure taken to compete in
production for profit maximisation.
Reasons for the increasing demand of industrial development in
19th century
Competition in industrial production:European capitalist nations increased the demand for
industrial development as a result of competition in industrial production.
During the period before the nineteenth century Britain dominated the industrial production and
was the leading major industrial nation in the world.
However, in the nineteenth century other European nations such as German, France, Italy and
Belgium became industrial nations. The emergence of other nations in industrial development
brought about competition for markets of industrial goods, raw materials and areas for
investment. Therefore, the industrial nations were compelled to look for an alternative for that
competition outside Europe, where they could sell their goods and collect raw materials.
Demands for raw materials: The highly demanded raw materials were cotton, oil, sugar cane,
ivory, rubber and iron ore. Most of these raw materials could not be found in Europe in large
quantities. In fact, those tropical crops could not grow in Europe. Following this Europe decided
to produce such raw materials in Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia and China. In those areas
raw materials were produced in large quantity than in Britain and other nations in Europe.
In Africa sugar cane plantation were established by the French in the Reunion and Mauritius
Islands. The French depended on slave labour in those plantation the main sources of slaves was
east Africa and some parts of southern Africa such as Mozambique.
The rise of other industrial nations: In the 1870s other European countries were industrialised
this resulted in increased demand of raw materials. Therefore, it was difficult for one European
country to obtain raw materials from other European countries.
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It was also more difficult for one European country to export her manufactured goods to another
European country. Each country was struggling to protect its domestic market industries and
controlling its sources of raw materials.
American independence: Resulted in the development of the industrial sector. By the beginning
of the 1870s, Europe could not easily enter U.S.A since it had introduced protective tariffs to
keep out foreign manufactured goods and protect its industries. By the 1860s, markets for
manufactured goods and sources of raw materials in Europe had greatly declined.
Accumulation of wealth: In order to ensure this they decided to invest the wealth that was being
obtained in industries into other areas outside Europe.
Overpopulation and unemployment:The problem of overpopulation and unemploymentwas
also rising in European countries. Therefore, the solution to those problems was sought outside
Europe
The need for assurance of genuine and reliable markets and control of sources of raw
materials: Europeemployed and sent agents to various important regions of Africa. These
industrial capitalism agents prepared Africans for colonisation in future years. Therefore, in the
early nineteenth century European activities in Africa were led by agents of industrial capitalism
known as agents of colonisation.
Agents of Industrial Capitalism

There were about four groups of agents of industrial capitalism in Africa namely:
Explorers
Missionaries
Traders
Companies
Association
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Explorers
During the nineteenth century the major aim of European powers was the exploration of Africa.
In east Africa, exploration was done by the prominent explores such as Speke, Burton, Grant,
Samuel Baker, Henry M. Stanley and Dr. Livingstone, while in central Africa and parts of Congo
the prominent explorers were Dr. Livingstone and later Henry M. Stanley. And in West Africa
the prominent explorers included Richard Lander, Dr. Barth Mungo Park, Clapperton, Dr.
Baikie, Gaspard Mollien and Cailie.
The journey of exploration was financed and supported by European capitalists. The main aim
was to gather information about Africa because they needed a wider knowledge of the continent.
They also wanted to know about the raw materials which African had to sell and the location of
the main centers of population. Moreover, they were interested in the knowledge of transport
potentialities of African great river systems. For example the British explorer, Mungo Park in
1780s, followed by Clapperton and Richard Lander explored the Niger and gathered important
information about the economy and politics of West Africa.
Roles of explorers
They reported back about the potentialities of the African resources: Clapperton reported
about the river Niger to the British government while Speke reported about the potentiality of
Lake Victoria and named it Victoria to honor Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom.
They provided important information about the nature of African societies: They reported
about thehostility, calmness and hospitality of the African people. This information played a
central role for the European colonialists during the decision making process regarding the
colonisation of Africa.
They explored important mountains and researched the geology, climatic conditions,
topography, lakes and animal species in Africa:This knowledge later attracted European
powers to colonise Africa.
They provided messages to their government about the existing evils of slave trade and the
areas where slave trade was still conducted:Dr. Livingstone's third journey through
Tanganyika and Lake Regions of central Africa was targeted for that as a result he informed the
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English that the Yao's land was still characterised by slave raids and the effects of slave trade
such as sufferings, insecurity.
The information provided by explorers to their government was later used by humanitarians in
the struggle against the colonisation of Africa.
Missionaries
By the 19th century missionary activities had started in Africa. The pioneers were the protestant
churches of Europe and America. It was only later that Roman arrived especially from France.
The domination of missionaries were the London missionary society, the church missionary
society, Roman Catholic missionary society and the universities mission to central Africa
(UMCA).
Few Christian missionaries were directly active agents of imperialism. They were essential
ingredients of the increasingly assertive European access to Africa. However In most cases
European Christian played an important role in promoting and shaping the advent of European
capitalism.
The Roles of the Agents of Industrial Capitalism in Preparing Africa for
Colonisation
Explain the roles of the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonization
The role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Africa
They acted as interpreters and propagandists at the time of treaty making:Mofat stayed
among the Ndebele for about 30 years serving the British South African company (BSAC) for
treaty making between the companies (BSAC) and King Lobengula.
They acted as advisors to African chiefs:The British missionaries of the church missionary
society convinced Kabaka to accept protectorate.
They introduced Western civilisation to the interior through education and
schools: Thisaimed to prepare people of low ranks to serving colonial masters at the time of
colonisation.
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Missionaries softened the minds and the hearts of Africans: Their activities were influenced
by European imperialists' interests by preaching and emphasising the spiritual beliefs such as
“give to God what which belongs to God," and "give to Ceaser what belongs to Ceaser”. In the
long run this preaching weakened African opposition and shaped the regions for future colonial
administration.
They converted Africans to the new faith: They were easily employed as puppets to extend
colonial rule. Typical examples are the converts of Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Ghana who were
able to protect the British economic interests and paved the way for future colonisation by the
British.
Missionaries reduced resistance among African societies: This was done by converting some
societies and preaching obedience to administrators.
Introduction of new crops: Horner grew coffee at Bagamoyo around 1870 the church
missionaries society grew cotton in Uganda. This prepared people to acquire the skills which
were important for future cash crop production during the colonial era.
They helped in the abolition of slave trade: Theyplanned for successful Christianisation of the
freed slaves as they preached the word of God. They wanted to create the conducive and
peaceful environment for the development of legitimate trade which was exploitative in nature
and was after capitalists interests.
Missionaries had closer links with rulers and interfered even in political matters:They allied
European imperialism while they were working in the interior of Africa. This situation provoked
the hostility from African rulers. In this case missionaries appealed strongly for the protection
from their home governments, which later led to effective colonisation.
Traders
Traders were among the first Europeans to visit the interior and coastal areas of Africa. They
came under the influence of capitalists who also supported missionaries and explorers.
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Their main aim was to exploit the new sources of raw materials, markets and new areas in which
industrial capitalists had to invest their capital. Examples of traders are William Macknnon,
James Stevenson, Harry Johnston and Carl Peters.
The role played by traders in the colonisation of Africa
They opened a new a exploitative system: Therefore, Africa became the target for European
interests. This resulted in stiff rivalries and competition among European industrial nations.
Introduction of circuit through legitimate trade: Thisinvolved the importation of European
manufactured goods. Thus, the chain of dependence was created and the African local industries
and the arts were destroyed.
Traders exposed Africa to the world capitalist system of economy: The use of currency,
banking and credit facilities began to be witnessed by Africans. This resulted into exploitation of
African resources. The fair and quick turns obtained by traders attracted European colonialists to
come into Africa.
They opened communication systems such as roads:This laid the foundation for future
colonial infrastructure. For example, the road from Lake Nyasa to Tanganyika known as
Livingstone road was opened by traders and was used during the colonial administration.
Companies and associations
Companies and association were among the most important agents of colonisation of Africa.
Agents organised themselves into companies and associations. They received finance from their
home government so as to operate effectively and differently in those areas, where the governing
powers had their economic interests. They aimed at financing the exploration that showed the
interest of coming to Africa.
Examples of the association included the Royal British Geographical society, financed by John
Speke to explore the river Nile. Another was the African Association of British, which in 1788
financed Mungo Park. Its major aim was to explore and identify the areas suitable for
agriculture, which could produce enough materials for export. Another concern of that
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association was to identify the navigable rivers, mineral deposits and assessing the market
available for industrial goods.
In the abolition of slave trade, merchant companies became increasingly involved in the interior
of Africa. The major aim of these companies was to establish the so called “legitimate trade”.
This was trade in commodities and other resources that industrial capitalist required as raw
materials or as food for the urban working classes. The legitimate trade did not involve the
selling and buying human
Several companies in Africa were established at strategic points for the purpose of collecting
important commodities for export and supplying manufactured goods from Europe.
In East Africa examples of these companies were the Imperial British East African Company
(I.B.E.A.C) founded in 1886 by William Macknnon. It was also known as the British East Africa
Association. Another company was the Germany East African Company (G.E.A.C) founded in
1884 by Carl Peters. In West Africa examples of companies formed included the Royal Niger
Company (R.N.C) which was formed by George Turban Goldie in 1884.
The association was concerned with commercial activities. King Leopold expected that the
company could improve the lives of native as well as civilising them, exploiting natural
resources and abolishing slave trade and slavery in the region.
In central Africa the company prevailed was the Livingstone central Africa Company (L.C.A.C).
it was formed by Scottish capita lists James Steven in 1878.
In south Africa there was the British south Africa company (B.S.A.C) formed by Cecil Rhodes
as a private company and operated in south and central Africa by the year 1889, the company
was given a royal charter that included the full powers to administer the company.
The role played by companies in the colonisation of Africa.
Monopolisation and exploitation of African resources: These resources were highly needed
by the European capitalists in their industries. In all parts of Africa Company played a crucial
role of collecting raw materials and carried out trade activities.
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Elimination of local middlemen and creation of custom duties and tariffs: These was carried
out by the companies which attracted the imperialists powers to control Africa.
The companies encouraged their home government to colonise Africa: For example; the
Royal Niger Company encouraged the British to colonise Nigeria after gaining the control of the
different trading areas in the region.
Signing treaties: The company played an important role of signing different treaties with
African local chiefs. These treaties helped imperial powers to claim and justify the colonisation
of particular territories, especially during the Berlin Conference
One example was a treaty signed between Harry Johnston and chief Mandara of Uchaga in 1884
to control thirteen square kilometers of land in Kilimanjaro. Also Dr. Carl Peters of the society
for German colonisation signed treaties with a number of chief between Pangani and Rufiji.
These treaties were later used by the German government to control Tanganyika.
Creation of infrastructure: These included commercial centers, administrative headquarters,
roads, railways and waterways. They were allocated in those areas where they operated where by
later on were used by the imperial powers to transport administrators to colonise and impose
laws on the land.
The companies laid foundations for their home government to colonise African:They
suppressed African resistance through a police force used to maintain peace, order and stability
within the region. For example in East Africa, the German East African Company recruited
Swahili, Sudanese and Buganda soldier to counter the coastal Arab resistance of 1888-1889.
They provided important information about economic potentiality of African areas:Africa
was exposed to the imperial powers which aimed to colonise the continent.
The companies provided rudimentary administration in areas of their operation: Some
company leaders such as Sir. George Turban Goldie of the Royal Niger Company, Harry
Johnston, the representative of Cecil Rhodes of the British South Africa Company, attended the
Berlin Conference of 1884-188 5. They also notified the conference about areas where they
operate on behalf of their mother countries.
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The company played an important role of marking of the administrative

boundaries: Which were later identified as boundaries of the European spheres of influence.
They prevented any other rival European imperial power from taking their territories. This was
evidenced in East Africa where the German East Africa Company marked the area of the
German in the Anglo-German rivalry and achieved the 1886 agreement. While in South Africa
the British South Africa Company managed to map the claims of Britain, thus preventing the
Portuguese from interfering in the British sphere of influence.
Furthermore, the companies used their security organs to abolish slave trade in the areas of their
influence. They introduced legitimate trade in Africa.
PICTURES SHOWING TRANSITION TO CAPITALISM
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Abolition of Slave Trade

The British government began the abolition of slave trade during the years, 1822-1826. This was
because of pressure by various groups based on different factors.
The Reasons for the Abolition of Slave Trade
55
Explain the reasons for the abolition of slave trade
Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral
grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the
spread of Christianity.
The formation of humanitarian movement in England aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty
including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
Industrialisation in Britain, e.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted
Africans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be source of raw materials for their industries,
market for European manufactured goods and place for new investment of surplus capital
Formation of the anti slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787, its chairman was
Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and
stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
Religious revival in Europe, Anglican preached and condemned slave trade as opposed to laws
of God and humanity. Catholic pope also protested against the trade and prohibited it. In 1774,
many religious leaders served as examples when they liberated their slaves in England.
The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776, emphasised liberty,
equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings, as a result people began to question
whether anyone had a right to deprive a fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.
The British desire to protect their national interests: British planters wanted slave trade
stopped to avoid competition with other European planters. This is because other planters were
producing cheaper sugar hence the need to stop over production
The rise of men with new ideas:Prof. Adam Smith (challenged the economic arguments which
were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more
productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all
men.
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Slaves had become less profitable: Yethad led to overpopulation in Europe. Influential
abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliaments) urged the British
government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies.
The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began raw materials directly
from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.
The Tactics Used During the Abolition of Slave Trade
Assess the tactics used during the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of anti-slavery
movements. The British government abolished slave trade through anti slave laws (legislation),
treaties and use of force.
The anti slavery movement was led by Granville Sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson,
William Wilberforce and others.
The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in
Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
In 1817 British negotiated the “the reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835, Portugal 1842 and America 1862. In east
Africa in 1822 Mores by treaty was signed between captain Moresby and sultan Seyyid Said it
forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's territories. British sips were authorised to stop
and search suspected Arabs slave carrying dhows.
In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and sultan Seyyid Said.
It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan's East Africa territories i.e. beyond to the
North.
In 1871, the British set up the parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and
report on slave trade in East Africa.
In 1872, sir. Bartle Frere persuaded sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was
achieved.
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On 5th march 1873, the sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from
mainland and closed of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within
24 hours
In 1876, sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
In 1897, decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
In 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika w hen British took over from Germany after the
Second World War.
The Social and Economic Effects of the Abolition of Slave Trade
Assess the social and economic effects of the abolition of slave trade
Effects of the abolition of slave trade
Loss of independence, the suppression of slave trade led to loss of independence that is to say,
legitimate trade which provided equally profitable business to both European and African
traders. Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw
cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
It accelerated the coming of European missionaries to East Africa who emphasised peace and
obedience thus the future European colonisation of East Africa.
Disintegration of the Sultan Empire: This is because it loosened the economic and political
control which the sultan had over the east African nations. His empire in East Africa therefore
began to crumble. This gave opportunity to other ambitious leaders like Tippu-Tip to create
independent state in Manyema, where he began selling his ivory and slaves to the Belgians in
Zaire.
Closing of slave trade markets, for example Zanzibar in 1873 following the Frere treaty signed
between sultan Barghash and Bantle Frere.
Islam became unpopular as many converted to Christianity
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African societies regained their respect and strength as they were no longer sold off as
commodities.
Generally, abolition of slave trade was a catalyst to the partition of East Africa whereby Britain
took over Kenya, Zanzibar and Uganda while Germany took over Tanganyika.
British Occupation of South Africa via the Cape

British at the Cape
Britain took control of the cape during the era of mercantilism in Europe. At the end of 18th
century the British became interested in seizing the cape colony from the Dutch. During 1793
France invaded the Netherlands. King William V. sought refuge in Britain and also asked for
protection for Dutch colonies and trading interests. During this time, the British already
controlled India and the trade between India and Europe. In 1795 the British occupied the cape
twice for a short period of time. From 1806 onwards especially when the Napoleonic wars ended
in 1815 the Britain made a formal purchase of the Cape from the Netherlands for six million
pounds sterling. Therefore British started to settle at the Cape in 1806.
The Motives for the British Interests at the Cape
Explain the motives for the British interests at the Cape
Motives for British interests at the Cape
To increase colonies: The British wanted to increase and expand her spheres of influence
following this she decided to occupy the Cape.
Industrial revolution in Europe, following this British wanted to increase sources of raw
materials, labour, and markets for her industries since the Cape were very productive.
Trade interests, Britain did not want another European power to control the Cape because
that would interfere the smooth flow of trade between Britain and India.
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The South African Cape was strategically located. It was an appropriate place for British
ships to stop during their voyages to or from India. They could get fresh supplies adwater for the
reminder of their journey.
The Tactics Used by the British to Occupy the Cape
Assess the tactics used by the British to occupy the Cape
Tactics used by British to occupy the Cape
Introduction of land legislation system: They aimed at discouraging pastoralism among
Boers and to encourage sedentary farming since the policy limited the size of an individual's
land. The Dutch thought that the British introduced the land law to take land from the Boers and
redistribute it to the landless Khoikhoi so they opposed the land law.
Abolition of slave trade and slavery in 1807: The British government abolished slave
trade in all their colonies and offered compensation for slaves but the money was only paid
inLondon as a result the majority did not get their compensation. However, freeing
slavesendangered the economic survival of the Boers as they depended much on slave labour.
Imposition of the English language as the as the language of administering the law and
justice and the medium of instruction in schools in 1822. Hence English language replaced the
Dutch as he official language.
Abolition of internal trade restriction imposed by the Dutch company officials on the
farmers and other settlers at the cape. This created more trade opportunities as they could now
trade freely without strictly control from the administration.
Introduction of the pass in 1809 to reduce the exploitation of African labour as the system
required African workers to carry passbooks which indicated their residence and employment,
and those who did not carry them were regarded as criminals. The pass prevented the Africans
from moving from district to district or moving into areas occupied by Europeans.
Introduction of contract system, through this the Boers were to sign contracts with their
workers. In those contracts they were to mention the wages and other fringe benefits that they
gave to their workers. Therefore the Boers regarded the contract system as British interference in
the traditional Boer-Africans relationship of master-servant.
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Introduction of the Black circuit court system in 1811 in order to reduce acts of violence
committed by European employers against African employees. The law angered the Boers who
considered themselves a superior race and thus natural masters of the Africans.
Introduction of English law as the basis of the legal system in South Africa.
Provision of financial aid to the British settlers by the British government, this
encouraged more of its citizens to immigrate to the Cape as a result in 1820 some 300 British
settlers arrived in South Africa increasing the total white population by almost 12% within
weeks.
The Boer trek/movement
The great trek( Afrikaans: Die Groot Trek) was an east ward and north ward migration away
from British control in the cape colony during the 1830's and 1840's by Boers (Dutch/Afrikaans
“farmer”).
The migrant were descended from settlers from western mainland Europe, most notably from the
Netherlands, northwest Germany and French Huguenots. The great trek itself led to the founding
of numerous Boer republics, the Natalia republic, the Orange Free State republic and the
Transvaal being the most notable.
From the beginning of the 18th century the cape settlers expanded their territory towards the
north and the east. These settling movements were led by the Trek Boers, white farmers who
penetrated the hinterland looking for grazing land for their cattle.
The Trek Boers preferred the free and unrestricted life on their ox wagons and in tents to the
more protected existence within the realms of town administration. The price they had to pay for
their lifestyle was constant armed conflicts with native people. First the Khoikhoi successfully
resisted the conquest of their residential and grazing land.
And from the turn of the century it was the people of the Xhosa living to the east, who stood up
against the Trek Boers. Frequent skirmishes occurred, particularly in the Zuurveld in the east of
the colony, to the boundary of the great fish river. In 1779, the first of the ferocious Xhosa wars
broke out.
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In the town communities the danger of a confrontation was also growing. Here the opposing
parties were on one hand the citizens, aspiring to political autonomy, and on the other hand a
weak, corrupt and almost bankrupt colonial administration.
The town's people demanded their independence from the colonial administration. In
Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet, the first republics were proclaimed, although they only existed
for a short time. The power struggle between citizens and administration ended with the landing
of British ships at the cape and the annexing of the colony to the United Kingdom in 1795.
The Reasons for the Boer Trek
Explain the reasons for the Boer trek
British occupation of the cape allowed Boers to penetrate further into the interior.
Boers dislike laws imposed by British in the Cape Province which gave greater equality to non-
Whites races.
Abolition of slavery, the British administration at the cape forced Boers to free their African
slaves.
Boers dislike the system of land holding which was introduced by British i.e. Boers were to pay
higher rent.
Misunderstanding between Boers stock farmers and British administration
Boers dislike the British government decision of using the English language as the language of
the government and in courts.
Boers wanted to be outside of the British government authority.
The Effects of the Boer Trek
Assess the effects of the Boer trek
Creating of two Boer republics, that is the Orange Free State and South African republic.
Boers defeated black tribes on the way and took over their land and properties.
Establishment of apartheid policy.
Development of hostility between the Boers and British colonisers.
Africans were made property less labourers and squatters on Boers stock farms.
African land was alienated i.e. taken by foreigners
Intermarriage thus creation of Afrikaners.
BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITIES TO DO
1. Explain the meaning of industrial capitalism
2. Explain the demands of industrial capitalism
3. Explain the roles f the agents of industrial capitalism in preparing Africa for colonialism
4. Outline the major causes of the Boer Trek in South Africa.
5. Write shot notes on the effects of the Boer Trek on people of South Africa.
6. What are motives of the British at the Cape?
7. Explain why the Boers managed to defeat the Africans in the interior of South Africa.
8. Mention five tactics used by British to occupy the Cape.
FORM THREE
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM
Scramble for and Partition of Africa

The Meaning of Scramble for and Partition of Africa
explain the meaning of scramble for and partition of Africa
The scramble for Africa:A competition among European powers to obtaining colonies.
Partition: This was a process of dividing colonies to their respective colonial masters. This acts
as a solution for the scramble of Africa.
Periodisation:Scramble for Africa started more in 1870s while involving different European
countries.
The Causes of the Scramble for Africa leading to the Partition
Assess the causes of the scramble for Africa leading to the partition
“Scramble” for and partition of Africa was a result of several factors, some of which included:
1. National balance of power while other European countries demanded colonies to be equal
or similar to Great Britain.
2. Prestige (pride) of the nations: The number of colonies controlled by the colonial
master/nation was the measure of wealth of a nation.
3. Industrial Revolution led to the demand of raw materials from Africa hence competition
among the European nations to obtain many colonies as possible in Africa.
4. Industrial revolution led to overproduction in Europe hence creating a need to find
external markets (outside Europe) thus resulting in competition.
5. Change of monopoly system: In Europe few capitalists started to own land while others
failed (those who failed to obtain land in Europe they started to find in Africa hence
competition).
6. Conflicts between capitalists and labourers in Europe while labourers demanded bigger
salaries capitalists started to look for cheaper labour thus started economic activities in Africa.
Why Areas in Africa Experienced more Intensive Scramble than Others

Explain why areas in Africa experienced more intensive scramble than others
During the scramble for and partition of Africa some African areas like Egypt, Congo basin,
Niger delta, East Africa, Central Africa and South Africa experienced more intensive scramble
than others due to their potential. These included natural resources that existed in the colonies i.e.
minerals in South Africa, fertile soil in central Africa, water bodies in East Africa, Egypt and
Congo.
The Impact of the Scramble for and Partition of Africa
Assess the impact of the scramble for and partition of Africa
The scramble for and partition of Africa affected both European powers and the African
continent as well. Some of the impacts included
the Berlin conference,
cultural interference,
disputes and rivalries,
occurrence of war among European powers,
establishment of colonial rule,
colonial economy and monopoly companies in Africa.
The Berlin Conference (1884-85)
The Berlin conference was a meeting held in Berlin that was called by Chancellor Otto von
Bismark of Germany. The meeting took place between November 1884 and February 1885. 14
European countries were represented at this conference. USA and Denmark attended the
conference as observers. Members in this meeting drew out a map of Africa ready for partition
(drawing out colonial master‟s borders marking their respective colonies (African States) that
they would colonise).
The Events Leading to the Berlin Conference (1884/85
Explain the events leading to the Berlin conference (1884/85)

The events leading to the Berlin conference in 1884-1885 included the intervention of the late
comers in the process of scramble for and partition of Africa. Military confrontation, conflicts
over territorial boundaries, European nationalism, German unification, hostility relations,
European industrialization, disputes and rivalries among the European powers.
The Resolutions of the Berlin Conference
Evaluate the resolutions of the Berlin conference
Representatives at the Berlin conference agreed on the following principles: (these principles
were to be followed by all colonial masters).
1. To abolish slave trade on their colonies: All and any elements of slave trade in their
respective colonies.
2. They agreed to send a lot of missionaries, traders and explorers on their respective
colonies.
3. They were required to stop or to make an end of resistances that occurred between
Africans and colonial government.
4. They were required to have effective control of their colonies e.g. by
building/constructing social services.
5. Colonial masters were required to notify other on the possession of colonies.
6. They agreed to have free navigation on the navigable rivers like Congo, Nigeria etc. (In
order to solve the conflict between the European Countries).
7. They were required to open up economic activities on their respective colonies
(establishment of colonial economy e.g. agriculture, trading industry etc.)
The Berlin conference involved division of colonies to the imperial trading companies e.g.
BEACO - Kenya
BSACO - South Africa, S. Rhodesia, N. Rhodesia
GEACO - Tanganyika, Rwanda and Burundi
Others involved:
Germany - Cameroon, Togo
France - Congo, Kinshasa, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal etc.
Belgium - Congo Brazzaville
Portugal - Angola and Mozambique
The Significance of the Berlin Conference to Africa
Assess the significance of the Berlin conference to Africa
The Berlin Conference had significance to Africa, addressing the colonization of Africa,
abolition of slave trade, suffering of African people under colonial administration, division of
African continent, introduction of European language as well as land alienation.
Establishment of Colonial Control/Rule

The Concept of Colonialism
Explain the concept of colonialism
Colonialism refers to a situation whereby strong nations dominate weak ones economically,
politically, militarily or culturally. Africa was subjected to colonialism in the 2nd half of 19th
century as European powers acquired full control over African countries by 1900 and extended
their colonial rule to the entire continent with the exclusion of Ethiopia and Liberia.
The Tactics Used to Impose Colonial Control /Rule in Africa
Explain the tactics used to impose colonial control /rule in Africa
The process of colonial occupation in Africa by the Europeans that started from the 19th Century
involved different techniques, these techniques were depending on the nature of colonial
Government and Africans.
These techniques included:
a. Treaty making
b. Force
c. Collaboration
d. Dual tactics (Treaties and force)
Treaty making
These were bogus agreements that were signed by European agents and African rulers (African
rulers signed without understanding what they were signing or what the agreement meant) on
signing these treaties African rulers were promised to be given luxurious things by the Europeans
(1880s)
Examples of these treaties:
a. Carl Peters signed a treaty with the chief of Usagara, Kilosa, Pangani etc.
b. French Lochner (BSACO) signed a treaty with Lewanika (N. Rhodesia 1860)
c. Maffat signed with Lobengula on taking Matobele land while Lobengula was promised to
be given: £ 100 £ 500 (instead of gunboat) 100 Rifles
d. Savognan De Brazza signed with Makoko Chief (Congo Brazzaville) 1881 –1882
Why the use of treaties.
African rulers signed the treaties due to:
a. Some African rulers were weak economically and politically thus they were in need of
assistance.
b. African rulers were ignorant as they signed without understanding what they signing.
Forces/ violence
This was a method, which involved the use of weapons to occupy colonies. The method was
highly used in the strongest African societies. Example
a. Germany Vs. Hehe
b. Germany Vs. Abushiri and the Coastal people
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c. Germany Vs. Bwana Heri and Coastal people
d. Germany Vs. Mahemba and Yao.
Why the use of force
African rulers use force/violence due to:
Some states African rulers were strong economically and politically
The nature of colonial Government believed they had to use force e.g. Germany
Collaboration (Alliance)
In this method Europeans tended to form an alliance with some African societies to oppose other
Africans.
The method was used on those areas with conflict. Example:
Mangi Marealle and Germany against other Africans. E.g. Mangi Sina, Mangi Meli
Sangu, Bena and Germany Vs. Hehe
Shona and the British against Ndebele (Matebele)
Herero and Germany against Nama
Why the use of collaboration
The African rulers use collaboration because
Some Africans were weak politically and economically. Hence they were in need of
assistance.
Some Africans were ignorant
Assimilation policy
Association policy
Indirect rule
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Was a system of administration that involved the use of African personnel to fill the the lowest
posts of administration.
Who used this System?
It was used by British an administration their colonies starting from 1920s e.g. in Nigeria,
Tanganyika.
Origin
Indirect rule has its origins in the northern part of Nigeria when Sir Laggard (from England)
decided to use African Emirs to control the Northern part involving Fulani, Ibo etc. In 1919 Sir
Laggards started to use African Emirs in the northern part while in 1922 the system was well
known to all parts of West Africa. Indirect rule was introduced in Tanganyika in 1926.
Conditions/Factors that led to the introduction of indirect rule in Africa (advantages of
indirect rule)
Indirect rule in Africa was introduced due to the following factors:
1. It was introduced to reduce the cost of administration (while African personnel were
cheap).
2. The shortage of European administrators, in Africa led to the introduction of indirect rule
in Africa (as African personnel were used to help the colonial Government).
3. Indirect rule helped European administrators with collecting tax and obtaining cheap
labour (African leaders were used to collect tax and source cheap labourers).
4. Due to the remoteness (poor infrastructure) of some areas, European colonial masters
failed to reach all areas and decided to use Africans leaders (puppets).
5. Climate conditions e.g. tropical climate affected a lot of Europeans they became
susceptible to tropical diseases thus they decided to use Africans in those areas.
6. Language problems: While Europeans failed to communicate with local people educated
Africans were used instead.
7. It was introduced in order to solve enmity between African and colonial Government
Africans started to believe that they are ruled by their fellow Africans. Due to this it reduced
resistances from the Africans.
Effects of indirect rule (on Africans)
Indirect rule had several effects to the Africans as follows:
1. It led to the formation of classes, that is families of African leaders where considered of a
higher class than others.
2. It increased exploitation of African human and natural resources.
3. After independence of some Africans nations they continued to use local rulers like
chiefs to administer their societies.
Assimilation Policy
Was a system of administration used by the French in their colonies (the system involves more
on cultural change. This system of administration comes from French Language “Assimila” that
means caused “to resemble”.
Origin:The origins of assimilation can be deduced from the French revolution of 1789 while after
the decline of Monarch Government, Napoleon. Bonaparte was intending to build a strong
nation.
In order to build a strong nation they also needed to spread their culture (French Culture) in
1920s. This was a time when the French started to use this system in their colonies. The system
was used in Senegal and other parts like Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria etc.
Implementation of assimilation policy (how assimilation policy was introduced in Africa).
Implementation of Association policy was highly involving in cultural change as follows:
1. They built schools on their colonies that used the French language as the medium for
instruction and French culture in general (educated Africans were made to behave like the
French that they resemble French people).
2. Africans were given certificates that were used as an identity to obtain French passport.
Evolved (those who attained certificate) were allowed to enter in France.
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3. In order to blind Africans: French colonies were known as “Provinces” and not colonies.
(Province meant outside France).
4. Europeans introduced provinces in Africa having the same name like that of France e.g.
four province were introduced i.e. Goree, Rafisque, Dakar and St. Louis.
5. The four provinces were used as headquarters while in Dakar it was to act as headquarter
of others under governor in charge.
6. They allowed Africans and Europeans representatives in legilco (in France). This was a
guise to blind Africans.
Failure of assimilation policy
Assimilation policy started to fail in the 1930s and was replaced with the association policy.
Factors for the failure of assimilation policy
1. Muslims rejected to send their sons and daughters in Mission Schools (thus it was not
possible to introduce this system in these areas).
2. Some Africans resisted the colonial government due to cultural interference.
3. Assimilation policy was expensive to carry out and the French decided to introduce
another system of administration which that was cheaper, association policy.
4. Since assimilation involved cultural change it was not beneficial to the colonial
government (economic gain was less).
5. Influence of educated African elites who started to fight against the colonial government
(they started to mobilise their fellow Africans against the colonial government.
6. Africans were highly exploited that is, in terms of natural and human resources hence
they started to resist colonial government).
Association Policy
Was a system of administration used by the French after the failure of assimilation policy. This
system started to be used more in 1930s. In this they started to associate Africans in the
production of material wealth e.g. raw materials. It was at this time when African leaders started
being used by the colonial governments.
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Association policy involved the use of African chiefs who were divided into three types that is:
Chef de village - (chief of the village)
Chef de conton - (chief of the district)
Chef de communes - (chief of the province)
Those leaders were used in forcing Africans to pay tax and on obtaining African labourers (to be
used on colonial economies).
Activity 1
Explain the reasons for the failure of the assimilation policy and the introduction of the
association policy.
1. Define association policy and assimilation policy.
2. In one paragraph, explain briefly what assimilation policy is.
3. Factors for the introduction of association policy.
4. How did the French introduce Association policy (in brief)?
African Reactions to Colonial Rule

The Meaning of African Reactions to Colonial Rule
Explain the meaning of African reactions to colonial rule
Reaction means response to something (whether in a negative or positive manner). Africans'
reaction to colonialists highly depended on the nature of Africans in the area and the colonial
governments‟ style (it depended on the ways/methods used by the colonial rulers on imposition
of colonial rules).
The Various Form of African Reactions
Explain the various form of African reactions
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This response of Africans to colonial rulers can be divided into two types being active and
passive.
Active
Africans responded negatively against Europeans
Passive
Africans obeyed colonial rules.
Nature of African response to colonial imposition
The nature of Africans‟ response to colonial rule imposition can be divided into four forms:
Violence
Non Violence
Mercenary
Adoption
The Causes of and Reasons for the Different African Reactions
Account for the causes of and reasons for the different African reactions
Violence
This involves Africans who tended to use weapons against colonial rules. This method was
highly used by the strangest African societies such as:
Abushiri and Coastal people against Germans
Hehe against Germans
Ndebele against British
Jaja of Opobo against British
Why the use of violence
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The reasons are:

Some Africans were politically and economically strong and ere able to resist the
Europeans.
Harsh treatment from colonial rulers forced Africans to use violence.
Africans were exploited for natural and human resources and started to fight back.
Non violence
Some Africans decided to flee their homes our of fear of European colonialists and some of them
decided to boil seeds before planting them, striking against the colonial rule. Example, non-
violence was used by the Maasai and Haya (in East Africa).
Why the use of non violence

The reasons are:
Africans who used this system were politically and economically week.
Nature of economic activities, It was not easy for nomadic pastoralist to use violence.
Some Africans were affected by diseases e.g. Jiggers for the Haya.
Mercenary
This was a response where some African societies started to hire soldiers from other societies
e.g. Nyamwezi tribe used to hire soldiers from the Ngoni tribe (soldiers known as Rugaruga) to
fight against the colonial rulers.
Why the use of mercenaries
Some of the societies were weak hence they needed assistance from other soldiers.
Adaptation
Some African societies tended to copy the methods of fighting from the European colonial
masters during their friendship.These African societies started to use the methods to fight against
colonial rule e.g. Menelek of Ethiopia who fought against Italians using this method.
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Why the use of adaptations

It was due to the weakness of some African societies who tended to copy the methods of
fighting.
The Factors which Determined the Nature of African Reactions
Assess the factors which determined the nature of African reactions
Factors which determine the nature of African reactions included military strength, ideological
beliefs, diseases, economic strength, existence of missionaries, geographical position, nature of
the state, the role of leaders, level of colonial exploitation and political awareness among the
Africans.
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COLONIAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
Direct Rule, Indirect Rule, Assimilation and Association

The Concept of Direct Rule, Indirect Rule, Assimilation and Association
Explain the concept of direct rule, indirect rule, assimilation and association
Indirect rule
This is a colonial system of administration, whereby, African traditional rules were involved in
administering their fellow Africans at the local level while the colonial officials and
administrators administered at the higher level.Indirect rule was pioneered by Sir Fredrick John
Lugard who was the British High Commissioner to Nigeria in 1990.
Reasons for the British to use indirect rule in their colonies
The British colonial government used indirect rule in most of her colonies in Africa because of
the following reasons.
1. Britain drew more attention to her colony in India, thus it was difficult for her to
introduce direct rule in Africa.
2. Britain did not have enough manpower to administer her colonies in Africa. For instance,
in 1900 it was reported that the British had only 42 British officials in her Nigerian colony. This
number was not sufficient to administer the whole colony. The shortage of personnel was caused
by lack of experienced workers. Moreover, British citizens were not willing to work in Tropical
Africa for fear of Tropical diseases and other physical problems such as transportation.
3. Less funds were set by the British government for the maintenance of the colonies. It was
convenient for the colonial administrators to use the indirect rule system in the colonies so as to
reduce administrative costs.
4. The indirect rule proved to be effective and efficient in their Indian colony; therefore, the
British government was inspired to apply it in Africa.
5. The British thought of using the indirect rule in order to overcome resistances from
Africans. Consequently, Africans rulers were made to feel that their status was honored by
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British, as this system of administration gave them an opportunity of keeping some of the money
corrected in form of taxes for their native treasuries. That money was spent for paying
messengers and policemen salaries. However, the local African chiefs retained the money for
their personal use.
6. Physical barriers such as poor infrastructure, presence of mountains, thick forests and
dangerous animals in the colonial African forces the British to use indirect rule.
7. A language barrier between the British and the Africans forced the British to use indirect
rule. Neither Africans nor Europeans understood the language of the other. Hence, they used
interpreters.
Direct rule
This was a colonial system of administration whereby the colonies were governed by Europeans
officials at the top position, Arabs Akidas and Liwalis were at the bottom. The Germans
preferred this system of administration in their metropolitan country.
Assimilation policy
The termassimilationmeans „similar to‟. The French used this term to refer to a system of
administration that aimed at creating French Black Africans among the West Africans who
would be French citizens. The French wanted the French Black Africans to enjoy the same status
and privileges or suffer penalties like any French citizen in France.
The assimilation policy was first used in Indo-China and Algeria and later introduced in the four
communes of Senegal-Goree, St. Louis, Rufisque and Dakar-in 1854 and spread to other French
colonies in Africa. the assimilation policy proved to be successful when it was applied in
Morocco. In Senegal the assimilation policy was introduced by Lewis, a trench governor,
between 1854 and 1865.
Characteristics of assimilation policy
1. The French regarded their colonies as their overseas provinces thus the colonies were
closely attached to France.
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2. African citizens within the French colonies enjoyed the privileges and the rights that were
given to any French citizen in the metropolis.
3. The African colonies under the French rule were represented in lower House of
parliament. This showed that there was political integration of the Africans with France.
4. There was a close economic relationship between France and her colonies in Africa. The
French currency was used in the colonies, an indication that the colonies were integrated to the
metropolis country.
5. They had intention of making the Africans in their colonies to be good French citizens
through dictatorship that forced the Africans to learn French language, follow the French laws,
apply French civil and political system, be Christians and adopt French manners.
6. They encountered a lot of difficulties in West Africa, since their attitude towards Africans
culture and African chiefs were negative.
The Association Policy
This was the system of French colonial administration that prevailed in the colonies after the
failure of the assimilation policy. Unlike assimilation, association policy respected the culture of
Africans and allowed them to develop independently, and did not force them to adapt French
culture.
The association policy was practiced in Africa after the failure of the assimilation policy. It
insisted on the relationship between the Africans and the French being that of association and not
otherwise. The association had to use the indigenous elites who were trained in France as
administrators to mediate between fellow Africans and French colonial administrators.
The major purpose of association was to create mutual economic development for both the
Africans and the French. However, the implementation of the association policy was impractical,
since the Africans had their traditional institutions such as custom and traditions.
African rulers were used by the colonial administration to fulfill their demands such as collection
of tax, labor recruitments and maintaining peace and order in their areas. African chiefs who
failed to perform such duties were replaced.
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4. In both systems, colonial imperialists took control of their colonies for a long time, for
example, the white settlers in Zimbabwe under direct rule and the French colonies in West
Africa.
5. Both colonial administrative systems aimed at plundering the natural resources of Africa.
The differences between the association policy and direct rule
1. The association policy did not experience great enmity as it respected African culture,
while direct rule experienced great enmity from Africans due to their harsh and brutal rule.
2. The association system has less cost of administration unlike direct rule which required
many Europeans to perform administrative tasks which led to higher costs of administration.
3. The association system of administration was used by French government after the failure
of assimilation while direct rule was used by German colonial power and British in area where
they thought indirect system could not work.
4. In direct rule the European settlers‟ population was big in colonies, while in association
policy Africans were also allowed to live in their colonial master‟s country.
The similarities between association policy and indirect rule
1. Both colonial administrative systems used in African colonies.
2. Both systems used African intermediaries in their administration and preserved
traditional methods of choosing leaders.
3. In both policies whites occupied higher administrative posts, while the Africans occupied
the lower positions in the administration. All offices from district officers, commissioners and
governors were occupied by the British and the French.
4. Both systems used crude ways of ruling: exploiting, taxation and forced labor.
5. Both systems were introduced after observing the shortcomings of other systems used
previously. For example, association was used after the weaknesses of assimilation policy while
indirect rule was introduced after observing the shortcomings of direct rule.
The differences between the association and indirect rule
26
1. The association policy encouraged the French colonial administrators to respect the
African culture, while the indirect rule system of administration disregarded the African
traditional culture but only used traditional chiefs for their interests.
2. The French emphasized on the use of French language on her colonies, while the British
on the other hand considered and allow the use of local and native languages together with
English.
3. The French association policy still maintained aim of transforming Africans into French
by making the laws whereby non-citizens faced arbitrary arrest, serving the army for a long time,
while the British made no attempt to transform the Africans.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Impact of the Colonial Administrative
Systems on Africa
Evaluate the strengths, weaknesses and impact of the colonial administrative systems on Africa
Strength and weaknesses of indirect rule
1. It avoided African resistance by appointing traditional rulers to rule on their behalf.
Hence, all complaints were directed to traditional African rulers.
2. It was cheap, as local chiefs were used to mobilize their people to pay taxes and work as
forced laborers.
3. Indirect rule created imbalance of development among African states. Areas which had
local chiefs assisting the colonial government had development on social services like schools,
hospitals and roads while those which had no chiefs in their areas had no or inadequate social
services. Such situations had led to many conflicts among Africans after independence.
4. It had created social differences among Africans. The chiefs‟ families and loyal families
got privilege of getting social services such as education, hospitals and many more while the rest
of the community were not getting such facilities.
5. Tribalism developed as an impact of indirect rule. African chiefs who were entrusted to
rule on behalf of colonialists considered themselves superior to other in their land. For example,
Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda created disunity among Ugandan when he declared the Buganda
kingdom independent in 1960.
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6. African chiefs became puppets of the administrators and did not serve their people.
7. The indirect rule cemented centralized bureaucracy through the use of the district
commissioners.
The strengths and weaknesses of direct rule
1. The system solved the shortage of employment among the European population. For
example, Germany offered employment to her people in the colonies she occupied. Hence, she
managed to reduce the rate of unemployment of her people.
2. The system managed to suppress resistance, since it ensured that the colonies had enough
white military officials to safeguard their interests. For instance, the Abushiri war of resistance of
1888 was suppressed by the German colonial administration. Some weaknesses of direct rule
were:
3. The use of harsh and brutal means to make Africans meet colonial demands such as
production of raw materials and paying taxes. Their approach led to many sufferings of the
Africans that included death or imprisonment.
4. It undermined the pre-existing African traditional rulers. For instance, the German
administration in Tanganyika removed the African traditional rulers, replacing them with Arab
Akidas and Liwalis from the coastal areas.
Weaknesses and impact of assimilation policy
Due to constraints they encountered, the French were forced to loosen their ties by initiating
another system of ruling known asassociation.
The major reason that made the French to drop the assimilation policy of administration
was that, the policy proved quite impractical because it could not make an African a French
citizen. It managed to change the person mentally and morally but the person remained inferior
because he remained a black man who could not even be accepted by fellow Africans who were
not assimilated and would neither be accepted in the European world. On other hand, association
gave freedoms to Africans in the colonies to develop in their chiefdoms using their own culture.
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Among the laws and ordinances made was the crown land ordinance of 1915 in Kenya. This
offered white settlers the right to own Kenyan highlands for a 99 years lease. Another instance
was that of masters and servants ordinance of 1924 which was established in Tanganyika.
The handling of various claims of the people was done through councils of elders and the
legislative council (LEGCO) the councils of elders dealt with African cases while the LEGCO
handled both European and African claims.
PICTURES SHOWING COLONIAL ARMY
35
BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITY TO DO
1. Explain the meaning of colonial military and colonial legal institutions.
36
2. What were the functions of colonial military and colonial legal institutions?
3. Explain the features of colonial military.
4. Describe the duties of the colonial legal institutions.
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COLONIAL ECONOMY
Establishment of Colonial Economy

The Meaning and Objectives of Colonial Economy
Explain the meaning and objectives of colonial economy
Colonial economy was introduced in order to increase production distribution and consumption
of material wealth.
Why colonial economy was introduced to Africa
Colonial economy in Africa was introduced due to the industrial revolution in Europe which led
to a need for raw materials, markets, areas of investment and labourers. In order to solve those
problems, Europeans established five economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industry,
trade and infrastructure.
Features of colonial economy
Colonial economy had several features which differ from the pre-colonial economy in the
following ways:
1. Colonial economy was export oriented (e.g. production of cash crops, mineral.
2. It was exploitative in nature,that is Africans were highly exploited.
3. It went hand in hand with alienation of Africans (Africans were alienated from their land
which was used by the Europeans).
4. Colonial economy used forced labour (in areas where colonial rulers opened projects).
5. Colonial economy was a cash economy that is, exchange was done on monetary terms.
6. It went together with the use of high capital in opening of economic activities like
agriculture, mining etc.
7. Colonial economy involved small scale and large-scale production.
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8. It went together with introduction of tax. This tax went to the colonial government.
The Tactics used to Establish Colonial Economy
Analyse critically the tactics used to establish colonial economy
Establishment of colonial economy in Africa
In establishing colonial economy Europeans used different methods: Creative, destructive and
preservation.
a. Creative
Colonial rulers introduced new modes of production in Africa such as:
1. The introduction of a cash economy, exchange took place through cash.
2. Introduction of land alienation where European took fertile belonging to Africans.
3. Colonialists introduced large-scale farms e.g. tea plantations and settler farms in Africa.
4. Africans were forced to pay tax in cash to the colonial government.
5. It went together with the construction of infrastructure for the benefit of colonial powers.
6. Africans were forced to work in colonial projects.
b. Destructive
Colonial power tended to be destructive to Africa:
1. Colonialism destroyed African local industries in order to gain market and labourers.
2. Colonial governments tended to destroy African culture e.g. initiation ceremony. This
was done to obtain cheap labour.
c. Preservative
1. Colonial governments preserved peasant economy in some areas e.g. in Uganda, West
Africa etc.
2. African mode of production was allowed to continue e.g. Feudalism in Uganda and
primitive communal mode of production in other areas.
39
Activity 1
1. Colonial economy was destructive, creative and preservative, discus.
2. Discuss the methods that were used by Europeans to establish colonial economy in
Africa.
Sectors of Colonial Economy

The Various Sectors of Colonial Economy
Identify the various sectors of colonial economy
In order to fulfill their needs colonial masters introduced several projects/sectors such as:
a. Agriculture
b. Trading
c. Mining
d. Industrial
e. Infrastructure
The Features of each Sector of the Colonial Economy
Explain the features of each sector of the colonial economy
Agriculture
Agriculture at this time was basically one crop production. In this it was of small scale and large-
scale production.Crop production was divided into three forms as follows:
1. Peasant economy
2. Plantation economy
3. Settler economy
Peasant economy
40
Africans were left to continue with production of cash crops on a small scale in some
areas.Peasant economy was introduced in Uganda, cottonand coffee in Tanganyika‟s Sukuma
Land, and Cocoa and palm oil production in West Africa
Activity 2
1. In some of the areas colonial rulers introduced peasant economy and plantation economy.
Discuss why.
2. Explain why colonial governments used peasant economy in West Africa and Uganda.
Why peasant economy was reliable in some areas
Colonial governments continued production using the peasant economy on a small scale. This
was due to the following factors:
1. Africans had experience growing cash crops such as palm oil, cotton while Europeans did
not. Hence they allowed Africans to continue producing.
2. The system was cheap and the cost of production was covered by the peasants.
3. It was due to negative response from the Africans while some societies resisted the
introduction of plantation farming e.g. in West Africa.
4. It was simple to force Africans on production e.g. basing on quality of productions for
instance in Sukuma Land each family was required to produce two acres of cotton.
5. Europeans were unable to live in some areas with tropical climates as they feared tropical
diseases. Therefore, Africans were left to continue with production in these areas.
6. The system helped colonial governments at large with selling cash crops. Africans were
required to contribute on the construction of roads and others social services.
7. Some areas had high populations e.g. in West Africa, hence it was not possible to alienate
all of them from their land.
Plantation economy
41
These were large-scale farms under the colonial government; they were mainly based on cash
crops production e.g. Sisal in Tanganyika (Morogoro and Tanga).
Settlers economy
This system involved the production of cash crops at a larger scale.European and some
Asiansettlers owned these large-scale farms. Examples of these areas where settlers introduced
this type of economy are Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Algeria.
How Colonial Government favoured settlers in Africa:
At large it is said that settlers were highly favoured by their respective colonial Governments e.g.
in Kenya and Zimbabwe settlers were favoured to a large extent.
Activity 3
1. Show how settlers were favoured in Kenya and Southern Rhodesia. OR
2. Show how settlers were helped by the colonial Government in Kenya
Settlers in Africa were favoured through on of the following
methods:
1. Settlers were given capital by the colonial government through loans.
2. Colonial governments built social services in areas with settlers such as hospital, roads,
schools to attract more settlers to Africa.
3. Settlers were favoured in the pricing of cash crops compared to peasants (crops from the
settlers were bought at a higher price).
4. Colonial governments tended to force Africans to work on settlers‟ farms, it helped
increase production due to availability of labour.
5. Colonial governments favoured settlers through the use of the Land Act. In 1919 the
Crown Lands Act helped settlers obtain land in Kenya.
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6. Africans were restricted from growing the same type of cash crops produced by settlers
e.g. in Kenya. Africans were restricted from growing coffee, this benefited settlers in marketing
their product.
INDUSTRY
The colonial government introduced processing industries in some of the areas. These processing
industries were established in areas with cash crop production. Colonial governments tended to
destroy local industries in Africa in order to introduce these processing industries.
Roles of industries at the time
Industries were meant to reduce the bulkiness of raw materials e.g. Sisal, raw materials were
processed to simplify carriage of raw materials from Africa to their mother countries.
Mining
White settlers formulated large numbers of mining centers in Africa to fulfill their demands e.g,
in South Africa diamond and gold mines were opened.Colonial governments tended to use
migrant labour due to the location of mining centers.
Role of mining: Toobtain raw materials e.g. minerals like gold, diamonds for their industries.
Trade and Commerce
European colonialists introduced trading activities while importing several items such as clothes
and simple machines from Europe. On the other hand, colonial governments also exported raw
materials from Africa to their home countries.
Role of trade and commerce
It helped European colonial governments to gain raw materials from Africa like crops and
minerals. Europeans obtained market for their manufactured goods from Europe.
Infrastructure
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In order to develop economic activities in Africa, colonial governments built infrastructure like
roads, railway houses. Roads and railways were built from the interior all the way to the coast to
make exportation and importation of goods easy.
Role of infrastructure
a. Roads and railways were used to carry raw materials from the interior ready for export.
b. They carried immigrant labours to areas of production e.g. Kigoma – Dar es Salaam
railway was built for that purpose.
c. To carry administrators and military troops from one area to another.
d. To transfer manufactured goods from the harbour to the another
e. To transfer manufactured goods from the harbour to the interior.
Activity 4
Discuss the role of colonial economies introduced by the Europeans in Africa and how pre-
colonial economy differed to the colonial economy.
The Impact of the Establishment of Various Sectors of Colonial Economy on

Africa
Assess the impact of the establishment of various sectors of colonial economy on Africa
Colonial economy in Africa had both positive and negative effects for Africans.
1. Africans inherited infrastructure from the colonial governments e.g. roads, railways, that
were used for carrying goods and labourers.
2. After the independence of African countries nationalisation of plantations, buildings
under the colonial governments started. Buildings, plantations and harbours were now under the
African states.
3. It led to the introduction of new varieties of crops from outside e.g. varieties of cotton
from America, and coffee.
4. Africans inherited European economic plans which continued to be used after
independence e.g, the treatment of labourers.
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5. Africans were impoverished due to exploitation by the colonial governments.

6. African technology declined due to the destruction of local industries.
7. Some areas that were known for producing labour were under developed due to
rationalisation, e.g Kigoma in Tanganyika.
8. Africans inherited capitalist elements from their colonial masters in some areas like
Kenya and Zimbabwe.
9. It led to Europeans taking natural resources from Africa e.g. minerals, raw materials
through an unequal exchange.
Colonial Labour
The Concept of Colonial Labour
Explain the concept of colonial labour
Starting from the early 20th century, colonial governments in Africa established colonial
economies such as agriculture, industry, trade, mining etc. Due to those economic activities they
needed more labour.
Why labour questions came up?
The following factors led to colonial labour questions in Africa:
1. Size of economic activities e.g. plantations demanded large supply of labour.
2. Locations of some economic activities e.g. mining centers were located in interior and
remote parts hence had shortage of labour.
3. Some of the African societies had negative response to the colonial powers thus it was
not easier to obtain labour.
4. Population size in some areas was less hence labour problem came up.
The Tactics Used to Create Colonial Labour
Analyse the tactics used to create colonial labour
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In order to solve the problem of labour shortage in Africa colonial governments took the
following measures:
1. Introduction of forced labour: Colonial governments used coercive force like army and
police to force Africans to work in colonial economies. In Tanganyika 1944 about 12,00
labourers were forced to work on sisal plantations.
2. Europeans imported manufactured goods in Africa such as clothes, bicycles that were
sold for cash, Africans were required to work to buy such products.
3. Colonial governments introduced tax in the form of cash thus Africans were required to
work in colonial economies to earn money to pay tax.
4. Colonial governments registered Trade Unions with the aim of finding labourers e.g.
SILABU (Sisal Labour Bureau) in Tanganyika and W.N.L.A. (Witwatersrand Native labour
Association) in South Africa.
5. They introduced laws and ordinance e.g. the “Kipande” system in Kenya where Africans
were required to have an identity card showing their place of occupation. In Tanganyika there
was a Masters and Native Servants Act of 1906
6. Introduction of land alienation. In Kenya and Zimbabwe Africans were removed from
fertile areas and had to work to earn money.
7. Colonial governments introduced rationalisation so some areas were special for labour
production e.g. Kigoma, Rukwa and other areas were special for crop production.
8. They introduced colonial education to gain administrators for lower posts in Africa e.g.
clerks and messengers which were used on colonial economies and other colonial offices.
The Types of Colonial Labour
analyse the types of colonial labour
Colonial labour force was divided into different types, namely migrant labour, forced labour,
communal labour, family labour, contract labour, resident labour, indentured labour and feudal
relation labour
The Impact of the Establishment of Colonial Labour to African Societies
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Assess the impact of the establishment of colonial labour to African societies

Introduction of indigenous/ natural economy
Pre- colonial economy - this economy was established in Africa before the coming of the
colonialist (this economy involved Agriculture or crop production). During the 19th century
Europeans came to establish economic activities in Africa, activities such as mining, trade,
agriculture, infrastructure to mentioned a few.
In order to introduce these activities the colonialists used different mechanisms to break
up natural economic activities in East Africa.
Colonialists started with the destruction of African local industries, Africans were not
allowed to work in their industries. Therefore, the local textile, iron-smelting industries in East
Africa were destroyed. Examples of destroyed industries are the textile industries of Sukuma
land, Buganda and Congo.
In addition, the colonialists introduced cash crop production which disrupted food crop
production. Colonialists aimed to gain raw materials from the indigenous people. Colonialism
introduced land alienation, which led to the decline of indigenous natural economies like crop
production.
Colonialists also introduced forced labour to provide manpower for their economic
activities, this resulted in the destruction of African economies like agriculture and industry.
They introduced the following:
1. Introduction of cash tax.
2. Introduction of cash (money) economy.
3. Introduction of laws and ordinance e.g. “Kipande” system in (Kenya) and Masters and
Native Act 1906 (Tanganyika). Construction of infrastructure in East Africa (helped colonialists
to obtain markets, labourers and raw materials while affecting Africans.
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Effects of colonial economy to the Africans: Colonial economy in

Africa had both positive and negative effects on the African
people.
1. Africans inherited infrastructure from the colonial governments e.g. roads, railways, that
were used for carrying goods and labourers.
2. After the independence of African countries nationalisation of plantations, buildings
under the colonial governments started. Buildings, plantations and harbours were now under the
African states.
3. It led to the introduction of new varieties of crops from outside e.g. varieties of cotton
from America, and coffee.
4. Africans inherited European economic plans which continued to be used after
independence e.g, the treatment of labourers.
5. Africans were impoverished due to exploitation by the colonial governments.
6. African technology declined due to the destruction of local industries.
7. Some areas that were known for producing labour were under developed due to
rationalisation, e.g Kigoma in Tanganyika.
8. Africans inherited capitalist elements from their colonial masters in some areas like
Kenya and Zimbabwe.
9. It led to Europeans taking natural resources from Africa e.g. minerals, raw materials
through an unequal exchange.
Activity 5
NECTA 1998;
1. Discuss the mechanism, used by colonialists to break up the natural indigenous (wenyeji/
wazawa) economy of East African people.
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2. Using concrete examples of any East African society show the pattern of the physical and
social infrastructures were determined by the system of the colonial economy.
3. How did the colonial Government ensure constant supply of labour in their colonies in
East Africa?
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COLONIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
Colonial Education
The Objectives of Colonial Education
Analyse the objectives of colonial education
The aim of establishing these social services was to consolidate and facilitate colonisation of
Africa. That means they were built to favour the colonial government in power.
Starting from the 20th century,colonial governments established a number of social services in
Africa. Colonial economy. Examples of these colonial social services were:
1. Colonial education
2. Transport and communication
3. Recreational services
4. Water and electricity
5. Health services
The Features of Colonial Education
Analyse the features of colonial education
This was a type of formal education that was introduced by Europeans in Africa. This education
was introduced to benefit the colonial government and not Africans. It went together with the
establishment of schools high economic gain areas such as crop production areas.
Features of colonial education
1. Colonial education has a pyramid shape quality. The number of students who started at
lower levels reduced as they went to higher levels.
2. Schools were built in areas with economic importance, such as the Kenyan highlands
which were a prime are for coffee production.
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3. Colonial education was discriminative in nature e.g. there were Asian schools, European
schools and others for Africans.
4. Colonial education was provided to the sons of African chiefs e.g. sons of Jumbes and
few daughters obtained this type of education.
5. Schools were built in urban areas and not rural one because that is where most settlers
were.
6. Education was basically about European culture e.g. training involved the use of foreign
languages such as English and French.
Role of colonial education
The role of colonial education are as follows:
1. To train Africans so they may be used as administrators for lowest posts e.g. messengers
and clerks.
2. Colonial education was introduced to train the sons and daughters of European colonial
masters together with Asians.
3. To produce African puppets who were brainwashed to favour the colonial government.
The Impact of Colonial Education on African Societies
Assess the impact of colonial education on African societies
Effects of colonial education
1. It produced educated elites who organised their fellow Africans to fight for independence
e.g. J.K Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah.
2. Colonial education killed Africans' skills at large, these skills remained in theory.
3. It produced classes between the educated and those who were not educated
4. Colonial education led to the destruction of the African culture e.g. on dressing and
eating.
5. Africans began to desire 'White' jobs, education was aimed to make one employable.
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Colonial Health Services

The Objectives of Colonial Health Services
Analyse the objectives of colonial health services
The aim of establishing these social services was to consolidate and facilitate colonization of
Africa. That means they were built to favour the colonial government in power).
Colonial health services were established in the colonial state, to serve colonial administrators,
missionaries and traders as their primary aim. Also some Africans were served by the colonial
healthy service as to maintain the minimum healthy standard of Africa, to continue providing the
highly needed labor force to the colonial productions.
Provision of Water and Housing Services during the Colonial Era

The Motive for the Provision of Colonial Water and Housing Services
Explain the motive for the provision of colonial water and housing services
Colonial government started to introduce these services to those areas with settlers or colonial
officials.
The major role of introducing these services was to attract the coming Europeans in Africa.
During the colonialism, the Europeans gave priority to their comfort in terms of provision of
water and housing services. The provision of water and housing during that era was guided by
the various rationale, for instance, it was meant to encourage the European settlement in the
colonies, it was distributed depending on the economic importance of an area, also it provided
based on racial bases.
The Distribution Pattern of Water and Housing Services
Analyse the distribution pattern of water and housing services
Characteristics of water and housing services
Offered on the basis of race,
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unevenly distributed (depended on the economic value of an area),

areas for labourers had no housing of water services which were established by
colonialists,
based on religious grounds (missionary areas had better water)
The Impact of the Provision of Colonial Water and Housing Services on African Societies
Assess the impact of the provision of colonial water and housing services on African societies
Impact of water and housing services included:
Reinforced racial classes in colonies,
areas without raw materials or colonialists were marginalized and denied services,
created regional imbalances
FORM FOUR
CRISIS IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM
First World War: Causes and Impact on Africa

The first world war was a purely imperialistic war due to its nature and the motives behind it.
The war began on July 28, 1914, with the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia and
hostilities between the allied and central powers continued until the signing of the armistice on
November 11, 1918. The war lasted four years, 3 months and 14 days.
The Short and Long Term Causes of the First World War
Analyse the short and long term causes of the first world war
The long and short term causes of the conflict were rooted deeply in European history as well as
in the economic and political polices that prevailed on the continent after 1871, the year which
marked Germany as a great power.
Germany organised the European balance of power and defeated France in the war of 1871
which caused France to view Germany as her arch rival. Such enmity facilitated World War One.
Long term causes
Formation of military alliance system/military camps: Imperialists European nations formed
a military union to defend themselves and safeguard their interests against common enemies.
They agreed to increase military camp members if any were attacked, they also agreed to fight
together.
These military camps were formed after the unification of German in 1871 and were originated
by Otto Von Bismarck. Germany was interested in forming the alliance because it wanted to
isolate France in order to prevent it from seeking revenge after its defeat in the Franco-Prussian
war of 1871.
Arms race / military preparedness / development of militarism: This was the competition of
manufacturing military deadly weapons within the imperialists industrialised European nations
who aimed to achieve the imperialists motives of their respective nations.
The armed race is symptomatic of the "security dilemma‟ in international relations whereby the
pursuit of national security increases the sense of insecurity among the neighboring states, a well
known example of an arms race is the Anglo-German naval rivalry between 1900 and 1914.
Expansion of the German naval involving the construction of powerfully armed and heavily
armored battleships was met with the launch of the British Dreadnought class of naval vessels
after 1906.
After the unification Germany began to manufacture new weapons that were beyond her
domestic needs. This made other countries to join the competition of manufacturing weapons,
they increased their defense budget the number of troops which necessitated or motivated them
to go to war hence the outbreak of world war in 1914.
Oversea conflicts/ fighting for colonies/ imperialist motives:The industrial revolution in
Germany, France and Britain led to economic domination leading to the scramble for colonies in
Asia, Africa and Balkans and caused an immense increase in the manufactures of each country
and a consequent need for foreign markets.
The principal field for European policies of economic expansion was Africa which is where
clashes occurred due to colonial interests.
Economic rivalry in Africa between France and Great Britain, and between Germany on one side
and France and great Britain on the other, almost precipitated war in European and even South
America between 1898 and 1914.
European balance of power: Every European country wanted to maintainmilitary economic
and politicalsuperiority over the anothers which led to theoutbreak of war. Germany wanted to
remain the lion of the land through its miliary, while Britain wanted to remain the shark of the
sea because it had very powerful marine technology
Such ideology caused other nations to struggle for recognition even if it meant risking world
peace. Therefore, World War One broke out in 1914 because each nation wanted to maintain
their status quo and claim recognition.
European nationalism: Many European nations joined the war to defend their national interests,
e.g. the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by a Serbian student was an act of nationalism
against Serbia, while the conflict with France was meant to regain Alsace and Lorain from
France.
Immediate causes.
Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand on 28th June 1914:Austria's PrinceFerdinand amd heir
to throne and his wife Sophia were shot dead by a Serbian student while at their honeymoon at
the bridge of Sarajevo, this was the immediate cause of World War One. Austria responded by
giving an ultimatum to Serbia with the support of Germany. The conditions given included:
Serbia was to explain the assassination and bring the assassins to book.
Serbia was to dismiss all official which Austria suspected was involved in the murder.
Austrian officials and police were to be permitted to take part in the investigation. Serbia
rejected some of the conditions with the support of Russia and her allies. On 25th July1914
German declared war on France on 3rd august 1914, Britain declared war on Germany, Russia
also joined the war hence World War One.
Germany's attack on Belgium: Germany mobilised and stationed her troops in Belgium and
prevented French troops from advancing. Germany's attack on Belgium on 2 august 1914, caused
Britain to quickly join the war on 14 august 1914, Britain accusedGermany of breaking
Belgium's neutrality which was confirmed since 1839 by the London conference. All these
events also triggered the first world war in 1914.
How Africa was involved in the war
In 1914 German colonies in Africa consisted of: Togo Land, the Cameroon, Namibia (south west
Africa), and Tanganyika (East Africa). An Anglo-French force took possession of Togo land in
august 1914.
On September 1914 a British force from Nigeria invaded Cameroon and a French force from
French Equatorial Africainvaded east and south ofCameroon. After many campaigns in which
the Germans defeated the allied forcesseveral times, German resistance wasfinally overcome in
February 1916. In South West Africa,Germany was conqueredbytroops from the Union of South
Africabetween September 1914 andJuly 1915.
The British force was bigger in East Africa and comprised of about 4250 soldiers. This was was
the force used to crush and defeat Germany's force of 750 soldiers and a similar number of
policemen. The most important of Germany's possessions; East Africa (Tanganyika) displayed
the strongest resistance to the attacks of the allies.
Early assaults by British and Indian troops (November 1914) were deflected by the Germans
under General Paul Von Lettow-Vorbeck. In November 1915, British naval units gained control
of Lake Tanganyika and in the following year, the allied forces (British, South Africa and
Portuguese) intended to invade German East Africa which was under the command of general
Jan Christian Smuts.
In 1916, the allies captured the principal towns of German East Africa including Tanga,
Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam and Tabora, the Lettow –Vorbeck‟s troops then retreated into the
south east section of the colony. Late in 1917, however the German forces took the offensive,
invading Portuguese East Africa.
In November1918,the allies began an invasion of Rhodesia. When the armistice was signed in
Europe in 1918, the troops inGerman East Africa were still fighting even though most of the
colonies were in the hands of the allies. Lettow –Vorbeck surrendered three days later.
The Factors that led the War to Spread Worldwide
Analyse the factors that led the war to spread worldwide
First World War was fought in Europe, but eventually it spread worldwide for various reasons.
The reasons included; the need to protect colonial interests, military obligation, lack of troops
among imperialist powers, the rise of sea wars, as well as the rise and spread of socialist or
capitalist ideologies.
The Impact of the First World War on Africa
Assess the impact of the first world war on Africa
Destruction of Africa: World War One led to the destruction of Africa especially African
agriculture and caused the deaths of Africans who participated in the war in Libya, Somalia and
Kenya it‟s said that more than 100,000 East African troops were killed.
African nationalism: The world war led to the rise of African nationalism, it pushed Africans to
demand their liberation and independence especially after the rise of awareness and the rise of
African elites who organised peasants to demand their independence; Kenyatta, Nkurumah, were
some African elites.
Extreme exploitation. The aftermath of World War One was the intensive exploitation of
African resources because European nations wanted to compensate what they had lost during the
war. New taxes like hit tax, gun tax, matiti tax, poly tax, head tax and dog tax were introduced.
Land alienation increased forced labour become common, mineral extraction became dominant.
Rise of socialism in Africa: World War One led to the rise of socialism in Africa after the
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 whereby Africans adopted socialism e.g. Ujamaa villages in
Tanganyika; Common Mans Charter in Uganda, Humanism in Zambia and Islamic socialism in
Libya.
Political re-division of Africa: Itled to re-division of the African continent among the
imperialist nations e.g. all German colonies were redistributed among the victor powers. German
East Africa was renamed Tanganyika shared between Britain and Belgium whereby Britain took
Tanganyika while Belgium took Rwanda and Burundi. South East Africa (Namibia) was given to
South Africa.
Cameroon was shared between Britain and France the portion neighboring Nigeria was given to
Britain and the rest was given to France. Togo was shared between France and Britain the
portion neighboring Ghana was given to Britain and the rest was given to France.
The second world war was caused by the first world war. WW 2 in 1939 also affected the african
continent.
The great depression: The first world war led to the great depression which victimisedAfrican
economies leading to the fall of crop prices. In Europe, prices of African agriculture produce fell,
wages of social services were also reduced.
Africa's involvement in the war:Some Africans were recruited by the colonial powers to fight
on their side. Many Africans were taken to work as cooks, porters, security guards and fighters,
this led to depopulation in Africa and gender imbalances. Ranks and medals were awarded to
those who had successfully fought in the war, thus creating a new class of the ex-servicemen.
Fall in produce prices in African colonies: The war led to the fall of producer prices because of
the severe financial crisis that faced the metropole and the colonies. During the period of war
agriculture greatly declined, European plantations were destroyed or abandoned in order to
concentrate on the war. African cultivation was equally affected resulted infamine.
Cut down of colonial government expenses: Social services expenditure was tremendously
reduced because of the severe financial constraints of the war period due to this, colonial
activities almost came to a standstill.
Social miseries: The war led to misery in various parts of Africa where the people suffered from
homelessness, displacement famine, diseases, fears and uncertainties. There was an outbreak and
spread of diseases like small pox, meningitis, plagues and venereal diseases like syphilis that
were brought by the returning soldiers. There was a serious outbreak of influenza between 1918
and 1919 which killed many people.
Warfare associations: World War One led to the rise of warfare associationsin the colonies as a
method to intensively exploit african resources, such warfare association included Kilimanjaro
native planters, Bukoba coffee growers and Bataka association in Uganda.
Colonial schemes:Introduction and development of colonial schemes in order to generate big
qualities and quantities as to increase exports to the metropole, this led to an influx of European
settlers into East Africa, these were mostly ex-soldiers which meant more loss of land for the
Africans.
With increased European settlement in Kenya, settlers became agitated for political power and
representation in government.
The great depression: its causes and impact on Africa
The Meaning and Characteristics of the Great Depression

Explain the meaning and characteristics of the great depression
The great depression generally refers to the economic crisis which occurred between 1929 and
the 1930s during the period of inter war between the world's super powers.
It can also be described as an economic disaster which spread throughout Europe following the
collapse of the New York stock exchange in Wall Street on 19 October 1929.
In Britain it was called "the slump‟ and in German "Die Krise‟ (the crisis) and Americans used
the term "great depression‟. The great depression began when the stock exchange crashed in 19
October 1929 and depositors feared bankruptcy and rushed to withdraw their deposited cash.
Characteristics of the Great Depression
Hyper inflation (high depression of money) facilitated to the collapse of economies.
Mass unemployment: The official figures are impressive, peaking at around 6 million
unemployed in Germany, 14 million in the United States and 2.7 million jobless in Britain due to
poor economic activities.
Social tensions increased considerably: With a rising intolerance towards groups or individuals
who were perceived to be "economic rivals‟ or "outsiders,‟ many people began to blame their
neighbors due to the economic collapse.
Low purchasing power:People were unable to buy food and other necessities due to poor
economic activities.
Protectionism: Protectionism is the economic policy of restraining trade between nations
through methods such as tariffs and government regulations. Preventing commodities from other
nations was applied as a way to prevent depression.
Starvation famine and malnutrition related diseases:The depression took a heavy toll on the
physical and mental health of European society. In Hamburg, for example over 50% of the
young men were unemployed for more than two years and they were especially hard-hit
psychologically.
Low production of industrial goods and steady fall of prices.

Closure of financial institutions like banks due to poor economic activity.
The wide spread of economic depression in the world, except for Russia.
It heightened gender divisions: In some cases married women workers were forced from the
work place by state legislation in a campaign against so called "double earners‟ because their
husbands also brought home a wage.
Domestic politics became increasingly turbulent: This was due to the government's failure to
combat the depression effectively in much of central and eastern Europe and the Weimer
Republic.
Widespread Malnourishment: Its effects on national health were long lasting. In the mid 1930s
a routine medical inspection identified over 21% of school children in Pontypridd, Wales as
malnourished.
The Causes of the Great Depression
Analyse the causes of the great depression
First world war of 1914, this war created an economic vacuum, whereby during the war many
European countries were incurring high war expenditure while no production thus after the war
the European nations wanted to compensate the gap of production that occurred during the
period, which led to over production hence low prices in agricultural and industrial products.
Hence low investment which led to mass unemployment that brought low purchasing power that
leads to poor welfare like famine starvation and death thus great depression.
Multi distribution of capitalist’s economy or uneven distribution of national economy in
the capitalist’s nations. Whereby in pure capitalist‟s nations it‟s only few individuals that
happen to own and control production for instance in U.S.A by the time of great depression it
was only 5% of the population that owned the economy.
Unlike in socialism economy thus any withdraw of such people from the investments it affect the
entire economy thus the fall of New York stock exchange in 1929 led to the investors to
withdraw their money from the stock market which led to the economic depression of 1930‟s.
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Heavy loans during the fighting, heavy debts from USA to France and Britain were acquired to
facilitate the war even after the war more debts were got from USA like financial loan to
construct the war damaged European nations, the results was when the pressure to repay loans
and interests became greater particular in Europe, it created an economic situation whereby huge
sum of money begun flowing from Europe to USA.
This destroyed international trade, thus Europeans nations couldn‟t develop but all of them
depending on USA thus any problem on USA economy had to affect the entire world.
War indemnity of Germany and senseless circle payments, Germany was asked to pay huge
indemnity or repatriation of 6.5 billion dollars to the victor power first of all this amount of
money was too huge for Germany which had just come from war that led to inflation and created
senseless circle payments.
Germany acquired loan from USA as to pay Britain and France who wanted to repay the loans
from USA, who borrowed Germany thus a senseless circle payments that anything that would
affect USA economy would affect the entire world economy hence the collapse of New York
stock exchange led to great economic depression.
The collapse of new York stock exchange on 19th October 1929, this was the immediate
cause of the great depression, many investors in USA and outside USA had invested a lot in
USA stock exchange the fall of the prices of shares, made the investors to withdraw their shares
which led to low investment that led to closure financial institutions like banks, and credit
facilities, hence great depression.
Absence of international institutions like IMF and World Bank which would have acted as
advisors and regulators of economic and financial issues in the world, like controlling inflation
production, scarcity and financial regulation. Thus its absence in 1930‟s led to great economic
depression
Over production of agriculture and industrial products, after the first world war that period
was characterized with over production of agriculture and industrial output both in the periphery
and in the metro pole, this led to the fall of prices of output of industrial and agriculture, which
discouraged production in the long run, thus great economic depression.
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Political instabilities during inter war period, this period did not enable many European nations
to engage into commodity production and international trade, it left a little time for European and
USA to engage in economic activities which led to poor planning that culminated into economic
slump.
Bolshevik revolution of 1917, after undergoing the revolution Russia begun to under go
command and central controlled economy, which narrowed the world market that led to the piles
of goods without market from America and in western European nations, hence economic great
depression.
Poor economic policies like protectionism, were also responsible for great economic
depression e.g. USA during the inter war period practiced and pursued discriminative economic
policy against world economies she passed the „Mc Cumber tariff‟ in 1922 to shelter her
economies against imports of nation wishing to export more goods
The collapse of the Austria, as she was providing loans to the European nations but collapsed in
may 1931 due to the withdraw on the French funds the financial crisis was intensified in Europe.
The recovery program after world war one, the European nations begun to discriminate the
USA goods, and begun the recovery of agriculture sector which led to the discriminating of
agriculture products in USA that resulted the pile of goods because of fewer buyers this affected
the production and that marked the beginning of the great depression.
The Impact of the Great Depression on Africa
Assess the impact of the great depression on Africa
Fall of price commodity, it led to the fall of African cash crops tremendously like cotton,
coffee, sisal and cocoa because the demand at the metro pole was also very low the peasants and
European settlers who were the chief producers of such commodities almost abandoned the
production.
Decline in provision of social services, whereby the colonial government was no longer
interested in the investment of social services because of severe social crises in Europe.
Establishment of processing industries, like coffee, cotton ginneries an oil refinery as to
increase the qualitative and quantitative output in the metro pole.
12
Intensive exploitation of african resources e.g. land alienation was doubled, new taxes were
introduced, forced cropping was introduced and forced labour became a common place, this
aimed at compensating the financial crisis that had affected their economy.
Regional imbalance, especially of transport network whereby railways lines and roads were
constructed in areas where production was high and in places that there was no transport network
Provision of low wages, especially on colonial civil servants as to minimize colonial
expenditures in the peripheries
Lay-offs / retrenchment that led to mass unemployment in many colonies because the colonial
government reduced the number of workers so as to reduce colonial expenditure like teachers,
nurses, clerks and others.
Development of migrant labourers, since colonial government increased plantation and labour
reserves e.g. Rukwa, Kigoma and Dodoma in Tanganyika and northern Uganda as well.
Growth of food stuff, the crises contributed in putting more efforts in the production of food
crops like cassava, banana, soy bean, potatoes and millet because cash crops had fallen in prices.
Increase in the import industrial commodities in the peripheries as to decrease the stock
piles in the metro pole that had lacked the market during the period of severe economic crisis.
The Second World War: Causes and Impact on Africa

The war begun from September 1939 to August 1945; it was fought between the antagonistic
imperialistic nations in two camps i.e. the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis Vs the allied forces being led
by Britain, France, USA and Russia, the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis was defeated and surrendered.
The war was a global military conflict that in terms of live lost and material destruction was the
most devastating war in human history. It began in 1939 as a European conflict between
Germany and an Anglo-French polish coalition but eventually widened to include most of the
nations of the world.
13
It ended in 1945, leaving a new world order of a super powers dominated by the United States
and the Union on Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) the second world war reached in every part
of the world in the five continents and in 7 seas.
More than 50 million of people lost their lives in this disastrous war, more than 22 million were
soldiers and more than 28 million were civilians. The real cause of this war is not known but
most historians concur that it was the combination of factors that led to the outbreak of the world
war II.
It was also unique in modern times for the savagery of the military attacks unleashed against
civilians, and for the adoption by Nazi Germany of genocide (of Jews, Roma [Gypsies],
homosexual and other groups) as a specific war aim.
The most important determinant of its outcome was industrial capacity and personnel. In the last
stage of the war, two radically new weapons were introduced, the long range rocket and the
atomic bomb.
The Causes of the Second World War
Analyse the causes of the second world war
The Versailles peace treaty of 1919, many world historians do agree that the seed that led to the
second world war was sown during the Versailles peace treaty settlement, the Versailles men
who had reduced Germany to a military cipher and had reorganized Europe and the world as they
saw fit, this created more enemies than friends for example, Hitler promised to overturn the
Versailles treaty, for having humiliated Germany to that extent, he secured additional support
from Germany peasants, Turkey, Italy too were ill-treated by the treaty and opted to revenge.
Thus the outbreak of World War II in 1939
Formation of hostile camps, after the failure of league of nation Germany was very successful to
create an alliance with Italy, Tokyo and Japan, thus the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis which forced
French to form the Anglo-French hegemony which was later on joined by other countries and
formed the allied forces versus central power, it was these camps that the second world war was
organized it provide confidence and increase enmity between the military camps that made the
war inevitable.
14
Hitler and Mussolini foreign policy, this were characterized by expansionism aggression hatred
revenge and domination, Adolf Hitler the leader of the Germany national socialist (Nazi) party,
preached a brand of fascism predicated on anti-Semitism and racism. Hitler promised to overturn
the Versailles treaty and secure additional Lebensraum (living space).
German people who he contended deserved more as members of the superior race he wanted to
make the capital of the world to be at Berlin, this created the outbreak of World War II when
they attempted to fulfill their desires e.g. 1935 Mussolini attacked Ethiopia, in 1938 Hitler
attacked Austria, 1939 Hitler attacked Poland as that resulted the outbreak of world war II.
Military preparedness and re armament, when Hitler came to power in 1933 having denounced
the disarmament clauses of the Versailles treaty, created a new air force, and re introduced
conscription, in march 1936 Hitler dispatched German troops into the Rhine land he withdraw
Germany from the league of nations and begun manufacturing more weapons preparing for
revenge, this act attracted other countries to do the same thing e.g. Britain and France increased
their military budget to prepare weapons. Such military readiness brought tension which brought
the war in 1939.
Imperialism, German begin the war because she wanted to regain her lost imperial interesting
Africa like in Tanganyika as well as to get more colonies in Africa, for Italy she fought to get
more colonies and territories, France wanted to maintain and defend her imperialistic gains from
Germany, while Russia was interested in the Balkans and Britain wanted to maintain her status
quo as the shark of the sea with the colonial empire.
Factors that led the War to Spread Worldwide
Analyse the factors that led the war to spread worldwide
The Second World War was centered in Europe but after a period of time spread worldwide this
was due to some factors; among of them are colonialism, expansion of military alliances,
imperialist interests, the rise and spread of socialist and capitalist ideologies in the world.
The Impact of the Second World War on Africa
Assess the impact of the second world war on Africa
15
Involvement of Africa into the war, some Africans were recruited to fight on the behalf of their
colonial power for instance the British colonies recruited the King African Riffles (KAR) to fight
on the side of allied forces.
The rise of African nationalism, especially after the return of ex-soldiers who begun to mobilize
their fellow Africans to fight against colonialism after getting awareness, it was attributed both
on internal and external forces.
Formation of United Nations (UN), especially after the collapse of League of Nations whereby
African countries became members of UN especially those that became independent.
Destruction of African agriculture and economic activities, since the war reached in African soil
like in Somali, Kenya, Libya and other parts, African property were destroyed.
Intensive exploitation of African resources by the colonialists in order to compensate the losses
incurred during the war although this led to large scale nationalism in Africa.
The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nations, which introduced open door policy neo
colonialism as compensate what for having not colonized like European nations.
Spread of socialist ideologies in Africa e.g. Ujamaa village in Tanganyika, commons mans
charter in Uganda and consciousness in Zambia.
Death and suffering, since many Africans fought on the side of their colonial master, around
100,000 were mobilized in east and southern Africa whereby, many of them died; there was
outbreak of diseases and hunger that killed many Africans.
Formation of none allied movement (NAM), this was formed in 1955 in Bandung Indonesia
whereby neutral nations who did not belong in side i.e. capitalism or communism.
Collapse of Italian colonialism in Africa, the war marked the end of Italian imperialism in Africa
following the defeat of central axis Italy lost her colonies of Libya and Eritrea.
Transfer of mandatory territories to the UN trust ship and the trust territories were put under the
supervision of the UN which included Tanganyika, Namibia, Rwanda, Burundi and many others.
16
Intensification of exploitation in the colonies, measures were taken in the colonies to increase
raw materials in the metro pole, a lot of exports were needed from the colonies to rebuilt the war
ruined Europe, for example new taxes were introduced, land alienation, forced cropping and
processing industries.
Development of rural urban protest, which was attributed to extreme exploitation in the colonies,
mass discontent was developed both in the rural and workers in the urban centers who
manifested in the form of strikes and riots.
Introduction of new economic, social reforms and social policies in the colonies for example
import substation industries were encouraged in relation to education the curriculum was
changed and the emphasis was put on hand work and agriculture as to envisage qualitative and
quantitative production.
Environment degradation in the colonies, this was due to the over use of the environment during
that period as to create enough commodity for export in the metro pole for example land became
exhausted.
State intervention in the colonial economy, the colonial state became increasingly involved in
organizing, coordinating and controlling commodity production in the colonies whereby it
involved in marketing of export commodities by creating export marketing boards for example
coffee marketing board in Kagera and Lint marketing board in Uganda.
Activity 1
Do the following Assignment
1. The First World War did not come as thunderstorm but from clear environment. Discuss.
2. How did the great depression affect Africa and what were the solutions to the problem?
3. What was the impact of great depression of 1929-1933 on the colonial economies
ofAfrica?
4. Explain the reasons that led the east African nations to
17
NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION
Nationalism in Africa
The Concept of Nationalism
Explain the concept of nationalism
Nationalism literally refers to the desire ,love , or sprite for ones nation .In Africa the term
nationalism has been used to signify the struggle of independence or self determination against
foreign domination in case of Europe the term nationalism has been used to signify for national
unification in Germany and Italy and to acquire oversea colonies. Nationalism in Africa is
divided into two phase according to the period.
Nationalism before 1945
Nationalism after 1945 (mass nationalism)
The Origin of Nationalism in Africa
Explain the origin of nationalism in Africa
The origin of nationalism in Africa is traced back to the era of colonialism and primary African
resistance against colonial rule. The increase of exploitation resulted to nationalistic struggle. Its
origin and basis were of two perspectives: These are based on reflection of the ancient and
modern based on recent phenomena characterized by structural conditions of modern society.
The Importance of Nationalism in Africa
Explain the importance of nationalism in Africa
The following are the Importance of African Nationalism
African nationalism aimed at gaining political sovereignty i.e. self determination
byopposing imperial occupation of the European colonialist.
To spread political awareness to African against white economic exploitation
theimperialist extended excessive oppression and exploitation to the Africans, heavytaxation,
land alienation and forced labour.
18
To bring various African ethnic groups to form unity and solidarity to fight
theirgrievances and this was to be achieved through formation of political parties.
To remove the element of European capitalism and its related evil and adopt new
afrocentric views of Marxism.
To spread the African culture and fight out foreign culture that had been promotedby the
colonialism, like language, dressing, table manners among others.
To remove inferior complex among the Africans and to appreciate the effort ofliberating
themselves from European domination
Nationalism before 1945
In the first decade of colonial rule most East African communities experienced only spasmodic
contacts with the white men. But by the mid of 1920s,the activities of the government officials,
missionaries and settlers were beginning impinge or to affect much more direct on the lives of
many Africans. Acts like land alienation, forced labour, injustice and taxation now were
affecting the Africans more.
The struggle for self determination and resistance against the intruders began in Africa
immediately after the inception of colonialism around 1890s.
The African started to resist colonial domination in the early time e.g. Abushiri and Bwana Heri
in Tanganyika, Shona and Ndebele in Zimbabwe, as well as Nama and Herero in Namibia. The
African resistance was of three kinds;
Passive resistance
Collaborative resistance
Active resistance
However, the period and intensity in which the early African resistance occurred in various
societies depended on the intensity of colonial activities and its impact.
19
For example as early as the 1890s the people of Ghana had already formed the Gold Coast
Aborigine‟s Right protection society which was to fight against laws which had been enacted to
exploit African land.
Also in 1920 the biggest welfare association in the region was the National Congress of British
West Africa in Accra. It was largely formed by the emerging African elites who wanted
increased and effective representation in various organs of the state especially in the legislature.
Causes of Nationalism in Africa before 1945
Political grievances
They lost t their independence to the foreigners thus nationalism to regain their lost
independence.
African rulers were thrown away and replaced them by foreign rulers who were imposed on the
African that they detected and wanted to restate their traditional rulers.
Economic grievances
1. Forced labour to work on the colonial plantations to provide cheep labor anyAfrican who
resisted was punished heavily
2. Imposition of heavy taxes as to initiate money economy taxes like hut taxpoll tax matiti
tax were introduced as to force the indigenous to work in theplantation cattle confiscation as to
deny African from engaging in othereconomic activities and resort on supplying cheep labor
3. Land alienation to keep African away from practicing their substance agricultureand begn
to supply cheep labor in plantation.
4. Loss of control of their trade, like long distance trade and Trans Saharan trade aswell as
the introduction of the so called legitimate trade.
5. Destruction of African agriculture which was self sustaining that based on theneeds of
Africa and in place cash crop plantation was introduced.
Social grievances
20
1. Colonial injustice and oppression like long working hours, social abuses and separationof
men from their families
2. Heavy punishment like chopping off ribs of the Africans in case of the Congo
colonyunder Belgium, corporal punishment in Tanganyika under Curl Peter.
3. Racism and segregation of Africans, by insulting them by their color and making themthe
third grade citizens or their own land.
4. Destruction of African values and traditions and implanting foreign culture like
religion,language, education and culture.
The Rise of Social and Welfare Associations
The Meaning of Social and Welfare Associations
Explain the meaning of social and welfare associations
Social and welfare associations are social groups associations formed by Africans to meet the
immediate needs of members by protesting colonial exploitation, oppression and humiliations.
They played an important role of providing political education to African communities by
showing the evil of colonialism and the need to liberate themselves.
The major groups of social and welfare associations
1. The skilled and unskilled workersThese comprised of elites both skilled and unskilled
workers who lived in poor houses and had nosufficient health and education services compared
to Asians and Europeans. They demanded better terms of services, equal provision of wages and
salaries to workers of the same qualifications regardlessof their race differences.
2. African tradersThese were petty traders in urban areas who were addressing their
grievances including discriminationsas African traders were discriminated while Asian and
European traders were favored much by the colonial governments through provision of loans and
other facilities.
3. Peasants and cooperative societies. These were peasants cooperative unions aiming at
defending the needs of the farmers since the colonial government confiscated their land and
21
offered it to the white settlers while Africans possess little lander landless and forced them to live
in infertile land. Examples of these associations were Kilimanjaro Native Planters Association of
Tanganyika and Ukamba Members Associations of Kenya.
The Reason for the Rise of Social and Welfare Associations
Analyse the reason for the rise of social and welfare associations
The influence of ex soldiers from the first and second world wars, these were the Africans who
were recruited by colonial governments to fight on their sides abroad these countries like Burma,
Sri Lanka and other parts of the world. They created awareness to the Africans about the
importance of welfare associations in the process of nationalism struggle.
The role of African elites especially those trained by colonialists for the aim of assisting colonial
administration in various fields like clerks, teachers, nurses among others. They mobilized their
fellow workers to form social organizations within their working areas demanding good living
and working conditions for workers as well as better salaries and wages as well as same benefits
regardless their race differences.
The increase of exploitation of human resources and natural resources, the world wars left
European countries with economic difficulties as a result they decided to come to Africa to
compensate their economic loss by exploiting African resource through land alienation, forced
labour, taxation and payment of low wages this situation led the Africans to rise social and
welfare associations to protest colonial exploitations.
Awareness of civilized urban dwellers on colonial evils most Africans who settled in urban
centers so the need to establish welfare associations especially among the people who originated
from the same regions or clans, they later on provided such awareness to the African village
dwellers who joined hands by supporting the establishment of social and welfare associations.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Social and Welfare
Associations during the Struggle for Independence
Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of social and welfare associations during the
struggle for independence
Weaknesses/problems of social and welfare associations
22
It was based on small group’s organization like tribal or class as a result it was very difficult to
for their grievances to be fulfilled by the colonial governments for they could not mobilize most
of their countrymen.
Frustration and fear among members due to colonial government harassments to members and
leaders of social and welfare associations following this situation the members and leaders of the
associations failed to stand firm for the interest of their associations. For example the Harry
Thuku of the Kikuyu Central Association in Kenya was softened his stand against the colonial
government after being exiled.
Financial problems, most of social and welfare association faced the problem of inadequate
funds this was due to the fact that they were depending income from their members’
subscriptions to meet their needs. Yet, their members earned low income and at the same time
they had other obligations like tax payments and daily life needs as a result they contributed a
small amounts in the association something that resulted to financial problems.
Inadequate knowledge and skills of leaders in managements, many leaders of social and welfare
associations had little knowledge and skills of managing offices and leading people this created
difficulties in organization and mobilization of members within a given association.
Banning of social and welfare associations by colonial government this was due to the fact that
these associations were against colonial governments and administrations that is why colonial
governments decided to ban them in order to abolish them. This situation made Africans to
experience difficulties in organizing the associations.
Strengths and contributions of social and welfare associations
during the struggle for African independence
Establishment of infrastructures such as offices came to be used by the nationalist
leadersduring the struggle for independence.
Preparation of nationalist leaders these associations prepared African nationalist leaders
who were members of the associations through providing political awareness that made them to
23
stand firm in struggling for African liberation. For example Jomo Kenyatta was a member of the
Kikuyu Central Association who later on organized Kenyans to fight for their liberation.
They provided awareness among the Africans on the evils of colonial governments,
through these associations many Africans especially the members of the associations awakened
on the injustice of colonialism. For example in Kenya the Ukambani experiencing
demonstrations due to the increase of awareness.
Journal publications, some social and welfare associations published their journals which
carried out various political agenda and communicated with their members on different issues of
their concern.
Generally they organized meetings which came to be a forum for airing their own
grievances to the colonial rule. Furthermore, they created a base on which the true nationalism
activities stood
The Rise of Protest and Religious Movements

Protest can be referred as a reaction against those who mistreat or humiliate others, indicating
that their treatment cannot be taken any more. Protest can be divided into two;
1. Active protest this involves physical reaction such as fighting or striking
2. Passive protest this involves silent reactions such as boycotts.
The African religious movements prevailed in the early 20th century among African
communities. They took form of either indigenous protest movements like Msambwa Religious
Movements in Kenya or the form of independent churches that had broken away from white
missionaries churches.
African independent churches’ paved the way for African emancipation to occupy high ranks in
the church hierarchy; previously Africans were at the bottom in the church as they only ended up
being bible school teachers and catechists all high ranks and decision were made by white
missionaries, the formation of independent churches made the Africans to accept Christianity as
a religion not an aspect of colonial system as they thought to be when it was conducted by white
missionaries.
24
Generally, the breaking away of African from various western missionary churches to
independent churches was an expression of a protest against colonial domination in Africa.
The Meaning of Protest and Religious Movements
Explain the meaning of protest and religious movements
Protest refers to a strong reaction against mistreatment and humiliation. Protests can be divided
into two categories: Active protest e.g. physical reaction like fighting, and passive protest e.g.
boycotts. While African religious movements were movements created by Africans to protest
colonial powers.
The Causes of the Rise of Protest and Religious Movements
Analyse the causes of the rise of protest and religious movements
Church segregation, the European churches preached the salvation and equality of human being
before God while Africans were segregated, oppressed and not allowed even to lead prayers they
were taken as third citizens.
The assistance of missionary to colonizers, the European churches also involved in helping
colonizers in land alienation, forced labour, taxation and administration which had no any
relation with the teaching of the bible.
Africans realized that the European churches and colonialism were two sides of the same coin
that the Christian missionaries were only to pave way for colonization process of Africa as many
of them acquired labour farms and exploited African just like the white settlers.
Missionaries advised Africans concerning political and economic problems by breaking their
resistance e.g. through preaching biblical doctrines like the humble people are the blessed for
them will enter the kingdom of God forgive those who wrong you.
Missionaries intervened in African culture like girl circumcision among the kikuyu people in
Kenya who vehemently detested the missionary activities. That prompted them to start
independent schools and begun to spread.
The Africans showed disapproval of missionaries’ education system, they considered it
inadequate as it only taught African reading, writing and arithmetic (3Rs) this enabled African to
25
occupy low position in colonial administration like clerks and wound dressers in the colonial
government’s hospital.
The Africans wanted to counter attack the colonial exploitation and domination independent
church campaigned against payment of taxes by African, racial discrimination, unequal provision
of social services and forced labour.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Protest and Religious
Movements during the Struggle for Independence
Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of protest and religious movements during the
Weaknesses/problems faced by religious movements during the
Financial problems the independent churches experienced in adequate funds because
ofdepending on the little money rose from the few members of the churches that could notsustain
most of their needs. For example the churches needed funds to support a large numberof pupils
expelled from mission schools in Kenya during the female circumcision controversy ofthe 1920s
and 1930s.
Conflicts among church leaders within independent churches there were several
churchleadership conflicts emerged among the church founders, since everyone demanded
leadershiprecognition in the church.
Competition between independent churches and the white missionary churches for
followersfollowing this the white missionaries influenced many Africans to be converted into
theirchurches by all means including provision of gifts like clothes and shoes for the aim
ofpreventing African independent churches from getting followers.
Lack of enough trained personnel as most of teachers in independent churches were
untrainedsince most of them were ex-missionary school students with little western education
andmanagement skills.
26
Strengths and contributions of protest and religious movements

during the struggle for independence
Establishment of African independent schools these schools enrolled African children
only andthey were taught their culture and evils of colonialism as a result later on they became
politicalactivists.
Provision of reformism education, by teaching the Africans that the missionaries were
mereagents of colonialism and practicing discrimination in the church and its hierarchy
followingthese missionaries was not fully evangelical as they preached thus reforms were
inevitable.
The increase of awareness among the Africans due to various protest including
activedemonstrations, boycotts and strikes especially when colonial governments used force to
avoidprotest. For example the religious protest in the Nyasaland under Chilembwe when
suppressedmade the movements to be popular.
The religious movements and churches instructed Africans not to pay tax and not to
beinvolved in the imperialist wars because Africans were not beneficiaries of these.
Rise of Mass Nationalism and Political Parties in Africa
The Meaning of Mass Nationalism
Explain the meaning of mass nationalism
This refers to nationalistic activities that occurred after 1945, after the Second World War it was
in this period that African was successful in their struggle at times referred as modern
nationalism.
Immediately after World War II Africans gained the momentum to demand for self
determination this came as a result for intensive exploitation of African resources after World
war two.
27
Generally mass nationalism is characterized by mass feeling and attitude of demanding

independence by using a nationalist struggle in form of unified parties beyond the class, tribe or
ethnic background.
Characteristics of mass nationalism
Well organized and planned by elites, African leaders those that were educated
fromcolonial schools.
It was a national wide that it covered the whole nation through opening up manybranches
in the whole state both in the rural and urban areas.
It was led by the elites i.e. educated leaders who were focused e.g. Nyerere,
Kenyatta,Obote and Nkurumah.
It was political in origin, i.e. they struggled for political independence of Africa.
It was dominated by both dialogue and armed struggle, where dialogue proved a failure.
It was motivated by both internal and external factors, unlike those before 1945
whichwere motivated by internal forces.
It led to the independence of some nations i.e. it was successful in getting
independencefor African nations.
The Reason for the Rise of Mass Nationalism in Africa
Analyse the reason for the rise of mass nationalism in Africa
Factors that gave birth to African nationalism are of two kinds.
Internal factors
External factors
Internal factors
There were forces that were internally motivated, that generated within African societies that
brought about nationalism in Africa. These included the following factors.
28
Formation of peasant cooperative union, especially in rural areas to defend the interests and
welfare of the farmers, where some associations were formed by the colonialists as to speed up
the production and the marketing of cash crop as well as sensitizing peasants about cultivation
through their associations. But later alone developed nationalistic feelings and turned against the
colonialists using their association‟s structures in rural areas.
Intensive exploitation after the Second World War in the colonies the colonizers wanted to
revamp their ruined economies, which were heavily damaged by the war; large scale
colonization was carried out.
Formation of independent churches, these were churches that were lead by the Africans breaking
away from main stream white churches to challenge their misdeeds over the Africans. They
addressed not only religious but also social, political and economic grievances of Africans such
churches included Joseph Ejayi in west Africa, the Kikuyu native church, the watch tower church
movement in Malawi 1906, the African national church in Tanganyika, the people God and
religion of Jesus in Kenya and united native church in Cameroon. Such churches openly
criticized the colonialists and encouraged their followers to fight them thus the rise of African
nationalism
Formation of segregated African schools, after realizing that the missionary and colonial school
taught nothing but European based syllabus some African societies begun their own schools, like
among the Kikuyu in Kenya Africans were taught African syllabus. This helped in educating
Africans and developing the spirit of nationalism.
Rise of elites, who had attained colonial education like Nyerere in Tanganyika, Nkurumah in
Ghana, Kamuzu Banda in Malawi and Abafemi Awolowo of Nigeria. This education helped
them to get used to the white language, to get exposed to various struggle and liberation of the
world. But on top of that some elite came from outside Africa the combination of both helped to
the rise of nationalism provision of leadership for nationalistic struggle.
Ghana independence in 1957, it was example to estimate other African nations to begin fight for
their freedom so it as possible for them also to attain independence from their colonial power.
29
The Italy vs. Ethiopia war of 1935-1941, under Mussolini and Haile Selasie and Ras Imra
increased the momentum of African nationalism Italy an industrialized nation was heavily and
bravery resisted by an African nation Ethiopia this boosted African confidence towards their
struggle for independence was defeated.
Formation of social welfare association, this aimed to improve the working conditions of African
workers discriminations and colonial abuses to the Africans such associations largely based in
urban centers and comprised colonial civil servants like the Kikuyu central association in Kenya
that was formed by Harry Thuku the railway territory civil association in Tanganyika,
Tanganyika territory civil service association (T.T.C.S.A.)which was formed Martin Kayamba
the peoples union in 1908 in Nigeria. Such association exerted more pressure on the colonialists
to consider giving African independence which led to African nationalism.
Mass media especially newspapers played a big role in spreading awareness among the
population in both rural and urban areas such newspaper included Sauti ya TANU in
Tanganyika, the pilot and the comet in Nigeria
Colonial social infrastructures also played a big role in facilitating the spread and the rise of
African nationalism that‟s why some historians do say that colonialism sown a seed of its own
destruction, infrastructures like railway and roads facilitated the nationalistic activities in rural
and urban centers by spreading the message of liberation in all parts of Africa.
Formation of Pan Africanize in 1900by William Sylvester from the new world which later led to
the formation of O.A.U. an organization that united all African independent nations to help in
fighting for African independence.
External factors
These were factors that motivated nationalism but being generated from outside Africa such
forces included:
The returning ex-soldiers, who participated in the war on the side of their colonial masters
assisting them as porters and security guards of many camps, this participation brought
30
awareness since these soldiers were exposed to western democracy, freedom and liberation
message some veterans like Dedan Kimathi who were later a leader of Mau Mau in Kenya.
Formation of UN which replaced the League of Nation where independent African states were
allowed to participate as members it becomes an organization of all nations. African and Asian
nations through the UN opposed the colonialists and demanded self determination, unlike during
the League of Nations where African colonies became mandatory colonies of European nations.
The India and Pakistan independences, these acted as external pressure for the Africans to
emulate both were British colonies that attained their independence in 1948 as one nation which
later separated in two nations, following that African quoted such incidences as a negotiate tool
to argue for the independence.
The Bandung conference of 17th April 1955, where Asians and Africans nations such as south
Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Libya and Egypt met in Indonesia to discuss their problems which
include colonialism and economic development, they emphasized solidarity, it was during this
conference that non aligned movements NAM was formed in this conference.
Rise of communism in USSR the second world war witnessed the expansion and consolidation
of the communist bloc whereby Russian begun to provide material and moral support for anti
colonial struggle for Africa e.g. it supported rebel groups in Angola and Namibia to fight
colonialists.
Marshal plan, this was initiated by George Marshal the prime minister of USA whereby he began
giving loans to the war ruined European nations on condition that they should decolonize in
Africa and Asian nations, by granting independence to those nations.
Open door policy of USA, this policy was introduced by USA for the aim of conducting business
with independent African states thus it begun requesting colonialists to give independence to the
African countries so as to do business with USA
The British labour party, which assumed power in 1945 its policies were against colonialism
which they viewed as oppression of humanity and wastage of British tax payers money such anti
colonial sentiments in Britain made many nationalistic movement to agitate for their immediate
independence.
31
The rise of USA as a leading capitalist nation, after the world war two US became the chief
superior of war materials and the war did not affect her economy negatively made her to became
a leading capitalist nation and begun to advocate for decolonization of African nations as a trick
to compensate for not colonizing through establishment of neo colonialism to get market for her
finished goods area of investment for her international cooperation.
The aftermath of the Second World War to the colonialists who incurred a lot of losses and could
not continue with spending to the colonies so they were forced to grant some independence to
some African states. But on top of the above some European powers adopted intensive
exploitation to revamp their economies which awakened many Africans to resist thus the rise of
nationalism in Africa.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political Parties towards the
Road to Independence
Compare the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political parties towards the road to
independence
Weaknesses of political parties in Africa
Financial problems this was because members were unable to contribute the money
requiredfor various political activities due to poverty.
Lack of reliable communication networks that could easy the transmission of information
fromone place to another in order to facilitate political activities of spreading political
awarenessamong the Africans.
Colonial restrictions to political parties, colonial governments acted as obstacles to
Africanpolitical parties since they limited political activities and slow down the decolonization
processby banning political parties. For example the British colonial government restricted
governmentworkers from being members of TANU in Tanganyika. In Ghana Nkwame
Nkurumah (CCP) wasimprisoned all of this aimed at suppressing African political parties.
Opposition between African political parties as each party basing on their ethnic,
regionalism orelitism competing against the other to the extent of conducting campaign against
32
the otherinstead of joining hands in fighting their common enemy. For example in Nigeria and
Uganda thecases were commonly practiced.
Some political parties were created to meet the interest of a few such as elite for example
theUganda National Congress (UNC) was created to meet the interest of other non Baganda
againstthe Kabaka Yekka of Buganda in Uganda.
Lack of support from other organizations like women, youth and farmers associations
during thetime of spreading liberation messages for decolonization process in Africa.
Strengths and contribution of political parties in Africa
The use of peaceful means to fight for independence unlike armed struggle which led to
loss ofmany African lives and property destructions
The rise of awareness among Africans as many Africans through their different groups
andassociations became conscious of their grievances by demanding their independence
fromcolonial governments through political rallies, propaganda newspapers and organized
boycotts.For example CCP of Ghana encouraged Ghanaians to boycott the colonialists.
Unifying the Africans to fight against colonial government as their common enemy, they
usedyouth and women to unify the masses at the grassroots to fight colonialism. For example
CCP ofGhana and TANU in Tanganyika had youths and women groups to support them in
fighting theirgoals of bringing independence.
The Problems Experienced during Mass Nationalism
Analyse the problems experienced during mass nationalism
When Africans struggled for the independence, especially during mass nationalism, they
encountered many problems such as: Disunity among the Africans, tribalism, financial problems,
lack of awareness among Africans as well as strong opposition from colonial rulers.
Decolonisation through Constitutional Means

The Meaning of Decolonization through Constitutional Means
Explain the meaning of decolonization on through constitutional means
33
Decolonization through constitutional means is the type of liberation which involve intensive
negotiation between the colonialists and African nationalists e.g. the political independence of
Tanganyika, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia. All applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their
independence.
Reasons for the decolonization through constitutional means
Absence of white settlers, in areas with no settlers like in Tanganyika and other parts of Africa
they attained their independence through peaceful means; For example Tanganyika contained
influential minorities of Europeans and Asians as the number involved was not large enough to
bring obstacle in the path of national independence only 23,000 European among whom only
few hundred could properly be regarded as settlers and the number of Asians was 87,000.Hence
decolonization through constitutional means.
Minimal problems like tribalism and religious differences; that would have brought internal
disputes struggle or disunity. This was a sovereignty advantage to some African countries. For it
was simple for them to unite the masses for self determination.
The trust ship colony a trust territory colony was subjected to measure of supervision by the
United Nations a situation that made it impossible for the colonizers government to entirely
pressure exerted by international opinion. For example Tanganyika was not mandatory like
Uganda or Kenya it was under the trust ship of UN given to Britain as a result her independence
was easily influenced by the United Nations.
The role of political parties, where the political party which took over the power lacked serious
opposition from other political parties which would have delayed the independence then the
decolonization was through peaceful means. For example Tanganyika TANU was a major
political party that had never been banned by the colonial government so it was able to operate
freely without any hindrance unlike KANU in Kenya. This was very significant in achieving her
goals of independence.
The role of the leader, where there were strong, approachable and democratic leaders with high
sprite of patriotism for nation the independence was achieved through constitutional means. For
34
example in Tanganyika the strong leadership of J.K. Nyerere and Oscar Kambona played a big
role in achieving independence in Tanganyika by peaceful means.
Absence of heavy investment, in places where colonialists did not invest heavily in infrastructure
or agriculture which they might have feared to lose the independence was through peaceful
means.
The Conditions which Facilitated Constitutional Struggle for Independence
Assess the conditions which facilitated constitutional struggle for independence
There are some conditions or factors that facilitated the constitutional means of the struggle for
independence. These involved mandatory colony, the role of mass media, the role of elites, the
nature of colonial Governor, existence of peasant cash crops, the nature of reaction, the role of
political parties and political leaders.
The Problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence through
Constitutional Means
Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence through constitutional
means
The colonial bureaucracy was a stumbling block, when it came at registrations of political party
branches national wide, the registration governing the operation of political parties was amended
aimed at debarring political party‟s the activities the government technically put a delayed tactic
in registering the branches of political parties, with the same agenda of checking their spread and
its influences.
The colonial government first applied simple repression, banning of political party‟s activities
disaffected areas and the second tactics which was applied mostly in French colonies was the
creation of colonial government sponsored political parties the like United Tanganyika Party
(U.T.P) designed to up hold the cause of multi-racialism.
Colonial government sabotage by closing political party‟s branches and banning its activities,
this tactic was used by the colonial government to check the influence of political parties
35
The colonial policy of divide and rule, this wanted to divide the people of Africa on ethnicity
lines e.g. the meeting of 1957 governor Twining attempted to drive division between traditional
rulers and members of nationalist movement. This was a very big obstacle for political parties to
forge unity between the masses.
The opposition from church missionary society, who barred their followers from involving into
active politics that would be regarded as disobedient to the church; this affected very many
members of political parties who were Christians.
Lack of education for most nationalists, the colonial government prohibited the civil servants
from joining active politics and were the only small elite who were educated that would helped
the party. Most of the party members were comprised by a big numbers of peasants
Poor transport and communication structures, to assist nationalist leaders in mobilizing the
masses from different parts to join the movement of struggle for independence for example some
roads were impassable during rainy season.
Lack of political awareness among the masses, as most of the Africans were peasants who were
in rural areas and did not know the objectives of the political party and their financial assistance
to the party was very minimal.
Decolonisation through Armed Struggle

The Meaning of Armed Struggle
Explain the meaning of armed struggle
The form of liberation that involves the use of guns in the struggle for independence, this was
conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the imperialist were reluctant to
negotiate or to give independence to the Africans. In such situation the Africans picked up arms
to fight the imperialists by force as a method to achieve their independence it involves bloodshed
use of guerrilla warfare. For example it was applied in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola, South Africa,
Namibia and Mozambique.
The Causes of Armed Struggle for Independence
36
Analyse the causes of armed struggle for independence
Armed struggle became dominant after 1945 especially in Zimbabwe, Kenya, Angola and South
Africa as compared to other forms of liberation this was due to the following factors that
accelerated to the application of armed struggle.
Military assistance from USSR, after 1945 USSR consolidated her strength to the zenith it was
anti colonialism and sympathizers to African anti colonial struggles. It was ready to provide
military support and moral support to liberate the Africans from colonialism thus military
struggle.
Manchester conference, in this conference the major agenda was to liberate Africans from
colonialism by all means peaceful or force. This situation gave Africans courage to use force
through armed struggle especially in those colonies where the colonialists were reluctant to grant
independence.
The role played by ex soldiers, the war veterans of the Second World War came back with
awareness and military skills which they had acquired during the war, their skills encouraged
many nationalist to apply force to overthrow the colonialists who were not ready to grant
independence to Africans.
The support from UN under USA and USSR, these nations ere anti colonialism as a result they
provided support to African nationalist struggle to use all means to get rid from colonialism.
Failures of other methods of liberation, other methods like peaceful means and constitution
means failed hence the armed struggle became the last method for getting independence from
colonialists.
The aftermath of India and Pakistan independence, the independence of Asian countries
especially India and Pakistan was a big challenge for the Africans to emulate as a result they
used all means of liberation to attain their independence.
The role of pan Africans, this played a big role especially after shifting her headquarters from the
new world to Africa. It ensured liberation of African nations by all means.
37
The unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence, some colonial powers were
unwilling to grant independence for example the Portugal and British were not willing to grant
independence to their colonies hence the Africans decided to use armed struggle to liberate
themselves.
Intensive exploitation; after the Second World War the colonialists increased exploitation to the
Africans resources to revamp their ruined economies. This situation awakened the Africans
against the colonialists as a result they used all means to liberate themselves
The influence of front line states, these provided military and manpower support to the anti
colonial struggle in Africa e.g. Tanganyika during the struggle in south Africa and Namibia or
Mozambique.
Emergence of cold war after 1945, this was the struggle between USA and USSR, where by
every bloc wanted to win more countries in Africa so as to spread their political ideologies of
socialism or capitalism, this witnessed the giving up weapons to fight the colonialists.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Armed Struggle towards the
Road to Independence in Africa
Analyse the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of armed struggle towards the road to
independence in Africa
Strengths and contribution of armed struggle to the African
independence
It helped in attainment of African independence
It removed colonial regime in African countries
It removed colonial settlers from the African land
It restored African alienated land
It restored African dignity
It ended colonial exploitation of African resources
38
It led to the strong military in Africa
It provided strong leaders
Weakness of armed struggle to the African independence
Death of people many people were killed during the struggle as they were using arms
Separation of families
Destruction of properties
Lack of strong military
Lack of military equipments
Lack of funds
Fear and insecurity among the nationalists
Disunity among the Africans
Decolonisation through Revolution

The Meaning of Revolution
Explain the meaning of revolution
This was type of revolution which involved complete overthrow of the existing political system
this existed in colonies where independence was given to the minority at the expense of the
majority the case in point is Zanzibar where minority Arabs were granted independence by the
British which prompted the majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964 and replaced with
another new political system that is supported by the masses. It took place even in Egypt and
Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and involves bloodshed.
The Causes of Decolonization through Revolution
Analyse the causes of decolonization through revolution
39
Economic marginalization for African majority, Africans were mainly squatters who made a
living by selling their labour to the landlords and subjected to extreme exploitation, Africans had
no access to the major means of production.
Economic inequalities, in case of the Arabs owned land, the Indians controlled finance, the
Europeans controlled trade and the Africans owned nothing. Therefore such situation made a
revolution necessary to occur.
Deprivation of black Africans to education, despite the government‟s role to provide suitable
elementary education for all people, the Africans continued to suffer from inequality of
education system. They were not catered like the other races which made them unsatisfied with
the regime thus the revolution
Segregation in the other social services, Africans was also segregated in health services, housing
and water supply. Even in civil services Africans hold lower ranks unlike the Arabs and the
Indians.
Act of intimidation, after unexpectedly loosing the 1957 election on Z.N.P it decided to employ
various act of intimidation to force Africans to join them i.e. the 1958 strikes at the docks led to
mass uprising it initiated a strong campaign against them.
Segregation in the social association, as the wind struggle for political independence which was
in full in the continental Africans swept the island Zanzibar in the mid 1950. The social
association underwent complex transformation into political parties. Africans were opposed
politically by the ruling class.
The emergence of John Okello from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and
worked periodically as painter he was an official of ASP of Pemba island he joined a
revolutionary army in 1961 he played a big role in overthrowing the Arab regime.
Poor working conditions and low wages of Africans that could not make them to meet their basic
needs of life and despite that were heavily taxed by the Arab government.
Voting restrictions, many Africans were barred from voting, had to read and write Kiswahili,
Arabic or English a voter had to be a Zanzibar resident and lived in Zanzibar for at least one
40
year, must be above 25 years old, a voter must be a government employee for at least five years.
Such qualifications made many Africans in Zanzibar not to vote hence the revolution was
necessary.
Generally the revolution was also caused by the desire of Arab rulers and British colonialists to
make Zanzibar an Arab state in 1962 which the majorities Africans were not ready to allow Arab
state to raise on their own African soil thus the revolution was inevitable.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Revolution towards the Road
to Independence
Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of revolution towards the road to
independence
Weaknesses of decolonization through revolution
Loss of lives during revolution process some people loose lives this is due to the use
ofdangerous weapons during the struggle that resulted to bloodshed.
Destruction of properties, such as infrastructures like offices and houses.
Fear and insecurity
Low level of consciousness and political awareness
Lack of clear political structures for movement organization.
Lack of patriotism
Strengths and contributions of decolonization through revolution
It removed the colonial regime from power by force
It managed to adjust the social and economic inequalities in African country
It manage to uphold the African dignity
It managed to bring African independence
It restored the African rights as human being
41
It promoted unity and solidarity among the Africans
The problems Experienced during the Struggle for Independence through
Revolution
Analyse the problems experienced during the struggle for independence through revolution
Problems experienced during the struggle for independence
through revolution means are
Unwillingness of the colonial power to grant independence, some European nations
camein Africa to stay forever and regarded their African colonies as oversea provinces, thusthey
were very reluctant to grant independence hence decolonization through revolution.
Fear and insecurity among the Africans, during the struggle for liberation by
revolutionmeans most of the Africans did not engaged in revolution process as they
fearedpunishments from colonial government.
Lack of political structures to mobilize the people to the common struggles
forindependence. For example in rural areas most political parties lacked branches whichwould
have been used as centers to create awareness and mobilization of the masses mostas most of the
nationalistic activities centered in urban areas.
Colonial state apparatus were very oppressive and coercive to the nationalisticmovements
in many nations. These included colonial army, police and prison which wereput in place to
facilitate colonial production.
Death, some African nationalists died in the struggle for independence through
revolutionmeans this was due to the fact that the revolution always is sudden and blood shade.
Financial problems, the nationalists‟ experienced lacked clear source of funds to
meettheir expenditure as most of Africans were poor.
Low level political awareness, many masses in Africa was not educated and
lackedpolitical awareness about the essence of their independence. This was the problem
sincemost of the indigenous did not know the significance of the struggle.
42
CHANGES IN POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND

ECONOMIC POLICIES IN AFRICA AFTER
INDEPENDENCE
Changes in Political, Ideological and Administrative Systems

In 1960‟s many African states started to achieve their political independence. Following this
many of the African countries changed their political, social and economic ideology for the sake
of attaining developments in their nations after colonialism.
The Factors/ Conditions which led to changes in Political, Ideological and
Administrative Systems after Independence
Explain the factors/ conditions which led to changes in political, ideological and administrative
systems after independence
Ideology refers to the body of beliefs or principles belonging to an individual or group which
guides political and economic system in a given nation for example socialist and capitalist
ideology.
During the struggle for independence many African states had developed multiparty political
system under capitalist ideology as a system to prepare them for independence. For example in
Tanganyika there were T.A.A and T.A.N.U while in Uganda there were U.P.C. and K.Y.
Soon after independence many African states as from 1960-1970‟s most of them started change
the political ideology from multiparty under capitalist ideology to singe dominant party under
socialist ideology.
Factors for the change of political and economic ideology after
independence
These factors can be divided into two means internal and external factors
43
Internal factors
Promotion of unity and solidarity among the Africans, the changes of political party from
multiparty to single party system aimed at promoting unity and solidarity among the Africans
since they were dominated by single ideology for example in K.A.N.U in Kenya, C.C.M. in
Tanzania and U.P.C. in Uganda.
Avoidance of political opposition from other parties, soon after independence most African
states expected to have peace and political stability for the national development so they decided
to adopt one party system in order to avoid political opposition of other parties as they thought
that having multiparty system the national development could be threatened.
Avoidance of civil wars among the Africans, since in multiparty system every party struggle to
dominate political power, something that cause political instabilities for it was viewed as a tool
to divide masses basing on their ethnic origin that may result into civil conflicts. For example in
Rwanda and Burundi the Tutsi fought the Hutu in for the domination of political powers.
To avoid the imperialist influence on local politics, since the multiparty system emerged from
imperialist nations thus most of African states after independence decided to reject it turning to
single party system as they thought that having multiparty system could enable foreign influence
into the local politics through passing in other political opposition parties as some former
colonial power wanted to control their former colonies through opposition parties.
Promotion of good governance, they aimed at promoting good governance with political stability
through checking out corruption and misallocation of public funds for example in Tanzania and
Malawi.
Generally in the system of administration they aimed at eradicating the racial discrimination by
upholding African dignity in the system of administration. As after independence Africans states
changed their political ideology so as to set up a new system of administration under their own
direction and control whereby every African would be treated equally with dignity under the
single party system
External factors
44
The role of USSR, the socialist bloc played a big role to the changes of political ideology and
administrative system in most of the African states. Since many African countries adopted
Marxist ideology that based on socialist ideology resulted to the formation of single party
system. For example the leader of socialist bloc encouraged the formation of workers party.
Support from socialist states, many African states that adopted socialism after independence
received moral and material support from socialist states like China and Russia.
Bad perception towards capitalist ideology, many of the independent African states viewed
capitalism as mode of production that is based on exploitation of the recourses and masses thus
they decided to adopt socialism as it was discouraging exploitation
The Changes which Took Place after Independence
Analyse critically the changes which took place after independence
Political and administrative system took place in Africa after
independence
Most African independent states undergo changes in the political and administrative system
through adoption of the following government system
One party system, the post independence Africans allowed one political party andavoided
competing politics. The party in power dominated the government and controlledthe state
apparatus and other spheres of human activities outside politics. But in 1990sone party system
began to collapse especially after the fall of USSR.
Multiparty system, after the collapse of one party system African independent
statesadopted multiparty system especially during 1990s
Military rule, independent Africans after few years adopted military rule and they
cameunder the control of military rule for example in Egypt, Sudan and Uganda.
Parliamentary system,
Presidential system
Federal system of government
45
Political ideological adopted after independence

African countries adopted different political ideologies after independence. Some countries
adopted varieties of political ideologies including;
Liberal democracy, implying that they adopted capitalism example of such
countriesincluded Kenya, Nigeria and Ivory Coast.
Socialism, the countries that adopted socialism included Tanzania, Ghana, Uganda
andZambia.
Afro-Marxism, the countries adopted this ideology included Somalia, Ethiopia under
Mengistu, Mozambique and Angola among other countries.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of Political, Ideological and
Administrative Changes in the Newly Independent African States
Assess critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of political, ideological and
administrative changes in the newly independent African states
Political strengths
Development of African independent political system different from those of colonialists
inherited at independence. The political system developed was characterized by democracy for
example in Tanzania the socialist system of government enabled her to involve more citizens in
government, unlike during the colonial era for African leaders now determined the fate of their
own people‟s political features.
Opportunities to cooperate and undertake various measures to advance the interests of the
continent this was due to the fact that African leaders were able to negotiate with western nations
more aggressively than during the colonial times when they were treated as subjects. For
example under the regional organizations in the OAU they introduced several measures to uplift
the welfare of their citizens.
Africans were able to collaborate with other less developed countries especially in the
NonAligned Movements
46
Administrative system
Eradication of racial discrimination and uphold African dignity in the system of administration
through running their own government.
Ideology
Liberal democracy through open competition for power between different political parties ,
separation of power between the three pillars of government namely the executive, the legislature
and the judiciary
Pressure groups and associations like trade unions are allowed to operate without political
harassment from the government.
Minimization of the gap between the poor and the rich
Less exploitation of workers by foreigners and the African merchants as the government
controlled provision of most basic services
Promotion of national unity by minimizing conflicts based on ethnic, regional or religious
consideration as all people work hard.
Weaknesses of political, ideological and administrative changes in
the newly independent African states
Civil wars most African countries have experienced civil wars since independence for example
Ugandan civil war lasted from the late 1970s to 1986 when president Yowel Kaguta Museveni
took control of the country. Also in Rwanda in 1994 during the genocide which killed over
800,000 people. However currently several civil wars are still being experienced in the DRC and
Somalia.
Military coups d‟état have been experienced in many African countries including Nigeria,
Sudan, Libya, Ghana, Somalia, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mauritania and Guinea.
47
Ethnic affiliation most African citizens in political appointment and voting during general
elections try to pick a person from their ethnic groups or religion as a leader in the hope that such
a leader would reciprocate by rewarding or giving them favors, this led to bitterness between
different communities, clans and religion in Africa something that resulting to civil wars
Neo colonialism through partnership with developed countries, for example former colonial
masters such as Britain and France continue to interfere in the political affairs of African
governments.
Services provision such as education, health services and other services became a great financial
burden for governments.
Contribution of political, ideological and administrative changes
in the newly independent African states
Nationalism struggle African governments were able to assist fellow African countries to acquire
political independence from colonial masters. For example the efforts had done by other African
governments in South Africa and Namibia.
Training of African citizens to undertake nation-building activities this changes facilitated
mobilization of African states to participate in national building activities. For example the
harambee spirit in Kenya was used to mobilize funds to construct schools, health centers and
other social facilities in order to uplift the living standards of African citizens.
Opportunities of African countries to participate more in the activities of regional, continental
and international bodies like the United Nations Organizations and the NonAlignment
Movements.
Changes in Economic Development Policies and Strategies

The Factors which led to Changes in Economic Developmental Policies and
Strategies
48
Explain the factors which led to changes in economic developmental policies and strategies
After independence many African states experienced economic problems which inherited from
colonialism as colonialist aimed at maximizing profits and minimizing costs as a result they
applied different policies that left African states with economic problem hence the changes in
political, social and economic sector was inevitable. Among of the factors that necessitated the
changes of economic development policies and strategies after independence involves the
problems inherited
Economic and social factors
Economic crises, the colonial government left African states with economic crises due to
intensive exploitation of African resources both human resources and material resources. For
example the exportation of raw materials like agricultural materials and minerals and importing
expensive manufactured goods.
Inadequate infrastructures, most of African independent states experienced inadequate of
infrastructures such as schools, hospitals transport networks since the colonialists failed to
provide it in every region hence there were regional imbalance development. For example there
were no regional roads or railway links between one region from another as most of the transport
network developed around the turn of the country to facilitate exportation of raw materials from
Africa and importation of manufactured goods from Europe. Not only that but also the few
infrastructure built needed repair hence the need for changes of economic and strategies so as to
copy with the situation.
Economic stratification in the society, after independence there were two classes that of the
peasants who lived in rural areas living in miserable poverty as they depended on agriculture
activities which had low prices and the other class of bourgeoisie or working class lived in towns
in a good standard of leaving compared to the peasants in the rural areas. For example around
95% of the populations were rural dwellers depended on agriculture for survival and only 5% the
working class who lived in towns. Thus the need for economic changes to help the majority who
lived in miserable poverty
49
Dependency economy, after independence most of the African states characterized by dependent
economy as they did not produce what they consume and consume what they did not produce.
For example they produced raw materials and exported it to the European nations especially to
their former colonial masters and consumed finished goods that imported from Europe.
Following this situation there was the need for economic changes.
Inadequate industries, African independent states experienced deindustrialization this was due to
the fact that the colonialists prepared Africa as potential market for European goods that is why
they did not industrialize Africa. Following this after independence African states started to
change the economic strategy as a result they could industrialize.
Cultural dependence, the independent Africans wanted to develop their national culture through
abandoning the foreign culture that was established by the colonialist before independence.
Political factors
Administration centralization, the colonialist left Africa with highly centralized administration
system whereby central leader had got a lot of power in the state as a result such system brought
inefficient and incompetence leaders and misdirection in administration. Hence there was a need
to change political system.
Existence of relationship between military structures and political administration, the military
structures was organized in the way that it was not separated from political administration this
resulted to the rise of coup de-tat for example political juntas took over the political arena
resulted to political instability and economic sabotage.
Tribalism among the Africans, after the independence most of African states experienced
tribalism which influenced by multiparty political system as most of the states were based on the
personal ethnic or regional origin of a particular politician, therefore this situation necessitated
political changes.
Foreign administration structure, after independence national planning remained in the hand of
foreigners not only that but also most of the important sector like financial and military sectors.
Whereby foreigners were involved in political issues
50
The Economic Development Policies and Strategies Adopted in Africa after

Independence
Analyse the economic development policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence
African countries after independence adopted different economic development and strategies for
the aim of accelerating economic development through heavy infusion of capital investment
either private, bilateral or both. The following are common economic strategies adopted by
African countries after independence.
Economic strategies adopted after independence
Establishment of parastatals African governments established different bodies in order to curtail
the control of the African economies by foreigners and the relative weaknesses of domestic
capitalism. For example generation and transmission of electricity, telecommunications,
railways, postal and banking services
Establishment of schemes such as agricultural schemes aiming at promoting agricultural
developments and settlement schemes for the aiming to provide landless citizens with adequate
land; for example in Tanzania there was villagization policy was part of this strategy while in
Kenya land settlement schemes established in the former white settlers farms.
Authority delegation soon after independence particularly in 1960s and 1970s African countries
delegated authorities from higher levels to lower levels of government especially to provinces
and districts for example Chilalu Agricultural Development Unity (CADU) in Ethiopia,
Lilongwe Land Development Program (LLDP) in Malawi, the Special Rural Development
Program (SRDP) in Kenya and Intensive Development Zones (IDZ) in Zambia.
Development planning this involved setting targets to be achieved within a set period usually
based on five years plan.
Economic blueprint facilitated donor countries to support development projects and achieving
political support from the public.
51
Establishment of import substitution industries in different African countries in order to promote

industrialization, expand employment opportunities and build African economies through
exports.
The Strengths, Weaknesses and Contribution of the Economic Development
Policies and Strategies Adopted in Africa after Independence
Assess critically the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of the economic development
policies and strategies adopted in Africa after independence
The strengths of the economic policies and strategies adopted in
Africa after independence
Achieving in measures of economic development especially many socialist countries; for
example Tanzania under Julius. K. Nyerere and Ghana under Nkwame Nkurumah advocated self
sufficiency in food production.
Improvement of infrastructures soon after independence most African countries was having
inadequate and poor infrastructures like roads, railways and ports so they decided to improve
them.
Expansion of industries resulted by establishment of import substitution industries as an
economic planning with a view of improving and builds African economies through exports.
Mobilization of Africans to participate in development following adoption of socialist policy
which required Africans to take charge of their economies for example the Ujamaa village in
Tanzania was useful in enhancing mobilization.
Establishment of training institutions with the view of training African public servants in
different fields in order to take part in development of their countries.
Weaknesses of the economic policies and strategies adopted in
52
Corruption and inefficiency of public servants or government officials this was due to the fact
that the new public officers were not well acquainted with administrative responsibilities. For
example in 1990s the government of Kenya lost over 5.8 billion Kenya shillings because of high
level of corruption involving senior officials in government offices. Similar incident happened in
Tanzania in 2007 where a number of senior officials were forced to resign because of high level
of corruption involving generation of electric power in the country
Establishment of settlement schemes in marginal lands and away from infrastructures like roads
and urban centers this hindered the implementation of agricultural strategies.
Emergence of a wide gap between the rich and the poor in the country particularly in the
countries that adopted capitalist ideology for example in Kenya some parts like urban centers and
Nairobi attained more economic development than other parts like the Coast Province, North
Eastern and some parts of the lift valley provinces. Not only that but also foreigners owned a lot
of wealth in the country and repatriated a lot of profits back to their own countries as the system
allowed for capital accumulation.
Contributions of the economic policies and strategies adopted in
Economic growth facilitated by adoption and implementation of various economic policies and
strategies in the country. For example agricultural production increased because of the need to
produce more cash crops for exports, industrial raw materials and food self sufficiency.
Establishment of new industries for processing raw materials and manufacturing goods
Establishment of dams for supplying hydroelectric power in the country; for example in
Tanzania dams like Mtera playing an important role of supplying hydroelectric powers in the
country
Employment opportunities this created by foreign investment especially in capitalist economies
like Kenya and Ivory Coast.
53
Infrastructure development most African countries established and improved infrastructures in

the countries for example in Tanzania a new railway line was established that connected the
country to Zambia through the assistance of Chinese government.
Africanization of the economy done by both socialist and capitalist countries, helped to bring
businesses which were formally controlled by foreigners under the control of the indigenous
people.
Value of agricultural activities most of African governments especially in socialist countries like
Tanzania made an attempt to recognize agriculture by grouping small household farms in
villages and encouraging collective production.
Establishment of new state-owned bodies or enterprises in different countries in the continent
through state driven development for example by 1985 there were over 400 state-owned
corporations in Tanzania.
Provision of Education in Africa after Independence

The Objectives of Education in Africa after Independence
Analyse the objectives of education in Africa after independence
Changes in provision of education in Africa after independence
After political independence many African states inherited the colonial education system which
was contrary to their local education system and their environments. As time went on African
independent states adopted the policy of educational expansion and education was considered as
a human rights. Following this the number of education institutions like schools and colleges
were increased and the system of curricular were modeled. Not only that but also all the
education policies focused on re addressing the weakness and objectives of the nation.
Objectives of education in Africa after independence
Provision of relevant education to the Africans, independent African states recognized the
weakness of the colonial education as it was irrelevant and inadequate in terms of meeting the
54
needs and requirement of the newly created states. Hence they ensured the education provided
was relevant to the demands of African countries.
To eradicate education dependence, the African independent states aimed at eradicating the
dependence on the European powers so they decided to review the education policy so as to
make it suit the African context.
To eradicate tribalism and racism in Africa, this was due to the fact that the colonialists had
already planted the seeds of racism in education system as there were classes in education
following this the changes in education system after independence was necessary so as to
eradicate the racism and tribalism in Africa.
To promote African cultural values, this was more important since the African cultural values
were neglected by the colonialists through glorifying and practicing the white’s culture which
they viewed as superior than that of the Africans, therefore this situation necessitated the changes
in order to promote the African cultural values.
Generally the education brought by the Africans aimed at unifying people national wide,
promoting economic development, self r9eliance, social justice, equity and scientific literacy.
The Features of Education in Africa after Independence
Appraise the features of education in Africa after independence
Expansion of secondary and higher education, e.g. by 1966 enrollment in higher education in
east Africa had increased almost three times.
Training of local staffs, the African independent focused on training the local staffs to replace the
European expatriates as they were supposed to leave the African continent free governing
themselves.
Provision of academic education, since during the colonialism Africans were usually provided
with vocational training due to existence of racial discrimination following this African
independent state made great efforts to acquire academic education
Expansion of primary education, independent African countries expanded primary education
under Universal Primary Education (UPE) program, whereby the government adopted this and
55
soon shifted emphasis from provision of high level skills to basic education. For example in
Tanzania the government took various measures to expand primary schools especially from 1973
to 1977.
Provision of free education, many independent African nations provided free education to all
school age children who are supposed to be enrolled in primary education. Thus the education
was made free of charges as there was no payment of school fees and it was compulsory to all
school aged children. This was practiced for the aim of enabling access to education for all
Africans.
Revision of curriculum, after independence the curriculum was revised so as to ensure its
relevance to the learners. For example in Tanzania there was emphasis on the history of
Tanzania, elimination of selection process. Not only that but also teachers training and
establishment of new classrooms.
Introduction of education for self reliance, after independence schools were advised to put
emphasis on useful values such as equality, honest responsibility, cooperation and community
involvement rather than focusing on academics only. A good example for this is Tanzania under
socialist ideology.
Curriculum integration, the African schools were asked to integrate work into the curriculum as
results students/children could appreciate the value of the manual work.
Emphasis on adult education, since after independence there were a large number of illiterate
adults so the education institutions with the support of government emphasized on adult
education
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Education in Africa after Independence
Assess the strengths and weaknesses of education in Africa after independence
Strengths of education in Africa after independence
Expansion of enrollments in both primary and secondary schools.
Freedom of teaching African cultural values and history to the students.
56
Development of universities in Africa. E.g. in east Africa there was Makerere University,
NairobiUniversity and the University of Dar es salaam.
Reduction of dependence education on outside expatriates.
Improvements of University education in Africa through collaboration between
Africanuniversities and metro pole universities following the quality of education are
beingharmonized.
The increase of literacy rate in African countries following the compulsory and free
educationprogram. E.g. in Nigeria the rate of illiteracy rise.
Expansion of education facilities due to citizen support. E.g. the Harambee or self-help
effort inKenya.
Weaknesses in the expansion of education in Africa after
independence
Inadequate resources to meet the growing demand resulted by large enrolment in
primaryschools under universal primary education (UPE). Such resources are classes,
desks,laboratories, libraries, books and teachers.
Lacks of experience on vocational courses, the academic teachers was having no
experiences inteaching practical courses like agricultural courses.
Problems in using English language in secondary and higher education as medium of
instructionthis is due to the use of Kiswahili language as a medium of communication in primary
schools asa result student failed to communicate in English when they are in higher education.
Gender gap, most of African literacy were men this inherited from colonialism where
girls wereleft aside without enrolled in school as a result even after independence there were
higher rateof illiteracy among women than men especially in the higher levels of education.
Under development in higher educational institutions especially from 1980’s due to
provision ofinadequate resources to support higher education for example lack of enough library
materialsand laboratory equipment since independence.
57
Unemployment, most of the university graduates was facing the problem of being
unemployeddue to few employment opportunities.
Shortage of teachers, especially after independence this was due to higher enrolment of
pupilsin primary schools and few teachers training colleges existed.
Changes in the Provision of Health Services after Independence in Africa

The health care facilities of most African countries were inherited from colonialism that were
used to care the Europeans and civil servants and few and poor medical facilities caring the
ordinary citizens. Most of them were allocated in urban areas unlike in villages especially in
capital cities.
In fact most of Africans preferred traditional medicines offered by the traditional doctors in their
communities. This was due to the fact that imported medicines from overseas provided in a
modern hospital were very expensive t the extent that most Africans could not afford them.
After independence the dominant diseases that affected people to the large extent were
bilharzias, malaria, typhoid, polio, measles, cholera, tuberculosis.
In Tanzania health services have been provided by the government, national parastatal agencies,
and churches, local and international voluntary agencies. Government put more emphasis was to
rural areas through funds allocation as health centers and dispensaries were established.
The Objectives of Health Services after Independence in Africa
Analyse the objectives of health services after independence in Africa
Objectives of provision of health services after independence
To uplift the standard of living of the people
To promote the health of the people
Expanding health facilities for the citizens
Reduction of imbalance in the provision of health facilities between urban and rural areas
58
To stop the high infant mortality rate and high maternal death rate during child birth
The Features of Health Services after Independence in Africa
Appraise the features of health services after independence in Africa
Features of health services in Tanzania after independence
It is provided by the government, churches, local and international voluntary agencies.
It is based on benefiting rural areas and support for preventive rather than curative
aspects of health services
It emphasizes on the need to provide basic needs including housing, water supply and
healthcare
Allocation of more fund in the provision of health services by the government
Provision of health services free of charge until the 1980’s
Introduction of user charges in the government hospitals after 1980’s
The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Provision of Health Services after
Independence
Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the provision of health services after independence
Weaknesses in the provision of health services in Africa after
independence
Lack of human resources, especially well trained health personnel this is due to the fact
thatduring colonial rule many Africans were not trained by the colonialists.
Corruption, most of the civil servants in health sector are not faithful as they had
beenpracticing corruption through selling of government funded medicines at a throwaway price
tounscrupulous business people something that result to suffering among the populations.
Inadequate financial resources, most of African countries experience lack of enough
funds toprovide quality health services to whole country free or at low cost following this access
topersonnel health care has therefore remained the privilege of a few people in society.
Forexample rural areas are neglected as good services are mainly available in the urban centers.
59
Poor planning and lack of resources to support the provision of health services, for
examplepoor provision of infrastructure, clean water and transport has affected the delivery of
healthservices.
Dependency on donor funding who provide conditions to the African countries under
StructuralAdjustment Programs. For example the introduction of cost sharing policy discouraged
manypoor people from seeking good medical attention.
Failure to research on local traditional medicines has led African governments to spend a
lot ofresources in buying medicines from other parts of the world.
Existence of incurable diseases like HIV/AIDS, cancer and diabetes has created heavy
burden tomost African countries since they require a lot of financial resources and time in caring.
Forexample by the end of 1980’s over six million people had been infected in the continent
Strengths of provision of health services in Africa after
independence
Expansion of health facilities like hospitals, dispensaries and health equipments has
beenexpanded through constructional activities and provision of health equipments.
Provision of health services in both urban and rural areas for example most hospitals
wereallocated in urban centers while most of dispensaries were allocated in rural areas so as
todelivery health services to the people of urban and rural areas.
Training of African health personnel who take charge of the health sectors in the
countries. Forexample medical doctors, nurses and other caregivers.
Eradication of epidemic diseases that existed in Africa for a long time this was done
through theprovision of vaccines for diseases like polio and measles.
Establishment of many medical training institutions for example medical training centers
anduniversities for training health practitioners.
Establishment of research centers I most African countries with a view to investigate
causes ofcertain ailments and seeking for the cure.
Adoption of alternative medicines to tackle health problems.
60
Reduction of infant mortality rate.
Changes in the Provision of Water Services in Africa after Independence
In African countries provision of clean and safe piped water during colonialism was mainly
available in urban centers particularly in the European neighborhoods, African residential areas
lacked clean water supply especially in rural areas where people continued to trot for many
kilometers in search of water for human activities and for their livestock.
Soon after independence most African countries inherited colonial system of water provision that
was very inadequate, disorganized and imbalanced in nature this was due to absence of
government policies focusing on national water provision.
As time went on most African countries recognized the importance of having clean, safe and
reliable water supply because provision of water is the only way of sustaining a healthy
population. Following this they started to put emphasis on water provision through establishment
of different strategies, projects and programs that ensures the provision of water supply in the
country.
The Objectives of the Provision of Water Services in Africa after
Independence
Analyse the objectives of the provision of water services in Africa after independence
Objectives of provision of water services in Africa after
independence
Improvement of the provision of clean and reliable water supply to the citizens
Provision of equitable distribution of infrastructures in the country
Improvement of levels of sanitation in the country
Expansion of more land for irrigation in order to be self sufficient in food production
Uplifting standard of living of the people by providing more reliable water supply
61
Weaknesses in provision of water services in Africa after

independence
Limited access of water supply, only few people accessed clean water and good
sanitation in thewhole country. For example in Ghana only 32% of the population had access to
clean water andgood sanitation by 2005.
Unequal distribution of clean water between urban and rural areas
Existence of natural hazards, like droughts even when there is plenty of water that could
betapped for irrigation many farmers suffered from drought. Drought has led to the shrinking
ofwater resources like dams and rivers.
Lack of skilled personnel who could repair and install facilities to supply water to
residents.
Lack of financial resources as a result most government do not prioritize provision of
goodsanitation following this many people loose lives due to water transmitted epidemics
includingcholera typhoid and dysentery.
High water charges, water firms charge high tariffs for provision of water as a result poor
facedlimitations from accessing clean and safe water.
Corruption and embezzlement of some water companies workers whereby they engaging
incorruption and embezzling funds meant for water provision. For example this has been a
bigchallenge for the city council of Nairobi since independence.
Success and Failures in the Provision of Water Services after Independence
Evaluate success and failures in the provision of water services after independence
Achievements in the provision of water services in Africa after
independence
Establishment of water infrastructures for example water pipes
Establishment of water treatment plants to treat clean water and supply it to the areas
with noclean and safe water
62
Building of dams for water preservation in rural areas for human being and their animals
Protection of water resources through reforestation to preserve water resources.
Provision of education to the mass advising them to boil drinking water in order to avoid
watertransmitted diseases like typhoid.
Licensing companies to provide clean bottled water to citizens in order to reduce
drinkingunsafe water
Changes in the Provision of Housing Services after Independence

Since 1960s most African countries were experiencing population increase especially in urban
areas, as a result most countries found it very hard to cope with the demands created by the new
development. For example it became difficult to meet the basic services like provision of water,
housing and health services.
The Objectives of the Provision of Housing Services after Independence
Analyse the objectives of the provision of housing services after independence
Objectives of provision of housing services in Africa after
independence
Promotion of sanitation so as to avoid unnecessary suffering and to increase their
lifeexpectance.
Promotion of standards of living through establishment of modern housing for Africans.
To enhance development in the country through promotion of better planning in urban
centers.
Eradication of racial discrimination in residential neighborhoods.
Provision of enough accommodation spaces for the citizens and do away with slums
especially inurban centers.
The Pattern of Housing Distribution after Independence
63
Appraise the pattern of housing distribution after independence

The patterns of housing distributions after independence
The best and quality houses in the continent have been in the main urban centers such
asNairobi, Mombasa, Harare and Dar es Salaam.
Soon after independence the best houses in urban centers was owned by or inhabited by
theEuropean and Asian communities, while most African communities occupy the
poorlyconstructed houses.
Expansion of slum areas in African countries, for example Kibera in Nairobi and Soweto
inSouth Africa slum areas has been common.
Mark of the main urban centers in the cities was skyscrapers and tall building.
Rapid growth of African population in main urban centers and in smaller towns
especiallyamong the low income groups all over the continent soon after independence. For
example inDar es salaam population growth rate rose by 14% between 1957 and 1967.
Urban areas was characterizing by haphazard planning while in rural areas characterized
byhouses constructed using local materials.
The Steps taken to Change the Colonial Pattern of Distribution of Housing
after Independence
Assess the steps taken to change the colonial pattern of distribution of housing after
independence
Steps taken to change the colonial patterns of housing distribution
in Tanzania after independence
After independence the government of Tanzania did not have a systematic policy on how to deal
with the challenges of urban growth however the following measures were taken to improve
housing distribution in Tanzania after independence.
64
Control of building and land strategy so as to alleviate pressure on urban housing

andcommunity services, through creation of new residential areas and prohibiting residential
insome areas which are densely populated.
Establishment of National Housing Corporation (NHC) for the aim of providing housing
needsthrough financing. Furthermore NHC took over the management of the low cost houses
whichhad been put up by the local government in Dar es Salaam and put up new houses
afterclearing part of the squatter settlement in the capital city.
Control of land allocation in the country by the government, especially those freehold
landsreverted to government ownership and previous owner were expected to pay rent to
thegovernment. Conditions on development of land in urban areas were laid down to all.
Howeverpriority on plot allocation, site and services schemes was given to low income areas in
theurban centers.
Decentralization of the number of functions with the aim of locating new industries away
fromcapital cities like Dar es Salaam. Also minimization of resource allocation to urban
developmentfor the sake of spreading benefits to all classes.
To stimulate development by relocating the capital city from Dar es Salaam to
Dodoma300miles (480 km) west. This was a plan announced by the government in 1973.
To emphasize on the need of making use of low cost materials for construction purposes
toprovide housing for more people rather than following international standards blindly.
Challenges facing the provision of housing services after
independence
Inadequate of qualified human resources, for example lack of skilled personnel like
townplanners to help in planning and implementing the desired programs in most African
countries.Following this there were slow pace in the implementation of housing projects as a
result 70% oflow income housing in Dar es Salaam was part of the slum clearing projects.
Ignoring the low income earners by giving the priority to the middle income earners
while lowincome earners getting disadvantaged at the project implementation stage.
65
Inadequate financial resources, the government expected and depended much overseas
fundingfor the project of the housing programs. Following this most of the medium sized
constructionfirms died as they depended on investments in higher income residential properties.
Bias in fund allocation, more taxpayers’ money was used to fund establishment of
betterhousing for the middle class in society and less funds were allocated for the housing of the
poor.
Lack of commitment among the government officers especially in the middle income
cadreswho did not embrace some of the new policies this was due to insufficient training among
thepolitical leaders and the government officials responsible for the implementation of the
projectsin the most countries.
Financial irregularities in the National Housing Corporation due to the fact that
mostbeneficiaries of the new housing schemes were unable to pay their rents to the NHC
therebyundermining its efficiency. For example in 1976 a number of NHC employees including
thegeneral manager were terminated due to financial irregularities.
Unnecessary bureaucratic procedures for one to get funds for house construction as
theprocedures could take several years for one to be funded this undermined the
projectsdevelopment.
The use of expensive and unsustainable house design and materials as a result most
countriesfailed to be innovative in designing house for the low income earners in the continent.
Achievements of housing distribution after independence
After independence the government succeeded on the following;
Reduction of inequalities in the income between the highest and the lowest income
earnersthrough provision of reasonable houses by local authorities in different countries.
Decentralization of development for the promotion of development in other parts of
thecountry. For example in Tanzania decentralization was made when Dodoma became the
newcapital city of Tanzania.
66
Owning of homes in urban centers by the majority through sites and service schemes in
Kenyaand Tanzania.
Provision of employment opportunities for Africans through establishment of new
housingschemes. For example they provided plumbing, carpentry, electrical installation and
otherimportant services to the residents.
Provision of new investment opportunities to many people due to expansion of the
housingmarkets. For example the investment was made through establishment of high class
hotels,tourism centers, commodities modernization, airports and importation of luxury
commoditiesfor the benefits of tourists from western countries.
Establishment of National Military and National Legal Institutions

After independence, African governments established their own armed forces and police for the
purpose of ensuring security. Tanzania established her own military force called Tanzania
People’s Defense Forces on 1st September 1964. It comprised of four branches namely
1. ) Land Forces Command
2. ) Naval Command
3. ) Air Force Command
4. ) Military Intelligence
The Objectives of Establishing National Military and National Legal
Institutions
Analyse the objectives of establishing national military and national legal institutions
Objectives of establishing national armed forces
To provide assistance during national emergencies
To participate in nation building activities
Promotion of internal security and integrity
67
To protect the country from external aggression
To detect and fighting off criminals
To ensure peace in the country
The Functions, Strengths and Weaknesses of National Military Forces and
National Legal Institutions
Assess the functions, strengths and weaknesses of national military forces and national legal
institutions
Functions of the national armed forces
To safeguard the national security of the country from external aggression. For
exampleTanzania military force took part in the military campaign against the forces of Idd
Amin ofUganda in 1978. Similarly to Kenyan military force took part in campaigns against the
Shiftabandits from Somalia in the 1970’s.
To preserve internal security. For example Kenya in 1978 during the attempt coup d’etat
whenKenya Army fought off some elements of the rebel Kenya Air Force who wanted to take
over thegovernment using unlawful means.
To participate in nation-building activities for example road and bridge construction.
To provide assistance to the public during national emergencies. For example during
floods,famine, fire outbreaks and other national disasters.
To detect and fight off criminals who use water masses like the Atlantic and Indian
Ocean tocommit crimes. For example the Somali pirates, narcotic runners and gunrunners as
well asillegal trawlers who steal fish and other marine resources from African states.
To participate in peace keeping missions in different parts of the world by participating in
UnitedNational, African Union and Commonwealth peacekeeping duties.
Weaknesses of national military forces in Africa after
independence
To abort coup attempts and overthrowing their governments
68
Corruption in the running of operations for example military officers from Zimbabwe
wasaccused for having smuggled gold and other mineral resources during peacekeeping
operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Tribalism and sectionalism
Inadequate funds for soldiers payments
Indiscipline for example some soldiers have been accused of looting and raping civilians.
Lack of financial resources and modern military equipments
Dependence from developed countries for example some African countries depend
onEuropean and USA countries in training and equipping their armies.
Low level of education the majority of the military personnel were not well educated in
Africafor a long time due to the fact that military career was not taken as a prestigious
occupation.
Strengths of national military forces in Africa after independence
A lot of military personnel in recent years have been enrolled in institutions for higher
educationand have improved their image while relating with members of the public.
Safeguarding the national security of the country from external aggression.
Preserving internal security.
Participating in peace keeping missions within and outside the country.
Participating in nation-building activities
Assisting the public during national emergencies.
Detecting and fighting off criminals
National legal institutions
The national legal institutions include judiciary however; there is close coordination of different
departments in the government in making sure that the law and order are preserved without
denying anyone his or her rights in society. This can be witnessed through their different
69
functions in the country. For example when the police force and the armed forces ensure
preservation of national security and integrity the judiciary ensures the administration of justice
through the court of law.
Objectives of the national legal institutions
To settle disputes among different parties
To guarantee rule of law for all citizens
Assisting in the law development
Constitution protection
Administering justice in the country
To swear in senior members of government like the prime ministers and presidents
Functions of the national legal institutions
They settle disputes among individuals and between the individuals and the state.
They administer justice through law interpretation
They spell out the penalties to be meted out to offenders and the amount to be
compensatedto the offended part.
They ensure citizen’s protection under the law and to sentence accordingly those who
violatethe rights and freedoms of others.
They protect the national constitution by ensuring that everything in the country is done
withinthe constitutional provisions in each country
They safeguard national sovereignty through swearing in of senior members of
government.
Strengths of the national legal institutions
They are based on equality and fairness of all the parties
Training of legal officers in different countries
70
They guarantee the justice for all the parties
The legal system is flexible and embraces some of the traditional methods of conflict
resolution.For example Islamic courts are given rooms to handle cultural and religious matters in
Africanlegal systems with a large population of Muslims.
Weaknesses of the national legal institutions
Some of them are corrupt for example in Kenya many magistrates and judges lost their
jobs in2003 following allegations of corruption.
Incompetence of some judiciary officers who fail to prioritize important issues in the
legalsystem and underfunding of the institutions
Interference of some senior members of the executive in the work of legal institution
therebyundermining administration of justice in the state.
Illiteracy and ignorance of the citizens hampered the efficiency in the administration
justice bylegal institutions.
Dependence on other government departments like armed force and police force as
theycannot operate efficiently in the absence of support from these departments.
Lack of financial resources to hire enough officers to assist in the administration of
judiciary.
Interference of cultural traditions in the operations of the legal institutions as some
communityapplies cultural methods of administration of justice, some of which contradict the
official legalinstitutions for example traditional forms of compensation or avenging crime among
clans.
The police force
In Tanzania the national police force comprises the following departments or sections
The Regular
Firefighting Unit
Anti-Stock Theft Police
71
Traffic Police
Native Intelligence Services
Other sections include Criminal Investigation Unit, Game Reserve Unit, Field Force Unit, Anti-
Narcotics Police, Police Air Wing, Flying Squad and the General Service Unit. In Kenya there
are some similar departments like those found in Tanzania however their police comprise a unit
known as the administration police, whose work is to assist officers in the provincial
administration.
Objectives of establishing a national police force in African
countries after independence
To ensure maintenance of law and order
To protect the law and preserve both life and property
To investigate crime and prosecute offenders
To arrest and detain suspected offenders
To assist the public especially during emergencies
To regulate traffic and punish offenders
Functions/responsibilities of the police force
Maintaining law and order by arresting and punishing the law breakers.
Safeguarding people’s life and properties
Detecting those about to commit the crime
Investigating the crime and prosecute the offenders
To confine suspected criminals in remand
Regulating tariffs and arrests the offenders by checking for defective vehicles on the
roads inorder to safeguard life.
Provision of assistance during national emergencies
72
They take part in national projects like constructional activities of national infrastructures
andfacilities.
Provision of entertainment in marking national days like Independence Day, Union Day
inTanzania while in Kenya Jamuhuri Day and other national holidays.
They investigate and arrest international criminals such as terrorists, drug traffickers and
thenotorious Somali pirates who harass water vessels playing the Indian Ocean.
Challenges/weaknesses facing the national police forces in Africa
Lack of efficient transport and communication equipment for discharging their
dutiesefficiently.
They have been accused of being involved in corrupt practices for example demanding
fromthe public and failing to do their duties according to the law.
Recruitment of people with law academic qualifications in the force
Interference with police work by politicians and senior servants
The influx of small armies in the continent as a result some of the criminals posses
moresophisticated weapons than the national police.
Poor relationship between the police officers and the citizens due to the use of harsh
methodsby the police officers in their work to the citizens/public as a result public fear to pass
usefulinformation to the police.
Terrorist disturbances to the police force for example in 1998 both the American
Embassies inTanzania and Kenya was bombed by terrorists. Moreover, Uganda suffered a
terroristsbombing attack in July 2010.
Cyber crimes resulted from modernization of information technology whereby some
criminalsuse the internet to steal from banks and from innocent people not only that but also the
use ofcell phones to defraud innocent members of the public.
Problems Hindering Development in Africa after Independence
73
African continent has faced a number problem since independence that hindered development
over the years. These are social, political and economic problems.
The Social, Political and Economic Problems Hindering Development in
Africa after Independence
Analyse the social, political and economic problems hindering development in Africa after
independence
Social problems
Illiteracy, Africans experiencing illiteracy since some people are unable to read or write, this is
attributed by some of the cultural traditions of the people and sometimes failure of government
to provide conducive environment for schooling. For example failure to provide enough
educational facilities like school infrastructures for the communities has made it difficult for
some children to access schooling.
Poor living conditions, most of the Africans are poor following this the parents are unable to
provide uniforms and other school materials to facilitate the education of their children. Poverty
also led some student to drop out from school in order to work and provide to their siblings and
parents.
Diseases, African countries since independence have been experiencing diseases both cured and
uncured resulted by environmental pollution, poor sanitation and poor hygiene, careless in eating
habits, poverty and ignorance. Examples of the serious disease that affect African people include
malaria, dysentery, HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. Following this most people loose lives
unnecessarily especially in the rural areas where health centers are few.
Religious differences some African country experienced serious religious differences that led to
religious wars and country division. For example in Nigeria and Sudan some of the Islamic
groups have advocated for the introduction of sharia or Islamic law in some parts of the country
while Christian and African traditional religions therefore this intensified conflict in such
countries.
74
Fear and insecurity, some African people are forced to flee from their homes and rendered
refugees due to several factors including electoral disputes, land and water resources conflicts.
Since these people flee from one African country to another within the continent this led to
highest number of refugees in African continent than other continent, For example in eastern
Africa there are millions of refugees from Burundi, DRC Congo, Sudan and Somalia, living in
refugees camps in neighboring countries.
Political problems
Tribalism in Africa attributed by different factors some of them include language differences and
colonial policy of divide and rule this contributed to political animosity and civil wars. For
example in Nigeria, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Ivory Coast and Uganda there are serious political
divisions, civil wars, displacement of people and death due to tribalism.
Regionalism in some African countries some parts of the regions have experienced faster
development than other areas hence disunity. For example in Sudan some parts of southern
experiences great poverty while northern parts is more developed, following this there has been a
very serious civil war that was that was fought from the 1980s to 2011.
Single party system of ruling, most of African countries until 1990s were characterized with
single party rule following this many there was problem of corruption, authoritarian and lack of
democracy. However in 1990s many African countries such as Kenya, Zambia and Mali
struggled for multiparty government.
Political instabilities caused by disputes over electoral outcomes, land resources and sharing of
government positions. This has hampered political unity to many African countries and resulted
to lack of economic progress, loss of life and properties and displacement of people.
Abortive coup attempt and overthrow of governments due to several challenges within the
country including economy mismanagement, sectionalism, corruption, nepotism, violation of
human rights and tribalism for example in Nigeria the coups against the prime minister Abubakar
Tawafa Balewa while in Uganda Idd Amin overthrew the government of Militon Obote in 1971.
75
Neo-colonialism resulted to ideological differences among the political leaders and political
disunity which hampered unity between African countries. For example in Democratic Republic
of Congo, several political readers were unhappy because Patrice Lumumba the prime minister
adopted socialism and in Kenya the president Jomo Kenyatta adopted capitalism while his vice
president supported socialism.
Economic problems
Poverty is experienced in African countries due to the failure of governments to allocate
resources equitably and to provide development infrastructures such as schools, roads, electricity
as well as economic exploitation of certain regions of the country.
Mismanagement of public resources for one’s benefits or for the benefits of one’s friends or
associates for personal gain or favors for example land have been grabbed by corrupt
government officials and civil servants thus undermining the economy. This problem has been
prevalent in Nigeria, Kenya and Burundi where a high level of corruption has been reported for
many years.
The Steps Taken to Solve Problems Hindering Development in Africa after
Independence
Examine critically the steps taken to solve problems hindering development in Africa after
independence
Introduction of multiparty, most African countries decided to introduce more than one political
party so as to provide an opportunity for citizens to compete in the political arena since this
contribute in making the government more accountable as the oppositions operate as a watchdog.
Constitution revision most African countries have been revised their constitution to limit the
term of the leaders to a maximum period usually two terms. Also political candidates are now
required to show proof of a good educational background in order to eliminate possibility of
having inept leaders.
Strengthening of democracy through African Union by allowing innervations in case of evidence
of violence and abuse of human rights in member countries, this prevents political instabilities in
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countries and pre-empts refugee problems in the continents. Affirmative action has been
accepted in order to uplift women I leadership. For example Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda have
made great progress in this sphere.
Establishment of regional organizations contributing to the stability of African states by
improving social and economic welfare of the citizens and expanding commerce, transport and
communications infrastructures.
Introduction of modern information systems such as internet and cell phones helped in boosting
economies of Africa by cutting down on unnecessary labour and by ensuring watertight security
of money and goods in both government offices and private companies. Use of cell phones also
facilitates quicker and more financial transactions.
Partnership with developed countries through privatization of public corporations for the aim of
promoting development especially in productive areas such as minerals and oils prospecting
HIV/AIDS campaigns in order to inform citizens on ways of protecting themselves and on how
to assist infected people
Establishment of social security fund aimed at protecting retirees and those retrenched from
work due to ill health from experiencing serious financial problems.
Establishment of revenue collecting bodies like Tanzania Revenue Authority, Uganda Revenue
Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority in order to strengthen economy and avoiding economic
dependency on foreign countries
Success and Failures of the Steps Taken to Solve Problems Hindering
Development in Africa
Analyse the successes and failures of the steps taken to solve problems hindering development in
africa
Failure of the measures taken to resolve African political
independence problems
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The influence of external powers in African politics example in 2011 the USA and NATO
powers attacked the forces of Muammar Gaddafi in spite of pressure from the African Union to
allow more time for dialog among the rebels and government forces.
Corruption
Diseases
refugees
Successes of the measures taken to solve problems hindering
development in Africa
Multi party system has promoted democracy and government accountabilities as well as helped
to reduce abuse of powers and corruption among African political leaders within the continent.
Respect and adhering constitutional requirements especially in political issues like elections
Promotion of gender mainstreaming programs in order to allow women and girls to advance
politically, economically and socially since now day women are no longer sidelined in political
activities in Africa. For example Liberia is led by President Ellen Johnson-Sir leaf, a lady while
Tanzania’s speaker of the parliament is also a woman honorable Anne Makinda.
Regional economic organizations contributing to political achievements in African countries
through ECOWAS, SADC and EAC for example, African Union has played an important role in
enhancing political stability by condemning electoral irregularities and condemning military
takeovers in the continent as well as has participated in peace keeping operation in Darfur and
Somalia since 2009.
Improvement of social arena through saving retirees and those retrenched from work due to ill
health from experiencing serious financial problems. For example in Kenya the National Social
Security Fund (NSSF) and the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) have both played a key
role in uplifting the life the poorer members of the society. Similar program have also been
instituted in Uganda and Tanzania.
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Improvement of education system through adoption of different educational policy like
Universal Primary Education (UPE), Education for All (EFA), Primary and Secondary
development programs (SEDP & PEDP) all of these aim to fight illiteracy in the society.
Enhancement of economic stabilities and reducing dependency on foreign donor through
establishment of revenue collection bodies; For example Tanzania Revenue Authority, Uganda
Revenue Authority and Kenya Revenue Authority.
African states stability through setting up of regional organizations for example Uganda is the
most important trading partner of Kenya.
Activity to do
1. Explain five common political features of the post independent African countries.
2. Give five reasons why African countries decided to adopt new economic strategies
afterindependence.
3. State the objectives of education in Africa after independence.
4. What are the measures adopted to improve education sector by independent African
countries
5. Mention five challenges experienced by African government
6. Why African government wanted to change the colonial system of education?
7. What are the objectives of health sector in post independent African countries?
8. Give three challenges experienced by the independent African countries in the provision
ofhealth services.
9. State three weaknesses and strengths of the health services in Africa after independence
10. Explain five improvements in water provision in Africa since independence
11. What are the measures adopted by African countries to improve the housing situation of
theirpeople since independence?
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12. State two objectives behind the establishment of the armed forces and police force
afterindependence
13. Give four functions of the military and police force.
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AFRICA IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

This topic is largely concern with the relationship and cooperation between African nations
among themselves and cooperation between African and the outside world. We shall concentrate
much on regional integration between African nations and also relationship with international
organizations by examining the objectives, achievements, impacts and challenges. In our sub
topics will include the following:
The African Unity (AU)
The East African Community (EAC)
The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
The Common Wealth Nations
Continental Cooperation
Continental cooperation was facilitated by the social, political and economic exploitation
imposed on Africans. Through these the African people realized the need for cooperation and the
consciousness that they share a common destiny. So they decided to cooperate with the view to
overcome their terrible situation. Hence they started by establishing Pan African Unity in the
Diaspora and the ultimate emergence of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) as well as
African Unity (AU) and various regional groupings have emerged in the continent.
The Objectives of Establishing Continental Co-operation
Analyse the objectives of establishing continental co-operation
Objectives of establishing continental cooperation
To preserve political independence and freedom
To preserve African culture from destruction
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To protect African dignity

Unifying Africans in the struggle against political oppression
To challenge the ideology of European supremacy which undermines African political
independence, economic stability and cultural civilization
To fight against economic exploitation including land alienation, poor wages and
forcedlabour.
Problems resulting from the establishment of continental
cooperation and their impacts on Africa
Interference by external powers in the affairs of the African continent, the
notoriouspowers like USA, Britain, France and former Soviet Union provides support in form
offinances and armaments to different African states and by so doing divided African statesby
persuading them to take side during disputes involving these major power.
Disputes involving different member states especially over boundaries greatly
underminethe continental unity. In fact the member states engaged in war over boarder
disputes,some of these wars include Ghana and Togo, Algeria and Morocco, Ethiopia
andSomalia/Eritrea as well a Cameroon and Nigeria.
Personality differences between African leaders for example personality
differenceexperienced between president Museveni of Uganda and president Bashir of Sudan
in1980s and 1990s and between Idd Amin of Uganda and President J.K. Nyerere ofTanzania in
the 1970s.
Dependency on former colonial masters, several times African countries ask support
fromtheir former colonial masters especially in the face of political threat from
neighboringAfrican states rather than seeking the continental body support hence existence of
Britainand French military bases in different African countries up to date.
Persuading national interests at the expense of the continental interests and
therebyundermined the continental spirit promoted by the organization.
Ideological differences
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Violation of human rights by the leaders for example member countries have continuedto
support president Omar al-Bashir of Sudan who has already been indicated for abusefor human
rights in Darfur.
Lack of common position toward issues further waters down some of the decisions
andopinions of the organization.
Unable to meet organization objectives in the absence of external support due to
relyingon financial support from more economically advanced nations and the United Nations,in
order to fund some of the program.
Terrorism, for example in 2010 Uganda faced bomb attack which killed over 70
people.This was carried out to punish Uganda for sending AU troops to serve in Somalia.
The Achievements and Problems Resulting from the Establishment of
Continental Co-Operation and their Impact on Africa
Explain the achievements and problems resulting from the establishment of continental co-
operation and their impact on Africa
Problems resulting from the establishment of continental

cooperation and their impacts on Africa
Interference by external powers in the affairs of the African continent, the
notoriouspowers like USA, Britain, France and former Soviet Union provides support in form
offinances and armaments to different African states and by so doing divided African statesby
persuading them to take side during disputes involving these major power.
Disputes involving different member states especially over boundaries greatly
underminethe continental unity. In fact the member states engaged in war over boarder
disputes,some of these wars include Ghana and Togo, Algeria and Morocco, Ethiopia
andSomalia/Eritrea as well a Cameroon and Nigeria.
Personality differences between African leaders for example personality
differenceexperienced between president Museveni of Uganda and president Bashir of Sudan
in1980s and 1990s and between Idd Amin of Uganda and President J.K. Nyerere ofTanzania in
the 1970s.
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Dependency on former colonial masters, several times African countries ask support
fromtheir former colonial masters especially in the face of political threat from
neighboringAfrican states rather than seeking the continental body support hence existence of
Britainand French military bases in different African countries up to date.
Persuading national interests at the expense of the continental interests and
therebyundermined the continental spirit promoted by the organization.
Ideological differences
Violation of human rights by the leaders for example member countries have continuedto
support president Omar al-Bashir of Sudan who has already been indicated for abusefor human
rights in Darfur.
Lack of common position toward issues further waters down some of the decisions
andopinions of the organization.
Unable to meet organization objectives in the absence of external support due to
relyingon financial support from more economically advanced nations and the United Nations,in
order to fund some of the program.
Terrorism, for example in 2010 Uganda faced bomb attack which killed over 70
people.This was carried out to punish Uganda for sending AU troops to serve in Somalia.
Achievement resulting from the establishment of continental
cooperation on Africa
Tackling disputes experienced in the African continent for example post-electionviolence
in Kenya in 2007, the AU sent a group of eminent to assist in tackling the crisis,not only that but
also during the post election violence in Zimbabwe the AU helped tomediate in the crisis
between Morgan Tsvangirai and Robert Mugabe.
Supporting regional cooperation including the formation of EAC, SADC and ECOWAS
Enhancing democracy and good management of economies
Interfering with countries facing threats of conflicts or war.
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Provision of an important forum where independent African states could sit and
discussthe issues facing their continent.
Supporting the national liberation movements in Africa against colonialism, theassistance
was provided in form of shelter, funds, weapon, training facilities andexpertise as well as
logistics. For example the OAU liberation committee which wasbased in Dar es salaam,
Tanzania assisted liberation movements all over the continent toeradicate colonialism.
Promotion of economic, social and technical advancement in the continent. Through
theAfrican Development Bank (ADB), member states have benefited from financialassistance
which has facilitated the expansion of infrastructural development in thecontinent.
Promotion of communication in the continent by developing postal,
telecommunications,radio and television networks in Africa.
Promotion of social and cultural heritage in the continent through All Africa Games
thatwere held every four years, peoples from across the continent interacted throughparticipation
in different sports such as soccer, athletics and other sporting activities.
African Regional Cooperation
The need for regional cooperation in Africa arose from the need to tackle political, social, and
economic needs of the people. Leaders from different regions realized the need to work together
in order to overcome developmental challenges facing individual countries as a group rather than
as individual countries. This regional approach was found more beneficial given that the people
in one region are likely to work more closely together due to geographical, historical and cultural
advantages. Among the regional groupings existing in Africa include COMESA, SADC,
ECOWAS and EAC.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU)
The organization of African unity was found on 25 may 1963in Addis Ababa Ethiopia by thirty
two heads of the independent African states the first chairman was Emperor Haile Sellasie of
Ethiopia
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This was inspired by pan Africans sentiment of bringing all people of African origin both in the
Diaspora and Africa under a single organization to fight and protect their rights.
Nkurumah one of the pioneers of african union and the founding father of Ghana was greatly
influenced by his education in USA he believed that the only way to achieve complete economic
as well as political freedom from European domination was to create a powerful new „united
states of Africa‟ then though continental wide cooperation.
Africa would real take place on the world economic and political stage on terms of equality. In
unity Nkurumah was saw strength but in practical terms his dream proved illusory.
In the beginning of the second millennium OAU faced a lot of challenges and the need to for
reform to cope with the new trend of global economic cooperation in different region of the
world as demonstrated by the success of European union the idea of forming the strong
organization which would accommodate these new challenges were pioneered by Muammar the
former leader of Libya, during the OAU summit at the town of Sirte Libya on 9th September
1999, where african head of state made the „Sirte declaration‟ and called for the establishment of
an african union
In the following year in Lome Togo 2000 the African head of states adopted the constitutive act
of the union. And then in Lusaka Zambia summit 2001 the final go ahead to the establishment of
AU and finally in 2002 in Durban South Africa AU was officially born replacing OAU
The African union is made up of both political and administrative bodies. The highest decision
making is assembly of the African union, made up of the all heads of state or government of
member states of the AU
The assembly is chaired by Yayi Boni, president of Benin elected at the 18th ordinary meeting of
the assembly on January 2012. The AU also has a representative body, the Pan African
parliament, which consists of 265 members elected by the national parliaments of the AU
member states. Its president is Idriss Ndele Moussa.
PICTURE SHOWING THE NEW HEADQUATERS OF AFRICAN UNION
THE STRUCTURE ORGANIZATION OF AU
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Objectives of OAU
To forge unity and solidarity, the primary aim of OAU was to promote African unity and
solidarity as the only way forward to achieve complete economic as well as political freedom
from other countries of the world, because unity and solidarity would make Africa as super
power among other countries.
To coordinate and intensify the cooperation and the efforts of Africa states to achieve a better
living of people and also to help the speeding up of the decolonization in the rest of Africa
To defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states, one of the
OAU principle states the acceptance of the principle of non interference in internal affairs of
member state.
To eradicate all forms of colonialism in Africa and acts of slavery in the entire continent of
Africa by promoting freedom and human rights to be given first priority.
To promote international cooperation in accordance of the United Nations organization and the
universal declaration of human rights
To promote peace security and stability in region
To promote democratic principles and institutions particularly good governance
To promote human and people‟s rights in accordance with African human and people‟s right and
other relevant human rights instruments.
To establish the necessary conditions this would enable Africans play its rightful role not only in
the local economy but also internationally.
To promote sustainable development at economic, social and cultural levels towards the
integration of African economies
To coordinate and policies between the existing and future regional economic communities for
attainment of the ultimate objectives of the union
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To collaborate in international partner, towards the eradication of preventable diseases and

promotion of good healthy in the continent
Principles of OAU
The existence of sovereign equality of all members
Non interference in the internal affairs of the member states.
Respect for the sovereignty and the inalienable right to independent of all member states.
Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation and conciliation or arbitration.
The affirmation of the policy of non alignment
Unreserved condemnation of political assassination as well as of subversive
activitiesagainst any member state
Achievement of OAU
It achieved to unite the diverse countries of Africa; this has been attained despite discrepancies in
political ideology, levels of economic development, language, colonial experiences and vast
geographical differences.
There was of course disagreement between states and groups of states but its main aim was unity
and OAU survived its first three decades with no permanent spirit
It has been achieved in providing a forum for discussing common problems of African states and
offering solutions like discrimination or apartheid, diseases and civil wars among others. That to
a big extent has been dealt with.
The regular meeting of ministers and heads of state have helped to generate greater awareness of
other countries problems.
OAU has also achieved in liberation of Africa from colonialism e.g. Zimbabwe, Angola and
Namibia, through the provision of moral and material support to the nationalistic movements in
various nations.
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The African Development Bank that grew out of the OAU in 1967 became an invaluable tool for
mobilizing world finance for Africa development projects.
The idea of coordinating and mobilizing international capital for the benefit of Africa was of
particular value during the 1970‟s and early 1980‟s.
Provision of jobs and education to many African refugees, who came as a result of internal
conflicts in various African nations.
The organization has taken measures to improve agriculture, industry, transport, and
communication trade and education cooperation in various countries.
The meeting of heads of states each year to discuss problems and achievement of continent is
one of the achievements.
Many conflicts have been solved by the organization in the continent e.g. the war between
Tanzania and Uganda 1978, Mali and Burkina Faso 1985 as well as Kenya and Somalia in 1970.
OAU has encouraged regional integration among is member states such as ECOWAS 1975,
SADC 1980, COMESA 1993 has its roots from OAU.
OAU has achieved in acting as chief mediator between various African states to avoid the
occurrence of bloodshed e.g. between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
PICTURE SHOWING AFRICAN UNION PARLIAMENT
Problems faced Organization of African Union
A member states decide individually and voluntarily to be the member of the organization and it
could withdraw its membership at any time that it feels to do so, this weakens the strength of the
organization e.g Morocco is not a member.
No legal sanction to enforce another big problem that faced OAU was that it was no legal
sanction to enforce its resolution.
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Member state could decide to refuse or ignore to implement the organization decisions, that is
why it was always been blamed for being little more than „a talking shop‟ with no serious
implementation of her resolutions.
Lack of adequate funds it largely based on the annual contribution of members states most of the
member states delayed to pay or defaulted to pay their contributions, this made the organization
to fail to run its activities.
Unequal development caused by poverty, illiteracy and unequal distribution of resources.
There are many refugees in Africa which is the result of civil wars in many areas of the continent
such as Burundi, DRC Sudan and Somalia.
The continent is still poor depending on debts and loans from World Bank and I.M.F with
difficulty conditionality to fulfill.
Differences in language and religion, some societies are proud of their mother tongue other
countries are using English, others Arabic, and French every state or tribe wanted to use the
language of her interests.
There is tension between fundamentalists Muslims who want to apply sharia law while
Christians wants western system of democracy.
African countries are affected by natural disasters such as drought, floods, AIDS and earthquake.
These affect the welfare of the people.
Difference in ideology of the member states, head of states are unable to come together to
discuss their problems
Lack of a single currency to be used by all member states since it is not decided on to be used;
this hinders trade activities in the continent.
Weak economic base of many of the member states most of the member states had got their
independence from European imperialist nations, all are based on production on production of
primary goods of agriculture products and minerals that fetched little prices,
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Terrorism continues to plague the member states for example Uganda in 2010 over 70 people
were killed in a bomb attack. This is a great challenge to the continental cooperation especially
to the AU as the attack was carried out to push Uganda for sending AU troops to serve in
Somalia.
Political instability is still prevailing in some African countries for example in 2007 eminent
persons from the AU had to come and assist Kenya to solve her electoral disputes after they
turned bloody.
East African Community (E.A.C)
PICTURE SHOWING EAST AFRICAN LOGO AND FLAG
The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organization comprising five
countries in East African states, Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The current
EAC‟s chairman is Pierre Nkurunzinza, the president of the republic of Burundi.
The organization was originally found on June 1967, collapsed in 1977, and was officially
revived on July 7, 2000; Burundi and Rwanda joined the EAC on 6th July 2009.
East African Federation is also the second most populous nation in Africa (after Nigeria) and
eleventh in the world. The population density would be 70 people the GDP (PPP) by IMF
estimate would be $ 131,772,000 USD and be the fourth largest in Africa and 55th in the world.
The GDP per capital would be $1036 USD, the vernacular language would be Swahili and the
official one would be English. The proposed capital is the Tanzanian city of Arusha which is
close to the Kenyan border, Arusha is the current headquarters of the East African Community, it
was founded on June 1967, and the government of Tanganyika, Kenya and Uganda signed a
treaty in Kampala Uganda.
Aims of East African Community
To promote free trade in goods and services produced among the members.
To provide common services such as railways, harbors, posts and telecommunication.
To provide wider and more secure market for industrial and agricultural goods.
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To allow free movement of people in the region for trade recreation and other
socialactivities.
To achieve technological innovation and advancement
To conduct research activities in agriculture, population, medicine and mining for
itsdevelopment
It aims at solving regional problems jointly by the heads of the member states.
Challenges to the federation of EAC / why the EAC is delaying to form political union
The issue of free movement of labour, may be perceived as highly desirable in Uganda and
Kenya, and have important developmental benefits in Tanzania however in Tanzania there is
widespread resistance to the idea of ceding land rights to foreigners, including citizens of Kenya
and Uganda, Tanzania has more land than all other EAC nations combined, and Tanzanians fear
land grabs by the current residence of the other EAC member nations.
Land scarcity is a recurring issue in east Africa, particularly in Kenya, where clashes on the
Kenyan side of Mount Elgon in 2007 left more than 150 dead and forced at least 60,000 away
from their home, this proves to be a big challenge to the federation of East African community
Changing on power/power greediness, there is a political challenge to the confederation, its
political differences between the states. Museven‟s success in obtaining his third term
amendment and his unwillingness to relinquish power to others raised doubts in the other
countries.
The single party dominance in the Tanzanian and Ugandan parliaments is an attractive to
Kenyans, while Kenya‟s ethic politics is not apparent in Tanzania, Rwanda has a distinctive
political culture with a political elites committed to build a developmental state, partly in order to
safeguard the Tutsi group against a return to ethnic violence.
The question of Zanzibar, apart from the above the confederation has got serious challenge about
the question of Zanzibar in Tanzania the question still stands whether Zanzibar is a state or not,
it‟s disturbing the member states in finding the solution.
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Involvement in other regional integration, other problems involve states being reluctant to
relinquish involvement in other regional groups e.g. Tanzania‟s withdraw from COMESA but
staying within SADC bloc, such move make her to remain with double standards and weaken the
power of the confederation.
Tanzanians are also concerned because creating a common market means removing tariffs from
all import which may turn the nation to become a dumping place for goods from the federal
states that may perturb the development of her domestic industries.
MAP SHOWING EAST AFRICA COUNTRIES
Why East African Community collapsed in 1977
In 1977 the East African Community collapsed after ten years. Causes for the collapse included
Demands by Kenya for more seats than Uganda and Tanzania in decision makingorgans.
Disagreement with Ugandan dictator Idd Amin and disparate economic system
ofsocialism in Tanzania and capitalism system in Kenya.
Unequal distribution of social services, the problem of the distribution of
differentservices, the distribution was more beneficial to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania.
Border conflicts e.g. between Tanzania and Uganda during Idd Amin
The ideological disparity between the three countries, Tanzania self reliance
andsocialism, Kenya capitalist ideology and Uganda fascism during Idd Amin
The organization had its roots from colonial period nothing changed fundamentally
thatBritain went on benefiting through Kenya.
The East African Bank failed a balance development of industries in the three
countriesKenya benefited more than Tanzania and Uganda in income tax and custom duties.
Currency differences the government restricted free transfer and exchange of
currency.This discourages interstate transaction in goods.
Failure of the member country to contribute the agreed fees.
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The problem of the distribution of different services, the distribution was morebeneficial
to Kenya than Uganda and Tanzania.
Following this the three member state lost over sixty years of cooperation and the benefits of
economies of scale. However, some Kenyan government officials celebrated the collapse with
champagne each of the former member state had to embark, at great expense and lower
efficiency, up on establishment of services and industries that had previously been provided at
the community level.
The Southern African Development Community (SADC)
It was formed as the replacement of Southern African Development Coordination Conferences
(SADCC) formed in 1980. It was in 1993 when it was changed to SADC this is an association of
eleven countries such as Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Objective of SADC
To help member states to have a genuine and equitable regional integration.
To mobilize the regional resources for their benefits.
To foster international cooperation.
To enhance the development of industries, trade, mining, agriculture and
energyresources.
To improve transport and communication links
To improve internal market.
Problems faced SADC
Weak financial base, members rely on foreign aid and loan
Members produce similar agricultural goods such as coffee, sisal and tobacco
whichcompete for market.
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All members depend on agricultural rather than industries, when the prices of
agriculturalcommodities fluctuates which leads to low earnings.
Lack of qualified and skilled man power to run the organization, they depend on
foreignexperts.
Unequal distribution of the benefits of the associations discourages other states.
Every member tries to cater her national interests rather than those of SADC
The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)
Before 1993 COMESA was known as preferential trade area for eastern and southern Africa
P.T.A. the heads of member states met at Kampala Uganda on 6th November 1993 and signed a
treaty which created COMESA. A member of COMESA includes Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
Burundi, Rwanda, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Botswana, Swaziland, Mauritius, Comoro,
Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia and South Africa.
Objective of COMESA
Promoting and facilitating cooperation among member countries in trade, transport and
communication.
Harmonizing and coordinating development strategies, policies and plans within the
region.
It encourages cooperation in monetary and financial affairs in order to facilitate sub
region integration.
It aimed at establishing joint industries and agricultural institution to raise the production
capacity.
It aims at reducing and eventually eliminating tariffs among members in order to
facilitate trade.
It encourages economic independence of a region by establishing strong economic base.
Achievements of COMESA
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Member states have become more cooperative in the field of trade, industry and agriculture. The
organization has also established the bank known as the trade and development bank situated in
Bujumbura Burundi which finances trade and development projects
Problems facing COMESA
Different levels of development of members of states.
Poor transport shipping facilities and communication links
Existence of too many currencies in the region,
Weak economic base of member states e.g. dependency economies.
Civil wars, natural calamities and neo colonialism
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
The Economic Community of West Africa was formed on 28th may 1975, member states
includes Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mauritania, Senegal, Benin, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Gambia,
Ghana, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Guinea Bissau, Togo, Cameroon, Cape Verde and Nigeria.
Aims of ECOWAS
ECOWAS aimed at removing barriers and allowing free movement of people servicesand
capital for the development of the member states.
It aims at developing industries, agriculture and mining by using good and
applicablepolicies.
Achievement of ECOWAS
The organization has managed to set energy resource development fund for oil mining
industry in the region.
There have been agriculture and communication development of the whole part of the
region this has been through special fund to develop the projects and through joint ventures
between members.
Problems facing ECOWAS
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Each member wants to benefit more than the other members of the community
accordingto their interests.
Political instability affects member states, there have been civil wars and coup d‟état
inthe region, e.g. Nigeria, Sierra Leon, Liberia and Ivory Coast.
Poor communication network system in many parts of the region hinders
organizationactivities to all places.
Language differences, other members are using English while others French this led
tocommunication barrier between the members.
Lack of single currency creates the problem of the rate of exchange between the
memberstates.
The problem of members to have a membership in more than one organization and all
theorganization have demands in terms of contribution i.e. it‟s difficult to contributemembership
to all the organization due to poverty
Common Wealth of Nations
The common wealth of nations normally referred to as the common wealth and formerly
intergovernmental organization of 54 independent member states. All members except
Mozambique and Rwanda were part of the British Empire, out of which the commonwealth
developed.
The common wealth is an intergovernmental organization in which countries with diverse social,
economic, and political backgrounds are regarded as equal in status, not a political union.
Activities of the common wealth are carried put through the permanent commonwealth
secretariat, headed by the secretary-general and biennial meetings of commonwealth heads of
government. The symbol of their free association is the head of the commonwealth, which is
ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II.
The member states cooperate between a framework of common values and goals as it outlined in
the Singapore declaration. This includes the promotion of democracy, human rights, good
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governance, and rule of law, individual liberty, egalitarianism, free trade, multilateralism and
world peace.
Objectives of commonwealth
The commonwealth‟s objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore declaration which
committed to the commonwealth to the institution to the following objectives.
Maintain world peace and stability
Promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty.
The pursuit of equality and opposition to racism.
The fight against poverty, ignorance and diseases.
To promote free trade to all member nations. To these was added opposition
todiscrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka declaration of 1979.
To maintain environmental sustainability by the LangKawi declaration of 1989
These objectives were reinforced by the Harare declaration in 1991 Generally, the
commonwealth‟s highest priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development, as
outlined in the 2003. Also rock declaration which built on those in Singapore and Harare and
clarified their terms of reference, stating we are committed to democracy, good governance,
human rights, gender equality as well as more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalization.
The Objectives of the Different Regional Groupings in Africa
Analyse the objectives of the different regional groupings in Africa
Objective of different regional groupings in Africa
To attain sustainable growth and development of member states
To promote social, economic and political development
To cooperate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states
To promote good relations between member states
98
To promote trade and industrial developments
To promote cultural cooperation
To facilitate movement of people and goods in the region
To promote environmental protection and utilization of resources
Problems resulting from the establishment of regional groupings
on Africa
Political instability example Angola, Kenya, Uganda, Siera Leone, Liberia
andDemocratic Republic of Congo
Differences in political ideologies example Mozambique, Angola and Tanzaniapursued
socialism while other member states pursued capitalism
Language barrier example Mozambique and Angola is Portuguese speaking,Tanzania,
Kenya, and Uganda are Kiswahili speaking, Rwanda and Burundi areFrench speaking and the
other member states use English as the main medium ofcommunication.
Poor interstate communication
Differences in economy
Unequal gain by member states
Different currency
Foreign interference
Failure to remit contribution required by the regional organizations
Boarder quarrels between member states example Nigeria and Cameroon, Ethiopiaand
Eritrea as well as Tanzania and Malawi/Uganda.
Personality differences between political leaders of member states
Civil wars among member states example Northern and Southern Sudan,
DemocraticRepublic of Congo.
99
The Achievements and Problems Resulting from the Establishment of

Regional Grouping and their Impact on Africa
Critically analyse the achievements and problems resulting from the establishment of regional
grouping and their impact on Africa
Achievements resulting from the establishment of regional
groupings on Africa
Promotes culture of democratic governance, accountability and respect for human rights
Expansion of employment opportunity among the member states
Trade liberalization among the member states
Improvement of transport and communications in order to ease movement of
services,people and goods in the region.
Provision of market for member states‟ commodities.
Enhancing and standardizing the quality of education in the region.
Promotion of democracy and the rule of law in the region
Boosting of economic cooperation among member states by formulating
economic,financial and monetary policies for the organization.
Sharing of social services such as water resources and electricity among the
memberstates
Enhancing peace and security in the region by establishing regional multinational
forcelike the Economic Community Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in the Western part ofAfrica.
Problems/challenges resulting from Africa’s participation in
International Affairs
Failure to intervene quickly in Africa to avoid catastrophes
They depend on contributions of member states. Unfortunately a majority of its
membersin Africa are poor countries, who are unable to remit their contributions.
100
Ideological differences between different nations globally especially among the

majorpowers. Following this African countries fall victim depending on which side theysupport
in the global tensions even today.
The use of veto powers by the permanent members of the Security Council.
Africancountries added their voice to demand that some African states also acquire this
vetopower in order to level the status of international relations.
BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ ACTIVITY TO DO
1. Why has the dream of united Africa not been achieved up to now?
2. What are the major achievements and problems of the organization of Africa unity
sinceits formation?
3. What are the problems in the process of establishing regional economic integration
inAfrica?
4. Show success and shortcoming of United Nations Organization?
5. Analyze the objectives and problems of SADC
6. What are the achievements and problem of ECOWAS?
7. What are the problems and achievement facing African Union?
8. Show how african countries have benefited from being members of the UN
9. Discuss the benefits Tanzania get from Commonwealth Community
10. With examples show challenges that likely to face the new African Union
11. What are the problems and achievements of African countries to participate
ininternational affairs
Africa in International Affairs

The independent African states had been participating in international affairs through joining
International Organizations. These international organizations exist into two types namely;
101
International Governmental Organizations (IGOs)
These are organizations made up of two or more sovereign states for example The United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and THE World Health Organization
International Non-Governmental Organizations (INGOs)
These are organizations made up of individuals or private groups for example International Red
Cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International.
The Objectives of Africa's Participation in International Affairs
Explain the objectives of Africa's participation in international affairs
Objectives of participating in international affairs
To demonstrate African sovereignty by participating in the global affairs
To receive more international attention by participating in the General Assembly of
United Nations
To put African continent in a strategic situation in the struggle between the Easternand
the Western bloc during the cold war by participating in the Non-AlignmentMovement for the
aim of being able to receive support from both sides.
To give African continent forum through which they could discuss their
continentalaffairs by participating in the Organization of African Unity
To enhance Africa‟s development in collaboration with their English speaking states that
are more developed. By participating in the Commonwealth of Nations.
To coordinate cooperation of the Francophone and their former colonial masters by
participating in the French Community.
To show solidarity with other states of the world especially during emergencies by
participating in the affairs of International Non-Governmental Organizations.
The Achievements and Problems Resulting from Africa's Participation in
International Affairs
102
Critically assess the achievements and problems resulting from Africa's participation in
international affairs
Achievements of African to participate in the International
Affairs (UN)
Peaceful resolution of conflicts through UN by using peacekeepers, observer
missions,special envoys and mediators to intervene in volatile areas. For example
thepeacekeeping operation have taken place in Africa include the Democratic Republic ofCongo,
Liberia, Sierra Leone and Somalia.
Efforts towards disarmament done by UN over the years it has spearheaded the
crusadetowards reducing dangerous arms in the world especially nuclear weapons for
exampleseveral treaties have been signed with the aim of cutting down numbers of
nuclearweapons including the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
Promotions towards the protection of human rights for example the General
Assemblyadopted the universal declaration of human rights in 1948 which identifies the
universalrights and freedoms of a person in spite of age, gender or race.
Promotion of humanitarian efforts including support for refugees, relief provision
forthose in distress like those experiencing natural calamities.
Promotion for democracy and good governance for example in 1970s South Africa
andSouthern Rhodesia were slapped with UN sanctions due to failure in the area ofdemocracy
and good governance.
Establishment of environmental programs that fight against environmental degradationby
helping the global community to realize the dangers of the climatic changeparticularly global
warming and how to reduce the dangers. For example the UnitedNations Environmental Program
whose headquarters is in Nairobi Kenya.
Fighting for underdevelopment through establishment of different programs such
asUnited Nations Development Program (UNDP) this assists nations of the world tostrategize on
how to uplift development through industrialization and agriculture.
103
Promotion of health, education and cultural interaction among the people of the
worldregardless of their race, languages and geographical areas.

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O-LEVEL HISTORY LESSON

NOTES-BY MWL DANDA B.A

Meaning and Importance of History

Identify sources of History

The Functions, Advantages and Limitations of the following Sources of

Types of oral traditions

Advantages of oral traditions

Disadvantages of oral tradition

Other disadvantages include:

Advantages of historical sites

Disadvantages of historical sites

Advantages of written records

Disadvantages of written records

Advantages of linguistic study

1 day =24 hours

TABLE SHOWING TIME PERIODS AND THEIR DURATION

Remembering changes and event dating

The Meaning of Evolution of Man

Early Stone Age

Middle Stone Age

TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC

Handicrafts,Industries and Mining in Pre-Colonial Africa

Basketry and carpentry

Trade in Pre-Colonial Africa

The Trans Saharan Trade

The desire of European commodities by the people of Western Sudan.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL

Kinship Of Clan Organization

1. Presence of a king or queen.

6. The rise of Songhai empire

The arrival of the Portuguese

Social and Economic Factors for Interactions

Overexploitation of African resources: Interaction among African people resulted in

The Ngoni Ngwangara

Why were the Ngoni successful in defeating/conquering the people

SOCIAL-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND

Social Organisation and Production

Types of Social Organisations and Production; Communalism

Transition from primitive communalism to advanced

AFRICAN AND THE EXTERNAL WORLD

Other Goods - Rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, beeswax

The Growth/Emergence of the Kiswahili Language

Contacts with Europe (The Portuguese, Dutch Settlement at the Cape)

Identify the commodities which were exchanged during the contacts

Dutch Settlement at the Cape

A SKETCH MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING THE AFRICAN PARTICIPANTS IN

Damage of slave's self worth

The second Atlantic system

At the end of this topic student should be able to:

Demands of Industrial Capitalism

Agents of Industrial Capitalism

The company played an important role of marking of the administrative

Abolition of Slave Trade

British Occupation of South Africa via the Cape

Scramble for and Partition of Africa

Why Areas in Africa Experienced more Intensive Scramble than Others

The Berlin Conference (1884-85)

Explain the events leading to the Berlin conference (1884/85)

Establishment of Colonial Control/Rule

African Reactions to Colonial Rule