Perspective

Published: 2024-10-07
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadBiol7359

Credition and the neurobiology of belief: the brain

function in believing
Hans-Ferdinand Angel1,*, Rüdiger J. Seitz2

Academic Editors: Andre J. van Wijnen, Valerio Napolioni, Gabriel Gutiérrez-Ospina

Abstract
Credition, derived from the Latin credere (to believe), has been advocated recently as a central brain function accommodating the
multifaceted processes of believing. These processes occur predominantly outside conscious awareness and determine a person’s
spontaneous as well as controlled actions in a complex and ever-changing environment. The interdisciplinary advancement in
understanding the processes of believing paves the way for new research horizons in the sciences and humanities.

Keywords: believing, beliefs, brain function, cognitive neuroscience, intuition

Citation: Angel HF, Seitz RJ. Credition and the neurobiology of belief: the brain function in believing. Academia Biology 2024;2.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadBiol7359

1. Introduction has been argued that beliefs act as fundamental hypotheses about
the world that are held with varying degrees of certainty [9].
“What am I able to know?” is the question highlighted by Kant [1], Accordingly, beliefs are not limited to propositions expressed by
which is considered a ground-breaking milestone for the emer- consciously aware, rational agents, but are also determinants that
gence of the Enlightenment. What people believe they know is bias people’s spontaneous and intuitive behavior [10]. Notably,
typically stated verbally as propositions from a first-person however, the underlying worldviews can be quite different among
perspective. This accords with the notion held in philosophy since people. This is true even within relatively coherent Western or
the Antiquity that knowledge is justified belief [2]. Novel findings Asian societies. On a global scale, these worldviews may be
in cognitive neuroscience show that beliefs are the product of brain expected to be even contradictory.
processes that are brought about by fast-evolving neural processes
outside conscious awareness [3]. Importantly, putative mecha- The processes of believing that underlie people’s worldviews have
nisms for belief formation are a high rate of exposure to external been termed creditions (a neologistic term derived from the Latin
information, the ease of processing this information, and the credere, meaning to believe) [11]. Credition is a central brain
attribution of a feeling of truth to it [4]. Nevertheless, hitherto held function that reflects a fundamental human capacity. It interacts
beliefs may be modified or even suspended if new empirical with other brain functions, such as perception, reinforcement
findings invalidate what was previously accepted [5]. On a learning, memory encoding and retrieval, reward/effort compu-
behavioral level, this pertains to what people do in daily life and tations, and predictive coding of actions [12]. Figure 1 shows that
beyond that to the concepts and theories elaborated in the the processes encompassed by the umbrella term credition follow a
sciences. The intention or our perspective is twofold. First, we feedforward model, occurring predominantly outside conscious
want to emphasize the relevance of the topic of credition in the awareness. From early infancy, our brains process all information
psychobiological context, and second, we demonstrate how our that comes through the senses in a probabilistic fashion [13].
interdisciplinary approach to believing [6] aligns with the well- Simultaneously, the incoming sensory information is associated
established field of cognitive neuroscience research. with an emotion and encoded in memory as positive or negative,
thus charging the perceived information affectively [14]. In fact,
Until some years ago, the study of beliefs was mainly assumed gains in reward compared to the efforts invested drive the process
incompatible with the natural sciences [7]. However, the notion of so-called reinforcement learning, which is known to evolve
of “belief” has recently attracted increasing interest in the primarily through the action of the basal ganglia [15]. This
scientific literature. Moreover, its scope has expanded to include multifaceted processing occurs so quickly that it happens before we
social behavior, cognition, and the evolution of human culture, as become aware of it. The empirical evidence for an unconscious
can be seen in the proceedings of an international conference on processing is overwhelming [16–21]. Nevertheless, people trust
the nature of beliefs and believing [8]. With regard to questions their perceptions and consider them subjectively true. This
such as “What sort of images or narratives do people believe?”, information is stored as patterns of neural activity that represent
“What do notions such as democracy, religion, equality, freedom the formal and affective information of each concept [22]. The key
or science mean to them”, and “How do people value them?”, it aspect of this cognition–emotion interaction is the increasing

1
Institute of Catechetics and Religious Education, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, Graz 8010, Austria.
2
Department of Neurology, Centre of Neurology and Neuropsychiatry, LVR-Klinikum Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University
Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf 40629, Germany.
*email: ferdinand.angel@uni-graz.at

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https://www.academia.edu/journals/academia-biology/about https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadBiol7359

evidence that cognitive processing is subordinated to emotional the amygdala, cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal, and the mid-ventral
processing [23, 24] and works in parallel with it [25]. Importantly, prefrontal are crucial for emotional processing [26].

Figure 1 • Comprehensive model of the processes of believing with feedforward and feedback mechanisms outside and within
conscious awareness. Note that perception is probabilistic and that the label “belief” is an ex post inference from a third-person
perspective.

As a result, the processes of believing lead to a person’s mindset or internal valuation of that information. Furthermore, through
attitude, which may, nevertheless, change with new information. predictive coding, it facilitates the generation of both appropriate
Importantly, these processes stabilize the individual’s worldview intuitive actions and controlled behavior, which consists of
and through predictive coding, determine how the person acts sequential and often composite actions. The model provides a
accordingly. However, people may become aware of what they novel approach to understanding the functionality of the human
believe, which is a prerequisite for expressing it introspectively as brain by acknowledging the evolutionary perspective of its
a propositional statement (“I believe…”). Subsequently, it is phylogenetic development [3]. Thus, it is well suited to contribute
possible to reason about it, communicate the contents of one’s specific aspects to the current debate regarding a modernized
beliefs to others, and infer from a third-person perspective what synthesis of the brain theory. On the behavioral level, the model
other people’s beliefs are likely to be (Figure 1). Cognitive corresponds to the notion of fast type 1 and slow type 2 eye and
feedback is the conscious reflection on what happened. This ex post limb movements [34] and on the processing level to systems 1
reflection is in accordance with the argument that humans reason and 2, as proposed by Morewedge and Kahneman [35]. The
about their thoughts and beliefs [27] in the sense that the conscious multifaceted processes of believing that act according to a
explanation can be considered as an elaborate fabrication [28]. feedforward model have important interrelations with other
This comprehensive model of the psychophysical control of brain functions, such as learning, thinking, remembering,
behavior accords with the executive model of action control perceiving, and more. Some of these interrelations already have
proposed by Jeannerod [29] but also expands it. Note that been the focus of recent research, such as the interrelations with
creditions are not religious. This does not contradict the working memory and long-term memory [12]. This accords with
commonly accepted view that the notion of belief is a central an earlier notion that memory implies belief as belief implies
focus of inquiry in the philosophy of religion. Of course, beliefs plausibility [36]. The concrete and continuous events related to
play an important role in religions. They may provide advanced belief formation and modulation have been modeled biomathe-
within perspectives of religions [30] and be suited to improve matically within the framework of the multifaceted physio-
discourse between different religions [31]. logical–anatomical circuits in the brain [37]. This is of relevance
in several fields of cognitive science, such as metacognition,
Similarly to other biological and psychological processes, credi-
attribution [38], language use, cognitive linguistics, memory
tions may lead to abnormal beliefs and even to somatoform or
[12], expectancy [39], confidence judgment, and more.
psychotic symptoms. Conversely, brain diseases can affect the
processes of believing and result in abnormal beliefs beyond the It should be noted that the neural processes of forming and
disease-defining neurological deficits [32]. For example, the updating beliefs are multidimensional, as is the environmental
pathophysiology of spatial delusions that may occur in patients information to which they pertain. Accordingly, beliefs can be
with hemiparesis after stroke has been elucidated using categorized as empirical, relational, and conceptual. This
connectivity mapping in neuroimaging data [33]. corresponds to the three dimensions of information in the
environment, such as objects, events, and narratives [40].
Empirical and relational beliefs correspond to primal beliefs that
2. Discussion reflect a subject’s experience of the static and ever-changing
Cognitive neuroscience has contributed to the interdisciplinary environment and evolve in an unconscious, prelinguistic fashion
discourse on beliefs and believing through the so-called neural [40]. Furthermore, language-based narratives concerning auto-
credition model. This psychophysical model integrates biography, politics, and religion induce conceptual beliefs [41].
contextual information from the environment with a subject’s While primal beliefs mediate spontaneous intuitive actions,
conceptual beliefs form the basis for short-term and long-term

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goals that people aim to achieve. This pertains to the ongoing impact our understanding of language production. Additionally,
discussion of whether humans are slaves of their autonomic the field of value processing could offer a challenging topic to
brains or if they can steer their behavior voluntarily. Arguments better understand how humans evaluate information from
based on the complex psychophysical experiment by Libet et al. outside and inside during the believing process and which
[42] have failed to resolve this discussion, as highlighted by mechanisms are involved.
recent neurophysiological data and theoretical considerations
[43]. Although the view presented here concurs with the
hypothesis that concepts are not represented in the mind but 3. Conclusions
become manifest in materiality [44], we advocate the cognitive The central aspect of this overarching theory concerning belief
neuroscience perspective that beliefs are represented by neural formation and updating is that credition is a brain function at the
activity in the brain. This perspective also applies to each aspect same meta-analytic level of abstraction as cognition and emotion.
of the entire neural credition function (Figure 1), including It comprises a neural model of the multifaceted processes of
when people become aware of what they believe, express it believing that manifest outside conscious awareness and deter-
verbally, and communicate it to others. mine a person’s behavior. What people believe can be inferred
Despite advancements in the understanding of the nature of from their behavior and shared with others from a third-person
beliefs, their appreciation in the public is limited. For their perspective. An unbiased description of beliefs has been
underestimated role, a couple of reasons may be relevant. First, the formalized in a communication model. Thus, beliefs are brain
long-standing debate in philosophical epistemology has not products whose conceptual categories provide predictions for the
reached broader public interest. Conversely, beliefs are often evolution of human culture that can be tested by empirical
associated with religion and as a result, seem to fade from studies.
contemporary societies due to the consequent secularization of the
Western world. In a knowledge-adherent society where empirical
data are seen as the basis for any assessment of reliability, the Acknowledgments
implicit relevance of beliefs has become a blind spot in perception. The authors are grateful for the constructive comments of
Thus, despite the understanding of knowledge as justified belief anonymous reviewers, which helped improve this manuscript.
(see above [2]), a neglect of belief has been noted even in the
sciences [5]. Nevertheless, conceptual beliefs are especially of
particular relevance for the discussion of the role of beliefs in Funding
cohesion and cooperation within social groups and societies, as
The authors declare no financial support for the research,
they are functionally and structurally related to cultural myths and
authorship, or publication of this article.
social narratives [45]. Moreover, conceptual beliefs are the basis of
moral judgments, which have been shown to occur when a person
makes a behavioral response to a moral norm violation [46]. In Author contributions
fact, a cross-cultural comparison involving four studies with over
2,000 participants from different countries found that cultural Conceptualization, H.F.A. and R.J.S.; writing—original draft
models of the mind and personal orientations toward the mind preparation, H.F.A. and R.J.S.; writing—review and editing,
shape what feels real [47]. Thus, conceptual beliefs, whose contents H.F.A. and R.J.S. All authors have read and agreed to the
can be communicated in speech and in written texts, have been the published version of the manuscript.
basis for social cooperation and personal specialization in cultural
evolution. Notably, beliefs may change over a person’s lifetime,
which has been studied systematically [48]. Likewise, it has been Conflict of interest
proposed that conceptual beliefs may change differently from a The authors declare no conflict of interest.
person’s primal beliefs [49]. Why this is the case and under what
circumstances this may occur remains the subject of future
research. Data availability statement
With regard to anthropological research, a theoretical model was Data supporting these findings are available within the article, at
put forward that allows for the unbiased communication of what https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadBiol7359, or upon request.
a person believes (communication model of credition) [50]. This
model is based on neologistic terms that are not confounded by
the historical evolution of current languages and therefore, can Institutional review board statement
be applied to various fields in an unbiased fashion. Examples of Not applicable.
potential applications include politics, coaching, psychotherapy,
decision-making, discussions on sustainability and climate
change, conflict resolution, mediation, and even school lessons Informed consent statement
[51]. An example from the medical field is an investigation into
the effect of the COVID-19 vaccination on patients with an Not applicable.
affective disorder compared to healthy controls [52].
On a general level, the integration of credition into neurocog- Sample availability
nitive and psychobiological research can be expected to stimulate
The authors declare no physical samples were used in the study.
further research with the potential to open novel perspectives. It
would be exciting to investigate how the concept of credition may

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Additional information 9. Van Leeuwen N, Lombrozo T. The puzzle of belief. Cogn Sci.
2023;47:e13245. doi: 10.1111/cogs.13245
Received: 2024-06-10
10. Oeberst A, Imhoff R. Toward parsimony in bias research: a
Accepted: 2024-09-16
proposed common framework of belief-consistent infor-
Published: 2024-10-07 mation processing for a set of biases. Perspect Psych Sci.
Academia Biology papers should be cited as Academia Biology 2023;1–24. doi: 10.1177/17456916221148147
2024, ISSN 2837-4010, https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadBiol7359. 11. Angel HF. Credition, the process of belief. In: Runehov ALC,
The journal’s official abbreviation is Acad. Biol. Oviedo L, editors. Encyclopedia of sciences and religion. vol.
1. Dordrecht: Springer; 2013. p. 536–9.

Publisher’s note 12. Seitz RJ, Angel HF, Paloutzian RF. Bridging the gap between
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Academia.edu Journals stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional 19(1):113–24. doi: 10.5964/ejop.7461
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. All claims
expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not 13. Autore L, O’Leary JD, Ortega-de San Luis C, Ryan TJ.
necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or Adaptive expression of engrams by retroactive interference.
those of the publisher, the editors, and the reviewers. Any Cell Rep. 2023;42:112999. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.
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