Focus on Grammar

through Discourse
Teaching and Assessment of Grammar

Benenoso, Partosa, Rupio

 Introduction to Grammar
through Discourse

Overview: Goal:

Explain the shift from traditional Highlight how discourse allows for
grammar teaching, which emphasized understanding the communicative
sentence-level structures, to discourse- function of grammar beyond isolated
based pedagogy, which considers sentences.
grammar in broader contexts.
What is Discourse?
Discourse is a continuous stretch of
language larger than a single sentence,
often forming a coherent message.
(Crystal, 1992)
This approach incorporates both spoken
and written language and highlights the
use of grammar in interactive contexts
rather than as isolated forms.
It moves beyond sentence-level grammar,
integrating context to develop a learner's
ability to create and understand connected
language, or "discourse."
Understanding
Discourse Competence
Discourse competence is the ability to understand and
produce coherent language, analyzing it as unified discourse
rather than isolated sentences (Bachman, 1990; Canale &
Swain, 1980).

Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG): Developed by Halliday,

this approach views grammar as a communicative tool that
serves specific purposes within context (Halliday &
Matthiessen, 2004).

Learners develop discourse competence by engaging with

language in its functional form, focusing on the social and
psychological aspects of communication rather than only
grammatical accuracy.
Sentence-Level Grammar vs. Discourse-Level Grammar
The Need for a Discourse-Based
Focus on Grammar Teaching
Four possible positions regarding the relationship between
grammar structure and function in L2 pedagogy
(Rutherford, 1988)

Grammar teaching is structural

only, with no functional focus.
It is grammar-based and has a
functional focus.
It is functional and has a
grammar focus.
It is functional without any
grammar focus
 FonF Approach

Indicate that learners must encounter

target structures repeatedly in
discourse-level contexts until a certain
threshold of encounters is reached.
Learners prefer pedagogical grammar
explanations through contextualized
grammar forms.
Still traditional structural approaches is
evident in the classroom.
Corpus Linguistics and a Focus on
Grammar
Corpus Linguistics

the term first appears in the early

1980s
a study of language as expressed in
corpora or large bodies of text.
“a collection of sampled texts, written
or spoken, in machine-readable form
which may be annotated with various
forms of linguistic information”
Essential Characteristics of Corpus Analysis

(b) it utilizes a large and

(a) it is empirical, analyzing
principled collection of natural
the actual patterns of use in
texts, known as a “corpus” as the
natural texts;
basis for analysis;

(c) it makes extensive use of (d) it depends on both

computers for analysis, using quantitative and qualitative
both automatic and
analytical techniques
interactive techniques
Oxford English Dictionary

Compiled through
examinations and collation of
thousand of slips paper in the
late 19th century.
Corpura

In the 1960s, linguists began to use computers to

create corpora for text analysis.
Brown Corpus of Standard American English
Concordances- used by L2 learners to examine
patterns of target language usage and their
frequencies in natural discourse
Corpus linguistics- it has important implications for
a discourse-based approach to L2 instruction
Data-driven learning

The used in the classroom of computer-

generated concordances.
Purposes:
1. Explore language patterns.
2. Develop activities and exercises based on
concordance output.
Discourse Analysis and Grammar
 Discourse Analysis
Concerned with the relationships between
language forms and the context in which
they are used.

Consists of identifying the structural

patterns that form connections across
sentences (Harris, 1952)

Identification of textual patterns does not

necessarily indicate their meaning in
communication.
Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2001)

An instance of spoken or written language that has

describable internal relationships of form and meaning
(e.g., words, structures, cohesion) that relate coherently
to an external communicative function or purpose and
a given audience/interlocutor.
Analysis Studies

Implicate to examine connected speech or discourse-

length utterances.

Pronunciation
Stress
Intonation
Functional Approaches to Language Teaching

Used for particular communicative functions.

Ordering in a restaurant
Shopping
Talking on the telephone
The Grammar of Oral
Versus
Written Discourse
Discourse-Based Perspective
This approach focuses on how language is used in context,
emphasizing the differences between spoken and written forms of
grammar.

Meaning-Focused Presentation of Target Forms

is a teaching approach that prioritizes the understanding and use of
language in meaningful contexts
when teaching language, it’s important to focus on how words and
structures convey meaning in both speaking and writing.
 Differences between Spoken and Written Language
Spoken Written

1 In spoken language, speakers usually take turns, so the 1 Written language generally consists of unbroken
length of each turn is relatively short. discourse.

2 Most speech lacks formal discourse markers since the 2 Written language builds coherence by use of formal
relationship between current and past speech often connecting forms such as "however" or "therefore,"
depends on the context of the talk. which show the relationship between different parts.

3 Speech has a simplified grammar and vocabulary. 3 Written language is usually in a standard and
consistent form.
4 Speech vocabulary is often simplified, referring to
previously discussed topics or shared information, and is 4 Written vocabulary is often more complex, and is often
characterized by ellipsis and anaphora. characterized by complex morphological structures.

5 Speech is often accompanied by paralinguistic 5 Paralinguistic information is absent in written

information such as body language, gestures, facial discourse.
expression, etc.
6 Written discourse rarely contains repetition and
6 Speech usually has considerable repetition and redundancy.
redundancy.
7 Written discourse is more uniform in terms of register
7 Speech uses multiple registers, sometimes within the
and standards of usage.
same discourse.
 The results of corpus analysis of a
five-million-word spoken corpus, ten
criteria for the creation of a spoken
pedagogical grammar have been
identified.
(McCarthy &Carter, 2002)
The Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English

Identifies common structures in speech, such as:

Questions: Use of "do" as a helper verb and "wh-" words (who, what,
where) for asking questions.
Pronouns: Frequent use of "you" and "I."
Contractions: Shortened forms of words (e.g., "don’t" instead of "do not").
Present Tense Verbs: More use of present tense in speech.
Speech Fillers: Words like "um" or "uh" that people use while thinking.
Stative Verbs: Verbs that describe a state of being, like "feel" or "believe."
Negatives: Forming negatives by adding "n’t" to auxiliary verbs (e.g.,
"isn’t").

The 2003 edition of "A Communicative Grammar of English" by Leech and

Svartvik now places greater emphasis on spoken English grammar.
Further research (Scott & Tribble, 2006) on the differences
between speech and writing involves a corpus-based
investigation of key words in four types of text:

Spoken English conversation is informal, spontaneous,

and relies on nonverbal cues.
Spoken academic English is formal, structured, and uses
complex grammar.
Written fiction is creative, expressive, and varies in
formality depending on the genre.
Written academic English is formal, precise, objective,
and structured, following specific conventions.
 Effective Use of
Discourse-Based Activities in a
Classroom Focus on Grammar
 HOW TO EFFECTIVELY
INCORPORATE DISCOURSE IN
FORM-FOCUSED L2
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION?
 Language functions are connected to specific
grammatical structures.
A discourse-based communicative focus on
grammar strongly supports the development of
teaching materials that consider characteristics
of both written and spoken language.
The ESL/EFL pedagogical grammars are based on
the structure of written English, not on the
structure of speech, even though the two forms
have been shown to be quite different (Nunan,
1998).
Many language textbooks, even those that
include dialogues, often rely on written English
grammar structures.

Example:
The continued use of the sentence-level example in
grammatical explaination of target structures.
As one researcher noted in 1991
(McCarthy, 1991, p. 51), a major problem is that:

Some of the structural options frequently found in

natural data are ignored or underplayed in language
teaching probably owing to the continued dominance
of standards taken from the written code. If the desire
is to be faithful, grammar teaching may have to
reorient some of its structural descriptions.
The grammar pedagogy should also emphasize
that word-order choices, tense-aspect choices,
and that the use of special grammatical
constructions are pragmatic and context-
related, necessitating learner comprehension
and application of instructed grammar rules at
the discourse level (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain,
2001; Liu & Master, 2003).
TEACHING THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS THROUGH DISCOURSE:

1. Reading extended texts rather than sentences and answering

comprehension questions.
2. Listening to extended speech and often requiring the learner to
3. “shadow” the speaker’s voice, complete a cloze test afterwards,
4. reconstruct the text (see Swain & Lapkin, 1998) and answer
comprehension questions.
5. Writing at the essay level, producing an introduction, a body and
a conclusion (see for example, Fotos & Hinkel, 2007).
6. Speaking activities such as presenting speeches, either prepared
or impromptu, or making discourse-length responses to
questions.
 Focus on Grammar through
Discourse Activity :
Teachers Exploring
Authentic and Non-Authentic
Language Use
Exploring Authentic and Non-Authentic
Language Use

Problem: Written dialogues in textbooks often differ from real-life

communication.
Solution:
1. Use authentic materials (e.g., news, fiction, movie/TV transcripts) for
real-world context.
2. Simplify authentic materials for beginners/intermediate learners to
ensure comprehensibility.
3. Combine authentic and simplified materials to create a "balanced diet"
(Day & Bamford, 1998).
Example Task: Compare Authentic vs. Non-Authentic
Texts
Instructions for Students:
1. Identify which text is authentic and which is from a
textbook.
2. Analyze differences in language style, grammar,
and intended use.
3. Discuss what grammar is needed for authentic
interaction.
 Text A
Text B
A: Excuse me, please. Do you
know where the nearest A: How do I get to Kensington Road?
bank is? B: Well you go down Fullarton Road ...
B: Well, the City Bank isn't far A :... what, down Old Belair, and around
from here. Do you know where ...?
the main post office is? B: Yeah. And then you go straight ...
A: No, not really. I'm just passing
A :... past the hospital?
through.
B: Yeah, keep going straight, past the
B: Well, first go down this street to
the traffic light. racecourse to the roundabout. You know
A: OK. the big roundabout?
B: Then turn left and go west on A: Yeah.
Sunset Boulevard for about B: And Kensington Road's off to the right.
two blocks. The bank is on A: What, off the roundabout?
your right, just past the post
B: Yeah.
office.
A: Right.
A: All right. Thanks!
B: You're welcome.
Explanation: Which is Authentic?
Answer:
Text A: Non-authentic. Features formal, clear, overly structured language typical of
textbooks.
Text B: Authentic. Mimics natural conversation, with informal tone, interruptions, and
ellipses.
Key Differences:
1. Non-authentic Text: Overly structured and predictable, focusing on specific
grammar rules.
2. Authentic Text: Reflects real-world speech patterns, such as incomplete sentences
and casual phrasing.
3. Learning Outcome: Recognize the benefits of combining both types of texts for
comprehensive learning
 REFERENCES
Trappes-Lomax, H. (2004). Focus on grammar through discourse. In R. Ellis
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Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2004). An introduction to functional
grammar (3rd ed.). Arnold.
Celce-Murcia, M., & Olshtain, E. (2001). Discourse and context in language
teaching: A guide for language teachers. Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teachers. Cambridge
University Press.
Fotos, S. (2004). Grammar through discourse. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of
research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 112-113). Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Thornbury, S. (2005). Beyond the sentence: Introducing discourse analysis.
Macmillan Publishers.
Thornbury, S. (2006). Grammar. Oxford University Press.
Ur, P. (1988). Grammar practice activities: A practical guide for teachers.
Cambridge University Press.
 Thank
you for
listening!