The Journal of Educational Development

JED 7 (2) 2019 : 104 - 116

http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/jed

The Use of Video Games in Literacy Education and Development:

What Have We Learned?

Masoud Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki

Middle Tennessee State University, USA

Article Info Abstract

Article History :
The growth of video gaming popularity has traversed the entertaining area
Received February 2019
Accepted March 2019 and is finding its place in the educational arena as well. The educational
Published June 2019 potentials of video games have prompted literacy practitioners and
Keywords: researchers to embark on using video games for the purpose of increasing the
video game, literacy, quality and productivity of literacy education. The current theoretical article
instruction, reading, reviews the latest theories and research findings related to the general use of
gaming, digital game
video games in education with an eye towards the literacy instruction in
particular. The material selected for this systematic review consisted of both
theoretical and empirical articles about the use of video games in learning and
teaching of literacy in the educational contexts. Even though there is tangible
evidence as to the positive effects of digital games on students` learning, there
is still a dearth of converging evidence as to the practical benefits of inclusion
of video games in literacy education. The available evidence are mostly the
results of correlational studies, and we still need a connected research stream
in pursuit of finding the predictive potentials of the video gaming in literacy
instruction.

© 2019 Universitas Negeri Semarang

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Correspondence : p-ISSN 2085-4943
1301 E Main St, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA
E-mail: mm2ad@mtmail.mtsu.edu e-ISSN 2502-4469
 Masoud Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki / The Journal of Educational Development 7 (2) 2019 : 104 – 116

INTRODUCTION that classroom procedures are detached from

routine life since classrooms possess their own
The use and popularity of digital visual demarcations in terms of time, rules and space.
media are consistently increasing, which has The exponential growth of game-based
resulted in some changes in educational practices. learning since the 1980s has been precipitated by
Education is also refashioning in tandem with the advent and ubiquity of entertainment video-
other facets of our lives under the heavy influence gaming (Höffler, Prechtl & Nerdel, 2010;
of digitalization. As new technologies have Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2014). The video game
developed over the past few decades, the learning industry took in approximately 25.1 billion dollars
process has been transformed accordingly in 2010 (Malykhnia, 2014). Digital video games
(Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2015). In the have been shown to be enormously appealing to
contemporary world, digital visual stimuli children and adolescents (Annetta, Minogue,
typically supersede written materials due to the Holmes & Cheng 2009; Duke & Pearson, 2008).
propagation of digital devices (Ngiam et al., 2011) The Entertainment Software Association (2008)
and this has spawned sweeping changes in our estimated that around 65 percent of the American
learning and teaching fashion (Conway & population play video games on a regular basis.
Christiansen, 2005). More and more, educators Because some video games have the potential to
are adapting and incorporating technology use, hold individuals attention who are engaged in
including game-based learning, into educational learning situations, they are sometimes referred to
practices (Mahmoodi-Shahrebbaki, 2015). as “edutainment” media (Griffiths, 2008).
The traditional linear and rigid modes of Juul (2005) contends that being engaged in
instructions, which are abundant with prescriptive playing a video game can be considered a learning
rules, has been found to be the primary reason for experience. Prensky (2005) asserts that the current
the lack of learners` interest in these instructional young age groups, who have been born and raised
environments (Boud & Feletti, 2013; Mahmoodi- in the environments wherein internet and digital
Shahrebabaki, 2015). Video gaming is one devices abound, can be labeled “digital natives”
particular area of digital life that has become who prefer learning using digital tools. This
exceedingly trendy. Because of its popularity and popularity has provided a fertile field for
widespread use, some educational theoreticians researchers to investigate the potential influences
have proposed the inclusion of video game-based of the video games on general learning
learning (e.g., Gibson, 2006; Wu et al., 2012; experiences of players. While most video games
Arnab et al., 2015). are played for amusement and the pleasure of
The concept of learning is still an elusive discovery (Anderson, 2004), educational and
concept; however, we for sure know that the way learning aspects (e.g., learning how to pass a
we define learning would affect how we study it particular challenge) are indeed a significant
(Reinders, 2017). The notion of including video component.
games in education has been primarily based on Van Eck (2006) argues that games are
cognitive and sociocultural theories of teaching influential on account of what they manifest and
and learning (Juul, 2011; Mahmoodi- what people do during the game. According to
Shahrebabaki, 2014; Mayo, 2009). Huizinga the discovery learning theory, students tend to
(1955) has been one of the original voices who has become more active learners when they are
stressed the effectiveness of including the elements engaged in activities in which there are problem-
of playfulness and games in educational settings. solving requirements (McNamara, 2012; Van
In his study of play, Huizinga states that. Joolingen, 1998). The elements of interactivity
“anthropology and its sister sciences have so far and popularity of the video games have spawned
laid too little stress on the concept of play and on interest among some researchers that the digital
the supreme importance to civilization of the play- games may be utilized in educational settings
factor.” (n.p.). Huizinga (1955) in his seminal (Annetta, Minogue, Holmes & Cheng 2009;
book Homo Ludens, explains that classes and Peterson, 2016). The digital natives have been
playing games have a lot in common. He adds mostly born after the 1980s and been working

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with the digital devices since they were very communicate and gain useful knowledge”
young (Ng, 2012). (UNESCO, 2006, p. 147). The purpose of the
Many educational practitioners have current review is to provide a synopsis of the
recognized the potentials of the digital world theoretical framework and practical implications
being used as an educational tool for the digital of implementing video games as a literacy
natives. More specifically, they have been instruction tool. First, the theoretical frameworks
implementing immersive gaming technology to are discussed. Second, the results of related studies
make the learning environment more appealing to are provided with an eye towards the links
their learners. This trend has been concomitant to between the suggested theories and rationale.
the transformation of the way video gaming Finally, the gaps in the present literature are
publishers develop and offer the games in terms of discussed along with some recommendations for
the ease and lower cost of the game development the further research. The studies chosen for this
platforms. For instance, Game Maker is a freeware review have been selected on a comprehensive
with a simple interface allowing educators to be search on major online databases including Eric,
able to develop diverse video games apposite to EBSCO, Psych info, ProQuest, Game-
their students` needs (Papastergiou, 2009). research.com and so forth. The key words using
Another example would be Sloodle Sloodle, for the searching were “literacy,” “video game,”
which is a virtual environment wherein students “education,” “instruction,” “reading” “writing”
and teachers can develop virtual classrooms “digital game” and “digital learning.”
(Alenezi & Shahi, 2015).
There is now reasonable evidence in the THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
literature suggesting the fruitfulness of using video
games in educational settings (Anneta, 2008; According to the socio-cultural theory of
Granicm, Lobel & Engels, 2014; Heins, 2017; cognitive development and constructivist
Squire, 2008). In a recent comprehensive perspectives, learning and acquisition processes
metanalysis (Clark, Tanner-Smith, & include cases of symbol use and change (Alibali &
Killingsworth, 2016) analyzed the research Nathan, 2018). As von Glasersfeld states,
findings about video games and learning for K-12 “cognitive change and learning take place when a
students. Based on their metanalyses, the authors scheme, instead of producing the expected result,
found that game-based instructional design leads to perturbation, and perturbation, in turn,
significantly increased learning compared to non- leads to accommodation that establishes a new
game instructional design. Based on these equilibrium” (1989, p. 128). The functionality of
findings, literacy researchers have taken further the video games in education has been discussed
steps by evaluating the effectiveness of video with reference to the prominent learning models
game-based material in literacy instruction. These including such as Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
researchers have made their suggestions by Development (ZPD) (1987). Vygotsky’s Zone of
referring to the already established strong links Proximal Development (ZPD) reminds the
between literacy development and sociocultural importance of scaffolding the learners consistently
factors (also called external) as well as cognitive during their education on the condition that as
(also known as internal) factors. It is noteworthy long as they progress toward their education, less
to mention that while investigating the assistance should be provided. The idea is to train
interactions between literacy and video gaming, learners to be self-regulated and capable of using
literacy should not be limited to the printed or learning strategies (mainly metacognitive
written texts. As Lankshear and Knobel, (2007) strategies) with more ease. Use of video games in
note, “Literacy in current times is a matter of education can well fit into this model in a sense
applying the knowledge of reading and writing in that typically the initial stages of games are simple
a particular kind of script” (p. 7). and lenient; however, as the players are more
In this paper, literacy is defined as the attuned with the requirements of the game, the
“ability to use language, numbers, images, levels of difficulty increase. Players should learn
computers, and other basic means to understand, new skills (also new information) in order to

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proceed and succeed. The progression in the Throughout the game making process,
game, which is intermingled with a sense of self- developers have sought to employ functions of
achievement, can be a motivating factor to keep social interactions and player companionship in
the players more engaged in the activity the production of gaming consoles (Ang et al.,
(Kusurkar, Artino, & Ten Cate, 2015). 2010; Consalvo, 2006). For example, The
Situated learning theory (Brown, Collins & Entertainment Conglomerate Sony, introduced
Duguid, 1989) states that an individual`s Play Station 3 Home (Sony, 2007) as the 3D
consciousness and learning experience is formed virtual world in which gamers may converse,
through the activity, context, and culture wherein discuss game experience, and co-play games.
it was learned. Researchers have found that Therefore, playing digital games is not confined to
playing video games is a fundamental the materials and content within the game
socialization and cognitive mechanism existing in software itself, but it also encompasses a digital
many cultures (Granicm, Lobel & Engels, 2014; culture that is instigated by the game-playing
Greenfield, 2014; Höffler, Prechtl & Nerdel, experience. (Ang et al., 2010; Gee, 2003; Squire,
2010). Further, it has been suggested that video 2002).
games can utilize this principle of playing as an Some researchers have discussed the effects
educational strategy (See Dondlinger, 2007; of video-gaming within the framework of Activity
Mayo, 2009). Gee (2003) has suggested a Theory introduced and developed by Leont’ev
rationale for using video games to improve (1978). The tenets of Activity Theory were built
literacy development. He argues that main rules upon the Vygotskyan notions on educational
followed in video games can be implemented for psychology which challenged atomistic and
students’ literacy learning. The rules he suggests reductionist views toward education resulting in
that may be used in literacy instruction and separation of intellect and feeling (Roth & Lee,
learning include focal attention and continuous 2007). Activity Theory (see Figure 1) asserts that
linguistic engagement. individuals are socio-culturally embedded actors
Video games are similar to language, as and, their actions are influenced by cultural tools
they can be utilized to convey meaning (Ferdig & upon which subsequent sociocultural knowledge
Pytash, 2014). They provide a rationale that has is built (Ang et al., 2010; Engeström, Leont’ev,
roots in socio-cultural, environmental and 1978; Miettinen & Punamäki, 1999). The surge of
metacognitive ideologies. For example, Gee interest in the Activity Theory in Computer
(2016) argues that learning should not be deemed Assisted Education has been concomitant with the
as an exclusive internal mental process; rather, it current trends in educational research adopting a
should be mainly viewed as a person`s response to more inclusive and holistic view toward learning
environmental stimuli. He further mentions that by considering the influences of contextual events,
human learning is reliant upon accumulated personal interactions, ecological factors and
experiences instead of the storage and retrieval of environmental agents on education and learning
mental knowledge. Video games help the player to (Jackson et al., 2008; Lim, 2002; Pantić & Florian,
enter into a virtual world and enjoy that 2015).
experience as a part of the virtual world`s society.
Research studies about video games have seen a
transference from traditional software analysis to
the analysis of elements of the games within a
sociocultural framework (Ang et al., 2010;
Krzywinska & Lowood, 2006; Mortensen, 2006).
This change has mainly been owing to the
progress made in the video game industry toward Figure 1. The basic structure of activity. Adapted
the interpersonal facets of play (Gee, 2016; from “Investigating language learning activity
Greitemeyer & Mügge, 2014), such as multiplayer using a CALL task in the self-access center” by
online gaming. Montoro, C., and Hampel, R., 2011. Studies in
Self-Access Learning Journal, 5, p.

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The subject is the individual who is deemed (2014) has called “paratext” to be used in literacy
a focal point of the analysis and, the object is the education. Apperley and Walsh (2012) define
problem space which can lead to outcomes with paratext as:
the using the available tools. Tools refer to any “The term paratext is useful for helping
concepts or resources that allow individuals to teachers and practitioners familiarize themselves
interact with various items (Asquire, 2002; Barr, with the wide-ranging print and multimodal texts
Noble & Biddle, 2007; Buckingham & Willet, that circulate in digital gaming cultures. Digital
2013; Vygotsky, 1978; Wong et al., 2007). And game paratexts represent print and multimodal
finally, the community are those with whom the texts (walkthroughs, video tutorials, fan fiction,
individual has a similar objective (Ang et al., fan art, for example) that are easily accessible to
2010; Wasko & Faraj, 2000)). According to the teachers and practitioners when digital games
Activity Theorists, the goal of video-gamers is themselves are not”. (p.2).
enjoyment and the player experience, which can This perspective is similar to the
be considered as an outcome in this framework, rationalization put forth by Buckingham and Burn
and is mediated by the video game as a tool (Barr, (2007) asserting “game literacy also implies that
Noble & Biddle, 2007; Buckingham & Willet, there is something specific about this medium that
2013). distinguishes it from others– that we positively
Another sociocultural oriented theory in need game literacy as distinct from print literacy
video game studies has been the theory of “magic or television literacy, or even a broader notion like
circle” (Salen & Zimmerman, 2003). The “magic media literacy” (p. 325).
circle” according to Sale and Zimmerman (2003) From a micro-social view, two analogous
“in a very basic sense, the magic circle of a game terms of Video Game-Supported Collaborative
is where the game takes place. To play a game Learning (VGSC) (Sánchez, Zea, & Gutiérrez,
means entering into a magic circle, or perhaps 2009) and Collaborative Game-based Learning
creating one as a game begins”. (p. 95). Approach (Romero et al., 2012) have been
Correspondingly, video games are not developed introduced. The main argument of these concepts
and played under the pressure of binding rules; is that learning by doing promotes learning and
instead, there are progressive debates and gives us better opportunity to take the full benefit
renegotiations according to the social situation of the collaboration existing among the video
available within the game (Montro & Hampel, gamers in multiplayer online games. The benefits
2011). of using video games in educational settings have
Researchers who have sought to identify also been discussed within the framework of
the potential associations between literacy and Connected Learning Theory (Ito et al., 2013).
video gaming put their arguments on the basis of a According to this theory, learning transpires
sociocultural view that while individuals play anytime, anywhere and educational practitioners
video games, they take part in a composite should take advantage of the video-games for
“constellation of literacy practices” (Steinkuehler, making learning more appealing and
2007, pp. 299–300). Apperley and Walsh (2012) contextualized for students by relating their
offer a heuristic model within which digital interest to a circle of support and academic
gaming literacy may be fruitful in recognizing subjects (Ito et al., 2013).
different facets of students` gaming literacy and
opt games which support curricular and/or VIDEO GAMES AND LITERACY
extracurricular activities. Basically, their model is DEVELOPMENT
aimed to introduce diverse aspects of video
gaming cultures which may be utilized in literacy Gee (2004) used his own experiences as a
teaching and assessment. Accordingly, (Meta) gamer to exemplify his emphasis on the pragmatic
knowledge and (Meta) language observed in the dimensions of literacy, on the idea that “writing”
games can connect students` home-based literacy and “reading” do not exist as generalized,
learning to school-based literacy instruction. The abstracted cognitive activities but only as specific
authors` conclusion is similar to what Abrams social practices embedded in the purposes and

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goals of particular discourse communities, or responses, requiring players to analyze incoming

“semiotic domains,” as he referred to them (p. data and produce a reaction expeditiously. They
17). Simply put, Gee reminded us that there are add that “during gameplay, delays in processing
“many different ways of reading and often have severe consequences, providing a large
writing” and that each different way is embedded incentive for players to increase speed” (p. 321).
in “a lived and historically changing set Processing speed, in the literacy context, refers to
of discursive practices” (pp. 14, 21). Trying to the rate of accomplishment of reading
separate reading and writing as technical comprehension with reasonable accuracy
skills apart from these discursive practices means (McIntyre et al., 2017).
losing an understanding of the motivation The notion of “rapid processing” has been
and purpose that drives the development of actively followed by the researchers in the literacy-
literacy. Gee (2003) criticized what often happens development related studies. For instance,
in literacy classrooms as a result: “In school, Jacobson et al. (2011) sought to compare the
many times children are expected to read texts reading fluency of children with attention deficit
with little or no knowledge about any social and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) with control
practice within which those practices are used” (p. groups including children without symptoms of
16). ADHD across the tasks of the Wechsler
Since the 1990s, some video games have Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV-I)
become available with the sole purpose of helping Processing Speed Index, “dissociating the
players enhance their literacy skills (Ferdig & executive processing components necessary to
Pytash, 2014; Gee, 2003; Mahmoodi- response selection and preparation from the initial
Shahrebabaki, 2014; Squire, 2011; Steinkuehler, perceptual and terminal graphomotor output
2010). Several studies have probed the potential demand of Processing Speed (PS)” (p. 220). Their
usefulness of video games for boosting cognitive sample included 62 children diagnosed with
engagement resulted from the gaming experience. ADHD. Based on their findings, the authors assert
For example, Barlett, Vowels, Shanteau, Crow that the element “processing speed” (i.e., that
and Miller (2009) examined the effect that playing involving response selection) had a statistically
two video games (one violent and one non- significant correlation with oral reading fluency
violent) exerted on cognitive capacity. The performance of their participants. They further
participants of their study were asked to sit for claimed that, because reading fluency requires
identical cognitive tests five times. The initial four both efficient and accurate responding in addition
tests were implemented for practicing, and the to the rapid reaction, the slow response can be due
final used served as the post-treatment to the sizable executive demand in response
comparison. Random assignment was used for selection and preparation.
formation of three groups: the control group, There is also substantial evidence that
including 54 participants, the non-violent video selective attentional factors are actively involved
game experimental group, including 27 in higher-level tasks in spatial cognition (see
participants, and the violent video game Cardoso-Leite & Bavelier, 2014; Mahmoodi-
experimental group including 32 players. The Shahrebabaki, 2015; Matthews & Meck, 2016;
results revealed that the cognitive performance of Unsworth et al., 2016). Selective attention refers
the participants in the control group did not to the capability to concentrate on relevant
indicate any significant change in cognitive required information germane to the task while
performance; however, those in video game filtering out impertinent information (Chung-Fat-
groups did have substantial growth in their Yim, & Bialystok, 2017). Blumberg (1998)
cognitive performance. The authors concluded observed that video game players perform
that playing video games can potentially enhance cognitive tasks more actively thanks to the ability
cognitive performance. to focus on specific game aspects. Similar
Dye, Green, and Bavelier (2009) contend evidence corroborates that individuals who play
that playing video games demands instantaneous video games routinely have an expanded
processing of sensory information and automatic attentional capacity (Pashler, 2016). The ability to

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keep attention has been indicated to predict studies demonstrated that being involved in
academic success in school beyond cognitive and producing video games prompted students to
language skills (Duncan et al., 2007). focus on metacognitive strategies more frequently
Franceschini et al. (2013) found that 12 to know how video games are conceptualized
hours of involvement with action video games- (Beavis & O’Mara, 2010). The overall conclusion
without explicit phonological or orthographic of the authors was that video games have the
instructions - notably enhanced the reading speed potential to be used in literacy instruction as
and accuracy of children with dyslexia. They players have to read and write para-texts, such as
assessed three variables including reading, websites, chats, instructions, and online forums.
phonological, and attentional variables using two Their use of cases study, however, may not
matched groups of children diagnosed with produce substantial evidence owing to the case
dyslexia before and after their involvement in study natural limitations including replicability
playing action or non-action video games for nine and generalizability.
sittings of 80-minutes each day. The results Andrews (2007) discussed the symbiotic
showed that playing action video games associations between playing video games and
ameliorated reading speed of dyslexic children; literacy development. From this perspective,
however, accuracy was not significantly children can retain and recall the words in reality
influenced. These findings support the notion that if they are exposed to those words during game-
playing video games promotes attentional span of playing engagement. There exists a ‘symbiotic’
readers. The author concluded that “this attention relationship between video gaming and literacy
improvement can directly translate into better practices (Andrews, 2007). Moreover, game-
reading abilities, providing a new, fast, fun playing children usually follow many instructions
remediation of dyslexia that has theoretical during their games and are more actively involved
relevance in unveiling the causal role of attention in game-related discussions. Hence, their exposure
in reading acquisition” (p. 462). The main to the authentic language is augmented.
shortcoming of their study was the lack of Correspondingly, Mifsud, Vella, and Camilleri
comparison between control and treatment group (2013) hold that children who play literacy-related
and their use of a pre-post design which leaves the video games possess. Substantially superior letter-
effect of any potential third variable unaccounted naming and letter-sounding performance and
for. show significant story abstractions as well as
Beavis and O’Mara (2010) conducted case greater knowledge of letters in their own names.
studies of two instructors who merged literacy Their argument is aligned with the findings of
lessons with video games. One of the teachers had Rosas et al. (2003) who reported statistically
students read images from video games to do significant improvements in spelling and reading
critical analyses. Their analysis was based on comprehension performance of their participants
players’ interactions with games as players, after they played literacy-related video games.
creators and, readers. The primary goal of the While there is a gap in the literature as to
researchers was to conduct a critical reflection on the direct influence of playing video games on
the practices happening during the play. The fluency in reading-related skills including Rapid
results indicated that students had the “capacity to Automatized Naming (RAN) or Oral Reading
anticipate what new players would need to know, Fluency (ORF), it has been shown that playing
while also assuming a shared degree of internet video games has significantly affected attention
savviness and knowledge” (Beavis & O’Mara, span of some ADHD children readers (Jacobsen
2010, p. 67). et al., 2011). Because RAN has been indicated to
The other instructor engaged students in be strongly influenced by the attention span of
utilizing GameMaker. Students had to consider readers (Ryan et al., 2016), it is not impertinent to
genre and narrative awareness to create video hypothesize that playing video games may
games. Students conducted peer-review to be able produce a positive effect on RAN and other skills
to provide feedback to their peers about their that have been linked and may be influenced by
games. The analysis of the results of the two case attention span. Future research evaluating the

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direct links between video games and these skills material practices attending them: Given their
(e.g., RAN) could add valuable insight into the increasing domination of the entertainment
role gaming may play in the reading process. industry, wide-spread and growing popularity
Kongmee et al. (2011) investigated the with people of all age groups, ethnicities, and
effects of massive multiplayer online role-playing economic classes, and purported addictive quality
games (MMORPGs) on language learning. The of those who plug in . . . MMOGs are quickly
multiplayer games were solely for the purpose of becoming the form of entertainment and a major
entertainment and were chosen by the mechanism of socialization for young and old
participants. Their rationale was based on the alike”. (p. 78).
hypothesis that video games can be resorted to as
a substitute social interface to promote language LIMITATIONS
acquisition. Additionally, because each game
included multiple tasks and objectives, playing The studies conducted thus far have several
would establish an engaging environment for significant limitations worthy of notice. First and
consistent practice. most importantly, most of the studies reported in
The researchers initially familiarized the this review were case studies, correlational, and
participants with the MMORPGs and monitored pre-post designs. Unfortunately, these studies
their progress via recorded sessions. The cannot provide the same scientific evidence for
participants were carefully observed for their use causal relations as random controlled trials, which
of the English language while playing the games is a methodological limitation.
and finishing the objectives together. The data Second, there wasn’t a systematic
gathering and analysis processes were action distinction between the games used in these
research and ethnography. The students took studies. Specific characteristics of games including
multiple tests before, during, and after playing the the amount of action, the amount of concentration
video games. Their findings demonstrated that necessary to finish tasks, and how recreational
students who played the MMORPGs had level (for entertaining purpose only) should be
significant improvements in their reading controlled and explained if more valid and reliable
comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. The evidence were not reported.
results were attained by means of screen recorders Third, the available literature has
providing virtual ethnography. The findings were mainly focused on the effects of playing video
also corroborated by pre and post-test on ELLIS games on the perceptual, visual and attentional
Placement Test (EPT). As a part of ELLIS factors excluding other essential elements such as
academic suite, the EPT measures each student’s auditory or kinetic aspects which have been
skills in each of three skill areas—listening shown to affect literacy development (Sencibaugh,
comprehension, grammar, and vocabulary. The 2007).
authors concluded that the learners showed more
eagerness in using English and greater patience in CONCLUSION
reading. The researchers also observed more
motivation for writing; however, they did not The representation of literacy is changing
report any effect sizes. Although the findings from what has been seen to be ‘static print/book
introduced new insights into the nature of culture . . . where learning is geographically tied to
language usage in online game forums, their a desk . . . and an old-style transmission and
generalization is limited due to the nature of surveillance pedagogy’ (Luke, 2003, p. 398). Due
sampling and treatment. to this transfiguration, young learners are
Steinkuehler (2004, 2006, 2007 & 2008) currently more inclined to rely upon the use of
conducted several studies on the educational digital technologies to teach themselves (sang et
opportunities produced by the proliferation of al., 2010), self-regulate learning (Schraw, 2007),
Internet-based role-playing games. Steinkuehler and discover the unknown (Laurillard, 2013).
(2004) maintains that MMORPGs: “are ripe for a Consequently, educators ought to revisit the
cultural/cognitive analysis of the social and conventional view toward literacy that merely

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views print-based texts as the cornerstone of Additionally, future research should include
literacy teaching and research. more proximal measures of literacy. More
Based on the review of the literature on the research with this regard would enable the direct
relationships between playing video games and effect of gaming on literacy to be examined to
literacy development, several conclusions can be determine if stronger links between the two exist
drawn. First, research needs to investigate as opposed to the indirect connection some of the
whether using educational games can be useful for reviewed studies indicate. Finally, commercial,
the improvement of both reading and writing recreational games which include,
instruction (Adams, 2007). Second, research is unintentionally, fruitful elements for literacy
required to examine not just how video games can education can be studied separately (Mackereth &
be applied in education but how different varieties Anderson, 2000).
of games can be utilized and how game The existing evidence of the positive effects
compositions give support to learning of video games is also corroborated by students,
compositions(Black, 2005). instructors and, parents for the application of
There should be noted here that over- video games in literacy acquisition classrooms.
reliance on playing video games may be Research evidence shows educational and non-
detrimental to the educational progress of educational digital video games may be
children. Numerous research studies have implemented for literacy development and
reported the adverse effects of video game instruction (see Kickmeier‐Rust & Albert, 2010).
addiction phenomena (e.g., Brunborg, Mentzoni, The preliminary research suggests that
& Frøyland, 2014; King, Delfabbro, & Griffiths, investigating video games as literate practices
2013; Weinstein, 2010). Gentile (2009) reported deserves more investigation, especially given the
that on average the time children spend playing exponential growth of their presence. Although
video games is to a great extent more than the the initial study examining the link between
time they spend on their school assignments or gaming and literacy is relatively sparse, the
readings. Therefore, it is advisable that parent evidence suggesting a link affords a potentially
make their children strike a balance between the rich opportunity for further research to explore not
time they spend on playing video games, only their relationship but also to develop
including educational games, and the time they interventions using gaming to improve literacy
have to spend on their school assignments (Weis directly.
& Cerankosky, 2010)
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