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Defining Emotional Intelligence in Music Education

Article in Arts Education Policy Review · May 2002

DOI: 10.1080/10632910209600299

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 Defining Emotional Intelligence in
Music Education
MICHELE KASCHUB

P
sychometric theories of human what Goleman’s theory may mean in a expanded upon Spearman’s view.
intelligence have previously domain where “feelingful intelligence” Thurstone (1947) and more recently
sought to understand the struc- is considered a key element and to Sternberg (1995) have both argued that
ture of intellectual functioning determine what aspect of Goleman’s Spearman’s g was an artifact of his sta-
by examining the form of intel- theory, if any, might be usefully incor- tistical technique. Thurstone suggested
ligence and attempting to identify its porated into music education practices. that seven factors, including verbal
component parts. Generally, much of comprehension, verbal fluency, number,
the investigation of this phenomenon Intelligence Theories: A Brief spatial visualization, inductive reason-
has been based in pencil-and-paper tests Historical Perspective ing, memory, and perceptual speed
of mental abilities that include the use Although the question of how people composed intelligence. Cattell (1968)
of analogies, classifications, and the know something, represent their knowl- suggested that Spearman’s g be divided
completion of mathematical series. edge, and use that knowledge has exist- into two factors—fluidity and crystal-
Although conventional testing has been ed throughout recorded history, the first lization. Fluidity represented problem-
somewhat limited to these three basic of the major theories of intelligence setting and problem-solving abilities,
types of activities, criticism of the theo- appeared in the early 1900s in an article although crystallization represented a
ries upon which such tests are based has by Spearman (1904). From general knowledge base about specific fields.
generated further inquiry into the observation, he noted that people who Expanding Spearman’s single factor to
processes of the mind and the multiple did well on one mental test often did extremes, Guilford (1967) proposed a
factors that may be at play in human well on others, and conversely, people structure-of-intellect theory that first
meaning-making. who did poorly on one test often did contained 120 factors and eventually
In this article, I will briefly review poorly on other such mental tests. Based grew to contain 150 by 1984. However,
some of the theories of multiple intelli- on these observations, Spearman devel- as parsimony is generally considered an
gences and factors contributing to estab- oped a statistical technique called “fac- element of good theory building, other
lished views of intelligence and relate tor analysis” in which he termed a gen- intelligence theorists have since limited
those to the recent best-selling writings eral or overall intelligence factor the g their perspectives to include but a hand-
of journalist and former New York Times factor. This factor represented the ful of components or factors.
reporter Daniel Goleman (1995). Gole- degree to which a person’s scores on Phenix, Foshay, Gardner, Eisner, and
man suggests that measures of emotion- various intelligence scales matched Sternberg have each offered theories of
al intelligence may provide a better each other. However, labeling a factor the components of overall human intelli-
understanding of human intellectual and understanding the complexities that gence, and many similarities exist among
processes than the previously favored underlie that factor are two very differ- their various viewpoints. In Realms of
intelligence quotients derived largely ent things. Since the g factor could not Meaning, Phenix (1964) suggests six
from verbal and mathematics-based be more thoroughly defined through domains of meaning including symbolics
testing procedures. As a music educator, Spearman’s work, other psychologists (math, verbal, gesture), empirics (physi-
I believe that it is important to question began to offer theories that countered or cal and social sciences), aesthetics (arts),
Vol. 103, No.5, May/June 2002 9
synnoetics (personal or relational knowl- Goleman’s Theory of The essence of Goleman’s theory of
edge), ethics (moral), and synoptics (his- Emotional Intelligence emotional intelligence can be reduced to
tory, philosophy, religion). Foshay’s At a quick glance it would appear that the following statement: Success results
(1974) view also included six categories: Goleman’s theory of emotional intelli- from an awareness of one’s own emo-
intellectual, emotional, social, physical, gence could simply correspond to the tional state and an awareness of anoth-
aesthetic, and spiritual categories. Simi- views of Phenix, Foshay, Eisner, and er’s emotional state that lead to produc-
larly, Eisner’s (1985) domain areas Gardner. However, Goleman’s theory tive action. In this case, success is
include aesthetic, scientific, interperson- seems to stem from a different motiva- defined as happiness, solid career
al, intuitive, narrative-paradigmatic, for- tion. In identifying aspects or domains choice, positive family life, or the
mal, practical, and spiritual. of intelligence, Phenix (1964) used the “American Dream” in general. Other au-
Gaining perhaps the most widely term “synnoetics” to capture the essence thors have not placed such product def-
acknowledged position in intelligence of knowledge of the self and how that inition or outcome requirements upon
theories through popular exposure, knowledge relates to an understanding their respective theoretical stances.
Gardner (1983) suggested that there are of others. Foshay (1974) identified two Specifically, Goleman’s (1995) theo-
at least seven human intelligences: lin- categories similar to the components of ry of emotional intelligence rests on the
guistic, musical, logical-mathematical, “synnoetics,” emotional and social cornerstone supposition that self-aware-
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interperson- intelligence. Gardner (1983) and Eisner ness and the ability to control how one
al, and intrapersonal. Gardner’s work is (1985), too, offer views of personal responds to one’s own moods or feel-
often cited by those interested in music intelligences that include knowledge of ings is a key to success. To develop this
because it represents the first appear- the self and interaction with others. theory, Goleman drew upon a wide vari-
ance of music identified as a component For example, Gardner (1983), divides ety of sources including studies that
similar to—but yet requiring thought personal intelligence into two cate- detailed how different groups of people
processes and actions that make it dif- gories, intrapersonal and interpersonal. became successful or failed at their
ferent from—the other art domains. Intrapersonal is defined by the core attempts at success. Perhaps the best-
Although Sternberg’s view of human capacity to have known experiment conducted by Gole-
intelligence encompasses many of the man is the “marshmallow test.” In this
access to one’s own feeling life—one’s
aspects of those previously cited, he range of affects or emotions: the capacity
exercise four-year-old children interact
places additional emphasis on the role to instantly effect discriminations among with a marshmallow. The researcher
of social interaction in the development these feelings and, eventually, to label meets individually with each child in a
of the human mind. Sternberg’s theory them, to enmesh them in symbolic codes, room with only a table, a chair, and a
includes three aspects: analytical, cre- to draw upon them as a means of under- two-way mirror. The researcher tells the
standing and guiding one’s behavior.
ative, and practical. The analytical com- (239)
child that he or she may have the marsh-
ponent is measured through analogies mallow to eat now, or, if they wait until
and puzzles, which reflect how the indi- The second of the personal intelli- the researcher returns from running a
vidual relates to their internal represen- gences, interpersonal, is identified by short errand, the child may have two
tation of the world. The creative aspect the “ability to notice and make distinc- marshmallows to eat. The researcher
involves insights and synthesis and the tions among other individuals and, in then leaves, and the child either imme-
ability to respond to new stimuli and sit- particular, among their moods, tempera- diately eats the marshmallow or devises
uations. The final aspect, practical, ments, motivations, and intentions” (p. some strategy (where various degrees of
involves the ability to understand and 239). Goleman does discuss both of success were observed) for controlling
solve real life problems, a kind of cog- these intelligences as defined by Gard- the desire to eat the marshmallow.
nitive “street smarts” (Miele 1995). ner, but he places more emphasis on the Goleman reports that when the first
These theories represent some of the importance of interpersonal skills. four-year-olds involved with this test
various views that have evolved and Although the skills of social interaction reached high school age, the children
shaped educational research and prac- are certainly important to the function who had been able to wait for the sec-
tice in the last century. Although com- of musicians, it is the intrapersonal ond marshmallow were better adjusted
monalities certainly exist among the growth of emotional knowledge and and more popular, confident, and
represented perspectives, the aspects understanding which is part of the musi- dependable teenagers. The children who
that continue to garner the most atten- cal experience that philosophers of immediately ate the marshmallow tend-
tion are the very first components sug- music usually focus upon. Goleman’s ed to be lonely, easily frustrated, and
gested by Spearman—mathematical theory, although acknowledging that obstinate. Further, when these children
and verbal knowledge. As cognitive such a position exists, creates a separa- took the SAT exam, those who had not
scientists and evolutionary theorists tion between these two modes of intelli- immediately eaten the marshmallow
begin to pool their resources, however, gence that is as faulty as the separation averaged 210 points higher in their
this perspective is continually chal- between thinking and feeling made by combined score than their marshmal-
lenged. the early intelligence theorists. low-eating counterparts.

10 Arts Education Policy Review

 Here two very important issues must Suggesting that our youth are in trouble of cognition (79) that function through
be addressed. First, can future success because they lack a knowledge of their continuous exchange, each serving to
really be predicted by a marshmallow? personal feelingful world (2), Witkin clarify the work of the other.
Although Goleman does not make this further asserts that, although knowledge Reimer (1992) agrees with Arnheim’s
claim, he does argue that the ability to of facts and external objects is certainly assessment, saying “Feeling is probably
delay gratification is a skill representa- necessary for individuals to adapt and implicated in processes of making dis-
tive of self-awareness, or “metamood,” survive within their surroundings, it is criminations among events, classifying
and that when such self-awareness is the ability to relate meaningfully with event-clusters, abstracting parts from
exhibited it is a sign of emotional intel- one’s world that is of critical impor- wholes, integrating levels of hierarchi-
ligence or potential success. Second, tance. The ability to relate to the world cal interrelations, comprehending rela-
although high SAT scores have long requires a knowledge of feelings as they tions, anticipating incipient events, syn-
been desirable, it appears that Goleman pertain to the internal realm of experi- thesizing wholes out of parts and
is suggesting that increasing one’s

T
emotional intelligence will lead to
higher scores on traditional testing
measures. Hence, emotional intelli-
gence can be described as additive in he a rtific ia l sep a ra tion of
that it adds to what has always been
considered standard intelligence—
intellig enc e into thinking a nd
mathematical and verbal processing feeling is a d ivision tha t limits ra ther tha n
skills. Emotional intelligence in this
theory is not separate or unique, but exp a nd s our und ersta nd ing of huma n
simply a tool to achieve higher test
scores (as though music education had
intellig enc e reg a rd less of d oma in.
not been offered that role before!).
If the application of Goleman’s theo- ences of feeling (19). Goleman, too, forming gestalts at higher levels, and so
ry simply increases mathematical and argues that through knowledge of one’s forth” (39). Reimer continues to address
verbal intelligence, then it holds little own emotional state, a person becomes why the development of feelingful intel-
value for music education. However, if able to handle their responses in a pro- ligence is so important in the arts:
the increase in mathematical and verbal ductive manner. However, when Gole- The point is the opportunities to employ
intelligence is simply a by-product of man addresses the application of his feeling in these cognitive operations, and
the process of exploring emotional theory, the end goal seems to be that the experience of the expansion of the self
such engagements afford, are at the core
intelligence, then the theory may have individuals develop a knowledge of of the value of the arts and of aesthetic
application in music education. But is themselves that allows them to interact education. The central function of educa-
the theory of emotional intelligence, as successfully with others. This knowl- tion in the arts is to help all students
offered by Goleman, related to the theo- edge-of-self does not pertain to the develop their capacities to gain such cog-
ries of emotion, feeling, and aesthetic internal life of emotion or feeling, but to nition, which is likely to be what is of the
most worth from the arts.
cognition discussed by philosophers, the social ramifications of how such
psychologists, and researchers interest- emotions are displayed. In other words, Reimer implies, feel-
ed in the arts? The role of perception in cognition ing plays a unique role in the arts and
has received much attention from through engagement in the arts, students
The Intelligence of Feeling philosophers and psychologists alike. should have the opportunity to develop
Investigations into the intelligence of Arnheim (1985) argues that intuition is the feelingful component of cognition.
feeling have included psychological a property within the domain of percep- However, this type of engagement re-
(Arnheim 1985), philosophical (Witkin tion and that intuition is responsible for quires both feeling and thinking work-
1974, Minsky 1982, Stokes 1994), and framing large wholes within particular ing in unison.
neurological (Clynes and Nettheim contexts (78). Once intuition has deter- Goleman’s theory seems to separate
1982) inquiry. Interestingly, those who mined the overall situation, then intel- feeling and thinking and relegate differ-
choose to examine feelingful intelli- lectual operations that seek linear rela- ent responsibilities to each half of his
gence usually do not separate feeling tions and logical links within the whole intelligence theory. Although he empha-
from thinking as was done by the early are engaged in meaning making. In this sizes the importance of being aware of
intelligence theorists (Spearman 1904, way, intuition and intellect work togeth- one’s own feelings, he continues to sug-
Thurman 1947). er to disassemble the whole so that an gest that the “rational” mind must over-
Witkin (1974) begins his approach to understanding of the component parts ride the reactionary, feelingful mind so
the world of sensation and feeling in may be gained. Hence, intuition and that emotional acts are carefully execut-
much the same way that Goleman does. intellect are both necessary components ed. Stokes (1994) points out the folly of
Vol. 103, No. 5, May/June 2002 11
this separation as she discusses the roles that music is a phenomenon best gence theory. Although people who per-
of feeling and thinking as they relate to explained in terms of human cultural form well on one aspect of an IQ test
musical intelligence. Stokes claims that factors (127). As the factors that shape often perform well on others, that does
“musical intelligence is necessarily de- the growth of each person are unique to not necessarily indicate the existence of
scribed as a composite thinking-feeling the individual, the meaning of music to a single factor that represents an all-pur-
process.” She argues that feeling and each individual will differ. Fiske indi- pose process in the brain that controls
thinking work together, not as separate cates that, although the biological all makes and models of intelligent
entities, for three primary reasons: aspects of perception play an important behavior. This notion is supported by
1) Feelings can help observers detect role in understanding music, it is the Gardner (1983) who suggests that peo-
essential characteristics of their surround- broad cultural experiences of a person ple who exhibit strengths in one domain
ings, 2) the feeling of a particular mood or and the person’s unique individual do not necessarily exhibit strengths in
emotion can organize the focus of percep- experiences that shape their response to other domains. In fact, Gardner uses this
tion and determine what an observer
abstracts from a multiple stimulus situa- music. What is important here is the argument to support his theory that
tion, and 3) both types of feeling provide “unique” aspect of each individual. humans are capable of possessing mul-
an additional basis for discriminating, Although general moods or emotions tiple types of intelligence and that some
comparing, classifying, abstracting, might be often associated with specific people favor one intelligence or a small
weighting, relating, and comprehending events (such as happiness at a wedding cluster of intelligences over the others.
perceptual input. (40)
or sadness at a funeral), such emotion is This idea seems to blend well with
Feeling is an integral part of the not necessarily part of that event for theories being offered by psychologists
thinking process, Stokes says, and with- every person. For example, although a examining intelligence from an evolu-
out the thinking process, feelings serve wedding is generally considered to be a tionary perspective. As Bower (1995)
no purpose in human experience. The joyous occasion, the bride’s family writes, “Evolutionary psychologists be-
artificial separation of intelligence into might disapprove of the groom. This lieve that specialized cognitive process-
thinking and feeling is a division that would create not so much an atmos- es evolved in the brain over hundreds of
limits rather than expands our under- phere of happiness and joy as feelings thousands of years. This idea differs
standing of human intelligence regard- of anxiety and tension in some members from the conventional beliefs about
less of domain. of the wedding party. Furthermore, all intelligence which assume that one fac-
Goleman would agree with certain of these emotions might be felt to vari- tor, general intelligence or “g, acts as
aspects of Stokes’s view. He clearly ous degrees at different times through- the engine for all types of cognitive
supports the notion that an awareness of out the festivities. Goleman does admit skills” (220). Evolutionary psycholo-
feelings helps one to establish their role that feelings are ever-changing (289), gists theorize that there are primary
within a given situation or setting. He but in suggesting applications for his skills which everyone exhibits and
would also agree that someone in a theory he seems to emphasize a sepa- which allow for survival. Furthermore,
“happy” mood might perceive a situa- rateness of each emotion so that emo- they hypothesize, there are secondary
tion differently from someone in an tions can be identified. This identifica- skills that are built upon the primaries.
“angry” mood. However, in the applica- tion is subsequently used to inform These secondary skills represent a
tion, Goleman would suggest that the decisions about how to act in social sit- process of adaptation that occurs differ-
individual should identify their mood, uations. The internal emotional or feel- ently in various people. Thus, within a
decide whether or not it is “appropriate” ingful growth of the individual is not an given social structure, it is necessary for
to maintain that mood, and then take end goal, but is a means to improving individuals to develop different skills
whatever actions indicated to preserve social interaction. This is the main prob- and cover different jobs—just as the
or change their mood. Goleman’s theo- lem with Goleman’s theory in relation human body is divided into major sys-
ry implies that there are moods that are to music education. Goleman is not tems which allow it to function. It is
“right” and “wrong” within particular interested in the education of feeling (let important to note that, although the
contexts. Many music educators work alone the education of feeling through basic level of most jobs can be per-
from a philosophical framework that and within experiences with the arts), formed by everyone, specialization
supposes a close relationship between but rather in the use of feeling for pur- takes time, and such skills are not devel-
music and feelingful experience. Gole- poses that are by-products of music edu- oped by the entire population. Goleman
man’s theory, however, could be used to cation. acknowledges this point as well. He
suggest that there are “right” and warns that, just as people may exhibit
“wrong” feelingful responses to music. EQ and IQ: Common Criticisms different levels of functioning in mathe-
Who, then, is to decide what is “right” Measurement represents limited types matics or verbal knowledge, they may
and “wrong”? of intelligence. Criticism commonly exhibit different levels of functioning in
In scrutinizing a number of positions applied to the theories that underlie the relation to different emotions. Although
about music and music’s meaning, use of IQ testing and measurement can some people may deal very well with
Fiske (1990) arrives at the conclusion also be applied to emotional intelli- anger and frustration, the same individ-

12 Arts Education Policy Review

uals may have great difficulty dealing 1978, Mesch, Johnson, and Johnson ings and an understanding of how those
with fear. Even in the realm of emotion, 1988, Perkins 1992). feelings relate to the emotive life of oth-
that is, there is specialization. Measures of emotional intelligence, ers in particular situations and contexts.
especially in theories like Goleman’s The rehearsal hall, classroom, and per-
Cultural bias. Another criticism often
stressing social interaction could also be formance arena present at least seven
leveled against IQ measurement is that
used to categorize children into classes such interaction possibilities: teacher to
of cultural influence. Tests are often
of socially adept and socially inept. As self, teacher to other teachers, student to
criticized for being “culturally biased”
children must see social skills in action self, student to other students, teacher to
to the advantage of some populations
to learn how to interact with others, student, teacher to audience, and stu-
and the disadvantage of others. As cul-
placing all of the socially challenged dent to audience. Musical intelligence is
tural knowledge and experience certain-
children in one classroom would not the outcome of the development of
ly shape the growth and development of
help them to develop social skills. skills in aesthetic perceptual structuring
the individual (Vygotsky 1978, Rogoff
1990), likewise measures of IQ can

M
reflect culturally situated knowledge.
Measures of emotional quotient could
also be designed to reflect the accepted ig ht the ed uc a tion of feeling
or prevalent social and emotional char-
acteristics of a particular culture. This is tha t oc c urs p rovid e fertile
one of the dangers inherent in the idea
of teaching to develop emotional intelli-
g round for the ed uc a tion of feeling a s
gence as it is defined and presented by m ore sp ec ific a lly d efined in m usic
Goleman. It is possible that children
could be taught emotional conformity in ed uc a tion p hilosop hies?
which the social expectations for feeling
would negate or override the individual
Although other teaching strategies which may certainly be fostered in set-
emotional life of each child. In this type
could be devised to guide children in tings where socio-emotional intelli-
of instruction, children would learn that
learning acceptable social practices, gence serves to facilitate improved per-
there is a “right” feeling to have in a
stratification of children based on mea- son-to-person communication.
particular context or situation. This con-
surements of emotional interaction is The social interactions required to
cept is in direct opposition to the views
probably not the best solution. make music present many opportunities
that many art educators and philoso-
A limited view of intelligence, cultur- for students to develop their skills of
phers espouse regarding the individual-
al bias, and rigid application of testing assessing their own feelings and
istic nature of the feelingful response
results are only three of the criticisms attempting to relate in a constructive
that occurs through interaction with
that can be leveled against IQ and EQ manner to the feelings of others. For
music or the other arts (Reimer 1989).
testing. However, even with these draw- much of music education history, this
Faulty and perhaps damaging appli- backs in the area of measurement, some interaction has been dominated from the
cation of results. Probably the most of Goleman’s theory may still have podium as the director assumed the
damaging aspect of IQand potentially application in the music education set- leading role in establishing rules, dictat-
EQmeasurement is how the results of ting if approached cautiously. ing performance practices, and evaluat-
the measurement process are used. In an ing the success of the efforts made by
attempt to meet the needs of each child, Emotional Intelligence and the students. However, as professionals
educators have used testing to label Music Education in the field of education begin to turn
children as “high-achievers” or “low- Although the theory of emotional more and more of their attention to the
achievers” and subsequently catego- intelligence put forth by Goleman con- potential benefits of activities that are
rized them into ability groups. Such tains elements that contradict how feel- peer-group centered, skills that allow
ability grouping may be beneficial at ingful intelligence is conceived of in social interaction to be a means for
certain points in an instructional music education or arts education phi- developing other skills become increas-
sequence, but research indicates that losophy, it still also contains ideas that ingly important.
heterogeneous grouping for instruction- are applicable in the music education For example, if a band director stands
al purposes is also beneficial. IQ mea- setting. before an ensemble, instructs the
surements have led to extremes in prac- Goleman’s theory posits that skills of ensemble to play measures 16 to 32, and
tice and all-or-nothing approaches at social interaction (an often cited sec- then stops to tell the various sections of
times when a more neutral or middle ondary benefit of participation in music the ensemble what they must correct,
position may have allowed children programs) can be further developed the social interaction is limited to
greater room for growth (Vygotsky through a knowledge of one’s own feel- “teacher to students.” This type of inter-
Vol. 103, No. 5, May/June 2002 13
action is not really social “interaction” er quality? Are group members able to between feelings and music—the pri-
at all, but is one directional, with all add more quickly or efficiently new mary goal of music education.
information coming from the director. music to their repertoire? Is there a
If, however, the director divides the greater sensitivity in playing between References
ensemble into several small groups and the members of the ensemble? Arnheim, R. 1985. The double-edged mind:
instructs them to rehearse measures 16 Beyond these seemingly practical Intuition and intellect. In Learning and
to 32 and prepare to perform that sec- applications of the theory lies an even teaching the ways of knowing, ed. E.
tion for the class, then more interaction larger question: Is there a relationship Eisner. Chicago: National Society for the
Study of Education, 84th Yearbook, Part
will be necessary. First, within each between the expectations of what may II.
small group, the musicians will have to occur during an interaction between two Bower, B. 1995. IQ’s evolutional break-
devise a plan for rehearsing the assigned people (Goleman’s awareness of self down: Intelligence may have more facets
section. Members will have to agree on and other) and the role of expectation in than testers realize. Science News 147
how their performance will be criti- aesthetic experience? Meyer’s (1956) (14): 220−23.
Cattell, R. B. 1968. The prediction of
cized, and members will have to react to belief that musical affect arises from the achievement and creativity. Indianapolis:
criticisms from other members of their interplay of tension/release patterns in Bobbs-Merrill.
team or the full ensemble after their per- sound is very similar in its description Clynes, M., and N. Nettheim. 1982. The
formance. Clearly, the ability to assess of rhythms, growth, development, and living quality of music: Neurobiologic
one’s own feelings and to assess how movement to Goleman’s assertions patterns of communicating feeling. In
Music, mind, and brain: The new neuro-
another member of the team will feel about how human interaction unfolds. psychology of music, ed. M. Clynes. New
and react to criticism (for example, “the Developing an external awareness of York: Plenum Press.
flute is always sharp”) will be an impor- these patterns in terms of how they Eisner, E., 1985, ed. Learning and teaching
tant skill within the small group. Pro- affect human communication may pro- the ways of knowing. Chicago: National
ductive music making involves interac- vide a model for an internal awareness Society for the Study of Education, 84th
Yearbook, Part II.
tions that extend beyond musical of how such patterns may similarly Fiske, H. E. 1990. Music and mind: Phi-
decisions and that affect the personal function in the nonsymbolic realm of losophical essays on the cognition and
aspects of the musician and their partic- feeling. Research indicating such a link meaning of music. New York: Edwin
ular skills. between external and internal patterns Mellen Press.
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Implications for Music ERIC Document.
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Education Research ing potential avenues for fostering the theory of multiple intelligences. New
Further study is needed to ascertain development of feelingful intelligence York: Basic Books, Inc.
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the field of music education. Does the New York: Bantam Books.
Conclusion Guilford, J. P. 1967. The nature of human
value of Goleman’s theory extend only intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.
to direct human interaction in a way that Music educators should not rush to Mesch, D., D. W. Johnson, and R. Johnson.
may prove meaningful in its ability to embrace all of the ideas offered by 1988. The impact of positive inter-
enhance teaching methods? Or might Goleman, but should seek to explore his dependence and academic group con-
the education of feeling that occurs as theory in settings where peer interac- tingencies on achievement. Journal of
Social Psychology 128: 345−52.
people become more aware of them- tions are crucial to individual learning Meyer, L. 1956. Emotion and meaning.
selves and others provide fertile ground and group success. There is of course Chicago: Chicago University Press.
for the education of feeling as more the inherent danger of the misuse of Miele, F. 1995. Robert Sternberg on The bell
specifically defined in music education Goleman’s theory in an educational curve. Skeptic 3 (3): 72−80.
philosophies? market that seemingly revels in labels Minsky, M. 1982. Music, mind, and
meaning. In Music, mind, and brain: The
Future research may provide valuable and categorizations. Nevertheless, true neuropsychology of music, ed. M. Clynes.
insights, especially any that explores educational benefits may lie beyond the New York: Plenum Press.
whether interactions within groups are surface interpretation of Goleman’s Perkins, D. 1992. Classrooms: The role of
altered when Goleman’s methods for work and may provide the foundation distributed intelligence. In Smart schools:
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child. New York: Free Press.
ness of others is applied. For example, places such emphasis on feeling. It is Phenix, P. H. 1964. Realms of meaning. New
we may learn more about activities that possible that the music education pro- York: McGraw Hill.
may enhance the ways in which mem- fession will gain new methods for Reimer, B. 1989. A philosophy of music
bers of chamber music ensembles inter- encouraging students to be aware of education, 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs,
act with each other. Research would how they feel as they perform, create, or N. J.: Prentice Hall.
Reimer, B. 1992. What knowledge is worth
also be needed on follow-up questions: listen to a piece of music. In turn, this the most in the arts. In The arts,
If interactions are improved, to what might allow our students to gain a deep- education, and aesthetic knowing, ed. B.
musical end? Are performances of high- er understanding of the relationship Reimer and R. A. Smith. National Society

14 Arts Education Policy Review

 for the Study of Education, Chicago: spectives. New York: Cambridge Univer- process. Translated by M. Cole, V. John-
University of Chicago Press. sity Press. Steiner, S. Scribner, and E. Souberman.
Rogoff, B. 1990. Apprenticeship in thinking: Stokes, A. 1994. Thinking and feeling in Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Cognitive development in social context. music. Quarterly Journal of Music Teach- Witkin, R. W. 1974. The intelligence of feel-
New York: Oxford University Press. ing and Learning 5 (3): 37−48. ing. London: Heinemann.
Spearman, C. 1904. General intelligence Thurstone, L. 1947. Multiple-factor anal-
objectively determined and measured. ysis: A development and expansion of
American Journal of Psychology 15: “The vectors of mind.” Chicago: Uni-
201−93. versity of Chicago Press. Michele Kaschub is an assistant professor of
Sternberg, R. J. 1988. The nature of creativ- Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in society: The music and the coordinator of music education
ity: Contemporary psychological per- development of high psychological studies at the University of Southern Maine.

Vol. 103, No. 5, May/June 2002 15

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