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Thermodynamic properties and geometries of bardeen black hole surrounded

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Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904
https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-13285-5

Regular Article - Theoretical Physics

Thermodynamic properties and geometries of bardeen black hole

surrounded by string clouds
Shamaila Rani1,2,a , Abdul Jawad1,2,b , Hussnain Raza2,c , Sanjar Shaymatov1,3,4,5,d , Maham Muzaffar2,e ,
Hifza Riaz2,f
1 Institute for Theoretical Physics and Cosmology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310023, People’s Republic of China
2 Department of Mathematics, COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore-Campus, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
3 Institute of Fundamental and Applied Research, National Research University TIIAME, Kori Niyoziy 39, 100000 Tashkent, Uzbekistan
4 University of Tashkent for Applied Sciences, Str. Gavhar 1, 100149 Tashkent, Uzbekistan
5 Western Caspian University, AZ1001 Baku, Azerbaijan

Received: 13 January 2024 / Accepted: 30 July 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract In this work, we investigate the thermodynamic continue to captivate physicists and serve as a fertile ground
properties of Bardeen black hole which is coupled with cloud for theoretical investigations, complemented by advance-
of strings and minimally coupled to nonlinear electrody- ments in observational astronomical instruments such as the
namics. The modified entropy in the form of Sharma–Mittal detection of gravitational waves [3–11] and the unprece-
entropy is used to discuss these properties which include dented imaging of a BHs shadow by the Event Horizon Tele-
mass, temperature, pressure, Gibbs free energy and trace of scope team [12–17].
Hessian matrix. We obtain stable behavior along with phys- The study of BH thermodynamics [18–27], which gained
ical solution for some specific values of parameters a and impetus following Hawking’s discovery of thermal radiation
q. Furthermore, our work provides a thermodynamic met- emitted by BHs [28], holds significant relevance for several
ric using the Hessian matrix of black hole mass, changing reasons. Firstly, in the realm of cosmology, where the anal-
the conformal connection between Quevedo and Ruppeiner’s ysis encompasses the contributions of numerous stars and
geometries. Investigating the first principle of thermodynam- galaxies, thermodynamics becomes indispensable for com-
ics for regular black holes, such as the Bardeen AdS black prehending the intricate workings of the Universe at large
hole, exposes significant behavior changes during phase tran- scales. Secondly, the absence of entropy in classical BHs
sitions in an extended phase space. poses a challenge to the second law of thermodynamics.
Lastly, BHs necessitate the inclusion of quantum effects to
fully elucidate their behavior, highlighting the current gaps
1 Introduction in our understanding of quantum gravity, the unification of
all fundamental forces and other related issues in cosmology
With the advent of general relativity in the early 20th century [29–33]. In this context, the Sharma–Mittal entropy emerges
[1], our understanding of the Universe underwent a profound as a noteworthy concept. As an alternative entropy measure,
transformation. The existence of black holes (BHs), regions it offers valuable insights into the thermodynamic proper-
of spacetime characterized by singular densities from which ties of complex systems, including BHs. The utilization of
even light cannot escape, was proposed by Schwarzschild [2] Sharma–Mittal entropy in BH thermodynamics presents an
as a solution to Einstein’s equations. These enigmatic objects intriguing avenue for exploring these celestial objects statis-
tical properties and information content. It is suggested that
a e-mail: the Sharma–Mittal entropy, which is a combination of the
drshamailarani@cuilahore.edu.pk (corresponding author)
b e-mail:
Renyi and Tsallis entropies, leads to interesting results in the
abduljawad@cuilahore.edu.pk
c e-mail:
cosmological setup [34,35].
malikhussnain1177@gmail.com
d e-mail:
Moreover, geometrical thermodynamics is a good formal-
sanjar@astrin.uz
e e-mail:
ism to investigate the BH phase transition which leads to the
mahammuzaffar53@gmail.com
various thermodynamic metrics. By developing the thermo-
f e-mail: hifzariaz016@gmail.com

0123456789().: V,-vol 123

 904 Page 2 of 14 Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904

dynamical metric in the presence of entropy, the divergence resents the Nambu–Goto action which is used to describe the
points of its Ricci scalar can provide important information string-like objects and is given by
related to the possible phase transition of BH system. In this 
√
regard, Weinhold [36,37] introduced the first metric based Ics = −γ Md0 d1 . (2)
on the space of equilibrium state of thermodynamic systems.
Later on, Ruppeiner [38,39] developed another metric can In this context, γ denotes the determinant of γ AB , which
be shown to have a compatibly equivalent relationship to represents the induced metric on a submanifold as specified
Weinhold’s metric. Moreover, it was found that these met- by
rics are not invariant under Legendre transformation. In view ∂ xα∂ xβ
of these shortcomings, Quevedo [40,41] has developed the γ AB = gαβ . (3)
∂ A ∂ B
first Legendre invariance metric in which he tried to solve the
Here 0 and 1 correspond to parameters that respectively
problems of previous two metrics. However, Quevedo metric
describe the timelike and spacelike aspects of the system
is not, completely, a successful model in several specific sys-
and M represents a dimensionless constant that describes the
tems and its Ricci scalar has extra divergence point without
string. We vary the action (1) with respect to metric tensor
physical interpretation. Finally, a new metric was proposed
gαβ and get
[42–44] in which the problem of mismatched divergency is
not observed [45–47]. 1
Rαβ + gαβ λ − gαβ R = 8π Tαβ + 8π Tαβ cs
, (4)
Essentially, photons emitted from a luminous source in 2
proximity to a black hole can either collapse into the irre- here Tαβ refers to the energy–momentum tensor of the matter
sistible gravitational pull, getting continually toward the sector for NED and Tαβ cs is the energy–momentum tensor of
event horizon, or they can be diverted away, embarking on the cloud tensor. These are defined as follow
an eternal journey into the vast cosmic expanse. Crucial γ
dL γ σ α γβ
geodesic paths outline the threshold between these two pos- Tαβ = gαβ L(F) − F Fβγ , Tαβ
cs
= √ . (5)
dF α 8π −γ
sibilities, known as unstable spherical orbits, in this com-
plicated cosmic ballet. We acquire the astonishing capacity Here αβ is a bi-vector and σ indicates the proper density of
to capture the invisible visuals of a BHs shadow by care- the cloud.
fully observing these critical photon routes against the cos- In case of a spherically symmetric spacetime, we have
mic backdrop [48–50]. 1
The paper is organized as follows: in Sect. 2, we pro- ds 2 = f (r )dt 2 − dr 2 − r 2 dθ 2 − r 2 sin2 θ dφ 2 , (6)
f (r )
vide an overview of the methodology employed to incor-
porate Sharma–Mittal entropy into BH thermodynamics. In where f (r ) is the metric coefficient. The Lagrangian for
Sect. 4, we analyze the resulting BH solutions, including Bardeen solution is
their event horizons and regularity. Section 5 delves into the   2 5
3 2q F 2
thermodynamic properties of these BHs, exploring temper- L(F) = 2
 , (7)
8π sq 2 + 2q 2 F
ature, entropy and other relevant thermodynamic quantities.
|q|
Finally, in Sect. 6, we offer concluding remarks and discuss here s = 2M with q serves as magnetic monopole charge and
potential avenues for future research. M as ADM BH mass. Solving the Einstein equations, we can
obtain only two distinct nontrivial differential equations as
λr 2 + 1 − f (r ) − r f  (r ) 6M a
2 Bardeen black hole with a cloud of strings − − 2 = 0, (8)
r2 r 2 5
q ( 2 + 1) 2
3 r
q

Consider the action for GR which is minimally coupled to q2
3M + 1(−5q 10 + 2q 2 r 8 + 2r 10 )
NED along with action related to cloud of strings as follows f  (r ) f  (r ) r2
λ− − − = 0,
[51] r 2 q 3 r 2 (q 2 + r 2 )4
   (9)
√
I = R + 2λ + L(F) d 4 x −g + Ics , (1)
and prime represents the derivative with respect to r . Also,
where R denotes the curvature scalar, g represents the met- a appears as integration constant related to strings, being
ric determinant, λ represents the cosmological constant and limited to the interval 0 < a < 1. More detail about above
L(F) corresponds to the nonlinear Lagrangian that character- discussion is given in the literature [51]. Solving the system
izes electromagnetic theory and depends upon scalar func- of differential equations, we obtain the following solution
F αβ F
tion F = αβ
[52] where Fαβ = ∂α Aβ − ∂β Aα is the r2 2Mr 2 2ω
4 f (r ) = 1 − a − λ − 3
− , (10)
field strength of the electromagnetic field Aα . Also, Ics rep- 3 (q 2 + r 2 ) 2 r

123
Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904 Page 3 of 14 904

where ω represents an integration constant. For setting We plot this equation for two sets of values in which first
ω = 0, then above solution leads to Bardeen-AdS solution graph is related to various values of cloud of string a while
as second graph is related to various values of charge q. In Fig.
1, we can observe the behavior of temperature T as a function
r2 2Mr 2
f (r ) = 1 − a − λ − 3
. (11) of entropy with the fixed values of λ = −1, q = 0.2, R = 2
3 (q 2 + r 2 ) 2 and δ = 4. Initially temperature represents negative behav-
Moreover, in the absence of string parameter a, the above ior showing non-physical behavior of the BH. However, with
solution leads to original Bardeen’s solution. increasing values of entropy, the curves become positive
This research paper aims to investigate the thermody- which gives physical behavior of the under consideration BH.
namic aspects of BHs using the framework of Sharma–Mittal In Fig. 2, we plot temperature verses charge with the fixed
entropy. We explore the implications of this entropy measure values of R = 2, a = 0.1 and δ = 4. We observe that the tra-
for above entioned BH solution, focusing on its potential to jectories of temperature represent negative behavior initially
shed light on the statistical behavior and information process- and as entropy increases, the temperature also increases to
ing capabilities of BHs. The expression of Sharma–Mittal some higher values. It becomes positive and then decreases
entropy [34] for more increasing values of entropy but remains positive.
  The positive behavior shows the physical behavior of the BH
1 R for higher values of entropy.
SS M = (1 + δST ) δ − 1 . (12)
R

where R and δ are free parameters and ST = πr 2 . Inserting

3 Thermodynamics
ST in the above equation, we get
 δ 1 3.1 Specific heat capacity
(RSS M + 1) R − 1 2
r= . (13)
δπ
The heat capacity for constant pressure is defined as
By incorporating Sharma–Mittal entropy into the study of
∂S
BH thermodynamics, this research contributes to our under- Cp = T . (16)
∂T P
standing of these intriguing cosmic entities and provides new
perspectives on their statistical behavior and information pro- From Eq. (15), taking partial derivative of T with respect to
cessing capabilities. For simplicity, we take SS M = S. Later S at constant pressure P, we get
on, we will extract the thermodynamic quantities like tem-   
  
perature, pressure, volume, heat capacity, Gibbs free energy C p = 2(RS + 1) 4δ − (a − 1)δ π 2δπq 2 + 1 − 8π P
and stability of underlying model of BH. For this purpose, we
will extract the mass of the BH which is the basic entity for +2δ((a − 1)δπ

the thermodynamics. This can be done by setting f (r ) = 0 +16π P)(RS + 1)δ/R (a − 1)δπ
 
(Eq. (11)) and mass can be written in terms of Sharma–Mittal × 2δπq 2 − (RS + 1)δ/R + 1 + 8π P
entropy as 
 δ/R
2
 δπq 2 +(R S+1)δ/R −1 3/2   
× (RS + 1) −1 + 3δ
δπ 3(a − 1)δπ − 8π P (R S + 1)δ/R − 1
M =−   ,
6 (R S + 1)δ/R − 1 δ − πq 2
+
(14) + (RS + 1)δ/R − 1
δπq 2
−1
4δ
here P = −λ
8π . Taking the partial derivative of M with respect
− − 2R . (17)
(RS + 1)δ/R − 1
to S, we get temperature from Eq. (14) as
In Fig. 3, we plot heat capacity expression with respect to
δ δπq 2 + (RS + 1)δ/R −1 S for same values of constants. For different values of a, the
T = δ(RS + 1) R −1 trajectories show the phase transitions for the underlying BH
δπ
model. All curves represent two divergent points (Carr ow0)
× (a − 1)δπ {−(RS + 1)δ/R for some non-zero values of entropy S. The right plot in this
figure shows the zoom view of left plot for smaller range of S
  2 
+2δπq 2 + 1 + 8π P (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 } which shows that for higher values of a, there are phase tran-
sitions for smaller range of entropy and then curves become
 2 −1 positive showing stable behavior of the BH. Similarly, Fig.
× 4δπ (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 . (15) 4 represents the plot of heat capacity versus S for various

123
 904 Page 4 of 14 Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904

Fig. 1 Plot of temperature T

versus entropy S for different
values of a

Fig. 2 Plot of temperature T

versus entropy S for different
values of q

values of q. This plot indicates that as we increase the value 3.2 Pressure
of charge, the trajectories of C p show the phase transition for
smaller values of entropy and then remain positive showing Now taking the partial derivative of M with respect to P and
stable behavior. For q = 0.01 and q = 0.05, we observe that we get the volume V from Eq. (14) as
there is phase transition for the first value, then heat capac- 3/2
ity becomes negative representing unstable behavior for both ∂M 4 δπq 2 + (RS + 1)δ/R − 1
V = = π . (18)
curves which become positive (stable behavior) after another ∂P 3 δπ
phase transition with increasing the value of entropy. For
From Eqs. (15) and (18), we obtain pressure in the following
q = 0.1 represents phase transitions. However, it remains
form
positive indicating stable behavior of the underlying model  
of BH. 32/3 δπ V 2/3
P(T, V ) = − (a − 1)δπ 3q 2 δπ + √
2 3 2π 2/3
√   R−δ
4T π δπ 32/3 δπ V 2/3 δ
+ 1 − q 2 δπ + √
√δπ V
32/3 2/3 2 3 2π 2/3
2 3 2π 2/3

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Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904 Page 5 of 14 904

Fig. 3 Plot of heat capacity C p versus entropy S for different values of a. Right plot shows the zoom trajectories for small range of S

 2
32/3 δπ V 2/3  π δq 2 + (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 
× √ − q δπ
2
−1 (a − 1)δ
2 3 2π 2/3 δ
 2/3 2 −1  
3 δπ V 2/3 × 2π δq 2 − (RS + 1)δ/R + 1
× 8π √ − q 2
δπ . (19)
2 3 2π 2/3  −1
 δ/R
2   2
+8P (RS+1) −1 12 (RS+1)δ/R −1 .
Figures 5 and 6 represent the plots of pressure as a func-
(21)
tion of volume by taking same values of constants for both
cases of a and q respectively. Both graphs represent posi- In Figs. 7 and 8, we plot Gibbs free energy to discuss stable
tively decreasing behavior with respect to volume indicating or unstable behavior of the BH for a and q. For all chosen
the attractive behavior of BH related to coupling of cloud values of a, plot represents positively decreasing behavior
strings and NED. for the Gibbs free energy with respect to smaller values of
horizon radius which shows stable behavior. However, as r
increases, the behavior of this energy for BH coupled with
cloud strings and NED transits to negative sector expressing
4 Gibbs free energy unstable behavior of this BH. Plot for different values of q
shows positive behavior for all values with respect to r . As we
For the sake of global stability, the Gibbs free energy is increase the values of q. the plot shows more stable behavior
defined as as compared to smaller values.
The trace of Hessian matrix is a criteria to get the stability
of considered system. This matrix contains some thermody-
G = HM − T S, (20)
namic quantities like chemical potential (Aq ) derivatives of
Gibbs free energy with respect to Hawking temperature. The
where HM is the enthalpy of the system which is given by matrix is defined as
the mass of the BH Eq. (14). Using Eqs. (12), (14) and (18),  
H11 H12
we obtain the Gibbs free energy as H=
H21 H22
∂2G ∂2G ∂2G
  where H11 = , H12 = ∂ T ∂ Aq , H21 = ∂ Aq ∂ T , H22 =
G = 2π (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 ∂2G
∂T 2
. The thermodynamic potential related to charge Aq is
    ∂ Aq2
× 8P (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 − 3(a − 1)δ given by
3/2
π δq 2 + (RS + 1)δ/R − 1 ∂M
× Aq =
∂q
δπ    
 √ δ/R
π δq π δ q +(RδS+1) −1 3(a − 1)δ − 8 p (R S + 1)δ/R − 1
2 2
1 δ 
−√ 3(RS + 1) R −1 (δS + 1)δ/R =   .
πR 2 (R S + 1)δ/R − 1

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 904 Page 6 of 14 Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904

The metric for a Bardeen BH in two dimensions may be

expressed by the following matrix:
M SS M Sq
gW = . (25)
Mq S 0
The components of the metric tensor in the two-dimensional
Bardeen BH spacetime, g SS , g Sq , gq S and gqq are defined by
the particular form of the mass function M(S, q).
In terms of the mass function, the metric components may
be as follows:
∂ 2 M(S, q) ∂ 2 M(S, q)
M SS = , M Sq = ,
∂ S2 ∂ S∂q
∂ 2 M(S, q) ∂ 2 M(S, q)
Mq S = , Mqq = . (26)
∂q∂ S ∂q 2
Fig. 4 Plot of heat capacity C p versus entropy S for different values
of q Given that the Weinhold metric’s curvature scalar is iden-
tically zero (R W = 0), it is clear that this technique alone
does not give significant scientific insights. In essence, the
(22)
vanishing character of the curvature scalar denotes that the
It is noted that some eigenvalues of this matrix are zero metric is unable to give considerable informational value. No
H11 H22 = H12 H21 , so we use the following equation of particular point shows singularity in the context of this met-
trace to check the stability of the system ric, even when the curvature scalar approaches 0. Due to the
absence of interaction thermodynamics in this system, signif-
τ = T r (H) = H11 + H22 . icant physical interactions are not captured by its geometric
features.
Figure 9 shows the behavior of trace τ with respect to hori-
Innovative remedies have surfaced to solve this restric-
zon radius for a = 0.1 and q = 0.3. The plot indicates that
tion, each seeking to remedy the shortcoming. We’ll go over
for very small values of horizon radius, BH solution shows
each of the suggested solutions one at a time. A reasonable
stability. As horizon radius increases, it shows transition.
starting point for this quest is to adopt the Ruppeiner for-
malism, as an example. The metric structure is articulated in
sources [38,54–56] in a separate manner in this framework.
5 An extensive study of thermal geometries This shift in perspective has the potential to overcome the dif-
ficulties presented by the nullity of the curvature scalar in the
In this part, we will investigate the thermodynamic geometry Weinhold metric approach, thus leading to a more thorough
of Bardeen BH. We use the geothermodynamic technique to knowledge of the underlying physical events.
help this investigation which is a framework that allows us to
analyze the complicated links between thermodynamic vari- 1 2
ds 2R = ds , (27)
ables and the underlying geometric structure. We will look T W
at numerous techniques in this inquiry, including the Wein- and
hold, Ruppeiner, Quevedo and HPEM formalisms. Each of
δ
these strategies has its own set of benefits and limitations. −1 + (1 + r S) r + πq 2 δ δ
g = (−1 + a)δ
R
(1 − (1 + r S) r
We want to thoroughly solve the geometric subtleties inher- δ
ent in the thermodynamics of the Bardeen BH by choosing δ
+8Pπ(−1 + (1 + r S) r )2
from this assortment of methodologies. We first explore the 
√ δ
Weinhold geometry, one of these approaches that provides a +2πq δ)
2
4 π (1 + r S)1− r
means to visualize the thermal landscape. We carefully study 2
the line element that defines this geometry in this context, as δ
×(−1 + (1 + r S) R gW . (28)
persuasively described in academic literature [53]
W
gik = ∂i ∂k M(S, q), (23) The Ruppeiner metric’s curvature scalar is represented as
follows
and
1
R Rupp = −
2
dsW = M SS d S 2 + Mqq dq 2 + 2M Sq d Sdq. (24) 13824π 3 (−1 + (1 + r S) r )9 δ
δ

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Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904 Page 7 of 14 904

Fig. 5 Plot of pressure P

versus volume V for different
values of a
25

20

P
15 a 0.01
a 0.06
a 0.1
10 a 0.4
a 0.8

0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10

V

Fig. 6 Plot of pressure P

versus volume V for different
values of q
20
q 0.01
q 0.05
15 q 0.1
q 0.2
P

q 0.3
10

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

V

δ
 δ
×(−1 + a)q 4 (1 + r S)−1+ r × 1 − (1 + r S) r + 8Pπ(−1
δ 
×(−8P(−1 + (1 + r S) r ) δ
+(1 + r S) r )2 + 2πq 2 δ . (29)
+3(−1 + a)δ)4 (−8Pπ(−1
δ
+(1 + r S) r ) + 3(−1 + a)π δ)3 (−1 We study the curvature scalar of the Ruppeiner metric
δ
+(1 + r S) + πq δ)
r 2 2 plotted against the horizon radius in Figs. 10 and 11 to
δ
 29 show the thermodynamic phase transition and the physics
−1 + (1 + r S) r + πq 2 δ of BHs
 within the geothermodynamic framework denoted
× −
δ by C, R (Rupp) . Notably, the divergence of the Ruppeiner
δ metric’s curvature scalar aligns with the zero points of the
−1 + (1 + r S) r + πq 2 δ heat capacity, indicating a physical limiting point. An unusual
×
δ finding is presented in Fig. 5a, where the top branch of the cur-

123
 904 Page 8 of 14 Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904

Fig. 7 Plot of Gibbs free

energy versus horizon radius 200

100

G
100 a 0.01
a 0.06
200 a 0.1
a 0.4
300 a 0.8

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

r

Fig. 8 Plot of Gibbs free 14

energy versus horizon radius

12

10

8
G

6 q 0.01
q 0.05
4
q 0.1

2 q 0.2
q 0.3
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
r

vature scalar crosses the heat capacity diagram at two unique dynamic phase space T in dimension 2n + 1 will be exam-
positions. One of these crossing points happens in an area ined. To start this construction, we choose the coordinates
where the BH is in a stable phase, while the other occurs at {, E a , I a }, in which E a and I a stand for extensive and
the phase transition critical points. This figure consequently intensive variables, respectively and  is the thermodynamic
provides vital information into the thermodynamics of the potential. We define the property of the Gibbs one-form,
interaction.  ∧ (d) = 0 and introduce it as  = d − δab I a E b .
On the other hands, let us now turn our attention to alterna- Next, we define a Legendre invariant metric F on T in the
tive geothermodynamic techniques that have produced more following way:
successful physical results [41]. In the following stage, we
will study the thermodynamic geometry of Bardeen BHs sur-
rounded by string clouds using the Quevedo and HPEM met-
rics. For Geometrothermodynamics calculations, the thermo- F = (d − δab I a E b )2 + (δab I a E b )(ηcd I c E d ), (30)
ηcd = diag(−1, 1, . . . . . . 1). (31)

123
Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904 Page 9 of 14 904

Fig. 9 Plot of trace of Hessian 3000

matrix versus horizon radius

2500

2000

1500

trace
1000

500

500
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
r

Fig. 10 Plots showing the heat capacity (C p ) for a BH with string plex behavior of the system with the stated parameter values (q = 0.5,
clouds and the geothermodynamic characteristics of a complicated δ = 0.5, P = − 8π 1
and different values of a). These plots give use-
physical system driven by the Eq. (17). The plots are constructed as ful information about the system’s thermodynamic characteristics and
functions of entropy (S) and horizon radius (r ) and show the com- phase transitions

 ∂  ∂ 2 
By formulating T ,  and F, a Riemann contact manifold
g Q = ϕ ∗ (F) = E c c ηab δ bc c d d E a d E d ,
is established. Then, by a smooth map ϕ : ε → T , we create ∂E ∂E ∂E
a n-dimensional Riemannian submanifold ε as the space of (32)
equilibrium thermodynamic states (equilibrium manifold).
Then, using the inverse map ϕ ∗ (F), the Quevedo metric, in which
similar to Ruppeiner and Weinhold metrics, is defined on ∂
= δcb l b . (33)
this equilibrium submanifold. ∂ Ec
The Quevedo metric is represented mathematically as fol-
The basic Gibbs model is thus as follows in Eq. (20). At this
lows [42,44,57]
point, the Quevedo metric can be expressed as follows

−M SS 0
g Q = (SM S + qMq ) . (34)
0 Mqq

123
 904 Page 10 of 14 Eur. Phys. J. C (2024) 84:904

Fig. 11 The figure on the left illustrates the way changing parameters On the other hand, the right plot illustrates how various δ values affect
a and q affects the Eq. (29), which represents Ruppeiner’s deformation. Ruppeiner deformation and shed light on the behavior of the system
Every curve denotes a different value of a and shows how it affects q.

Furthermore, when we discuss the HPEM metric with n

extended variables (where n ≥ 2), we are talking to a specific
mathematical framework utilized in thermodynamics [44,58]


n   
S MS ∂2 M
PEM= −M ,
2 2 2
ds H dχi SS d S
n ∂ M )3
(i=2
2
∂χi2
∂χ 2 i
i=2

(35)

where χi (χi = S), M S = ∂ M/∂ S and M SS = ∂ 2 M/∂ S 2

are the extensive parameters. The previously stated Wienhold
and Ruppeiner thermogeometric measures are not Legendre-
invariant. This implies that the Wienhold and Ruppeiner mea-
sures may occasionally provide contradictory findings. To
overcome these inconsistencies, Quevedo and his colleagues
proposed a new Legendre-invariant framework, which means
it retains its features under Legendre transformations.
We have two separate Legendre-invariant thermogeomet-
ric metrics in this framework: Quevedo I and Quevedo II.
Hermann and Mrugala [59,60] established the framework
for these measurements, which Quevedo and his colleagues
have expanded and used. In the study of thermodynamic sys-
Fig. 12 The HPEM’s fluctuation with respect to radius (r ) over a range tems, this Legendre-invariant technique assures consistency
of parameter δ values is depicted in the left plot. Each curve, which was and compatibility [42,44,57]
computed using Eq. (36) and fixed parameters δ = 0.5,R = 2 P = − 8π 1

and q = 1.3, relates to a different δ value and explains how it affects

the HPEM profile. On the other hand, the figure on the right illustrates
how various a values affect the HPEM and offers information on how ⎧
⎪
⎪(S M S + q Mq )(−M SS d S 2 + Mqq dq 2 ) Quevedo Case I
it behaves in relation to radial distance, which helps understand the ⎨
2 2
system under analysis ds = S M S (−M SS d S + Mqq dq )
2 Quevedo Case II
⎪
⎪
⎩ S M S 3 (−M SS d S 2 + Mqq dq 2 ) HPEM.
(Mqq )
(36)

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Fig. 13 The left plot shows the sensitivity of Quevedo-I to parameter a across a range, with different curves for constant δ, P and q. The right plot
zooms in on Quevedo-I near r = 0, focusing on small modifications in this region for varying a values

Fig. 14 Contour plots use the Quevedo-I metric and heat capacity (C p ) ‘a’. The right panel depicts heat capacity, highlighting BH phase transi-
to investigate the complicated relationship between thermodynamics tions and showing complicated thermodynamic-geometric connections
and geometry in BH systems. The left panel depicts the Quevedo-I land-
scape with entropy (S) and (R), showing the sensitivity to parameter

For these metrics, the denominator of the curvature scalar is provide important physical insights into the system. How-
formed as stated [44,57,61] ever, when we examine the divergence points of the Ricci
scalar inside the HPEM metric, we see a surprising agreement
denom R(Quevedo I ) = 2M SS
2 2
Mqq (S M S + q Mq )3 , with both the zero point (indicating a physical constraint)
denom R(Quevedo II ) = 2S 3 M SS
2 2
Mqq M S3 , and the divergence point (marking a key transition) of heat
denom R(H P E M) = 2S 3 M SS
2
M S3 . capacity. The HPEM metric’s Ricci scalar is synchronized
with both types of phase changes in heat capacity, incorpo-
(37)
rating both the initial and later phase transitions. As a result,
A detailed inspection of the above given equations reveals it is clear that using the HPEM formalism instead of the Rup-
that the curvature scalar of the Quevedo formalism does not

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Fig. 15 The left figure shows Quevedo-II’s sensitivity to parameter a, small differences in behavior within the parameter range, with δ = 0.5,
with several curves for fixed δ = 0.5, P = − 8π1
, q = 0.5. A thorough P = − 8π 1
, q = 0.5 and a spectrum of ‘a’ values. This investigation
analysis of Quevedo-II near r = 0 is provided in the right plot, showing expands our knowledge of Quevedo-II in the given parameter space

peiner metric or other previously discussed techniques can bility of the solution within two distinct regions, separated by
provide us with more useful physical information. an unstable interval. The presence of a discontinuity denoted
a first-order phase transition. Referring to the established
nomenclature in the literature, we categorized the BH phases
as small, small-large and large, reflecting their relationship
6 Conclusion
to entropy and consequently, the event horizon’s radius.
Remarkably, the equation of state for our solution 19
In this article, we have provided a unique solution to Ein-
resembled Van der Waals isotherms, offering partial insights
stein’s equations for Bardeen BH surrounded by clusters
into phase transitions in classical thermodynamics. We suc-
of strings, incorporating the framework of Sharma–Mittal
cessfully identified the critical point, representing a second-
entropy. We have derived a metric that exhibits singular-
order phase transition and marking the onset of the coexis-
ity due to the parameter a as shown by the analysis of the
tence region between the small and large phases. However,
Kretschmann scalar, by s tarting from the improved action
the compressibility factor did not exhibit the same charac-
for NED and including the Nambu–Goto action to control
teristics as real gases, as its value tended towards infinity
the behavior of the string clouds. Additionally, our findings
when the pressure approached zero. To further support the
indicated that spacetime is asymptotically non-flat at infinity.
existence of three distinct phases, we computed the Gibbs
We have used the technique proposed in [62] to examine the
free energy, G(T, P) and plotted a graph of G multiplied by
thermal properties of our solution, using the BH mass equa-
T . Notably, we observed that a given temperature could cor-
tion as a basic equation. We identified the BH mass as the
respond to up to three energy values, indicative of a region
enthalpy by considering entropy and pressure as key factors.
of phase correspondence. This behavior is reminiscent of
This enabled us to do a thorough thermodynamic study, cal-
the Van der Waals gas and reinforces the notion of multiple
culating the first derivatives of enthalpy, which correspond
energy configurations being unstable except for the mini-
to thermodynamic potentials. Temperature and volume, in
mum possible value, which corresponds to the free energy.
particular, emerged as critical thermodynamic functions that
Additionally, we explored the criticality of our solution by
corresponded to established rules. We demonstrated the basic
calculating the critical exponents. Encouragingly, the values
nature of Eq. 14 by computing Smarr’s formula and estab-
obtained β = 1/2, γ = 1, δ = 3 and α = 0 aligned with the
lishing the first rule of thermodynamics from the resulting
predictions of the Van der Waals theory. This correspondence
potentials. We also confirmed the precise differential prop-
further corroborated the presence of phase transitions within
erty of the mass using cross-derivatives. Despite the expres-
our framework.
sion “−2πq 2 ”, we did not account for places with negative
While our study has yielded substantial insights into
temperatures in this study. In line with the customary BH
the thermodynamic aspects and stability of the proposed
thermodynamics practice, we assessed our solution’s stabil-
solution, there remain avenues for future research. For
ity. Utilizing the thermodynamic coefficients, specifically the
instance, the application of geometric thermodynamics could
heat capacity at constant pressure 17, we determined the sta-

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