Tushar Ahuja

Tushar Ahuja
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ANS. (A) Video controller, often referred to as a

graphics controller or GPU (Graphics Processing Unit), is a
component in a computer or device responsible for rendering
images, animations, and videos. It converts data into signals
that can be displayed on a monitor or screen.

Working of a Video Controller:

1. Data Input: The video controller receives data from the
CPU, which includes instructions on what needs to be
displayed. This data can come from applications, games,
or the operating system.

2. Processing: The controller processes this data using its

own dedicated architecture. It includes:
o Vertex Processing: Handles transformation of 3D
models into 2D images, calculating vertices positions.
o Rasterization: Converts processed images into
pixels, how they will be displayed on screen.
o Pixel Processing: Applies textures, colors, and
effects to the pixels, including shading and lighting.
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3. Memory Management: The video controller uses its own

memory (VRAM) to store textures, frame buffers, and
other graphical data. This allows for faster access and
manipulation of graphics data compared to system RAM.

4. Output Generation: Once the image is processed, the

video controller generates output signals. These signals
are sent to the display via connectors like HDMI,
DisplayPort, or VGA.

5. Display: The monitor receives these signals and

translates them into visible images, refreshing the display
at a certain rate (measured in hertz, Hz).

Key Features:
 Acceleration: Video controllers often include hardware
acceleration for complex tasks, enhancing performance in
graphics-intensive applications.
 Multi-Monitor Support: Many modern video controllers
can manage multiple displays simultaneously.
 APIs and Drivers: Video controllers interact with graphics
APIs (like DirectX or OpenGL) and require drivers to
communicate effectively with the operating system and
applications.
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(B) Vertical Retrace

 Vertical retrace refers to the period during which a
display device's electron beam (in CRTs) or pixel
addressing (in modern displays) returns to the top of the
screen after completing a full scan of the display.
 During this time, no image is displayed, allowing the
screen to prepare for the next frame.
 Vertical retrace is crucial for maintaining the
synchronization of the video signal and ensuring smooth
rendering of images.

Persistence
 Persistence is the duration that a pixel remains
illuminated on the screen after it has been activated.
 This property is significant in display technologies,
especially in CRTs, where phosphors continue to glow for
a short period after being excited by the electron beam.
 High persistence can lead to motion blur, while low
persistence can result in flicker.
 In modern displays, persistence can also refer to how long
a pixel retains its color information before being refreshed.

Frame Buffer
 Frame buffer is a dedicated block of memory that stores
pixel data for one frame of a video image.
 It holds color information for each pixel, enabling display
system to quickly access and render the image on screen.
 The frame buffer is essential for rendering smooth
animations & high-quality graphics, as it allows for double
buffering & other techniques to reduce flicker and tearing.
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(C) Purpose of Homogeneous Coordinates

in Computer Graphics
Homogeneous coordinates are used in computer graphics to
facilitate transformations like translation, scaling, rotation, and
perspective projection. By introducing an additional dimension,
transformations can be represented as matrix multiplications,
simplifying their combination and application.
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(D) Characteristics of a Bézier Curve

A Bézier curve is a type of parametric curve frequently used in
computer graphics and geometric modeling. It is defined by a
set of control points and is widely used for designing smooth
curves that are easy to manipulate.
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Key Characteristics of Bézier Curves:

1. Control Points:
o A Bézier curve is defined by a set of control points,
typically labeled P0,P1,...,PnP_0, P_1, ..., P_nP0,P1
,...,Pn, where nnn is the degree of the curve.
o The number of control points influences the degree of
the Bézier curve (e.g., 2 control points for a linear
curve, 3 for quadratic, and 4 for cubic).

2. Smoothness:
o Bézier curves are smooth and continuous, with no
abrupt changes in direction. The curve smoothly
transitions between its control points.

3. Convexity:
o The curve always lies within the convex hull of its
control points. This means that the curve cannot
"overshoot" beyond the boundary formed by
connecting the outermost control points.

4. End-Point Interpolation:
o A Bézier curve always passes through the first and
last control points. This means that the curve starts at
P0P_0P0 and ends at PnP_nPn, though it may not
necessarily pass through intermediate control points.

5. Non-Uniform Scaling:
o By changing the positions of the control points, you
can scale the curve in non-uniform ways, adjusting its
curvature and shape.
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6. Parameterization:
o The curve is defined by a parameter that varies
between 0 and 1, determining the position of the
curve as it moves from one control point to another.

7. Degree of the Curve:

o The degree of the Bézier curve is one less than the
number of control points. For example:
 2 points → Linear Bézier curve (degree 1)
 3 points → Quadratic Bézier curve (degree 2)
 4 points → Cubic Bézier curve (degree 3)

Convex Hull Property of Bézier Curves

The Convex Hull Property is a fundamental characteristic of
Bézier curves and states that the curve always lies within the
convex hull of its control points.

What is the Convex Hull?

 The convex hull of a set of points is the smallest convex
polygon (or polyhedron in higher dimensions) that
encloses all the points in the set.
 Imagine stretching a rubber band around a set of points
and letting it go; the shape it takes is the convex hull.

Convex Hull Property Explained:

 For a Bézier curve defined by nnn control points, the curve
will always stay inside convex hull formed by these points.
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 The convex hull is formed by connecting the outermost

control points (the ones that "enclose" the others).
 As curve moves between the control points, it will never
go outside of this polygon (in 2D) or polyhedron (in 3D).
 Key consequence: The convex hull property guarantees
that the Bézier curve cannot be steeper or bend more
sharply than convex hull, making it predictable & stable.

Example:
Consider a quadratic Bézier curve defined by three control
points P0P_0P0, P1P_1P1, and P2P_2P2. The convex hull of
these three points is simply the line segment joining P0P_0P0
and P2P_2P2 (since it's a triangle in 2D). The quadratic Bézier
curve will always lie between these two points, never exceeding
the boundary set by the convex hull.
 In 2D, for a cubic Bézier curve with four control points
P0,P1,P2,P3P_0, P_1, P_2, P_3P0,P1,P2,P3, the convex
hull is a quadrilateral that contains the curve within its
boundaries.

Why is the Convex Hull Property

Important?
 Predictability: It gives a predictable boundary within
which the curve always lies.
 Manipulation: By adjusting the positions of control points,
the shape of the Bézier curve can be directly controlled
without risk of curve extending outside desired region.
 Numerical Stability: It aids in algorithms that involve
Bézier curves (such as curve approximation & rendering),
as it provides bounds on possible locations of the curve.
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(E) Phong model is a lighting model used in computer

graphics to simulate how surfaces reflect light. It was
developed by Bui Tuong Phong and is also known as Phong
specular reflection model. The model states that the light
reflected in the direction of the viewer varies based on the
angle between the difference between the view direction and
the direction of perfect reflection.
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(F) Hermite Curve

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B-Spline Curve
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(G) World Coordinate, Viewing Coordinate,

Normalized Coordinate, and Device
Coordinate in a Viewing Pipeline
In computer graphics, especially in 3D rendering, a viewing
pipeline is a sequence of steps that transform the 3D world
into a 2D image. This process involves several coordinate
systems, each serving a different purpose. Here’s an
explanation of different coordinate systems in viewing pipeline:

1. World Coordinates (WC)

 Definition:
World coordinates refer to the coordinate system used to
describe the position of objects in the virtual 3D world.
These coordinates are used for modeling and defining the
geometry of objects in the scene.
 Characteristics:
o The origin and axes of the world coordinate system
can be arbitrary, chosen by the designer.
o All objects in the 3D world are represented in this
coordinate system before any transformations are
applied.
 Purpose:
World coordinates are used to position and orient objects
in the global 3D space. These coordinates are
independent of the camera or viewer's perspective.
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2. Viewing Coordinates (VC)

 Definition:
The viewing coordinate system, sometimes referred to as
the camera or eye coordinate system, is a coordinate
system where the observer (camera) is placed at the
origin, looking along a specific axis (usually the negative
zzz-axis).
 Characteristics:
o The viewer or camera is assumed to be at the origin,
and the world is transformed so that the camera
looks at the objects.
o The viewing coordinate system is oriented according
to the camera’s position and viewing direction.
 Purpose:
The transformation from world coordinates to viewing
coordinates is known as the viewing transformation. It
allows the system to translate and rotate the world so that
the camera's perspective can be used for rendering.

3. Normalized Device Coordinates (NDC)

 Definition:
Normalized device coordinates are a standardized
coordinate system that maps the viewing space to a
coordinate system where the coordinates are normalized
to the range of [−1,1] for each axis. This coordinate
system is independent of the size and resolution of device.
 Characteristics:
o The coordinates in NDC are standardized to a cube
(in 3D) or rectangle (in 2D) whose corners are
[−1,−1,−1] and [1,1,1] in the 3D space.
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o The purpose of NDC is to provide a uniform space for

clipping, where geometry can be checked for visibility
before final transformation.
 Purpose:
NDC serves as an intermediate step in the pipeline before
final conversion to device coordinates. It ensures that all
objects are within the bounds of the screen, providing a
consistent space for clipping and perspective correction.

4. Device Coordinates (DC)

 Definition:
Device coordinates refer to the coordinate system of the
output device, typically a screen or monitor. This system
maps the normalized coordinates to actual pixel locations
on the device.
 Characteristics:
o Device coordinates depend on the resolution and
size of the screen. For example, in a screen with a
resolution of 1920x1080, the device coordinates
range from [0,0 to [1920,1080] for a 2D space.
o Device coordinates are used to draw pixels on the
screen.
 Purpose:
Device coordinates represent the final step in the viewing
pipeline, where the 3D scene is projected onto a 2D plane
(screen). The transformation from NDC to device
coordinates involves scaling and translating the
normalized coordinates to fit the screen resolution.
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Summary of Coordinate Systems in the

Viewing Pipeline

Flow in the Viewing Pipeline:

1. World Coordinates → Objects are initially defined in the
world coordinate system.
2. Viewing Coordinates → Objects are transformed relative
to the viewer's perspective.
3. Normalized Device Coordinates (NDC) → Coordinates
are standardized to range [−1,1][-1, 1][−1,1] for clipping.
4. Device Coordinates → Final transformation to actual
screen pixels for display.
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(H) Z-buffer Method of Hidden Surface

Removal
The Z-buffer method (also known as depth buffering) is a
widely used technique in computer graphics to remove hidden
surfaces from a 3D scene. It determines which objects, or parts
of objects, are visible to the camera and ensures that only the
visible surfaces are rendered on the screen. The method uses
a depth buffer to store the depth (or distance) of each pixel
from the camera, allowing the system to track which surfaces
are in front and which are behind.

How the Z-buffer Method Works:

1. Initialization:
o A Z-buffer is created, which is a 2D array of the
same size as the screen (or the frame buffer).
o Initially, all entries in the Z-buffer are set to a value
representing the farthest possible depth (usually, this
is the maximum depth value, e.g., 1 for normalized
coordinates).
o The screen's pixel values are initialized to a
background color, usually black or a clear color.
2. Processing Each Pixel:
o For each object in the scene, the system determines
depth of surface at each pixel relative to camera.
o The depth of a pixel for an object is calculated based
on its position in the 3D world space and the
camera's position.
o The depth value is compared to the current value
stored in the Z-buffer for that pixel.
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3. Comparison and Update:

o If the calculated depth for a pixel is less (closer to the
camera) than the value stored in the Z-buffer, it
means that the pixel is visible and should be
rendered.
o The pixel color is then updated in the frame buffer,
and the Z-buffer is updated with the new depth value.
o If the calculated depth is greater (further away) than
the value in the Z-buffer, the pixel is ignored because
it is behind another surface, and thus not visible.
4. Final Image:
o Once all the pixels have been processed for all the
objects, the frame buffer contains the final image,
with the hidden surfaces correctly removed.
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ANS. (A)
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(B) Advantages of Interactive

Graphics
1. Enhanced Data Exploration:
o Users can interactively explore datasets, uncovering
insights that might not be apparent in static visuals.

2. Immediate Feedback:
o Interactivity provides real-time responses to user
actions, enhancing understanding and engagement.

3. Customization:
o Users can tailor their views according to their specific
interests, which promotes a more personalized
experience.

4. Better Retention and Understanding:

o Interactive elements help users to engage more
deeply with the content, leading to improved retention
of information.

5. Discovery of Patterns:
o Users can manipulate visualizations to identify trends
& correlations in data that might otherwise go
unnoticed.

6. Collaboration:
o Interactive graphics can facilitate group discussions
and collaborations, allowing multiple users to explore
data together.
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7. Accessibility:
o By integrating accessibility features, interactive
graphics can reach a broader audience,
accommodating different abilities and learning styles.

8. Engagement:
o Interactive graphics often result in higher user
engagement, as they invite users to actively
participate rather than passively consume
information.
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ANS. (A) What is Rasterization?

Rasterization is the process of converting vector graphics
(which are defined by mathematical equations and geometric
shapes) into a raster format (a grid of pixels) for display on
screens. This is essential in computer graphics for rendering
images and shapes so that they can be viewed on raster-based
devices like monitors and printers.
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(B) Disadvantages of DDA Line Drawing

Algorithm:
1. Rounding Operations:
o The algorithm uses floating-point arithmetic and
requires rounding off the computed pixel coordinates
to the nearest integer, which can introduce
approximation errors and reduce accuracy.

2. Slower Performance:
o Floating-point arithmetic (addition and rounding) is
computationally expensive compared to integer
arithmetic, leading to slower execution times,
especially in systems without hardware support for
floating-point operations.

3. Accumulation of Errors:
o Due to repeated rounding of floating-point values, the
DDA algorithm can accumulate errors over long line
segments, resulting in deviations from the ideal line.

4. Inefficiency for Vertical Lines:

o The DDA algorithm calculates both xxx and yyy
values for each step, making it inefficient for vertical
or near-vertical lines, where only one coordinate
changes significantly.

5. Dependence on Slope:
o The performance and behavior of the algorithm vary
based on the slope of the line, requiring different
handling for cases where the slope is steep (∣m∣>1|m|
> 1∣m∣>1) or shallow (∣m∣≤1|m| \leq 1∣m∣≤1).
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6. Not Optimal for Hardware Implementation:

o Modern graphics systems prefer algorithms like
Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm, which uses only
integer arithmetic and avoids rounding, making it
more suitable for hardware implementation.
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ANS. (A)
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(B)
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ANS. (A) Composite Transformation

Composite transformation involves combining multiple
transformations (such as translation, rotation, scaling, etc.) into
a single transformation matrix. This is useful when multiple
transformations are applied sequentially to an object, as the
combined transformation can be applied directly.

Problem Statement
We are tasked with scaling a triangle with vertices
P(0,0),Q(1,1),R(5,2)P(0, 0), Q(1, 1), R(5, 2)P(0,0),Q(1,1),R(5,2)
to twice its size while keeping the point (6,5)(6, 5)(6,5) fixed.
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(B)
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(i)

(ii)

(iii)
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ANS.
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ANS. (A) Continuities of a curve describe how smooth and

seamless the transitions are between curve segments. They
are important in computer graphics, geometric modeling, and
animations for creating visually appealing and realistic shapes.
The types of continuities are:

1. Positional Continuity (C0C^0C0)

 Definition: A curve has C0C^0C0 continuity if the
segments of the curve meet at a common endpoint. There
are no gaps between the segments, but the curve may
have sharp corners or discontinuities in direction.
 Example: Polyline where the segments are connected at
endpoints but directions change abruptly.
 Application: Useful in approximations or when sharp
transitions are required.

2. Tangential (First Derivative) Continuity

(C1C^1C1)
 Definition: A curve has C1C^1C1 continuity if, in addition
to being connected (C0C^0C0), the tangents (or first
derivatives) at the joint points are also continuous. This
ensures a smooth directional flow without sharp corners.
 Example: A quadratic Bezier curve with smoothly varying
direction at joints.
 Application: Required in animations and smooth path
designs, such as car trajectories.
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3. Curvature (Second Derivative)

Continuity (C2C^2C2)
 Definition: A curve has C2C^2C2 continuity if it satisfies
C1C^1C1 continuity and, additionally, the rate of change
of the tangents (second derivatives or curvature) is also
continuous. This ensures an even smoother transition with
no abrupt changes in curvature.
 Example: Cubic Bezier curves with matched curvature at
joins.
 Application: Essential in advanced modeling, automotive
design, and aerodynamics for achieving fluid, natural
transitions.

4. Geometric Continuity (GnG^nGn)

 Definition: Geometric continuity (GnG^nGn) is a less
restrictive form of continuity compared to CnC^nCn. For a
curve to have GnG^nGn continuity:
o G0G^0G0: Segments are joined.
o G1G^1G1: Tangents are proportional but may have
different magnitudes.
o G2G^2G2: Curvatures are proportional.
 Example: Rational Bezier curves (where tangents and
curvatures are proportionally scaled).
 Application: Common in computer-aided design (CAD)
where freedom of scaling is needed while maintaining
smoothness.
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(B) Surface Rendering in Computer

Graphics
Surface rendering is the process of generating a realistic or
stylized image of a 3D object by calculating the appearance of
its surface under specified lighting and viewing conditions. It
involves determining the colors, textures, and shading of
surfaces to simulate their material properties and make them
appear visually realistic or aesthetically pleasing.

Key Concepts in Surface Rendering:

1. Lighting Models:
o Simulate how light interacts with the surface of an
object (e.g., diffuse, specular, and ambient lighting).
o Common lighting models include Phong, Blinn-
Phong, and Lambertian.
2. Shading Techniques:
o Flat Shading: Uniform color for each surface or
polygon.
o Gouraud Shading: Smooth shading by interpolating
vertex colors.
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o Phong Shading: Smooth shading by interpolating

surface normals.
3. Textures:
o Adding images or patterns to surfaces for enhanced
detail.
o Texture mapping, bump mapping, and displacement
mapping are common techniques.
4. Material Properties:
o Define how surfaces reflect light using properties like
shininess, roughness, and transparency.
5. Rendering Techniques:
o Techniques like ray tracing, rasterization, or radiosity
are used for realistic rendering.

Applications:
 Used extensively in gaming, animations, simulations,
architectural visualization, and virtual reality for creating
lifelike 3D models and environments.
Example: Rendering a shiny metallic object would require
precise reflection calculations, while rendering a matte surface
would focus on diffuse lighting effects.
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ANS. (A)
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(B) (i) B-representation (Bézier

Representation)
B-representation, commonly referred to as Bézier
representation, is a mathematical representation used to
describe curves and surfaces in computer graphics and
geometric modeling. Bézier curves and surfaces are defined by
a set of control points, and the curve or surface shape is
influenced by these points. It is widely used in graphics for its
simplicity and ease of use in animation, modeling, & rendering.
Key Points:
 Bézier Curves: Defined by a set of control points. The
curve does not necessarily pass through all control points,
but the points define the overall shape of the curve.
o Linear Bézier Curve: Defined by two control points.
o Quadratic Bézier Curve: Defined by three control
points.
o Cubic Bézier Curve: Defined by four control points.
 Bézier Surfaces: These are extensions of Bézier curves
to two dimensions. A Bézier surface is typically defined by
a grid of control points (e.g., 4x4 control points for a cubic
Bézier surface).
Mathematics:
 The Bézier curve is represented by the parametric
equation: B(t)=∑i=0nPi⋅bi,n(t)B(t) = \sum_{i=0}^{n} P_i
\cdot b_{i,n}(t)B(t)=i=0∑nPi⋅bi,n(t) where:
o PiP_iPi are the control points,
o bi,n(t)b_{i,n}(t)bi,n(t) are the Bernstein basis
polynomials,
o ttt is a parameter varying between 0 and 1.
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Advantages:
 Simple to implement and compute.
 Control points provide intuitive control over the shape of
the curve or surface.
 Widely used in graphics and animation software.

Applications:
 Path planning and modeling in 2D and 3D space.
 Animation (e.g., motion interpolation).
 Graphics software (e.g., Adobe Illustrator, AutoCAD).

(ii) Spatial Partitioning Representation

Spatial partitioning is a technique used in computer graphics,
geographic information systems (GIS), and computational
geometry to efficiently manage and organize spatial data, such
as objects in 2D or 3D space. It divides the space into smaller
regions or cells and stores objects in these cells, helping to
optimize queries and operations such as collision detection, ray
tracing, and rendering.
Key Points:
 Grid-Based Spatial Partitioning: The space is divided
into regular grid cells, and objects are assigned to the
cells they occupy. This makes it easy to locate objects
within specific regions of the space.
 Binary Space Partitioning (BSP): A method that
recursively subdivides the space using hyperplanes (in
3D, these are planes) to partition the space. BSP trees are
useful for rendering, visibility determination, and collision
detection in 3D games.
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 Quadtrees and Octrees: These are hierarchical spatial

partitioning structures:
o Quadtree: Divides a 2D space into four quadrants
(subcells) recursively. Commonly used for managing
2D objects.
o Octree: A 3D extension of the quadtree, where space
is divided into eight octants (subcells). Useful in 3D
graphics and volumetric data representation.

Advantages:
 Efficiency: Improves query performance, as only objects
within specific partitions need to be checked.
 Optimization: Reduces unnecessary checks in algorithms
such as collision detection and ray tracing.
 Scalability: Effective for managing large datasets or
complex scenes.

Applications:
 Collision detection in games and simulations.
 Rendering and ray tracing, especially in 3D graphics.
 Geographical, environmental modeling in GIS systems.

Examples of Spatial Partitioning Methods:

 Grid Partitioning: Often used in 2D applications, where
objects are organized into cells of equal size.
 BSP Trees: Used in 3D environments for efficient
rendering and object sorting.
 Octrees: Common in 3D games and computer graphics
for spatial management.x1
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ANS.
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