Chemistry

Intermolecular Forces
2023-01-11

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 Table of Contents
Click on the topic to go to that section

· States of Matter

· Intermolecular Forces and Dipoles

· More Intermolecular Forces

· Surface Tension, Viscosity and Vapor Pressure

· Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

· Types of Solids

· Properties of Matter
 States of Matter

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 Matter We See
Atoms are the basic units of matter. At the atomic level, we
know atoms bond together to create compounds due to
electronegativity and Coulombic or electrostatic attraction.

Chemical compounds react with each other, breaking and

re-forming bonds, to make new chemicals.

Model of water molecules

 Matter We See
We also know that atoms and molecules are very small. We can't
actually see a substance unless it is made up of many particles.

1 mL of water at 4 Celsius = 1 gram of water

1 gram of water =3.34x1022 molecules of water

What makes all of the water molecules stick together to make a

large enough amount we can actually see?
 So far this year….

We first explained atoms, elements and how to build up the

periodic table from quantum numbers.

Then we explained how atoms combine to form molecules - the

most common way we find most atoms in nature - and learned
about how atoms from molecules rearrange in chemical
reactions to form new chemical compounds.

Now, we're going to use intermolecular forces between

molecules to create the common states of matter.
 Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces are the piece we need to add to the

puzzle to explain the world around us.

Without intermolecular forces, we wouldn't have tables,

lakes, wall...or even our bodies.

Intermolecular forces shape our world.

 States of Matter

While there are many states of matter, the three common states
that dominate our world are gases, liquids and solids.

We won't be discussing more exotic states such as plasma,

nuclear matter, etc.

The 2 fundamental differences between states of matter are:

the distance between particles

the particles' freedom to move

 States of Matter
Gas cool or Liquid Crystalline solid
increase
pressure cool

heat or heat
decrease
pressure

Particles are far disorder, freedom, ordered

apart, free to move arrangement,
total freedom, relative particles are in
much of empty to each other, fixed
space, close together positions,
total disorder close together
Solid Liquid Gas

Click to watch a video

about the phases of
matter
 States of Matter: Gas

SHAPE Assumes the shape of its

container

VOLUME Expands to the volume of

its container

COMPRESSION Is compressible

FLOW Flows easily

DIFFUSION Very Rapid

 States of Matter: Liquid
Assumes the shape of
SHAPE the part of a
container it occupies

Does not expand to the

VOLUME
volume of the container

COMPRESSION Is virtually incompressible

FLOW Flows easily

DIFFUSION slower rate than gas

 States of Matter: Solid

SHAPE Retains its own shape

regardless of container

Does not expand to the

VOLUME
volume of its container

COMPRESSION Is virtually incompressible

FLOW Does not flow

DIFFUSION Slowest rate of diffusion

 Condensed Phases
In the solid and liquid states particles are closer together,
we refer to those states as condensed phases.

Gas cool or Liquid Crystalline Solid

increase
pressure cool

heat or heat
decrease
pressure
Particles are far ordered
disorder, freedom, arrangement,
apart,
free to move particles are in
total freedom,
relative fixed
much of empty
to each other, positions,
space,
close together close together
total disorder
1 Which of the following is a characteristic of a gas?

A Fills only a portion of its container

B Molecules are in relatively rigid positions

Answer
C Takes on the shape of its entire container

D Is not compressible

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=N_52K35ReXA
2 Which of the following is a characteristic of a liquid?

A Fills only a portion of its container

B Molecules are in relatively rigid positions

Answer
C Takes on the shape of its entire container

D Is compressible

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=y-SCq6SvlC8
3 Which of the following is a characteristic of a solid?

A Fills all of its container

B Molecules are in relatively rigid positions

Answer
C Takes on the shape of its entire container

D Is compressible

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=OaKVTTL4kjE
 Intermolecular Forces
and Dipoles

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 States of Matter & Intermolecular Forces
The state of a substance at a particular temperature
and pressure depends on two major factors:

The strength of the intermolecular forces that hold molecules

together

The kinetic energy of the molecules

Molecules have the highest kinetic energy in which state?

 Intermolecular Forces

H Cl H Cl

Covalent bond Intermolecular

(strong) attraction ( weak)

Intermolecular forces are electrostatic forces of attraction or

repulsion that exists between molecules.

The attractions between molecules, intermolecular forces, are

not nearly as strong as the intramolecular attractions that hold
compounds together.
 States of Matter & Intermolecular Forces
Without intermolecular forces (IMF's), all substances would
behave like ideal gases...there would be no liquids or solids.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=LrGgOUUFq3Y
Intermolecular Forces & Boiling Points
Boiling represents a transition from a liquid to a gas.

To make that transition, molecules in the liquid must break free

of the intermolecular forces that bind them.
Intermolecular Forces & Boiling Points
The kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the
temperature: as kinetic energy rises, so does temperature.

The boiling point refers to the temperature at which the

molecules' energy overcomes the intermolecular forces binding
them together.

The higher the boiling point of a substance, the stronger the

intermolecular forces.

Water molecules
overcome their
intermolecular forces at
100 C.
 Intermolecular Forces
There are four types of Intermolecular Forces:

Dipole-dipole interactions

London dispersion forces (LDF's)

Hydrogen bonding

Ion-Dipole

The first three of those listed above are also called Van der
Waals forces.
 Dipole-Dipole Interactions
A dipole is a polar molecule.
Remember what makes a molecule polar?

Bond Type Electronegativity Difference

very small or zero

Non-Polar Covalent

Polar Covalent about 0.2 to 1.6

above 1.7
Ionic
(between metal & non-metal)
 Dipoles
HF is an example of a polar molecule or dipole. The fluorine end of
the molecule has higher electron density than the hydrogen end.

H F

We use the symbol to designate a dipole (2 poles).

The "+" end is on the more positive end of the molecule and the
arrow points towards the more negative end.
 Dipole-Dipole Interactions
The interaction between
Molecules that have permanent any two like charges is
repulsive (black)
dipoles are attracted to each other.

The positive end of one is attracted to the -

-
negative end of the other and vice-versa. +

+
These forces are only important when the -

molecules are close to each other. +

-

Only polar molecules will have this type

+

+
-

of Intermolecular Force.

The interaction between any

two opposite charges is
attractive ( red)
 Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions
Dipole-induced dipole interactions emerge when a polar and
nonpolar molecule become close.
+ -
e-e- e- e- e-e-
e- e-
e- e-e- e-
e-
e-e-
e-

Nonpolar Dipole

When they become close together, the dipole induces an

instantaneous dipole in the nonpolar molecule as its electrons
move towards the positive pole of the dipole molecule.

MOVED to here + - +
e-
-
-
e-e-
e- e-e-e-
e- e-e- e- e-e-
e- e- e-

Instantaneous Dipole
Dipole
 Dipole-Induced Dipole Interactions
Dipole-induced dipole interactions are present between a polar and
nonpolar molecule. A polar molecule, or permanent dipole, can
induce a temporary, or "instantaneous" dipole.

· These forces are always attractive.

· The strength of these forces increases with the magnitude of the

dipole of the polar molecule.

· The strength also increases with the polarizability of the nonpolar

molecule.
 Dipole-Dipole Interactions
The polarity of a molecule is measured by its dipole moment, μ.
The more polar the molecule, the greater its dipole moment.

The more polar the molecule, the stronger the attraction

between molecules, the higher the boiling point.

Molecular Dipole Boiling

Substance Moment
Weight Point
(amu) μ(D) (K)
Acetonitrile, CH CN
3 41 3.9 355
Acetaldehyde, CH CHO 3 44 2.7 294
Methyl chloride, CH Cl 3 50 1.9 249
Dimethyl ether, CH OCH 3 3 46 1.3 248
Propane, CH CH CH
3 2 3 44 0.1 231
4 A chemical bond is

A an electrostatic force of repulsion

B an electrostatic force of attraction

C a physical connection between objects that are

Answer
touching
D I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=-fLXs6lwFKQ
 5 Which of the following correctly ranks electrostatic forces
from weakest to strongest?

A covalent bond, ionic bond, intermolecular forces

Answer
B ionic bond, covalent bond, intermolecular forces

C intermolecular forces, covalent bond, ionic bond

D intermolecular forces, ionic bond, covalent bond

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=Ict3b7dPTi4
6 Which of the following is pointing to an intermolecular
bond?

B
D
A

Answer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Intermolecular_force

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=ro4OgN1t59Q
7 The arrow below is pointing to a(n)

A Intramolecular bond

B Ionic bond
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Intermolecular_force
C Intermolecular bond

Answer
D Both A and B

E I need help

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8 Intermolecular forces are strongest in

A solids

B liquids

Answer
C gases

D vapor

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=B9eztWiMGWM
 9 A substance boils when the kinetic energy of its
molecules

A overcomes the intermolecular forces bonding them

together

Answer
B overcomes the intramolecular forces bonding them
together
C reaches 100 Celsius

D none of the above

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=G9QdEmmI_ME
10 The interaction between water and methane would be a
dipole-induced dipole interaction.

True

False

Answer
https://njctl.org/video/?v=Rrc52TK35VQ
11 How many of these substances would have dipole-dipole
interactions?
H 2O CO2 CH4 NH3

A 0

B 1

Answer
C 2

D 3

E I need help

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 More
Intermolecular Forces

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 London Dispersion Forces

London Dispersion Forces occur between all molecules.

They result from the fact that electrons are in constant motion
and sometimes are the same side of the molecule.

When they are on one side, the molecule is polarized: one

side is negative and the other is positive; the molecule acts
like a dipole.

δ- δ+

-
-
 London Dispersion Forces

That polarization creates an electric field that oppositely

polarizes nearby molecules...leading to an attraction.

δ- δ+ δ- δ+
- -
- -
 London Dispersion Forces

While the electrons in helium atoms repel each other, they

occasionally wind up on the same side of an atom.

At that instant, the helium atom is polar, with an

excess of electrons on one side and a shortage on the other.

e-
2+
e-

Helium atom δ- δ+
 London Dispersion Forces
Another helium atom nearby becomes polarized as the positive
partial charge on the right side of the first atom attracts the
electrons in the second atom.
electrostatic attraction

e- e-
2+ 2+
e- e-
Helium atom 1 Helium atom 2
London dispersion forces, or dispersion forces, are attractions
between an instantaneous dipole and an induced dipole.

δ- δ+ δ- δ+
 Polarizability

These forces are present in all molecules, whether they are

polar or nonpolar.

The tendency of an electron cloud to distort in this way is

called polarizability.

Because larger molecules have more electrons, they are

more polarizable.

Molecules with more electrons experience stronger London

dispersion forces.
 London Dispersion Forces
Examine the trends among the Halogens and the Noble Gases:

Number Boiling Number

Noble Boiling
Halogen of Point of
gas point (K)
electrons (K) electrons
F2 18 85.1 He 2 4.6
Cl2 34 238.6 Ne 10 27.3
Br2 70 332.0 Ar 18 87.5
I2 106 457.6 Kr 36 120.9
Xe 54 166.1

the greater the number of electrons,

the more polarizable the particles are,
resulting in stronger London dispersion forces.
 Surface Area
Just as London Dispersion Forces increase with number of
electrons, they also increase with surface area.

The greater the contact area between two molecules, the

greater the LDF.

http://abetterchemtext.com/Condensed/LDF_SA.htm
 Dipole-Dipole Interactions vs.
London Dispersion Forces

Dipole-Dipole London Dispersion Forces

If two polar molecules If one molecule is much
are of comparable larger than another,
size, dipole-dipole dispersion forces will likely
interactions are the determine its physical
dominating force. properties.

If molecules are nonpolar,

dispersion forces will
dominate, since all molecules
experience dispersion forces.
 Water is Weird
What is going on with water? Based on molecular weight/electron
number, it should have the lowest boiling point among the polar
compounds, but instead its boiling point is extremely high.
 Hydrogen Bonding

The dipole-dipole interactions

experienced when H is bonded to
N, O, or F are unusually strong.

We call these interactions

hydrogen bonds.
 Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding arises in part from the high electronegativity
and small radius of nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine.

When hydrogen is bonded to one of those very electronegative

elements, the hydrogen nucleus is exposed.

F F
Click here to watch an animation
about Hydrogen Bonding
 Hydrogen Bonding
Water is one example of a substance that
is less dense in the solid state than in the
liquid state; therefore, solid water, or ice,
floats on liquid water.

If it didn't, life on Earth would be

very different. For instance,
lakes would freeze from the
bottom and fish couldn't survive winters.

Hydrogen bonding creates the

space in ice that explains its low density.

Click here to watch an

animation of the water - ice
transition
 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen bonds play an important role in polymers, both synthetic
(plastics) and natural (proteins, RNA and DNA).

R Hydrogen bonding stabilizes the secondary

structure of proteins.
N
O
H H-Bond
O

R
 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen bonding is the basis of base-pairing in nucleic acids, RNA
and DNA. DNA is stabilized by 107-108 hydrogen bonds in each
molecule.

http://biotech.christopher-
vidal.com/dnamolecule.htm
 Ion-Dipole Interactions
There is a fourth intermolecular force between ions and
molecules that will be important as we explore solutions
later in the course. Ion-dipole interactions are not
considered a van der Waals force.

The ion-dipole forces cause ionic substances to dissolve

in polar solvents.
- +
- +
-
+
+ -

_ +
+ -
-
+

+
-
+
-

Anion-dipole attractions Cation-dipole attractions

 Are ions involved?
No Yes

Are polar molecules Are polar molecules

involved? and ions both
present?
No Yes
Yes No
Are hydrogen
atoms bonded
to N, O, or F
atoms?
No Yes

Dispersion Dipole-dipole Hydrogen Ion-dipole *Ionic

forces only: forces: H2S, bonding: forces: Bonding:
Ar, I2 CH3, Cl H2O, NH3 NaCl in H2O NaCl, KI
Van der Waals Forces
 IMF Summary
London
Dispersion Hydrogen-
Forces Dipole-Dipole Bonding

Strength Weakest IMF Stronger IMF Strongest IMF

Only polar
All molecules
Types of Only polar molecules with
(polar and non
molecules molecules H bonded to N,
polar)
O, or F

When in Look at number Look at given Look for H-N,

doubt... of electrons Dipole moment H-O, or H-F
bonds
Click here to watch a summary of IMF
 Practice
Name the intermolecular force that is most likely to occur between
each pair of these molecules.

- - -
+ - + - + -
e-e- e- e- e-e- e- e-e- e- e-e-
e- e- e-e- e- e-e- e- e-e-
e- e-e-
e-
e- e- e- e- e- e-
Nonpolar
Dipole Dipole Dipole

-
+ -

++
e-e- e- e-e- e- e- e-e-
e- e- e-e-
e- e-e-
e- e- e-e-
e- e-
e- e-
Nonpolar Nonpolar Ion
Dipole

Answers on next slide

 Practice
Name the intermolecular force that is most likely to occur between
each pair of these molecules.

- - -
+ - + - + -
e-e- e- e- e-e- e- e-e- e- e-e-
e- e-e- e-e- e-e-
e- e-e-
e- e-
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
Nonpolar
Dipole Dipole Dipole
Dipole-Induced Dipole Dipole-Dipole

-
+ -

++
e-e- e- e-e- e- e- e-e-
e- e- e-e-
e- e-e-
e- e- e-e-
e- e-
e- e-
Nonpolar Nonpolar Ion
Dipole
Hydrogen Bonding
London Dispersion Ion-Dipole
Forces
12 Which of the molecules below will have the highest
boiling point?

Molecular Dipole
A CH3CH2CH3 Substance Wt. Moment

B CH3OCH3 CH3CH2CH3 44 0.1

CH3OCH3 46 1.3

Answer
C CH3Cl
CH3Cl 50 1.9
D CH3CN
CH3CHO 44 2.7
E I need help CH3CN 41 3.9

https://njctl.org/video/?v=lmBXloJWUDQ
13 Which of the following will have the lowest boiling point?

A CH3CH2CH3 Molecular Dipole

Substance
Wt. Moment
B CH3OCH3
CH3CH2CH3 44 0.1
C CH3Cl

Answer
CH3OCH3 46 1.3
D CH3CHO CH3Cl 50 1.9
E I need help CH3CHO 44 2.7
CH3CN 41 3.9

https://njctl.org/video/?v=qd8IsX70VAc
14 Only polar molecules are bonded together by London
dispersion forces.

A True

B False

Answer
C I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=I2ty2fB3V6g
15 Molecules with more electrons experience stronger
London dispersion forces.
A True

B False

Answer
C I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=zsYKUUXUipY
16 Which of the following molecules will have the highest
boiling point?

A F2

B Cl2

Answer
C Br2

D I2

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=g2Vry_1R-go
17 Which of the following molecules will have the lowest
boiling point?

A F2
B Cl2

Answer
C Br2
D I2
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=gAZpiy8U3V0
18 Which of the following gases will have the highest boiling
point?

A He

B Ne

Answer
C Ar

D Xe

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=1dggRS77ik0
 19 Which of the following gases will have the lowest boiling
point?

A He

B Ne

Answer
C Ar

D Kr

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=pH2TIijfWA0
20 Which of the following molecules has hydrogen bonding
as one of its intermolecular forces?

A HF

B HCl

C HBr

Answer
D HI

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=TdJB_qcuCMc
 21 The indicated bond is a hydrogen bond.

True

False

Answer
https://njctl.org/video/?v=U67_cO_11EA
 22 Which of the following arrows points to a hydrogen bond
in the molecule below?

D
E

Answer
A
B

https://njctl.org/video/?v=3-sEwgG2n6c
23 Which of the following molecules has hydrogen bonding
as one of its IMF's?

A NO2

B NH3

C HBr

Answer
D CH3Cl

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=m0GDPcjzFDc
24 Which of the following has London dispersion forces as
its only IMF?

A PH3

B H 2S

Answer
C SiH4

D HCl

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=mRapJ8iCVo0
25 Which of the following molecules will have the highest
boiling point?

A H 2O

B CO2

Answer
C CH4

D NH3

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=PtQleLnZKI8
 26 Which of the following diatomic molecules has the
highest boiling point?

A N2

B Br2

C H2

Answer
D Cl2

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=Do2Rzp7SGyE
27 Of the following diatomic molecules, which has the lowest
boiling point?

A N2

B Br2

C H2

D Cl2

Answer
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=ZFUq1gsEmUg
28 Which one of the following derivatives of methane (CH4)
has the lowest boiling point?

A CBr4

B CF4

Answer
C CCl4

D CI4

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=h_-zdBvq1yY
 29 Which one of the following derivatives of
methane (CH4 ) has the highest boiling point?

A CBr4

B CF4

C CCl4

Answer
D CI4

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=VAhS8LNiL_I
 Surface Tension,
Viscosity
and Vapor Pressure

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Intermolecular Forces Affect Many
Physical Properties

The strength of the attractions

between particles can greatly
affect the properties of a
substance or solution.
 Properties of Liquids: Viscosity

Resistance of a liquid to flow is called

viscosity.

It is related to the ease with which molecules

can move past each other. Viscosity increases
with stronger intermolecular forces and
decreases with higher temperature.

Which liquid to the right is more viscous?

 Properties of Liquids: Viscosity

Substance Formula Viscosity ( kg/m-s)

Hexane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 3.26 x 10 -4

Heptane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 4.09 x 10-4
Octane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 5.42 x 10-4
Nonane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 7.11 x 10-4
Decane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 1.42 x 10-3
 Properties of Liquids:
Surface Tension

Surface tension results from the net inward force

experienced by the molecules on the surface of a liquid.
 Properties of Liquids:
Surface Tension

The surface tension of a liquid is directly related to the

attractive forces between its molecules. The stronger the
attractive forces the more surface tension is needed to

Answer
increase the surface area of the liquid.
Water has a relatively high surface tension 7.29 x 10-2 J/m2 at
20℃. However, mercury has an even higher surface tension:
4.6 x 10 -1 J/m2.
What do you think could cause mercury to have such a high
surface tension relative to water?
 Vaporization
Boiling and evaporation are two ways in which a liquid can
vaporize into a gas. However, there are important
distinctions between these processes.

Boiling Evaporation
Occurs at a specific
Occurs below the boiling
temperature, the boiling
point
point (B.P.)
Occurs throughout the Occurs only at the surface of
entire liquid a liquid

Achieved when atmospheric

pressure equals vapor
pressure (Patm = Pvap)

https://njctl.org/video/?v=nc5QyaLbZDI
 Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by gas
molecules above the surface of an enclosed liquid.

Sample (A) at a lower Sample (B) at a higher

temperature shows some temperature shows a greater
vapor above the surface of number of vapor particles, thus
the liquid. resulting in higher vapor
pressure.
 Properties of Liquids: Volatility
Volatility is another characteristic of a liquid that is based
upon the strength of its intermolecular forces.

The more volatile a liquid:

the more quickly it evaporates

the higher its vapor pressure at a given temperature

the weaker its intermolecular forces

Acetone is used to quickly dry glassware in a chemistry lab?

Why?
Click here to see a
short video on volatility
 Vapor Pressure
At any temperature some molecules in a liquid have
enough energy to escape.

As the temperature rises, the fraction of molecules that

have enough energy to escape increases.

chemwiki UC Davis
 Liquid - Vapor Equilibrium

As more molecules escape

the liquid, the pressure
they exert increases.
gas liquid
becomes becomes
gas
P=F
liquid A

Eventually, the liquid and

vapor reach a state of
dynamic equilibrium: liquid
molecules evaporate and
vapor molecules condense
at the same rate.
 Vapor Pressure Curve
Like any line, the curve is made
up of an infinite number of
points.
Each point along the curve
shows the temperature at
which atmospheric pressure
equals vapor pressure

Patm = Pvap

In other words, each point

along the curve indicates a
boiling point.
The type of graph shown here is called a
vapor pressure curve.
 Vapor Pressure Curve

The boiling point of a liquid is

the temperature at which its
vapor pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.

The normal boiling point is

the temperature at which its
vapor pressure is 760 torr.
(AKA 760 mm Hg = 1 atm)
 Pressure Cooking
A liquid will boil when its
vapor pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.

A pressure cooker works by

increasing the"atmospheric"
pressure inside it, so water
will not boil at 100℃;
instead, it may be heated
up to 120℃ before turning
to steam.

Raising the cooking temperature cuts cooking time drastically.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=uTv8lLYfmQU
Pressure Cooking

www.washingtonpost.com
 Boiling Point and Pressure

Recall that boiling occurs when

Pvap = Patm

Since atmospheric pressure is so

low at high altitudes, (e.g. top of Patm = 33 kPa on Mt. Everest
Mount Everest) water will boil at a
much lower temperature than in
New Jersey.

Click here for a video of

water boiling at
room temperature

Patm = 101.3 kPa at sea level

 30 A substance's viscosity is directly proportional to the
strength of its intermolecular forces?

A True

B False

Answer
C I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=p-bY_lfOsYU
31 Which of the following substances would have the
greatest viscosity?

A CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

B CH3CH2CH2CH3

Answer
C CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

D CH3CH2CH2CH3

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=2ljYVzCN8Fo
32 The unbalanced attraction of molecules at the surface of
a liquid tends to pull the bulk of the molecules
____________ leaving a minimal number on the surface.

A outward

Answer
B inward

C in all directions

D diagonally

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=psGqZm3YUHw
 33 What is the normal boiling point of ethanol (in o C)?

A 34.6

B 40.0

C 60.0

Answer
D 78.3

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=jmIplG8v-8w
34 What is the boiling point (in oC) of diethyl ether at 200 torr?

A -10
B 0
C 760
D 35

Answer
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=7vpPVD695Uw
 35 What is the boiling point of water at 300 torr?

A 50

B 75

C 90

Answer
D 100

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=R3ZlZPYjtvs
36 It will take longer to hard-boil an egg (cooking time only)

A At the summit of Mt. Everest

B At sea level

C Cooking times are equal at both elevations

Answer
D In the winter

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=7zyR2epvsYU
 Phase Changes and
Phase Diagrams

Return to Table
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of Contents
 Phase Changes
A phase change is a physical rearrangement of molecules.
Substances can change states or phases as a result of
change in external conditions like pressure and temperature.
 Phase Changes
The temperature and pressure at which a substance will
change phases depends on the intermolecular forces holding
the substance together.

At STP, CO2 sublimates at At STP, H2O boils at

-78.5 Celsius 100 Celsius
 Energy Changes Associated with
Changes of State

Chemical and physical changes are usually accompanied by

changes in energy.

When energy is released in the form of heat, the process is

exothermic.

Examples: making ice cubes, formation of snow in clouds,

condensation of rain water, a candle flame
 Energy Changes Associated with
Changes of State

When energy is absorbed by the system, the process is

endothermic.
Examples: melting ice cubes, conversion of frost to water vapor,
evaporation of water, baking bread, cooking an egg, melting solid
salts.
Exothermic Processes

Plasma
ation
in
comb
R e
a tion
iz
Ion
Gas
Va
Co po
nd riza
en tion
sa
Deposition

tio
n
Sublimation

Liquid
in g
ez
Fre g
in
M elt

Solid
 Endothermic Processes
Plasma
ation
in
comb n
Re tio
iza
Ion
Gas
Va
Co po
nd riza
en tion
sa
Deposition

tio
n
Sublimation

Liquid
in g
ez
Fre g
in
M elt

Solid
 Phase Diagrams
A phase diagram indicates what state a substance is in at
a given temperature and pressure.

Critical point
solid
Pressure liquid

Vapor
Triple point

Temperature
https://njctl.org/video/?v=_Y2YB2xEwfs
 Phase Diagrams
The triple point represents the pressure and temperature at
which all three states are in equilibrium. The critical point
represents the pressure and temperature at which liquid and
vapor phases become indistinguishable.

Critical point
solid
Pressure liquid

Vapor
Triple point

Temperature
 Phase Diagrams
This line represents the interface between solid and liquid.
The melting point at a particular temperature and pressure
can be found along this line.

Critical point
solid
Pressure liquid

Vapor
Triple point

Temperature
 Phase Diagrams
Below the triple point, a substance cannot exist in liquid state.
This line represents the interface between solid and vapor.
Sublimation points can be found along this line.

Critical point
solid
Pressure liquid

Vapor
Triple point

Temperature
 Phase Diagrams
The line between the triple point and the critical point represents the
interface between liquid and vapor. Evaporation points can be found
along this line.

Critical point
solid
Pressure liquid

Vapor
Triple point

Temperature
 Phase Diagram of Water

Note the high

critical temperature
and critical
pressure.

These are due to

the strong van der
Waals forces
between water
molecules.
 Comparison of Two Phase Diagrams

For water, the slope of the

solid-liquid line is negative.
This means that an increase in
pressure can cause this
substance to melt.

This happens because as water

freezes, the molecules must
move a little farther apart to form
the crystal structure of the solid.

As a result, ice is less dense

than liquid water.
 Comparison of Two Phase Diagrams

A small minority of other

elements and compounds share
this property with water.

However, that ice floats in liquid

water has significant impacts in
our everyday lives and the
enviroment around us.
 Comparison of Two Phase Diagrams
If ice was more dense than
liquid water, it would sink.
If ice didn't float, this polar bear
would not be able to walk out
onto the sea ice to hunt sea
lions.
This phenomenon was already Non Copyrighted Images of Polar bear on sea Ice - Bing images
discussed earlier in this
presentation.
Which intermolecular attraction
is responsible for this property?
 Comparison of Two Phase Diagrams

For carbon dioxide, the

slope of the solid-liquid line
is positive, as it is for most
other substances. Thismeans
that an increase in pressure
can cause the substance to
freeze.
Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide cannot exist in

the liquid state at pressures
below 5.11 atm;
CO2 sublimes at normal
pressures.

Click here to see video of "dry ice"

* 37 What is the VSEPR number of the only substance we
commonly see in all 3 states of matter?
A 220

B 422

Answer
C 431

D I don't remember how to do this

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=XL1NFCa1Z3I
38 Which of the following is not a phase change?

A Vaporization
B Sublimation

Answer
C Melting
D Effusion
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=JBDapznv1x4
39 The change of a substance from a solid to a gas is
called?
A Vaporization

B Sublimation

Answer
C Melting

D Effusion

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=h5cfXF7QUcc
40 Which of the following is an endothermic process?

A Condensation

B Deposition

Answer
C Melting

D Freezing

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=VWq_MA8nyeg
41 For a given substance, the temperature and pressure at
which liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable is
called

A The vapor point

B The triple point

Answer
C The critical point
D The danger zone
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=atrSaimGqKw
 42 The temperature and pressure at which a substance can
simultaneously melt, evaporate, and sublime is called

A The vapor point

B The triple point

Answer
C The critical point
D The danger zone
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=0ywk_3HdlPs
43 At which temperature and pressure can the substance
below simultaneously melt, sublime, and evaporate?

A -10 C, 1 atm
B 140 C, 1 atm

Answer
C -10 C, 0.5 atm
D -110 C, 0.4 atm
E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=4i8MR9-Qy3Y
 44 For the substance below, X represents which phase?

A solid
B liquid Y

Answer
C vapor X

D plasma Z

E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=_i7UXquSx1k
45 For the substance below, Y represents which phase?

A solid
B liquid Y

C vapor X

Answer
D plasma Z

E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=bPrHVAJxjTs
46 At standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm), at what
temperature will the substance below melt?

A -20 C
B -15 C Y

Answer
C -10 C X
D 0C Z

E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=uhqT0ItesxA
47 For the substance below, Z represents which phase?

A solid
B liquid Y

Answer
C vapor X

D plasma Z

E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=eSvRhBCo2K8
48 At 0.5 atm and -15 C the substance will

A remain solid
Y
B melt

Answer
X
C sublime
Z
D super cool
E I need help

Phase Diagram for Imaginary Substance

https://njctl.org/video/?v=ZGRG4A6MwPk
49 Which line segment indicates this is definitely a phase
diagram for water? Why?

A A

Answer
B B-F
C C-B
D E-B
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=LUCejZRknEM
 Types of Solids

Return to Table
of Contents
https://njctl.org/video/?v=mNTIxc90cm4
 Solids
We can think of solids as falling into two groups.

Amorphous, in which there is Crystalline, in which

no particular order in the particles are in highly
arrangement of particles. ordered arrangement.
 Amorphous Solids
Some examples of amorphous solids are: rubber, glass,
paraffin wax and cotton candy.

Crystalline solids include ionic compounds, metals and another

group called covalent-network solids. Crystalline solids are
categorized by bonding type as shown on the next slide.
Types of Bonding in Crystalline Solids
Form of Forces
Type of Unit Between
Solid Particles Particles Properties Examples

Molecular Atoms or London Hard and brittle, low Ar, CH4,

molecules dispersion, melting point, poor CO2,
dipole-dipole thermal and electrical C6H12O6
hydrogen conduction
bonds

Covalent- Atoms Covalent Fairly soft, low to Diamond (C),

network bonds moderately high melting Quartz (SiO2)
point, poor thermal and
electrical conduction

Ionic Positive and Coulombic Very hard, very high Typical salts
negative ions attractions melting point,
variable thermal and
electrical conduction

Metallic Atoms Metallic Soft to very hard, low to All Metallic

bonds very high melting point, Elements:
excellent thermal and Cu, Fe, Al,
electrical conduction, etc.
malleable and ductile
Covalent-Network Solids: Diamond

Diamonds are an example

of a covalent-network solid,
in which carbon atoms are
covalently bonded to four
other carbon atoms.

They tend to be hard and

have high melting points.
Covalent-Network Solids: Graphite

Graphite is another example

of a covalent-network solid.
Each carbon atom is
covalently bonded to 3 others
in layers of interconnected
hexagonal rings.

The layers are held together

by weak dispersion forces.
The layers slide easily across
one another, so graphite is
used as a lubricant as well as
the "lead" in pencils.
 Metallic Solids

Metals are not covalently

bonded, but the attractions
e-
between atoms are too strong Me Me Me Me
to be van der Waals forces. e- e-

Me Me Me Me
In metals, valence electrons e-
e- e-
are delocalized throughout the e-
Me Me Me Me
solid. This means that the e-
"sea" of electrons moves
freely around all the nuclei.

Click here for an animation

about metallic bonding
 Properties of Metallic Solids

The delocalized nature of the

electrons in metals accounts for
many physical properties.

For example, metals are generally:

good conductors of heat and
electricity malleable and ductile, (i.e.
may be drawn into wires)
 Glass Making
Glass is made by melting a mixture of sand and other
minerals in a furnace at 1800 C.
Lightning can also fuse sand into silica glass at 1800 C.

Click here to see a

video of how glass is
made from sand
Fulgurite via the Mineralogical Research Company
50 What type of solid is depicted in the image below?

A crystalline solid

B amorphous solid
C metallic solid

Answer
D covalent-network solid
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=jCfVg28rfSo
51 What type of solid is depicted in image
below?

A ionic solid

B amorphous solid

Answer
C metallic solid
D covalent-network solid
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=1UkGz61kYss
52 What type of solid is depicted in the image
below?
A ionic solid

B amorphous solid
C metallic solid

Answer
D covalent-network solid
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=wJ5vgCk83k8
 53 Metallic solids are best classified as ______.
A particles arranged in regularly repeating patterns.

B a sea of de-localized electrons making them good

conductors of electricity.

Answer
C held together by weak intermolecular forces that
result in them being soft with low melting points

D held together by large networks of covalent bonds.

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=dogoiB9kOrk
54 Ionic solids tend to have higher melting points than
molecular solids because ionic bonds are stronger than
the intermolecular forces that hold molecular solids
together.

Answer
A True

B False

C I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=-XDhzbkTeZc
55 Covalent-network solids are harder than molecular solids
because covalent-network solids are held together by
intermolecular forces and molecular solids are held
together by large networks of covalent bonds.

A True

Answer
B False

C I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=47CCVZUt4zQ
56 Which of the following solids would have the lowest
melting point?

A sodium metal

B table salt

Answer
C cotton candy

D graphite

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=PbxwlPdLV-g
 Properties of Matter

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of Contents

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 Properties of Matter
Substance Property
lustrous, soft metal, non-reactive,
gold
solid at room temperature

transparent, liquid at room

salt water temperature, could be separated by
heat, no definite composition

transparent, liquid at room

pure water temperature, definite composition,
could be separated by electrolysis

solid at room temperature, high

calcium
melting point, non-lustrous, could
carbonate
be separated by heat
 Physical Properties of Matter
A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed
WITHOUT altering the identity of the material.

Physical Properties of water

water melts at 0 Celsius at standard pressure
water is transparent
water has a density of roughly 1 g/mL at 25 C
water is not soluble (does not dissolve) in gasoline
water is colorless

Notice all of these properties can be observed without changing the

identity of the water - it is still water!
 Physical Properties of Matter

Who doesn't like brick oven pizza! A brick used in an oven is made
of a mixture of aluminum oxide and silicon oxide. Think of as many
physical properties of a brick that you can. Feel free to use terms
like high and low if you don't know an exact number.

Answer
 Physical and Chemical Changes

Chemical Changes Physical Changes

Chemical changes Changes in matter

result in new that don't change the
substances. composition of a
substance.
Includes combustion,
Includes changes of
oxidation,
state, temperature,
decomposition, etc. volume, etc.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=S3uaUj-IUz0
 Chemical Properties
These properties can only be observed when we attempt to
change the identity of the material. There are a few tell tale signs
that a chemical change has taken place:

Color change

Emission of Light

Precipitate formation

Production of gas
 Chemical Properties
Color change - marshmallow burning

Emission of Light - wood burning

 Chemical Properties
Precipitate formation - solid forming from liquid mixtures

Production of gas - when limestone is heated

heat
+
Chemical Properties Class Discussion
Compare the chemical
properties of a pepperoni pizza with that of the brick oven.

Answer
 Properties of Matter

Application
When you cook, cheese can be melted or it can be burned. One
is a chemical change, the other a physical change. Explain which
is which and how you knew!

melted burned

https://njctl.org/video/?v=2wGNvERCO-c
 Extensive Properties of Matter

These are properties in which the value depends on how much of

the material is present.

Examples
The mass of a glass of water is 30 grams.
The stick has a length of 12.2 meters
The helium balloon has a volume of 14.7 liters
 Intensive Properties of Matter

These are properties in which the value is independent of the

amount of material.

Examples
The water is transparent and colorless
The melting point of an iron chunk is 1538 Celsius
The specific heat (amount of energy required to raise 1 gram by 1
degree celsius) of aluminum is 0.89 J/g*C
 Intensive Physical Properties
Density is an excellent example of an intensive property. No matter
the size of the sample, the ratio of the mass to the volume for a
given substance is the same. The higher the volume of the sample,
the higher the mass will be.

mass of water volume of water density of water

19.01 grams 19.03 mL 0.999 g/mL
100.43 grams 101. 01 mL 0.994 g/mL
154.67 grams 155.74 mL 0.993 g/mL

note that the differences in density are the result of

this being actual experimental data!
 Application and Class Discussion
Some meteorites found on the earth's surface are made of solid metal
like iron. What kind of property - intensive or extensive - do you think
would be most useful in identifying the metal in the meteorite? Explain.

Answer
 Properties of Matter Summary
Physical Chemical
observed without changing identity of observed by changing
substance identity of substance

melting point, density, color, solubility, reactivity with other

hardness, etc. substances

Intensive Extensive
independent of dependent on
sample size sample size
color, melting point, mass, length,
density, etc. volume, etc.

https://njctl.org/video/?v=J-z-2bWii_k
 57 Which of the following IS NOT a physical property?

A copper has a reddish gold color

B iron reacts with oxygen to form rust

Answer
C table salt dissolves easily in water

D silver is an excellent conductor of electricity

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=nKmrniRRmIE
 58 Which of the following IS a physical property?

A acetone has a density of 0.87 g/mL

B aluminum will burn in air to make aluminum oxide

Answer
water can undergo electrolysis and produce
C
hydrogen and oxygen gas
D Both A and C

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=-VHMDtU4ydw
 59 Which of the following is NOT a chemical property?

A Silver tarnishing into silver oxide

B gasoline burning in air

Answer
C candle wax burning

D candle wax melting

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=_RXfJ-MaP8I
 60 All of the following are physical properties
except….?

A Gold's low reactivity with oxygen

B Gasoline's inability to dissolve in water

Answer
C Ice melting at 0 C

D Hot knife cutting through ice cream cake

E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=gJTCfJTqSDU
 61 In the following list, only __________ is not an
example of a chemical change.

A dissolution of a penny in nitric acid

B the condensation of water vapor

Answer
C a burning candle
D the formation of polyethylene from ethylene
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=IJ_PPMbzRCo
62 Which of the following are chemical changes?

1. rusting of a nail

2. freezing of water

Answer
3. decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen
gases

4. compression of oxygen gas

A 2, 3, 4
B 1, 3, 4
C 1, 3
D 1, 2
E I need help
https://njctl.org/video/?v=en62Dg-bipU
 63 Which of the following would be an intensive physical
property?

A The color of the liquid bromine is reddish brown

B The mass of the iron pipe is 25.67 grams

Answer
C The aluminum block engine has a density of 2.7 g/mL
D Both A and C
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=fcvi2pkm36c
64 Tungsten is a substance with an extremely high melting
point and is used in light bulb filaments. Which of the
following would be an extensive property of tungsten?

A Tungsten melts at 3422 C

Answer
B Tungsten has a silver color
C Tungsten has a specific heat of 0.134 J/gC
D A tungsten filament is 10 cm long
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=u5ULCOFFpdU
 65 Of the following, only ________ is an extensive
property.

A density
B mass
C boiling point

Answer
D freezing point
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=0_mBFd7-CG0
66 Which one of the following is not an intensive property?

A density
B length
C boiling point

Answer
D color
E I need help

https://njctl.org/video/?v=Y6WdrZlK_c4