Solids & Fluids Lab Manual Draft

Solids & Fluids Laboratory School of
Mechanical Engineering
School of Mechanical Engineering
Laboratory Manual
On
SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB

[B22ES0306]
Program: B.Tech in Mechatronics Engineering
Modified by:
Prof Karthik. S
Assistant Professor
SOME, REVA University
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University Vision
“REVA University aspires to become an innovative university by developing
excellent human resources with leadership qualities, ethical and moral values,
research culture and innovative skills through higher education of global
standards”.
University Mission
1. To create excellent infrastructure facilities and state-of-the-art laboratories
and incubation centers
2. To provide student-centric learning environment through innovative

pedagogy and education reforms
3. To encourage research and entrepreneurship through collaborations and

extension activities
4. To promote industry-institute partnerships and share knowledge for

innovation and development
School Vision
“Aspires to be recognized globally for outstanding value-based education in
mechanical and allied areas and research leading to well-qualified engineers,
who are innovative, entrepreneurial, successful in their career and committed to
the development of the country.”
School Mission
1. To impart quality education to the students and enhance their skills to make
them globally competitive engineers in mechanical and allied areas.
2. To promote multidisciplinary study, cutting edge research and expand the

frontiers of engineers’ profession in mechanical and allied areas.
3. To create state-of-the-art facilities with advanced technology to provide

students and faculty with opportunities for innovation, application and
dissemination of knowledge.
4. To prepare for critical uncertainties ahead for mechanical engineering and

allied areas and to face the challenges through clean, green and healthy
solutions.
5. To collaborate with industries, institutions and such other agencies nationally

and internationally to undertake exchange programs, research, consultancy and
to facilitate students and faculty with greater opportunities for individual and
societal growth.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
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After few years of graduation, the graduates of B.Tech Mechanical Engineering
will be able to:
PEO 1: Design, develop, maintain and improve mechanical engineering

systems with highest quality, economically feasible and socially acceptable.
PEO 2: Exhibit analytical, computational and experimental skills to address the

challenges faced in mechanical and allied engineering streams.
PEO 3: Exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, team spirit and communication

skills and pursue lifelong learning to achieve career goals, organizational goals
and societal goals.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

On successful completion of the program, the graduates of B.Tech Mechanical
Engineering will be able to:
PSO1: Demonstrate mechanical and interdisciplinary knowledge to analyze,

design and manufacture products to address the needs of society for
sustainable growth.
PSO 2: Use state of the art tools and techniques to conceptualize, design and
develop new products, sustenance of legacy products, processes, systems and
services.
PSO 3: Communicate effectively as well as adopting a realistic, practical,

systematic and innovative approach to problem solving as a team.
Program Outcomes (POs):

On successful completion of the program, the graduates of B.Tech Mechanical
Engineering will be able to:
PO-1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,

science, engineering fundamentals, to solve mechanical engineering problems.
PO-2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and

analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering
sciences.
PO-3: Design/Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex

engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet
the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
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PO-4: Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Use research-based

knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions for complex problems
PO-5: Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
PO-6: The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by contextual

knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO-7: Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of

professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and
demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO-8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of engineering practice.
PO-9: Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual, and

as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO-10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering

activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as,
being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
PO-11: Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and

understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these
to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and
in multidisciplinary environments.
PO-12: Life-long Learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation
and ability to engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest
context of technological change.
Course Curriculum:
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Course Title Solid and Fluid Testing Lab Course Type Hard Core
Course Code B22ES0306 Credits 1 Class III Semester
Contact Work
TLP Credits Total Number of
Hours Load Assessment in
Classes
Course Theory 0 0 0 Weightage
Per Semester
Structure Tutorial 0 0 0
Practice 1 2 2 Theory Practical IA SEE
Total 1 2 2 0 26 50 % 50 %
Course Overview
This course deals with objective are to give a broad understanding of common
materials related to mechanical engineering with an emphasis on the
fundamentals of structure-property-application relationships. It provides ideas
on the practical knowledge of test several properties of material like ductility,
surface roughness, malleability, and hardenability etc. The course also covers
experiments on finding minor losses in flow through pipes and frictional losses.
Course Objectives
1. To understand the characteristics and behavior of engineering materials used
for structures and machines.
2. To select materials based on their properties and their proper use for a
particular facility under prevailing loads and environmental conditions
3. To Predict component behavior using experimental test results and

engineering formulae.
4. Students will have exposure to practical applications including writing a

technical report related to each experiment.
Course Outcomes (Cos)

After the completion of the course, the student will be able to:
CO Course Outcomes POs PSOs
CO1 Evaluate microstructure of different materials using the metallurgical microscope. 1,2, 9, 10 1,2
Determine the impact strength of a material using Izod and Charpy tests and 1,2, 9, 10
CO2 1,2
determine the hardness of material using different hardness test method.
CO3 Identify defects using non-destructive testing methods. 1,2, 9, 10 1,2
CO4 Determine the elastic properties of materials using UTM and torsion testing 1,2, 9, 10 1,2,3
machine.
Determine the energy losses and discharge of fluid flowing through pipe and pipe 1,2, 9, 10
CO5 1,2,3
fittings.
Experimentally determine various mechanical properties of materials and document
CO6 1,2,9,10 1,2
the results in the form of technical report.
Part-A
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1. Preparation of specimen for Metallographic examination of different
engineering materials. Identification of microstructures of plain carbon steel,
tool steel, gray C.I, SG iron, Brass, Bronze & composites.
2. Determining the impact strength of a given material using Charpy & Izod
tests.
3. Estimating the Hardness of different Engineering materials using Brinell,

Rockwell and Vickers’s Hardness test.
4. Non-destructive test experiments like ultrasonic flaw detection, magnetic

crack detection, dye penetration testing, to study the defects of cast and
welded specimens.
5. Torsion test on metallic specimen.
Part-B
1. Tensile and Shear Test of metallic and non-metallic specimens using

Universal Testing Machine.
2. Bending Test on nonmetallic specimens.
3. Determination of minor losses for fluid flow through pipe fittings.
4. Calibration of Venturi meter, flow nozzle and V notch.
Textbooks
1. F.P.Beer & Russell Johnstan, John T Dewolf, David F Mazurek "Mechanics of

Materials", in S.I. Units, TATA Mc Graw Hill, New York, 6th Edition, 2012.
2. S. H. Crandall et al., “An Introduction to Mechanics of Solids (In SI Units)”,

McGraw-Hill, Third Edition, 2017.
3. Singer, F.L. Strength of Materials, 3rd Edition, Harper and Row Publishers,
New York, 1980.
4. Dr. Bansal, “Fluid Mechanics and Machinery”, R.K.Lakshmi Publications, 11th

Edition, 2022.
Reference Books
1. R.C.Hibbeler,"Mechanics of Materials", Printice Hall. Pearson Edu., 2005
2. S.S.Bhavikatti, “Strength of Materials", Vikas publications House -1 Pvt. Ltd.,

2nd Edition, 2006.
3. Timoshenko.S.P "Strength of Materials", Part1, D.Van Nostrand Company, Inc.

Newyork
4. R K Bansal, “Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials”, Laxmi

Publications-New Delhi, 2004.
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Journals/Magazines
1. Journal of Materials Science.
2. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

SWAYAM/NPTEL/MOOC’s
1.https://www.coursera.org/browse/physical-science-and-engineering/
mechanical-engineering
2. https://www.my-mooc.com/en/categorie/mechanical-engineering
3. https://nptel.ac.in/course
CONTENTS
Sl.No Experiments Page No.
1. Metallography 8-9
2. Impact Test (Izod & Charpy Test) 10-12
3. Brinell Hardness Test 13-15
4.1 Magnetic Particle Inspection 17
4.2 Dye Penetration Test 18
4.3 Ultrasound Test 19-20
5. Tensile Test 21-25
6. Shear Test 26-27
7. Torsion Test 28-31
8. Bending Test 32-34
9. Minor Losses 35-37
10. Venturi meter 38-41
11. Flow Nozzle 42-45
12. Flow through V Notch 46-49
Viva-Voce Question Bank 50-54
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EXPERIMENT - 1
METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE
AIM:- To study the microstructure of the given specimen and draw its structure.
APPARATUS: - Metallurgical microscope with light source, objective lens, and

eyepiece lens with different magnifications.
Procedure
• The specimens are fine grinded on waterproof emery paper of progressively

finer grids (600, 1000, 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, 4/0 ) that are attached to a plane glass
plate. The specimens drawn back & forth along the entire length of a 600-
grit paper so that scratches reduced is roughly at right angles to those
produced by preliminary polishing operation. Polishing is then carried out on
1000 grit paper and again turning the specimen through 90º until previous
scratch marks are removed. This process is repeated with 1/0, 2/0, 3/0 & 4/0
successively. The specimen is then washed with water.
• The final polishing operation is to remove fine scratches on the surface using
rotary polishing machine. The specimen is polished by rubbing it on a velvet
cloth mounted on a flat rotating disc with the polishing paste. Polishing is
continued until scratch free mirror surface is obtained. During polishing a
constant drip of alumina mixed with water paste is fed to the rotating pad. After
polishing the specimen must be washed thoroughly.
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• The specimens are then placed on microscope table.
• The coarse & fine adjustment screws are adjusted.
• The objective lens with different magnification is used to find the best picture.
• Under magnification the grain structure is observed.
Mild Steel S G Iron
Malleable Cast Iron Gray Cast Iron
Aluminum Copper
RESULTS:
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EXPERIMENT - 2
IMPACT TEST
AIM: To determine the impact energy/Impact strength of a given test specimen
by
(a) Izod test (b) Charpy test
APPARATUS: Pendulum type impact testing machine, vernier caliper
THEORY:
During the first part of the 20th century, a metallurgist named Izod invented an
impact test for determining the suitability of various metals to be used as
cutting tools. The test involved a pendulum with a known weight at the end of
its arm swinging down and striking the specimen as it stood clamped in a
vertical position.
Some years later another metallurgist named Charpy modified the test slightly
by orienting the specimen in a horizontal fashion. These pendulum impact test
methods proved to be very useful, providing reliable, qualitative impact data
throughout World War II up until the early 70's. It then became apparent that
higher velocities and impact energies could be achieved with vertical style drop
towers and thus the trend began to shift.
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Fig No. 01: Impact Testing Machine
Fig No. 02- Standard Specimen for CHARPY Test
Fig No.03- Standard Specimen for IZOD Test
Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of the given specimen at full section and at the
notch.
2. Without specimen raise the pendulum to its full level & release its
weight(Pendulum) note down the initial reading on the graduated scale.
3. Place the specimen accurately in the tensile zone. Depending upon whether it
is Charpy test.
4. Release the pendulum from the initial level & release it and note down the
finial reading on the graduated scale.
5. Calculate the impact strength and Impact velocity of the given material.
OBSERVATION:-
1. Length of the specimen (L) = mm.

2. Area of the specimen at Notch (A) = mm2
3. Weight of the pendulum (W) = Kg.
4. Length of the pendulum ( r ) = mm
5. Angle of fall (α) = Deg.
6. Angle of Rise (β ) = Deg
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TABULAR COLUMN:-
a) Izod Test Table:
Material Angle of Fall Fracture energy Impact Impact

(α) from scale (U) strength Velocity
(deg) (Joules) (K) (V)
(J/mm2) m/s
b) Charpy Test Table:
Material Angle of Fall Fracture energy Impact Impact

(α) from scale (U) strength Velocity
(deg) (Joules) (K) (V)
(J/mm2) m/s
CALCULATIONS:-
Energy observed (U)

_______________________________________
Impact Strength J/mm2
___
(K) = Area of the specimen below the notch
(A)
Impact Velocity (v) = √ 2 gr (1 −Cosα ) m/sec.
RESULTS:-
1. Impact energy of the given material is (U)= ____________________________

Joules
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2. Impact strength energy of the given material is

(K)=___________________________J/mm2
3. Impact velocity energy of the given material is

(V)=____________________________m/s
EXPERIMENT - 03
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST.
AIM:- To determine the Brinell hardness number of the given specimen .
APPARATUS:- Hardness testing machine., specimens.& Brinell microscope
THEORY: The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test
material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a
load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500
kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15
seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of
other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is
measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is
calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
Fig No. 06: Brinell’s Indentation along with equation
The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right

angles and the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the
determination of the Brinell hardness. A well-structured Brinell hardness number
reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means
that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened
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steel with a 500-kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of
extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball.
Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the
deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider
amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain
structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is
the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly
those materials with heterogeneous structures.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Select the indenter type, scale and major load accordingly has given in the
load test table.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil and rise by the elevating screw until the
specimen comes in contact the tip of the indenter.
3. Rise elevating screw until the minor load is applied i.e. 10 kg here a small
pointer in the dial
4. Moves & stop over set red mark for about 10 seconds apply the major load
by operating the handle.
5. After the major load application bring back to the handle to its initial position.
6. Release the load, remove the specimen & measure the diameter of
impression (indention) by using Brinell microscope
7. Conduct three trials on each specimen.
TABULAR COLUMN:-
Material Ball Load (F) Diameter of BHN Avg. BHN

indenter Dia the indentation
D (mm) Kg-f (d) in mm Kg-f/
mm2
1)
Aluminum 2)
3)
1)
Copper 2)
3)
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1)
Mild steel 2)
3)
1)
Brass 2)
3)
CALCULATIONS:-
2F
BHN = _________________________________ Kg-f/mm2.
π D (D - √ D 2 – d 2)
F= load applied in = kg-f
D = Diameter of the Ball indenter = mm.
d = diameter of the indentation = mm

RESULTS:-
The Brinell Hardness Number of given materials is BHN=

________________________________
Note: The Brinell hardness number represents the hardness of a material or

metal. However, higher or lower Brinell hardness numbers often indicate the
load required to cause a measurable indentation on the material surface. In
essence, a higher Brinell hardness number means a harder material or metal. It
also means that the higher the hardness number, the higher the probability of
applying a higher load, which also translates to a longer dwell time for the
applied load.
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EXPERIMENT – 04
NON – DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation

and nondestructive inspection, is a multidisciplinary profession that
blends quality assurance and materials science. NDT is used to inspect
and evaluate materials, components, or assemblies without destroying
their serviceability. Through a set of test methods, skilled technicians
identify cracks, voids, inclusions, and weld discontinuities, as well as
identify misassembled subcomponents.
NDT is used to ensure product integrity and reliability, control
manufacturing processes, lower production costs, and maintain a uniform
quality level. Without it, the safety and reliability of components can be
seriously jeopardized. This makes NDT crucial to help prevent
catastrophic failures such as airplane and locomotive crashes, pipeline
leaks and explosions, nuclear reactor failures, and ship disasters.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a way to examine materials,
components, and structures without damaging them or altering their
functionality. NDT methods include:
1. Magnetic particle testing (MT): Used to detect surface and
subsurface flaws in magnetizable materials, such as iron, cobalt,
and nickel. The object is magnetized, and then metal shavings are
applied to reveal cracks and holes.
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2. Liquid penetrant testing (PT): Uses a liquid with high surface
wetting characteristics to detect surface cracks and pores. The
liquid seeps into defects, and then excess liquid is removed. A
developer is applied to pull out the trapped liquid so it can be seen.
3. Ultrasonic testing (UT): Uses sound waves to detect defects or
imperfections on the surface of a material. One common method is
pulse echo, where inspectors introduce sound into a material and
measure the echoes that are returned.
4. Radiographic testing (RT): Uses short wavelength
electromagnetic radiation to detect flaws in materials. X-rays are
often used for thin or less dense materials, while gamma rays are
used for thicker or denser materials.
Experiment – 4.1
MAGNETIC CRACK DETECTION TEST

AIM: To detect the surface or subsurface crack of the given
ferromagnetic material.
APPARATUS: Magnetic field generator, and ferromagnetic powder.
THEORY: The magnetic particle method of inspection is a procedure
used to determine the presence of defects at or near the surface of
ferromagnetic objects. This method consists of placing fine
ferromagnetic particles on the surface. The particles can be applied
either dry or in a liquid carrier such as water or kerosene. When the
part is magnetized with a magnetic field, a discontinuity (defects) on
the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around it. Thus, the
defects become magnets due to the principle of flux leakage where
magnetic field lines are interrupted by the defect and collect the
ferromagnetic particles. The collected particles generally take the
shape and size of the defects. Sub surface defects can also be
detected by this method, provided they are not deep. The
ferromagnetic particles may be colored with pigments for better
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visibility on the metal surfaces. The magnetic fields can be generated
either with direct current or alternating current, using yokes, bars, and
coils. The equipment may be portable or stationary.
PROCEDURE:
 Clean the surface of the test specimen to remove scales, oils and
grease.
 Apply a thin layer of ferromagnetic particles over the surface to
be tested.
 Magnetize the test piece.
 Observe the shape and size of the magnetic particles collected,
which is the shape and size of the defect.
EXPERIMENT – 4.2
DYE PENETRANTION TEST

AIM: To detect the surface defects by penetrate test.
APPARATUS: Penetrant, Developer & UV light source.
THEORY: In the liquid penetrate test, liquids are applied to the surface of
the part and allowed to penetrate surface openings, cracks, seams, and
porosity. Two commonly known types of liquid penetration are: (a)
Fluorescent penetrant which fluoresces under ultraviolet light, and (b)
Visible penetrant, using dyes, usually red in color, which appear as bright
outlines on the surface. The test piece is coated or socked in a1iquid
penetrant, and the surplus coating is wiped off. The penetrant can seep
into cracks as small as 0.1 m in width. After a short time, a developing
agent is added to allow the penetrant to seep back to the surface (due to
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capillary action) and spread to the edges of openings. The surface is then
inspected for defects, either visually in the case of dye penetrants or
under ultraviolet light for fluorescent penetrant. The developer includes
dry powders, aqueous liquid, and non-aqueous liquid. This method can
detect a variety of surface defects and is used extensively.
PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the test piece surface to remove scales, oil, and grease.
2. Immerse the test piece in the selected penetrant and hold it for some
time.
3. Remove the excess penetrant on the test piece surface.
4. Apply the developer on the surface of the test piece.
5. Examine the surface of the test piece under appropriate viewing
conditions.
6. Clean the surface to prevent corrosion, etc.
EXPERIMENT – 4.3
ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION TEST
AIM: To study the ultrasonic flow detector and to determine the location of the
interior crack or cavity in the given specimen.
APPARATUS: Ultrasonic flow detector.
THEORY: Ultrasonic flaw detector is a device, which is used to detect internal

discontinuities in the material by nondestructive means. It makes use of
phenomenon of back reflection (echo) of waves by surfaces. When ultrasonic
waves are made to pass through the test material, a portion of the sound is
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immediately reflected from the surface at which they enter as a very large
echo. Part of the sound will continue into the test material, until it is partially
reflected from the back surface as a second echo. If there is a discontinuity in
the material, a portion of the sound will be reflected from the discontinuity and
will return to the receiver as a separate echo between the echoes received from
the front and back surface. The signals received are shown on a cathode ray
tube, which also has a time base connected to it, so that the position of the
signal on the screen gives an indication of the distance between the crystal
generator and the surface from which the echo originates.
Sound waves oscillating with a frequency greater than 20,000 cps are inaudible
and are known as ultrasound. High frequency sound is produced by a
piezoelectric crystal, which is electrically pulsed and then vibrates at its own
natural frequency. To transmit the sound waves from crystal to metal, it is
necessary to provide a liquid coolant. This is accomplished by using a film of oil
between the crystal and the test piece. After the crystal has given off its short
burst of sound waves, it stops vibrating arid listens for the returning echoes,
i.e., one crystal probe is used to send and receive the sound. This cycle of
transmitting and then receiving is repeated at an adjustable rate of from 100 to
1000 times per second.
Returning echoes on the CRT causes short vertical spikes called pips. These are
spaced along the baseline & according to their time of receipt. Since the sound
travels through the material at a constant speed, the spacing of the pipes can
be considered as indicating thickness. Selecting and expanding the full screen
size of the CRT can eliminate unwanted echoes caused by reverberations with
the test piece.
Let,
A = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and bottom surface
echo (sec.)
B = Time elapsed between the pips of front surface echo and cavity surface
echo (sec.)
h = Thickness of test specimen (mm)
Location of the crack from the front surface x =(B/A) h
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Fig: Schematic Sketch of Ultrasonic scan
PROCEDURE:
1. Clean the surface of the test piece.
2. Place the probe against the surface of the test piece using thin oil films.
3. Switch on the power supply of the ultrasonic wave generator.
4. Adjust the number of cycles of transmitting and receiving the signals to the
desired value.
5. Select the segment of time, which contains the echo pips.
6. Observe the echo from the cavity if any on the CRT and measure the relative
distances of pips on the time axis.
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EXPERIMENT – 5
TENSILE TEST
AIM: To determine the tensile strength and different properties of ductile
material. to observe the behavior of the material under load to study the
fracture and the following properties. Elastic strength, proportional limit, Yield
point, Modulus of elasticity, Modulus of resilience, Plastic strength, Ultimate
strength, Breaking strength, Ductility, % of elongation, % of reduction in area, &
Modulus of toughness.
APPARATUS : UTM, Measuring Scale, Extensomètre, Vernier callipers.
THEORY: Strain: You will also be able to find the amount of stretch or
elongation the specimen undergoes during tensile testing. This can be
expressed as an absolute measurement in the change in length or as a relative
measurement called "strain". Strain itself can be expressed in two different
ways, as "engineering strain" and "true strain"(True Strain-Instantaneous % of
change in length of specimen in mechanical test. It is equal to the natural
logarithm of the ratio of length at any instant to original length.).
Hook’s Law
For most tensile testing of materials, you will notice that in the initial
portion of the test, the relationship between the applied force, and load, and the
elongation the specimen exhibits is linear. In this linear region, the line obeys
the relationship defined as "Hook’s Law" where the ratio of stress to strain is a
constant or E is the slope of the line in this region where stress (σ) is
proportional to strain (ε) and is called the "Modulus of Elasticity" or "Young's
Modulus".
Modulus of Elasticity: Select image to enlarge the modulus of elasticity is a

measure of the stiffness of the material, but it only applies in the linear region
of the curve. If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the material will
return to its exact same condition if the load is removed. At the point that the
curve is no longer linear and deviates from the straight-line relationship, Hook’s
Law no longer applies, and some permanent deformation occurs in the
specimen. This point is called the "elastic, or proportional, limit"(Proportional
Limit- Highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is the
highest stress at which the curve in a Stress-Strain Diagram is a straight line.
The proportional limit is equal to elastic limit for many metals).
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Fig: Stress-Strain Curve
From this point on in the tensile test, the material reacts plastically to any
further increase in load or stress. It will not return to its original, unstressed
condition if the load were removed.
Rate of change of strain as a function of stress. The slope of the straight-line

portion of a stress-strain diagram. The Tangent modulus of elasticity is the slope
of the stress-strain diagram at any point. Secant modulus of elasticity is stress
divided by strain at any given value of stress or strain. It also is called stress-
strain ratio.
Tangent and secant modulus of elasticity are equal, up to the proportional

limit of a material. Depending on the type of loading represented by the stress-
strain diagram, modulus of elasticity may be reported as: compressive modulus
of elasticity (or modulus of elasticity in compression); flexural modulus of
elasticity (or modulus of elasticity in flexure); shear modulus of elasticity (or
modulus of elasticity in shear); tensile modulus of elasticity (or modulus of
elasticity in tension); or torsion modulus of elasticity (or modulus of elasticity in
torsion). Modulus of elasticity may be determined by dynamic testing, where it
can be derived from complex modulus. Modulus used alone generally refers to
tensile modulus of elasticity. Shear modulus is almost always equal to torsion
modulus, and both are called modulus of rigidity. Modulus of elasticity in tension
and compression are approximately equal and are known as Young's Modulus.
Modulus of rigidity is related to Young's Modulus by the equation:
E=2G(r+1)
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Where E is Young's Modulus (Alternate term for modulus of Elasticity(Elasticity
Ability of a material to return to its original shape when load causing
deformation is removed.) in tension or compression. psi), G is modulus of
rigidity (psi) and r is Poisson's ratio. Modulus of elasticity also is called elastic
modulus and coefficient of elasticity.
Yield Strength
A value called "yield strength" of a material is defined as the stress

applied to the material at which plastic deformation starts to occur while the
material is loaded.
Indication of maximum stress that can be developed in a material without

causing plastic deformation. It is the stress at which a material exhibits a
specified permanent deformation and is a practical approximation of elastic
limit. Offset yield strength is determined from a Stress-Strain Diagram. It is the
stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve, and a line
parallel to its straight-line portion offset by a specified strain. Offset for metals
are usually specified as 0.2%, i.e., the intersection of the offset line and the 0-
stress axis is at 0.2% strain. The offset for plastics is usually 2%.
Secant Modulus of Elasticity:

Ratio of stress to strain at any point on curve in a Stress-Strain Diagram. It is
the slope of a line from the origin to any point on a stress-strain curve.
Tangent Modulus of Elasticity:

The instantaneous rate of change of stress as a function of strain. It is the slope
at any point on a Stress-Strain Diagram
Ultimate Tensile Strength
One of the properties you can determine about a material is its ultimate
tensile strength (Ultimate Strength-Highest engineering stress developed in
material before rupture. Normally, changes in area due to changing load and
Necking (Localized reduction of cross-sectional area of a specimen under tensile
load. It is disregarded in calculating engineering stress but is taken into account
in determining True Stress) are disregarded in determining ultimate strength-
UTS). This is the maximum load the specimen sustains during the test. The UTS
may or may not equate to the strength at break. This all depends on what type
of material you are testing . . . brittle, ductile (Ductility Extent to which a
material can sustain plastic deformation without rupture. Elongation and
Reduction of Area(Reduction of Area-Measure of the ductility of metals obtained
in a Tensile Test. It is the difference between the original cross-sectional area of
a specimen and the area of its smallest cross section after testing. It is usually
ex-pressed as % decrease in original cross section. A substance that even
exhibits both properties. And sometimes a material may be ductile when tested
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in a lab, but, when placed in service and exposed to extreme cold temperatures;
it may transition to brittle behavior.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Specimen must be selected and machined to give a reliable indication of the

properties of the material.
2. The initial diameter and gauge length is marked (Longitudinal axis) by means
of center punch.
3. The specimen is fixed inside the shackles.
4. The Extensometer is centrally mounted on specimen by fixing screws being

located well inside the punch mark made. The locking bars of the extensometer
are removed.
5. Select the range of the load and adjust the testing machine and
extensometer to read zero. Grip the other end of the specimen.
6. The load is applied gradually (slow rate) and the simultaneous observe the
load and extensometer readings are noted.
7. Record the yield points, Maximum load & breaking load at fracture.
8. Remove the broken specimen from the machine, measure the diameter at
neck and final gauge length and observe the type of fracture.
9. Repeat the above procedure for different materials
10. Draw the graph stress Vs strain.
OBSERVATION:
1) Initial gauge length (Lo) = mm
2) Final; Diameter (do) = mm
3) Original area (Ao) π do2/4 = mm2
4) Load at yield point (Fy) = N
5) Maximum load (Fmax) = N
6) Load at fracture (Fb) = N
7) Final gauge length (Lf) = mm
8) Final diameter (df) = mm
9) Yield stress Fy/Ao = N/mm2
10) Ultimate tensile strength (σ u);Fmax/Ao = N/mm2
11) Breaking stress ( σ b) =Fb/Ao = N/mm2

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12) % of reduction in area = Ao-Af/Aox100 = %
13) % of elongation = Lf-Lo/Lox 100 = %
14) Modulus of resilience (u) = σ u2/2E = N-mm
15) Toughness σ u (Lf-Lo)/Lo = N-mm
TABULAR COLUMN:
Deformation(Δ L) Stress σ Strain € =Δ L/L Young’s modulus =

Sl. No. Load (F) N mm =F/A N/mm2 σ/€ N/mm2
10
11
12
13
14
15
Graph : Stress V/s Strain
RESULTS:-
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EXPERIMENT – 6
SHEAR STRENGTH TEST
AIM:- To determine the ultimate shear strength of the given specimen in single
& double shear APPARATUS:- Universal Testing Machine (UTM), micrometer
and scale.
Fig: UTM with Shear Testing Fixture
THEORY: Internal forces produce three basic types of stress: tension,

compression or shear. Previously we have studied tension and compression. In
this laboratory activity we will study shear stresses. Shear stress results when
two parallel forces act in opposite directions that tend to produce a sliding of
one part with respect to the other part of the body. Fasteners such as bolts,
rivets and pins are some practical objects subjected to shear stress.
Additionally, cutting actions such as punches produce shear stress. Shear
testing results are somewhat not as precise as tension and compression testing
due to the additional introduction of friction and bending forces in the testing
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process. Shear tests on flat stock are often done in single or double shear
whereas, round stock is mostly tested in double shear. In double shear tests the
applicable area is twice the area of the cross sections.
PROCEDURE:-
1 The diameter of the specimen is measured by using a micrometer.

2 Specimen is fixed in the shackles either for single shear OR double
shear.
3 Apply load slowly right-angles to the axis of the specimen through the
central block shown in the fig.
4 Note the load value at fracture.
5 The shape of texture of the fracture surface is studied.
6 To find the ultimate shear strength for single or double shear.
TABULAR COLUMN :
Sl. Material Type of Diameter of Fracture Area of the Ultimate

No. shear load specimenin
the shear
mm2
specimen (F) N strength
(d) N/mm2
in mm
1 M .S Single
2 M. S Double
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Diameter of the specimen (d) =----------- mm.

2. Fracture load (F) = ------------ N
3. Area of the specimen (A)= π d 2/4 mm 2
4. Ultimate shear strength = F/A (for single shear) F/2A (for double shear)
N/mm2.
RESULT:
1. Ultimate shear strength of single shear = _______________ N/mm2
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2. Ultimate shear strength of double shear = ______________ N/mm2
EXPERIMENT – 7
TORSION TEST
AIM:- To study the behavior and determine the following properties.

1) Modulus of rigidity.
2) Elastic shear strength.
3) Resilience.
4) Ultimate shear strength.
5) Toughness.
6) Ductility.
APPARATUS: Torsion testing machine, micrometer or vernier caliper & a piece

of thread.
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Fig: Torsion Testing Machine
THEORY: Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces

during their operation. Products such as biomedical catheter tubing, switches,
fasteners, and automotive steering columns are just a few devices subject to
such torsional stresses. By testing these products in torsion, manufacturers can
simulate real life service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and
ensure proper manufacturing techniques.
Types of Torsion Tests
Torsion tests can be performed by applying only a rotational motion or by

applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces. Types of
torsion testing vary from product to product but can usually be classified as
failure, proof, or product operation testing.
Torsion Only:
Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen.
Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces

to the test specimen.
Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure.

Failure can be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the
specimen.
Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed
amount of time.
Operational Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle

caps, switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product
performs as expected under torsion loads
Shear Modulus of Elasticity
Tangent or secant modulus of elasticity of a material subjected to shear

loading. Alternate terms are modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity in
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shear. Also, shear modulus of elasticity usually is equal to Torsion Modulus of
Elasticity(Torsion Modulus of Elasticity) Modulus of Elasticity:
Elasticity- Ability of a material to return to its original shape when load causing
deformation is removed.)of material subjected to twist loading. It is
approximately equal to shear modulus and also is called modulus of rigidity). A
method for determining shear modulus of elasticity of structural materials by
means of a twisting test is given in ASTM E-143. A method for determining
shear modulus of structural adhesives is given in ASTM E-229.
Yield shear strength- Indication of maximum stress that can be developed in

a material without causing plastic deformation. It is the stress at which a
material exhibits a specified permanent deformation and is a practical
approximation of elastic limit. Offset yield strength is determined from a Stress-
Strain Diagram. It is the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-
strain curve, and a line parallel to its straight-line portion offset by a specified
strain. Offset for metals is usually specified as 0.2%, i.e., the intersection of the
offset line and the 0-stress axis is at 0.2% strain. The offset for plastics is
usually 2%.
Ultimate shear strength: Modulus of rupture in shear- Ultimate strength can

be determined in a flexure or torsion test. In a flexure test, modulus of rupture
in bending is the maximum fiber stress at failure. In a torsion test, modulus of
rupture in torsion is the maximum shear stress in the extreme fiber of a circular
member at failure. Alternate terms are flexural strength and Torsion Strength.
Torsional Strength: Measure of the ability of a material to withstand a twisting

load. It is the Ultimate Strength of a material subjected to torsion loading, and is
the maximum torsion stress that a material sustains before rupture. Alternate
terms are modulus of rupture and shear strength.
Ductility: Extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation without

rupture. Elongation and Reduction of Area are common indices of ductility.
Reduction of Area: Measure of the ductility of metals obtained in a Tensile

Test. It is the difference between the original cross-sectional area of a specimen
and the area of its smallest cross section after testing. It is usually ex-pressed
as % decrease in original cross section. The smallest cross section can be
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measured at or after fracture. For metals, it usually is measured after fracture
and for plastics and elastomers, it is measured at fracture.
While they are not the same, they are analogous to properties that can be
determined during a tensile test. In fact, the “torque versus angle” diagram
looks very similar to a “stress versus strain” curve that might be generated by a
tensile test.
PROCEDURE:
1. The initial length and diameter of the specimen is recorded.

2. Specimen is placed inside the shackles and mounted on the pendulum
type torsion testing machine.
3. Initially set the angle plate and the main scale reads to zero.
4. Make sure that the aliment is perfect.
5. A straight line is marked on the specimen in a chalk.
6. Twisting moment is applied (Torque by cranking the leaver arm with
warm wheel i.e. circular mutation is converted into linear motion by
rack and pinion arrangement ).
7. Note down the value of torque for every 10 Deg. Angle of twist till
fracture.
8. After that failure of specimen final length is measured by using a
thread.
9. Draw the graph torque Vs angle of twist
OBESERVATION:-
1. Material :
2. Dia. of the specimen (d) = mm
3. Length of the specimen (L) = mm
4. Yield torque (Mty) = N-mm
5. Maximum torque (Mtu) = N-mm
6. Angle of twist at fracture (Øf) = radians.
7. Area of the specimen (A) π d2/4 = mm2
8. Polar moment of inertia (J) π d4/32 = mm4
9. Yield shear strength (vy)= Mtyxd/2J = N/mm2.
10. Final fiber length (Lf) = √L2+(rØf) 2 = mm.
11. Ductility (D) =Lf-L/L (100) = %.
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12. Modules rigidity (G) = Mtu (L)/J (Øf) = N/mm2.
TABULAR COLUMN:
SL. No. Angle of Torque Shear stress= Shear strain= Modulus of rigidity (G)
Twist
N-m ( Mtuxd/2J dØ/2L (π /180 = Shear stress/Shear
strain N/mm2
10
Draw the graph Torque V/s Angle of twist
Modules of rigidity: G=Lo/J× (slope of straight-line portion of the graph
RESULT:-
EXPERIMENT - 8
BENDING TEST
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AIM: To study the behavior of the given specimen under bending and to
determine the Elastic strength, Modulus of elasticity, Resilience, Modulus of
rupture & Toughness.
APPARATUS : UTM, Scale, dial gauge.
THEORY: Bend testing measures the ductility of materials. Terms associated

with bending test apply to specific forms or types of materials. For example,
materials specifications sometimes require that a specimen be bent to a
specified inside diameter (ASTM A-360, steel products).
Fig: Bending Test Module
Bending test provides a convenient method for characterizing the

strength of the miniature components and specimens that are typical of those
found in microelectronics applications.
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the cross-sectional area of a given specimen

2. Specimen length is noted.
3. Specimen is firmly placed over the supports so as the loading comes
exactly at center.
4. Apply the load at the center at very slow rate and record every loading
and the deflection.
5. The load deflection is drawn.
6. Draw the graph of Load V/S Deflection
OBESERVATION:
1) Material 
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2) Span length = mm
3) Width (b) = mm
4) Depth (h) = mm
5) Distance (C ) h/2 = mm
6) Load at yield point (fy) = N
7) Deflection at yield point (Yy) = mm
8) Maximum deflection (yf) = mm
9) Area (bxh) = mm2
10) Moment of inertia (I)=BH3/12 = mm4
11)Youngs Modulus = E = FL3/48YI = N/mm2
12) Maximum Bending moment = (My) = WL/4 N-mm
13) Radius of Bending = E * Ymax/b max mm
14) Modulus of elasticity E = L3/48I * (Slope of the St. Line portion

from graph)
15) Maximum bending stress = (b max) = My * C / I N/mm2
Where:-M- Bending moment N-mm
Mu – Max bending moment N-mm
σ – Bending stress N/mm2
E - Modulus of elasticity N/mm2
I - Moment of inertia mm4
Y – Deflection in mm
C – Distance from the neutral axis to the outer most fibers in

mm.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl. No. Load (F) N Deflection (Y) mm Modulus of Elasticity
E= FL3/48YI N/mm2
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4
10
11
12
13
14
15
RESULTS:
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EXPERIMENT – 9
MINOR LOSSES IN PIPES
AIM: To determine the minor losses (due to bend, sudden expansion, sudden
contraction and pipe fittings) for a fluid flowing through a given pipe.
APPARATUS: Minor losses experimental setup with fittings, valves, bends;

stopwatch etc.
INTRODUCTION: The loss of head or energy due to friction in a pipe is known

as major loss, while the loss of head or energy due to change of velocity of
flowing fluid in magnitude or direction is called minor loss. The minor loss of
energy or head includes the following cases:
 Loss of head due to sudden enlargement.

 Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
 Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe.
 Loss of head at the exit of a pipe.
 Loss of head due to bent in the pipe.
 Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe.
 Losses of head in various pipe fittings.
In case of long pipe, the above losses are small as compared with the loss of
head due to friction and hence they are called minor losses and even may be
neglected without serious error, but in case of short pipe, these losses are
comparable with the loss of head due to friction.
PROCEDURE:
1. Note down the diameter of the test pipe.
2. Check whether the levels of mercury in both left-hand limb and right-hand
limb of the U-tube manometer are same. If not make them at same level.
3. Connect the manometer limbs to pressure tapings at the bend, for the
long pipe section, at sudden expansion and at sudden contraction.
4. Open the cocks of the tapings for the required portion and all other
connections of the manometer stand must be closed.
5. Open the corresponding control valve of the test pipe and allow some
water to flow through it.
6. Note down the deflection of mercury in the manometer.
7. Repeat steps 5&6 for different discharge of water.
Repeat steps 4, 5& 6 for different portions of the pipe.
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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig: Line diagram of minor losses test rig.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Type of Fittings / Manometer Reading Loss of

Valves head
h1, h2, h =(h1- h2),
hL=12.6×h,
mm of mm of Hg mm of Hg m of water
Hg
900 Long Bend
900sharpBend
(Elbow)
Ball Valve 25.4
mm
Gate Valve 25.4
mm
Non-return Valve
25.4 mm
Globe valve 25.4
mm
Collar 25.4 mm
Sudden expansion
15 × 27 mm
Sudden
contraction
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27 × 15 mm
OBSERVATIONS:
 The diameter of the test pipe = 27 mm.

 Area of the measuring tank = 0.125 m2.
CALCULATION:
1. Loss of head hL= (h1- h2) ×

[ ]
Sm
Sw
−1 , m of water
 Sm = specific gravity of manometric liquid (mercury) = 13.6.

 Sw = specific gravity of water = 1.
RESULT: Minor head losses for given fittings and valves are:
 900 Long bend:  Globe valve 25.4 mm:

 900Sharp bend (elbow):  Collar 25.4 mm:
 Ball Valve 25.4 mm:  Sudden expansion 15 × 27
mm:
 Gate Valve 25.4 mm:  Sudden contraction 27 × 15
mm:
 Non return valve 25.4 mm:
PRECAUTIONS
1. Do not run the pump dry.
2. Clean the tanks regularly, say for every 15days.
3. Do not run the equipment if the voltage is below 180V.
4. Check all the electrical connections before running.
5. Before starting and after finishing the experiment the main control valve
should be in close position.
6. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
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Experiment: 10
VENTURIMETER
AIM: The experiment is conducted to determine the co-efficient of discharge

through Venturi meter at different flow rate.
APPARATUS: Venturi meter test rig with flow control valves, stopwatch, etc.
INTRODUCTION: A Venturi meter is a device that is used for measuring the

rate of flow of fluid through a pipeline. The basic principle on which a Venturi
meter works is that by reducing the cross – sectional area of the flow passage, a
pressure difference is created between the inlet and throat & the measurement
of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through
the pipe. A Venturi meter consists of:
 an inlet section followed by a convergent cone,

 a cylindrical throat,
 a gradually divergent cone.
The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the original size of
the pipe to a smaller section of the venture meter known as the throat. The
convergent cone has a sharp angle of about 20 0, while the divergent cone has a
relatively flat angle of about 5 0 to 70.This results in the convergent cone of the
venture meter being smaller than its diverging cone. The throat is a short
parallel-sided pipe, which is the smallest section of the venture meter. To avoid
the phenomenon of cavitation’s to occur, the diameter of the throat section can
be reduced only to a certain limited value. In general, the diameter of the throat
section may vary from 1/3 to 3/4 of the pipe diameter and more commonly it is
kept equal to 1/2 of the pipe diameter. The diverging cone of the venture meter
is a gradually diverging pipe with cross-sectional area increasing from that of
the throat section back to the original size of the pipe.
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Fig: Venturi meter Schematic diagram
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:
1. The apparatus consists of a Venturi meter made of clear acrylic fitted to

specially made separate pipelines.
2. Tapings with ball valves are provided at appropriate positions which are
connected to a manometer.
3. Acrylic piezo meter is provided to measure the height of the water

collected in the measuring tank.
4. Mercury filled manometer made of acrylic is provided to measure the

pressure difference.
5. Butterfly valve is provided in the measuring tank for instant close and
release.
6. Overflow arrangement is also provided to the tanks.
7. A supply pump (Kirloskar/Sharp make) with starter is provided for

supplying the water and a supply tank is provided to store the water.
8. Vinyl sticker scale is provided for both manometer and piezo meter for
better readability.
9. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed sturdy

frame made of MS angle with all the provisions for holding the tanks and
accessories.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve closed and manometer valve at an open position.
3. Connect the power cable to 1HP, 220V, 10 amperes with earth

connection.
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4. Switch on the pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the venturi meter pipeline.

6. Adjust the flow through the bypass valve of the pump.
7. Set the flow rate from the flow control valve.
8. Note down the differential head reading in the manometer (expel if any
air, by opening the drain cocks provided with the manometer).
9. Operate the butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading
against the known time and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
10. Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig: Line diagram of venturi meter test rig.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Manometer Reading
h=
Differen
hm×12. Qa, Qth, Avera
h1, h2, cehm = t, 6, m³/se m³/se Cd ge
Sl. sec
Type mm mm (h1- h2), c c
No m of ‘Cd’
of Hg of Hg mm of H2O
Hg
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1
2 Ventu
ri
3 mete
r
CALCULATIONS:
1. Pressure Head, h
h = (h1- h2) ×
[ ]
Sm
Sw
−1 m of water
h = hm×12.6 m of water
 h1 = manometric head in first limb.
 h2 = manometric head in second limb.
 S m = specific gravity of manometric liquid, (i.e.) liquid mercury Hg

= 13.6.
 Sw = specific gravity of flowing liquid water = 1.
 12.6 = conversion factor from mercury head to water head.
2. Theoretical discharge, Qth
√
2 gh m3
Q th = A1 × A2 ×
A 21 − A 22 sec
π × d1
2
A1 = cross sectional area of pipe, = m².
4
2
π × d2
A2 = cross sectional area of throat, = m².
4
d1 = diameter of the venturi pipe = 0.027m
d2 = throat diameter = 0.015m.
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s².
h = pressure head in m of water.
3. Actual Discharge, Qa
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3
A×R m
Q a=
t sec
Where,
 A = area of collecting tank = 0.125 m².
 R = rise in water level of the collecting tank = 0.1m.
 t = time taken for R m rise of water, sec.
4. Co – efficient of discharge, Cd
Qa
C d=
Qtℎ
GRAPHS:
 Qa v/s Qth
RESULTS:
 The Co – efficient of discharge for Venturi meter, Cd= __________________
PRECAUTIONS
should be in a close position.
Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole
system.
EXPERIMENT NO – 11
FLOWNOZZLE
AIM: The experiment is conducted to determine co-efficient of discharge
through flow nozzle
at different flow rate
APPARATUS: Flow nozzle, test rig with flow control valve, stopwatch, etc.
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INTRODUCTION:
A Nozzle is a device used for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing stream
of fluid. The fluid enters the nozzle at low velocity and high pressure. As the
fluid flows through the nozzle, it expands to a lower pressure. With the fall in
pressure, velocity increases from the entrance to the exit of the nozzle.
Nozzles are used in engineering practice for creation of jets and streams for all
purposes as well as for fluid flow measurements. When placed in or at the end
of a pipeline as measuring devices, they are called flow nozzles.
Fig: Flow nozzle.
1. The apparatus consists of a flow nozzle fitted to specially made separate

pipelines.
2. Tapings with ball valves are provided at appropriate positions which are
connected to a manometer.
3. Acrylic piezo meter is provided to measure the height of the water

collected in the measuring tank.
4. A manometer made of acrylic is provided to measure the pressure

difference.
5. Butterfly valve is provided in the measuring tank for instant close and
release.
7. A supply pump (Kirloskar make) with starter is provided for supplying the
water and a supply tank is provided to store the water.
better readability.
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9. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed sturdy
frame made of MS angle with all the provisions for holding the tanks and
accessories.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve closed.
3. Connect the power cable to 1HP, 220V, 10 amperes with earth

connection.
4. Switch on the pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the flow nozzle.
6. Adjust the flow through the bypass valve of the pump.
7. Set the flow rate from the flow control valve.
8. Note down the differential head reading in the manometer (expel if any
air is the by opening the drain cocks provided with the manometer).
9. Operate the Butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading
against the known time and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
10. Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Manometer Reading h=
Differenc hm×12. QAN, QTN, Averag
h1, h2, ehm = t, 6, e
Sl. m³/se m³/se CdN
Type sec
No mm mm (h1- h2), m of c c CdN
of Hg of Hg H2O
mm of Hg
2 Flow
3 nozzle
OBSERVATIONS:
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 Diameter of Pipe d1 (entry) = 27 mm.
 Diameter of flow nozzle d2 (exit) = 14.5 mm.
 Area of measuring tank = 0.125 m2.
CALCULATIONS:
1. Pressure Head, h
h = (h1- h2) ×
[ ]Sm
Sw
−1 m of water
h = hm×12.6 m of water
Where,
 h1 = manometric head in first limb.
 h2 = manometric head in second limb.
 Sm = specific gravity of manometric liquid, (i.e.) liquid mercury Hg =

13.6.
 Sw = specific gravity of flowing liquid water = 1.
 12.6 = conversion factor from mercury head to water head.
2. Theoretical discharge, QTN
Q TN = A1 × A 2 ×
√ 2 gℎ m3
A 21 − A 22 sec
Where,
2
π × d1
 A1 = cross sectional area of pipe, m².
4
2
π × d2
 A2 = cross sectional area of throat, m².
4
 d1 = diameter of the pipe = 0.027m.
 d2 = throat diameter = 0.0145m.
 g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s².
 h = differential pressure head in m of water.
3. Actual Discharge, QAN

3
A×R m
Q AN =
T sec
Where,
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 A = area of collecting tank =____________ m².
 R = rise in water level of the collecting tank, m.
 T = time for ‘R’ m rise of water, sec.
4. Co – efficient of discharge, CdN

Q AN
C dN =
QTN
RESULTS:
For Flow nozzle:
 Actual discharge, QAN = ___________________m³/s.
 Theoretical discharge, QTN = ___________________m³/s.
 Co – efficient of discharge, CdN = ___________________
PRECAUTIONS
Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the whole
system.
EXPERIMENT NO – 12
NOTCH APPARATUS
AIM: The experiment is used to determine the coefficient of discharge of given
V-notch
APPARATUS: V-notch test rig with flow control valve, stopwatch, hook gauge,
etc.
INTRODUCTION:
In layman’s terms, a Notch is defined as an obstruction. Notches are plates with

sharp edged openings. They are primarily used for flow measurement. Notches
are used for measuring the flow rate of a liquid from reservoirs or tanks. A
Notch may be defined as opening at the end of an open channel or a reservoir
like a large orifice with the upstream of the liquid level below the top edge of
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the opening. Since the top edge of the Notch above the liquid level serves no
purpose, therefore a Notch may have only the bottom edge and sides. The
bottom edge over which the liquid flows is known as “SILL” or “CREST” of the
Notch and the sheet of liquid flowing over the notch is known as “Napee” or
“Vein”.
Fig: Triangular notch
Notches are classified as follows:
Based on their shape:
 Rectangular Notch.
 Triangular Notch.
 Trapezoidal Notch.
 Stepped Notch.
Triangular notch has an advantage of greater accuracy at reduced flow rates

compared with notches of other shapes.
1. The apparatus consists of the following notches made of SS 304 material

V – notches and
Rectangular notch.
2. A separate notch tank is provided to simulate the channel flow with quick
interchangeable facilities for changing the notches.
3. A measuring tank is provided to measure the flow rate.
4. Piezo meter is provided to measure the height of the water collected in

the measuring tank.
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5. Hook gauge arrangement made of SS is provided to measure the head
over the notch.
6. A butterfly valve is provided in the measuring tank for instant close and
release.
8. A Mono block Centrifugal pump (Kirloskar/Sharp make) with circuit breaker

and starter is provided for supplying the water and a supply tank is
provided to store the water.
better readability.
10. The whole arrangement is mounted on an aesthetically designed

sturdy frame made of MS angle with all the provisions for holding the
tanks and accessories.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the notch plate under test at the end of the approach channel in a
vertical plane with the sharp edge on the upstream side.
2. Fill the channel with water up to the crest level and adjust the hook gauge
reading to zero.
3. Adjust the bypass valve to give maximum possible discharge without

flooding the notch.
4. Note the final hook gauge reading. This gives the head over the notch ‘H’.
5. Collect the water discharged from the notch in the measuring tank of
known dimension and measure the rise of water level ‘R’ in the measuring
tank for a known time ‘t’ sec.
6. Conditions are allowed to steady before the head and rise of water level
are recorded.
7. Lower the water level in the approach channel in stages by adjusting the
flow control valve and record the series of readings ‘H’, ‘R’ and ‘t’ at each
stage.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
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Fig: Line diagram of V-notch test rig.
TABULAR COLUMN:
CALCULATIONS:
1. Theoretical discharge through V-notch, Qth
()
5
8 θ m3
Qtℎ= × √2 g × H 2 × tan
15 2 sec
Where,
 H = height of water surface above the apex of the notch.
 (/2) = half the notch angle = 30˚.
2. Actual Discharge, Qa
3
A×R m
Q a=
t sec
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Where,
 A = area of collecting tank = 0.125 m².
 R = rise in water level of the collecting tank = 0.1m.
 t= time for ‘R’ m rise of water, sec.
3. Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd
Qa
C d=
Qtℎ
Where,
 Qa =actual discharge.
 Qth=theoretical discharge for ‘V’ or Rectangular Notch.
GRAPH:
 Qa v/s Qth
RESULTS:
For V – Notch:
 Actual discharge, Qa=________________m³/s
 Theoretical discharge, Qth=________________ m³/s
 Co – efficient of discharge, Cd =________________
PRECAUTIONS
6. Do not attempt to alter the equipment as this may cause damage to the
whole system.
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1. Define (a) Hardness (b) Static indentation and (c) Dynamic indentation.
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2. Differentiate between Hardness and Toughness.
3. Why do the Brinell hardness numbers obtained from the depth of indentation
usually differ from those computed from the diameter of indentation.?
4. How long should the load be maintained in the Brinell test for hardness of
steel and why is a definite loading period essential?
5. Explain how hardness is a relative term.
6. Why should the surface of the specimen be flat and well-polished?
7. What is the need to perform the hardness test?
8. How is Rockwell hardness test different from Brinells hardness test?
9. How do the following affect the reading
a) Pitted surface
b) Oiled surface
c) curved surface
d) Presence of a compressible material between specimen and indentor.
10. How do you define the word 'Engineering Material‟?
11. What are the objectives of testing materials?
12. Write brief classification of materials.
13. List out the properties of materials.
14. What is purpose of doing the following tests: Tensile Test, Compression Test,
Shear Test, Impact Test, Hardness Test
15. In Tensile test, what is the nature of failure for brittle and ductile material?
16. Define stress and strain. In what unit is each one measured?
17. State Hook's law. Is this applicable to all materials?
18. Define the following terms: elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield
strength, resilience and toughness. Do all materials have yield point? Give
examples.
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19. What is the use of tensile test? What factor should be considered in
selecting the gauge length?
20. Which property in a tension test is an indication of stiffness of a material?
21. What is the difference between the proportional limit and the elastic limit?
22. Distinguish between yield point and yield strength?
23. What are the uses of hardness test?
24. What are the types of hardness measurements?
25. What are the types of hardness tests, with brief explanation?
26. What are the advantages of Rockwell test over Brinell's Test?
27. How do you define single shear and double shear?
28. How do you place the specimens in the impact test?
29. What is metallography?
30. What are the types of metallurgical microscopes?
31. What are the steps involved for preparation of metallographic specimen?
32. What is the purpose of conducting the wear test?
33. What are the types of wear?
34. What are the factors affecting wear?
35. What is the importance of fatigue test?
36. Describe the events that occur when a specimen undergoes a tension test.
37. How is stress calculated? What additional measurement must be made to

determine the true stress?
38. Explain why the difference between engineering strain and true strain
becomes larger as strain increases in tension?
39. What is breaking stress? How does it differ from the maximum stress?
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40. If a brittle material and a ductile material have the same tensile strength.
Which one will require the greater energy for fracture? Explain.
41. Describe the difference between brittle and ductile fracture?
42. What is a universal testing machine? Describe briefly the mechanism for
applying load, and for measuring force in the testing machine.
43. What is the effect of rate of loading on tensile properties?
44. What are the limits of ratio of the height to the diameter of the compression
specimen?
45. Explain compression fracture of the following materials: (a) cast iron and (b)
mild steel
46. How does failure in bending occur in the following materials? (a) Cast iron
and (b) mild steel.
47. What physical property of the material is determined by means of an impact

test?
48. Discuss the significance and advantages of impact tests compared with
static tests.
49. In what units are the results of an impact test usually given?
50. For impact tests why are notch specimens used?
51. What is the difference between Charpy tests and Izod tests?
52. What is meant by velocity sensitivity and notch sensitivity?
53. What is the effect of temperature on impact toughness? What is a transition

temperature?
54. Explain the impact fracture as in the case of ductile material.
55. Define hardness. Why is hardness test conducted instead of tension test?
56. What physical properties of a material can be estimated from a hardness

test?
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57. What is the unit for Brinell hardness number?
58. Where are the Vickers and Rockwell hardness test employed?
59. Why is a minor load applied before setting the Rockwell measuring dial?
60. What is stress concentration? What is a stress raiser?
61. What is meant by the term fatigue of metals?
62. Define the following terms in discussing fatigue tests: Stress cycle,
maximum stress, range of stress, minimum stress, normal stress, alternating
stress, amplitude, mean stress, fatigue life, fatigue limit, stress ratio, cycle ratio,
fatigue strength and fatigue ratio.
63. Explain why there is difference between a theoretical stress concentration

factor and the actual-strength reduction factor found in actual tests?
64. What are the types of fatigue loading? Give examples of machine parts and
structures subjected to fatigue loading.
65. If a material does not have an endurance limit, how would you estimate its
fatigue life?
66. What type of fracture would you expect in the case of steel member
fractured by repeatedly applied loads? Explain the mechanism of such fracture.
67. What is creep? Name two structural or machine members in which creep
strength is an important property.
68. State the resemblance and the difference between creep and slip?
69. Define wear of the material. Name different types of wear.
70. Define micrography.
71. What are the general objectives of the macro examination of a metallic
component as compared with the micro examination of a metal?
72. Describe the various steps involved in preparation of specimen for

micrographic examination.
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73. What is the difference between eutectic and eutectoid?
74. Explain the Curie point in iron, iron-carbide equilibrium diagram.
75. What is annealing? What are the purposes for annealing steel?
76. How does normalizing differ from annealing as applied to steels?
77. What are the advantages of the normalizing process in respect of final
properties?
78. Describe the hardening process. Where does the defect occur after
hardening the steel?
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Solids & Fluids Laboratory School of

School of Mechanical Engineering

SOLIDS & FLUIDS LAB

Program: B.Tech in Mechatronics Engineering

2. To provide student-centric learning environment through innovative

3. To encourage research and entrepreneurship through collaborations and

4. To promote industry-institute partnerships and share knowledge for

2. To promote multidisciplinary study, cutting edge research and expand the

3. To create state-of-the-art facilities with advanced technology to provide

4. To prepare for critical uncertainties ahead for mechanical engineering and

5. To collaborate with industries, institutions and such other agencies nationally

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO 1: Design, develop, maintain and improve mechanical engineering

PEO 2: Exhibit analytical, computational and experimental skills to address the

PEO 3: Exhibit professionalism, ethical attitude, team spirit and communication

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1: Demonstrate mechanical and interdisciplinary knowledge to analyze,

PSO 3: Communicate effectively as well as adopting a realistic, practical,

Program Outcomes (POs):

PO-1: Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,

PO-2: Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and

PO-3: Design/Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex

PO-4: Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Use research-based

PO-6: The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by contextual

PO-7: Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of

PO-9: Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual, and

PO-10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering

PO-11: Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and

3. To Predict component behavior using experimental test results and

4. Students will have exposure to practical applications including writing a

Course Outcomes (Cos)

3. Estimating the Hardness of different Engineering materials using Brinell,

4. Non-destructive test experiments like ultrasonic flaw detection, magnetic

5. Torsion test on metallic specimen.

1. Tensile and Shear Test of metallic and non-metallic specimens using

2. Bending Test on nonmetallic specimens.

3. Determination of minor losses for fluid flow through pipe fittings.

4. Calibration of Venturi meter, flow nozzle and V notch.

1. F.P.Beer & Russell Johnstan, John T Dewolf, David F Mazurek "Mechanics of

2. S. H. Crandall et al., “An Introduction to Mechanics of Solids (In SI Units)”,

4. Dr. Bansal, “Fluid Mechanics and Machinery”, R.K.Lakshmi Publications, 11th

1. R.C.Hibbeler,"Mechanics of Materials", Printice Hall. Pearson Edu., 2005

2. S.S.Bhavikatti, “Strength of Materials", Vikas publications House -1 Pvt. Ltd.,

3. Timoshenko.S.P "Strength of Materials", Part1, D.Van Nostrand Company, Inc.

4. R K Bansal, “Engineering Mechanics and Strength of Materials”, Laxmi

1. Journal of Materials Science.

2. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

APPARATUS: - Metallurgical microscope with light source, objective lens, and

• The specimens are fine grinded on waterproof emery paper of progressively

• The coarse & fine adjustment screws are adjusted.

• Under magnification the grain structure is observed.

Mild Steel S G Iron

Malleable Cast Iron Gray Cast Iron

(a) Izod test (b) Charpy test

APPARATUS: Pendulum type impact testing machine, vernier caliper

Fig No. 02- Standard Specimen for CHARPY Test

Fig No.03- Standard Specimen for IZOD Test

1. Length of the specimen (L) = mm.

a) Izod Test Table:

Material Angle of Fall Fracture energy Impact Impact