METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES IN EXPLORING TEXTBOOK STRUCTURES

By

Xuran Wang

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A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Measurement and Quantitative Methods – Doctor of Philosophy

2024
 ABSTRACT
This study addresses a significant gap in educational research by employing statistical

methods to measure the sequencing of different components and content topics in textbooks. It is

well-documented that the structure and sequencing features of textbooks play a crucial role in

enhancing students’ learning. However, existing literature has predominantly relied on visual

approaches to analyze and compare the sequencing of textbook materials—a method that has

been in use for over two decades—with few studies employing statistical methods. This reliance

on visual methods highlights a noticeable lack of statistical analyses in this area. Without

quantitative indicators, the relationship between textbook sequencing features and students’

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academic performance cannot be effectively studied.
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To advance the field, this research included 31 Algebra textbooks used in 9th grade

across the U.S. and coded their content, supporting and motivational materials. The content
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coding was based on the Mathematics Curriculum Document Analysis content framework

published in 2022. The coding for supporting and motivational materials in the textbooks was

primarily based on motivation theories, reasoning demands of today’s society on students, and
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indications of the use of the Common Core State Standards in the textbooks.

Two approaches were developed: visual mapping and statistical measurement, to analyze

and compare the sequencing of three major components (Mathematics Topics, Motivational

Materials, Mathematics Reasoning) and content topics. Chapter 4 provides a detailed

explanation of the methods used in this study. The visual mappings offer clear representations of

how content topics and motivational materials are distributed throughout the textbooks, revealing

varied patterns across different textbooks, as discussed in Chapter 5.

However, these observations rely on visual inspection rather than quantitative analysis.

Chapters 6 and 7 present the statistical measurements using Markov chain techniques and model-
based approach, showcasing the sequencing features of the three major components and content

topics separately. By doing so, the differences in textbook structures were measured through

quantitative indicators, describing pattern similarities and differences in students’ learning

opportunities.

This study moves beyond graphical analysis, offering a deeper understanding of textbook

organization. More importantly, it provides quantitative indicators for future data analysis,

enabling researchers to explore the relationship between sequencing features and academic

outcomes. Chapter 8 provides an example of how to use these indicators in practice. This

research has the potential to inform educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers about

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the effective ways to organize textbook content to enhance learning opportunities and improve
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educational outcomes for students. A full discussion is presented in Chapter 9.
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Copyright by
XURAN WANG IE
2024
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This dissertation is dedicated to Mom and Dad.
Thank you for always loving and supporting me.
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I express my deepest gratitude to myself for undertaking this

transformative journey and overcoming numerous challenges along the way. This dissertation

stands as a reflection of my perseverance and dedication.

I want to extend my sincere thanks to my advisor, Dr. William H. Schmidt, whose

guidance and support have been invaluable throughout this journey. Our meetings in Beijing

were significant, and I am deeply grateful for the opportunity to continue my studies at Michigan

State University under his mentorship. His guidance has not only advanced my academic journey

but has also profoundly influenced my approach to research, teaching and communication. Dr.

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Schmidt’s dedication to his students and his thoughtful communication style have been essential

in my growth and career development.

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I am also deeply thankful to Dr. Richard T. Houang and Dr. Leland S. Cogan, who have
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been invaluable mentors to me. Their care, conversations, and support have greatly enriched my

experience at MSU. Talks with Dr. Houang, whether walking around campus or over coffee,

went beyond research to encompass broader educational insights. My heartfelt gratitude also
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extends to my other committee members, Dr. Kimberly Kelly and Dr. Chih-Li Sung, for their

valuable contributions and encouragement.

I am greatly appreciative of Dr. Tao Xin from Beijing Normal University, my previous

supervisor, who consistently supported my decisions and introduced me to Dr. Schmidt. And I

especially cherish the meaningful conversations with Dr. Cogan and his wife, Joella Cogan, who

provided invaluable support during my most difficult moments.

Gratitude extends to Yingyue Liu, my former roommate, whose discussions helped me

see my data from a mapping perspective, offering new ways to conceptualize maps.

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Additionally, Yingyue’s recommendation to meet with Dr. Ashton M. Shortridge from the

Department of Geography, Environment, and Spatial Sciences led to a crucial one-hour meeting

that profoundly influenced how I approach my data in the future. Their insights played a

fundamental role in refining the direction of my research.

I am deeply grateful to Dr. Gee Lee from the Department of Statistics & Probability.

Despite not knowing each other previously, his kindly response to my initial email led to regular

meetings where he generously shared his expertise in sequential data analysis. His guidance was

irreplaceable in completing this dissertation.

Infinite gratitude to my mom, Hong Zhang, my dad, Zijie Wang, thank you for always

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giving me the freedom and encouragement to explore myself and the world. Your countless
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support have been my confidence, enabling me to have diverse experiences. Your belief in me to

explore beyond boundaries has been an enduring source of strength.

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To my husband, Dr. Yiming Deng, whom I met during my doctoral journey, our path

together has been marked by both hardship, growth and happiness. I am deeply appreciative of

our shared experiences, our love, and I eagerly anticipate the future we will build together.
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Finally, to my counselor, as well as to those who unknowingly provided me emotional

support during this process, Alan Heys, Yujia Liu, Wenyan Wang, Eun Kim, Jiachen Liu, Kun

Xia, Hong Zhu, Jiawei Li, Siwen Guo, Jiahui Zhang, Hana Kang, Youngjun Lee, William

Sullivan, Zixi Chen, Bixi Zhang, Zhao Peng, Shimeng Dai, Shuo Zhan, and many more.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 5

CHAPTER 3. MEASURES IN THE TEXTBOOKS ................................................................... 17

CHAPTER 4. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES FOR ANALYZING AND COMPARING

TEXTBOOK SEQUENCES: BOTH VISUAL AND STATISTICAL ........................................ 28

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS OF THE VISUAL ANALYSIS........................................................... 40

CHAPTER 6. RESULTS OF THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: SEQUENCING OF THREE

MAJOR COMPONENTS ............................................................................................................. 54

CHAPTER 7. RESULTS OF THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: SEQUENCING OF

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CONTENT TOPICS ..................................................................................................................... 78

CHAPTER 8. BRIDGING THEORY AND PRACTICE ............................................................ 88

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CHAPTER 9. DISCUSSION AND LIMITATIONS ................................................................... 99

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 110

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APPENDIX A. MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM DOCUMENT ANALYSIS (MCDA)

CONTENT FRAMEWORK ....................................................................................................... 114
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APPENDIX B. SEQUENCING MAPPING DISPLAY OF THE THREE MAJOR

COMPONENTS ......................................................................................................................... 116

APPENDIX C. SEQUENCING MAPPING DISPLAY OF CONTENT TOPICS .................... 118

APPENDIX D. SEQUENCING MAPPING DISPLAY OF MOTIVATIONAL

MATERIALS.............................................................................................................................. 125

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 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Textbooks are intentionally designed to support student learning in a school setting,

distinguishing themselves from merely readable books or random assortments of material.

Fundamentally, they are created with a clear educational purpose in mind. They not only present

the content that students are expected to learn but also provide various exercises for student

practice and employ language that supports learning from multiple perspectives. Generally, the

language used in textbooks aims to enhance students’ motivation, introduce effective learning

strategies and skills, and incorporate academic practices to facilitate their adoption. Materials

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extending support beyond the instructional content itself are typically included through margin
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notes, separate textboxes, and specific labels, enriching the learning experience.

The organization and presentation of content and exercises in textbooks, along with
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materials provided to motivate and support learning, often dictate the instructional structure and

approach likely to be adopted in the classroom (Valverde, Bianchi, Wolfe, Schmidt & Houang,

2002, p. 125). The sequence in which content topics are arranged in textbooks influences the
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likelihood of effective learning. The types of exercises provided serve as the primary learning

activities for students both inside and outside of class. Materials designed to motivate and

support learning are not only intertwined with content but are also specifically integrated with

content-focused teaching pedagogies. These embedded materials can significantly impact

students’ abilities to engage with and apply the content.

Consequently, understanding and analyzing the sequence of various elements—subject

content, exercises, and motivational and support materials—presented in textbooks is essential to

grasp the breadth of learning opportunities available (Valverde et al., 2002). This is particularly

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evident when students of the same grade level use different textbooks for identical subjects. For

instance, consider 9th graders across different schools studying Algebra I and Algebra II. Even

though they are learning the same subject matter, the use of textbooks can significantly impact

their opportunities to learn (OTL) in the classroom, thereby influencing their academic

achievement (Cogan & Schmidt, 2015; OECD, 2014; Schmidt, Burroughs, Zoido & Houang,

2015). Understanding the nuances between these textbooks is critical and can offer invaluable

insights into the varied educational opportunities and learning trajectories of students.

Despite the diverse components in textbooks and the potential insights their distribution

sequences offer regarding learning opportunities, there is a notable scarcity of research exploring

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these aspects. Specifically, limited studies have delved into how these components are
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distributed throughout textbooks and how their sequences differ across textbooks used at the

same grade level. Therefore, this study is committed to filling this critical gap. It aims to deepen
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our understanding of these components and their organization by conducting a thorough and

statistical analysis of various components within textbooks. To the best of my knowledge, this is

the first study that statistically addresses this issue in the field of textbook analysis and
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mathematics education.

1.2 The Current Study

The current study is part of a collaborative research project with the University of Texas

at Austin (UT-Austin), with our team at Michigan State University (MSU) primarily responsible

for the coding and analysis of textbooks, as well as correlating the characteristics of these

textbooks with students’ learning outcomes. With support from UT-Austin, we collected 55

textbooks utilized across 40 schools in 20 U.S. states (Figure 1.1). I independently completed all

the supporting and motivational materials, as well as over 90% of the content coding activities,

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within one and a half years, and conducted training sessions for two additional coders to assist in

the process. The 55 textbooks include 18 for Algebra I, 13 for Algebra II, 18 for Geometry, and 6

covering other subjects such as Pre-Algebra, Math, Math I, Math II, Advanced Algebra, and

Intermediate Algebra, all designated for use by 9th graders. In this study, the 31 Algebra

textbooks (18 Algebra I and 13 Algebra II) are included and analyzed.

The coverage of 9th-grade math content in the United States tends to vary based on local

school district policies, state educational standards, and the specific math course in which a

student is enrolled. Typically, the 9th-grade math curriculum centers around Algebra I.

Nonetheless, some students may engage in Geometry or Algebra II courses, depending on their

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previous courses and proficiency.

Figure 1.1
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Textbooks Sample Distribution Across the United States
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In the next chapter, I will thoroughly examine why and how the sequencing of content

topics in textbooks influences students’ learning outcomes. Also will identify the types of

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effective exercises and materials included to enhance and motivate learning. Given the focus on

math education, the supporting and motivational materials under discussion will specifically

address the challenges and strategies pertinent to math learning.

Chapter 3 will introduce the various types of materials used in this study, detailing how

they are measured within the textbooks. This chapter will include a selection of illustrative

examples to provide a clear understanding of the materials’ characteristics and roles in the

learning process. Chapter 4 will then detail the methodological approaches employed in the

study, encompassing both visual and statistical techniques to analyze the textbooks

comprehensively.

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Chapters 5 through 7 will present the results of the textbook analysis conducted using the
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approaches developed in Chapter 4. These chapters will offer a detailed examination of the data,

highlighting key findings and trends observed in the textbooks. Chapter 8 will provide a
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comprehensive example of how to apply these results in real-world contexts, illustrating the

practical implications and potential benefits for educators and policymakers beyond purely

academic research. Finally, Chapter 9 will discuss the implications of the study’s findings,
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address the limitations encountered, and propose potential directions for future research, thereby

offering a holistic conclusion to the research endeavor.

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 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review will thoroughly examine how the sequencing of content topics in

textbooks influences students’ learning outcomes and identify the types of effective exercises

and materials included for enhancing and motivating learning. Given the focus on math

education, the supporting and motivational materials under discussion will specifically address

math learning.

2.1 Sequencing of Content Topics in Textbooks

In discussing the significance of logically sequencing content topics within textbooks, it

is essential to explore the underlying reason—why such organization matters for student learning

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in the classroom. This inquiry is deeply intertwined with the concept of coherence in curricula
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and textbooks, a principle of critical importance in mathematics education, or more specifically,

in mathematics learning opportunity. A coherent and structured presentation of content topics

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substantially benefits mathematics education by enhancing students’ understanding and

engagement. Bruner advocates for teaching depth and continuity rather than breadth, aiming to

transform students’ initial weak grasp of a subject into a refined and powerful understanding
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(Bruner, 1995). This approach underscores the importance of diving deep into topics to foster a

profound comprehension.

The concept of coherence in curricula and textbooks, as defined by Schmidt and his

colleagues, involves a logical sequence of topics and activities that reflect the discipline’s

sequential or hierarchical nature (Schmidt, Wang & McKnight, 2005, p. 528). It ensures that

teaching not only covers the relevant topics within an academic discipline but also embodies the

core ideas that organize and generate knowledge within that discipline. A coherent set of content

standards progresses from simple concepts to the discipline’s deeper structures, facilitating

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students’ grasp of complex mathematical concepts and their application in real-world situations

(Schmidt et al., 2005). Moreover, any instructional resource is recognized at the confluence of

decisions regarding its coverage (the specific content topics to be presented), the sequence in

which these topics are covered, the allocated instructional time, and the rigor of the content

(Schmidt et al., 2005; Wan & Lee, 2022). This multifaceted approach underscores the

importance of thoughtful curriculum design in enhancing educational effectiveness and student

learning outcomes.

Within this context, the logical sequencing of topics stands out not just as a critical aspect

but arguably as the core component of coherence in curriculum and textbook design, as

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emphasized by Schmidt and Houang (2012). Its importance is emphasized across a wide array of
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research within curriculum studies, with significant contributions from scholars such as Cogan,

Schmidt & Wiley (2001); Ferrini-Mundy, Burrill & Schmidt (2007); Schmidt (2004, 2008,
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2012); Schmidt et al. (2005, 2012); Schmidt & Prawat (2006); and more recent studies by Wan et

al. (2022) and Lee & Wan (2022). Drawing on data from the top-performing countries in the

Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Schmidt et al. (2005) initially
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utilized a geometric shape, resembling an upper-triangle, as a nonquantitative indicator of

coherence in curriculum design. The geometric representation effectively encapsulates both the

extent of coverage and the pattern or sequence in which the topics were presented, serving as an

indicator of coherence up until recent studies (Wan et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2022). Nonetheless,

this nonquantitative measure was originally devised to compare the coverage of topics and the

sequence in which these topics were presented from grade 1 to grade 8 across different countries,

rather than to indicate the sequencing of topics within an individual textbook. Another geometric

representation approach for examining each individual textbook’s sequencing features was first

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introduced by Valverde et al. (2002). However, both methods lack quantitative indexes, making

them unsuitable for use as quantitative variables in data analysis. This limitation constrains our

capacity to rigorously examine the relationship between the sequencing features of textbooks and

students’ academic achievements, thereby highlighting a considerable gap in empirical research

on the impact of textbook sequencing on educational outcomes.

In this study, I aim to statistically measure and analyze the logical sequencing of content

topics within textbooks, an aspect that, to my knowledge, has received limited attention in the

existing literature. In general terms, I believe that the logical sequencing of content topics should

(a) introduce a series of grade-specific or subject-specific topics in mathematics, like Algebra I,

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and (b) organize these topics according to state standards or a rational sequence. For instance,
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within Algebra I textbooks, it is expected that students encounter simple linear equations prior to

delving into quadratic equations. Hence, one of my objectives is to fill a gap in the existing
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groundwork laid by previous research on coherence in curricula and textbooks and the studies of

measuring students’ learning opportunities in school. By investigating potential statistical

measures for the logical sequencing of content topics within textbooks, I intend to refine and
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expand upon the current methods used to assess coherence, thereby filling a notable gap in the

literature. The reliance on methodologies developed over two decades ago underscores the

urgent need for innovative approaches in this field.

2.2 Enhancing Math Learning: Incorporating Mathematical Reasoning into Exercises

The world in which we now live have become increasingly complicated, not only due to

the advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), computers, robotics, and various technological

formats but also in the manner we gather the necessary knowledge for living, studying, working,

and addressing the challenges confronting the global population. For instance, we may encounter

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varying “facts” about the same news event across different online platforms. These differing

“facts” go beyond what we typically encounter in person-to-person exchanges, which generally

have a more limited spread. Without concrete evidence, relying solely on internet-based

information can lead us to form biased opinions about individuals or incorrect conclusions about

certain matters. While this may not always lead to serious consequences, it typically reduces our

capacity to thoroughly analyze facts pertinent to our own lives, studies, and works. Even more

concerning is that it decreases our ability to engage in meaningful communication with the

people in our lives; instead, we find ourselves constantly talking with strangers. Furthermore, in

recent years, pandemics have swept across nations, economies have wrestled with recessions,

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and we’ve witnessed a surge in natural catastrophes—such as floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and
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earthquakes—exacerbated by climate change. Navigating these scenarios has become

exceedingly difficult. It’s imperative that we analyze these situations, choose suitable strategies,
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formulate logical conclusions, devise and articulate solutions, and then identify how these

solutions can be implemented. This comprehensive process is referred to as mathematical

reasoning (OECD, 2023).

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Mathematical reasoning serves as a critical process through which students learn to make

sense of mathematical concepts, solve problems, and justify their solutions logically and

coherently. It is more than just the ability to calculate numbers; it’s about understanding the why

and how behind the numbers, which is essential for developing a deep and durable understanding

of mathematics. The importance of mathematical reasoning in learning math cannot be

overstated; it equips learners with the skills to approach complex problems creatively and

critically, make connections between different mathematical concepts, and apply their

knowledge in various contexts. With mathematical reasoning, students can arrive at results that

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they can fully trust to be true in a wide variety of real-life contexts. It is also important that these

conclusions are impartial, without any need for validation by an external authority (OECD,

2023).

Within textbooks, cultivating students’ mathematical reasoning abilities can be

effectively achieved through in-class and homework activities/exercises. Problems designed to

engage higher-order thinking skills, known as Higher Order Problems (HOPs), require students

to apply advanced mathematical reasoning involving sophisticated cognitive processes. These

problems, when set against the backdrop of realistic, authentic, and real-world scenarios, push

students to go beyond simply identifying the required mathematics for a solution, embodying

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higher-order real-world applications. Such problems are designed to reflect the intricate and
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often unpredictable nature of the real world, urging students to conceptualize, organize, and sift

through information to craft a mathematical representation of the problem. In this context,

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arriving at the correct solution may not be as challenging or as crucial as developing

mathematical literacy.

Furthermore, problems that are grounded in mathematical concepts yet distinct from real-
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world scenarios also demand that students engage in a rigorous process of conceptualization,

organization, extraction of relevant information, and the formulation of a logical approach to find

solutions. These are known as higher-order math problems. An exemplar of this is the geometric

proof, which requires a meticulous construction of a deductive argument, leveraging pertinent

information and devising a coherent strategy for problem-solving. Identifying relevant theorems

and axioms and understanding their logical integration within a proof is essential to these

solutions.

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 Another strategy to enhance students’ mathematical reasoning abilities involves

encouraging the use of mathematical reasoning to solve problems, facilitated by specific terms

and phrases within the textbooks. The forthcoming chapter, Measures in the Textbooks will delve

into the types of words that can foster this analytical thinking.

2.3 Enhancing Math Learning: Materials that Motivate and Support Beyond
Instructional Content and Exercises

Why do textbooks include materials beyond the core subject content and exercises? And

how are these additional resources purposefully organized within them? Textbooks often contain

a variety of materials beyond the core subject content and exercises, recognizing that the subject

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matter alone may not fully address the diverse needs of students to enhance their learning

outcomes. Educators have identified several factors that can significantly impact students’
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learning, including their motivation to learn math and their strategies for learning math. To

address these factors, textbooks are thoughtfully organized to incorporate materials designed to
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motivate and support learning.

The ensuing discussion will focus on describing various theories of motivation

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commonly embedded in textbooks to motivate learning. It will also highlight key factors aimed

at enhancing mathematical learning specifically. Furthermore, the representation of each type of

material within textbooks will be described in detail in the next chapter, Measures in the

Textbooks.

2.3.1 The Theory of Intelligence and Ability Beliefs with Math Learning

Students frequently encounter discouraging statements like “you are not smart enough to

learn math” or “not everyone can do well in math.” Despite some progress in changing these

perceptions, public attitudes often still reflect these negative sentiments. Such beliefs

significantly influence policymakers’ considerations regarding math education within the public

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school system, affecting their decision-making (Schmidt, 2012). In this context, it is imperative

to challenge and address stereotypes like “some students cannot do mathematics” through

rigorous scientific methods. Achieving proficiency in math, like mastering any other subject,

comes with its own set of challenges. However, it is achievable if students are provided with

equitable learning opportunities, effective teaching strategies, and the necessary support and

motivation.

The availability of learning opportunities and the effectiveness of teaching or learning

strategies are largely external factors, beyond students’ control. These are typically provided

through educational tools like math textbooks, while effective teaching strategies are imparted by

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teachers using their deep understanding of math and pedagogical knowledge to facilitate
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meaningful learning experiences in the classroom (Schmidt, 2012). Conversely, motivation is an

internal aspect, driven by students’ personal attitudes towards math and their underlying reasons
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for engaging with it. This involves their beliefs about the value of math and their confidence in

their abilities to succeed, which are crucial in shaping their learning approach and resilience in

facing challenges, including complex problems.

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The belief among students that they are part of the group that “cannot do mathematics”

can lead to avoidance of advanced math courses or a reluctance to engage with difficult

problems. However, this mindset can be altered through intervention by educators, particularly

math teachers, who play a crucial role in developing a positive learning attitude towards math.

Motivation theories in learning seek to describe, explain, and predict the mechanisms of student

motivation, providing educators with strategies to foster a conducive learning environment and

motivation for math.

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 Among these theories is the theory of intelligence and ability beliefs (Dweck & Leggett,

1988; Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck, 2007; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; Muenks & Miele,

2017). As popularized by Carol Dweck (2006), this theory posits that intelligence and abilities

are not just innate traits but can be developed through dedication and hard work. This powerful

perspective challenges the traditional paradigm that often labels students as “naturally gifted” or

“inherently challenged” based on their initial performance. Within the context of education, this

mindset holds particular significance as it shifts the focus from innate ability to the potential for

growth, resilience, and continuous learning. Mathematics, a subject that many students often find

daunting and impenetrable, stands as a critical area where the principles of the growth mindset

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can be particularly transformative. By understanding that abilities in mathematics can be
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nurtured and enhanced, students can approach challenges with a renewed sense of purpose and a

decreased fear of failure.

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At the heart of Dweck’s groundbreaking work on mindset (2006) lies the distinction

between two core beliefs: a fixed mindset, which views intelligence and abilities as immutable

traits, and a growth mindset, which perceives them as qualities that can be developed. This
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distinction is crucial in an educational context. In a fixed mindset, students believe that their

abilities are static, leading to either complacency or despair, depending on their perceived skill

level. On the other hand, a growth mindset instills the belief that effort plays a pivotal role in

improvement. This perspective is particularly salient in subjects like mathematics, a field that

often demands persistence in the face of complex problems.

Given the theoretical promise of a growth mindset in boosting academic achievement,

numerous studies have sought to translate theory into practice by implementing growth mindset

interventions in classroom settings. One compelling study by Yeager et al. (2019) utilized a brief

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online growth mindset intervention, revealing that even short-term exposure to growth mindset

principles could elevate students’ math achievements. Another study by Paunesku, Walton,

Romero, Smith, Yeager & Dweck (2015) conducted an intervention where students were

exposed to growth mindset instructions over an academic year. The results were promising; not

only did students show an increased belief in the malleability of intelligence, but they also

displayed enhanced perseverance in solving math problems and achieved improved grades.

These studies, among others, underline the practical benefits of integrating growth mindset

instructions in the educational process, particularly in the area of mathematics.

2.3.2 Exposure to Mathematical Concepts with Math Learning

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Another important motivation theory, self-efficacy, refers to the belief students hold
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about their capability to successfully perform and complete academic tasks (Bandura, 1997).

Research has shown that self-efficacy is considered domain-specific, indicating that students
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may have different levels of self-efficacy according to different subject matters (Dweck, 2002;

Muenks, Wigfield & Eccles, 2018). Specifically, in the math domain, mathematics self-efficacy

is defined as “a situational or problem-specific assessment of an individual’s confidence in her or

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his ability to successfully perform or accomplish a particular [mathematics] task or problem”

(Hackett & Betz, 1989, p. 262). Students who feel competent about performing well in math may

persist and expend their effort to learn the knowledge, and this affects their achievement (Schunk

& DiBenedetto, 2021). Research has widely demonstrated that mathematics self-efficacy affects

students’ mathematical performance at different educational levels across different educational

systems (Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992; Caprara, Fida, Vecchione, Del Bove,

Vecchio, Barbaranelli, & Bandura, 2008; Lee, 2009; Stajkovic, Bandura, Locke, Lee, & Sergent,

2018). Generally, students with higher mathematics self-efficacy are linked with higher

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mathematical performance (Zimmerman et al., 1992; Caprara et al., 2008), and countries with

higher performance in math are those where students also report feeling more confident in

solving a range of mathematics tasks (OECD, 2013a, p. 93). The relationship between self-

efficacy and attainment in mathematics is demonstrated by Bandura’s theory (Bandura, 2002),

which suggests that strongly perceived efficacy fosters high group performance attainments.

Mathematics self-efficacy postulates that students develop their self-efficacy beliefs by

interpreting information from four sources: (a) mastery experiences, which refer to the

interpretation of one’s own previous performance; (b) vicarious experiences, which refer to the

observation of others’ performances; (c) social persuasions, which refer to feedback received

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from others (e.g., encouragement from teachers); and (d) physiological states, which refer to
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emotional and somatic states, including anxiety and stress (Bandura, 1997). Regarding the

relative strength of these four sources in relating to self-efficacy, research has documented that
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students’ mastery experiences show the strongest association with self-efficacy (Usher &

Pajares, 2008). Further, the literature has suggested that exposure to specific mathematical

concepts could enhance students’ feelings of competence in handling the same or similar
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concepts (Wang, Houang, Schmidt & Kelly, 2024), since this would provide opportunities for

increasing mastery experiences (Zimmerman et al., 1992; Pajares, 1997; Borgonovi & Pokropek,

2019).

2.3.3 Standards for Mathematical Practices with Math Learning

Following the release of the Common Core State Standards for Mathematical Practices

(CCSS-MP) in 2010, numerous publishers endeavored to incorporate the eight prescribed

mathematical practices into their textbook designs. Furthermore, they prominently featured the

CCSS endorsement on the front covers of these textbooks and strategically integrated details of

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the eight mathematical practices within the pages. This integration varied, with some practices

appearing between chapters, others introduced in the opening pages before the first chapter, and

some positioned at the conclusion of the last chapter, ensuring that the practices were shown

throughout the educational material.

The CCSS-MP represent a significant initiative in the United States aimed at providing a

clear and consistent framework to prepare students for college and the workforce. The

development of these standards was a collaborative effort with the goal of ensuring that students

graduating from high school possess the necessary mathematical skills and knowledge to succeed

in entry-level careers, introductory college courses, and workforce training programs, also

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ensuring greater equality in content coverage among students (Schmidt & Burroughs, 2013).
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These practices encourage students to develop a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts,

enhance their problem-solving skills, and foster critical thinking and reasoning. By focusing on
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processes and proficiencies as much as on content, the CCSS-MP help cultivate a more robust

mathematical mindset in students, preparing them for complex problem-solving and analytical

tasks in their future academic and professional endeavors. Moreover, these practices underscore
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the importance of mathematical communication, allowing students to articulate their thought

processes and reasoning effectively.

2.3.4 Study Habits with Math Learning

Beyond the foundational theories of motivation and the guiding principles of the CCSS-

MP in supporting students’ mathematics learning, the role of good study habits is critical in

enhancing student learning outcomes in school. Effective study habits—such as organized study

schedules, active engagement with materials, consistent practice, and self-assessment

techniques—act as vital complements to the conceptual and procedural understandings promoted

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 by the CCSS-MP. These habits help students to internalize and apply mathematical concepts

more efficiently, foster a positive attitude towards learning, and build confidence in their

problem-solving capabilities. Moreover, good study habits encourage students to take initiative

in their learning process, promoting a sense of responsibility and independence that is beneficial

not only in mathematics but across all academic disciplines.

Fundamentally, although motivation theories and the CCSS-MP lay a robust foundation

for mathematical education, it is ultimately the development of disciplined study habits that

frequently drives students to realize their full academic potential. Good study habits bridge the

gap between theoretical understanding and practical application, enabling students to consolidate

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their learning and achieve sustained academic success. Through consistent practice and strategic
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learning approaches, students are better equipped to tackle complex mathematical problems,

thereby enhancing their overall performance and fostering a lifelong appreciation for the subject.
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In summary, this chapter illustrates that a comprehensive approach to math education—

one that includes well-sequenced content, the incorporation of mathematical reasoning, positive

beliefs about intelligence and ability, self-efficacy, adherence to mathematical standards, and
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disciplined study habits—is essential for fostering students’ mathematical proficiency. The next

chapter will introduce measures of various components within the textbook. In Chapter 4, the

focus will be on describing approaches to both visual and statistical analysis in sequencing these

components, which constitute the primary focus of this research.

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