Ctrl_sys_intro

Control Systems 2
Introduction
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‫سالم عىل من كانت في العلياء همته‬
CCSED 27
To help you reconnect the dots between your first and second control
systems courses, let’s start from the basics and work up to root locus.
1. Laplace Transform: The Foundation

• Purpose: The Laplace transform converts differential equations
(which are hard to solve) into algebraic equations (which are
much easier). This is crucial in control systems because most
system behaviors, like mechanical or electrical systems, are
naturally expressed as differential equations.
• Link to Control Systems: In the first course, you likely used

Laplace transforms to model dynamic systems. Once you take the
Laplace transform of a system’s governing equations, you can
analyze it using its transfer function, which is a mathematical
representation of the system in the frequency domain.
2. Transfer Functions and Stability

• Transfer Function (TF): It describes the input-output
relationship of a system in the Laplace domain. You derive it from
the system’s differential equations.
Output(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
Input(𝑠)
‣ It allows you to assess how different inputs (like step, ramp, or

sinusoidal inputs) affect the system.
‣ You studied stability criteria using the transfer function,
checking if the system responds well to inputs or if it becomes
unstable.
3. Poles and Zeros
• The poles of the transfer function (values of ( s ) that make the
denominator zero) and the zeros (values of ( s ) that make the
numerator zero) are key to understanding the system’s stability.
‣ Poles: The roots of the denominator give the natural
frequencies and damping of the system.
‣ Zeros: The roots of the numerator impact how the system
responds to certain frequencies.
• Link to Stability: In the first course, you may have covered
methods like Routh-Hurwitz criteria to determine stability based
on the location of the poles (in the left or right half of the s-
plane).
Root Locus: Control System 2

• What is Root Locus?: Root locus is a graphical method for
analyzing how the poles of a system move in the complex s-plane
as a particular system parameter (usually a gain ( K )) is varied.
It helps you design controllers (like PID) that stabilize a system
or give it desired performance characteristics.
‣ Why it’s important: The root locus shows how changing
system parameters affects stability and transient response,
which is crucial in control design.
‣ Practical use: For example, in designing feedback control
systems, you want to see how adjusting the feedback gain shifts
the system’s poles. If the poles move to the left half-plane, the
system becomes more stable, while poles on the right lead to
instability.
Frequency domain , Time domain
&Laplace Transform
Understanding the relationship between the time domain, frequency
domain, and the Laplace transform is crucial in control systems because
they offer different ways of analyzing system behavior.
1. Time Domain
• What it is: The time domain represents how signals or system
responses (like position, velocity, etc.) change over time. You’re
likely used to seeing differential equations that describe physical
systems in this domain.
‣ Example: Newton’s laws describe motion as a function of time.
Similarly, an electrical circuit’s voltage and current are
functions of time.
• Response Characteristics:
‣ Transient Response: How the system responds in the short term
(oscillations, overshoot, rise time).
‣ Steady-State Response: How the system behaves after a long
time (when it settles).
‣ Differential Equations: In the time domain, system behavior is
modeled using differential equations, which are not always easy
to solve.
2. Frequency Domain
• What it is: The frequency domain describes signals or systems in
terms of frequency (how the system responds to sinusoidal inputs
of different frequencies). This domain simplifies the analysis of
systems, especially for understanding their stability and filtering
behavior.
‣ Instead of looking at a system’s time-based response, you look
at how it behaves for each frequency input (like how an audio
equalizer works by adjusting specific frequency bands).
• Key Concept:
‣ Steady-State Response to Sinusoids: Any input can be thought
of as a combination of sinusoids of different frequencies (thanks
to Fourier analysis). In the frequency domain, you analyze how
well the system handles each of these frequencies.
‣ Bode Plot: A graph of system response versus frequency. It
helps you see how different frequency inputs are amplified or
attenuated.
3. The Laplace Transform: Connecting Time and Frequency

Domains
• The Laplace transform is a tool that bridges the time and
frequency domains by transforming differential equations (from
the time domain) into algebraic equations (in the frequency
domain). The variable ( s ) in the Laplace transform is a complex
variable that represents both:
‣ 𝜎 : The real part, representing exponential decay or growth
(related to damping or instability).
‣ 𝜔: The imaginary part, representing frequency.
So, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 combines the behavior in time (through 𝜎 and
frequency (through 𝜔 ).
Laplace Transform Formula:

The Laplace transform of a time-domain signal 𝑓(𝑡) is:
∞
𝐹 (𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒−𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
• This integral converts the function from the time domain

(dependent on 𝑡) to the frequency domain (dependent on 𝑠 ).
Key Points About the Laplace Transform:
• Poles and Zeros: In the frequency domain, the poles (values of
( s ) that make the transfer function infinite) tell you about the
natural frequencies and stability of the system.
‣ Poles with negative real parts (in the left half-plane) correspond
to stable systems.
‣ Poles with positive real parts (in the right half-plane) indicate
instability.
• Time Domain ↔ Frequency Domain: The Laplace transform
allows you to switch between these domains. Once you solve a
system in the frequency domain (often much easier), you can
inverse Laplace transform back to the time domain to get the
actual time-based response.
4. The Relationship Between Time and Frequency Domains

• Time and Frequency Are Two Perspectives: The time domain
focuses on how signals change over time, while the frequency
domain focuses on how systems respond to different frequencies.
• Why Use the Frequency Domain?:
‣ Easier to Analyze Stability: Stability and system performance
are often easier to assess by looking at poles and zeros in the
frequency domain (using Bode plots or Nyquist plots).
‣ Filters and Controllers: In control systems, many controllers and
filters are designed based on how they affect the frequency
response (attenuating unwanted frequencies, amplifying desired
ones).
For example, a system might be stable in the time domain, but a
Bode plot in the frequency domain can show that it amplifies
certain frequencies too much, causing oscillations or poor
performance.

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Control Systems 2

1. Laplace Transform: The Foundation

• Link to Control Systems: In the first course, you likely used

2. Transfer Functions and Stability

‣ It allows you to assess how different inputs (like step, ramp, or

Root Locus: Control System 2

3. The Laplace Transform: Connecting Time and Frequency

Laplace Transform Formula:

• This integral converts the function from the time domain

4. The Relationship Between Time and Frequency Domains

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