ECE 304 Control Systems

MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF CONTROL SYSTEM

MSc. Eljona Zanaj

 2 -1
INTRODUCTION
2-1 INTRODUCTION

• In studying control systems the reader must be able to model dynamic systems in mathematical terms
and analyze their dynamic characteristics.
• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that represents the
dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
• Note that a mathematical model is not unique to a given system. A system may be represented in many
different ways and, therefore, may have many mathematical models, depending on one’s perspective.
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal economic,
biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations.
• Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a particular system—for
example, Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and Kirchhoff ’s laws for electrical systems.
• We must always keep in mind that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the most important part of the
entire analysis of control systems.
2-1 INTRODUCTION (CONT.)

o Mathematical Models.
• Mathematical models may assume many different forms. Depending on the particular system and the
particular circumstances, one mathematical model may be better suited than other models. For example, in
optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use state-space representations.
• On the other hand, for the transient-response or frequency-response analysis of single-input, single-output,
linear,
• time-invariant systems, the transfer-function representation may be more convenient than any other. Once a
mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical and computer tools can be used for analysis
and synthesis purposes.
2-1 INTRODUCTION (CONT.)
o Simplicity Vs Accuracy.
• In obtaining a mathematical model, we must make a compromise between the simplicity of the model and
the accuracy of the results of the analysis.
• simplified mathematical model, -.> we frequently ignore certain inherent physical properties of the system. In
particular, if a linear lumped- parameter mathematical model (that is, one employing ordinary differential
equations) is desired, -> ignore certain nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be present in the
physical system.
• the effects that these ignored properties have on the response are small, good agreement will be obtained
between the results of the analysis of a mathematical model and the results of the experimental study of the
physical system.
• In solving a new problem, it is desirable to build a simplified model so that we can get a general feeling for
the solution. A more complete mathematical model may then be built and used for a more accurate analysis.
2-1 INTRODUCTION (CONT.)

o Simplicity Versus Accuracy.(Cont.)

• be well aware that a linear lumped-parameter model, which may be valid in low-frequency operations, may not
be valid at sufficiently high frequencies, since the neglected property of distributed parameters may become an
important factor in the dynamic behavior of the system.
• For example, the mass of a spring may be neglected in lowfrequency operations, but it becomes an important
property of the system at high frequencies.
2-1 INTRODUCTION (CONT.)

o Linear Systems.
• A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies. The principle of superposition states that the
response produced by the simultaneous application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two
individual responses.
• Hence, for the linear system, the response to several inputs can be calculated by treating one input at a time
and adding the results. It is this principle that allows one to build up complicated solutions to the linear
differential equation from simple solutions.
• In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if cause and effect are proportional, thus implying that
the principle of superposition holds, then the system can be considered linear.
 2-1 INTRODUCTION (CONT.)

o Linear Time-Invariant Systems and Linear Time-Varying Systems.

• A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are constants or functions only of the
independent variable.
• Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-invariant lumped-parameter components may be described
by linear time-invariant differential equations—that is, constant-coefficient differential equations. Such
systems are called linear time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems.
• Systems that are represented by differential equations whose coefficients are functions of time are called linear
time-varying systems. An example of a time-varying control system is a spacecraft control system. (The mass
of a spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)
2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION
AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION
 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION
• In control theory, functions called transfer functions are used to characterize the input-output relationships of
components or systems that can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential equations.
• A) defining the transfer function and follow with a derivation of the transfer function of a differential equation
system. B) Then impulse-response function.
 Transfer Function.
• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
• Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following differential equation:
 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION (CONT.)

 Transfer Function. (Cont.)

• where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the
Laplace transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial conditions are zero, or

• By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic equations in
s. If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an
nth-order system.
 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION (CONT.)

• Is limited to linear, time-invariant, differential equation systems. The transfer function approach, however, is
extensively used in the analysis and design of such systems.
• 1. Is a mathematical model, is an operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates the
output variable to the input variable.
• 2. Is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
• 3. Includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output; however, it does not provide any information
concerning the physical structure of the system.
• 4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied for various forms of
inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the system.
• 5. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be established experimentally by introducing known
inputs and studying the output of the system. Once established, a transfer function gives a full description of the
dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical description.
 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION (CONT.)

 Convolution Integral.
• For a linear, time-invariant system the transfer function G(s) is
• where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output of the
system, where we assume that all initial conditions involved are zero. It follows that the output Y(s) can be written as
the product of G(s) and X(s), or

• Note that multiplication in the complex domain is equivalent to convolution in the time domain, so the inverse
Laplace transform of above Equation is given by the following convolution integral:

• where both g(t) and x(t) are 0 for t<0.

 2-2 TRANSFER FUNCTION AND IMPULSE RESPONSE
FUNCTION (CONT.)

 Impulse-Response Function.
• Consider the output (response) of a linear time invariant system to a unit-impulse input when the initial
conditions are zero. Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is unity, the Laplace transform of
the output of the system is

• The inverse Laplace transform of the output given by above Equation gives the impulse response of the
system.The inverse Laplace transform of G(s), or
• is called the impulse-response function. This function g(t) is also called the weighting function of the system.
• The impulse-response function g(t) is thus the response of a linear time-invariant system to a unit-impulse input when
the initial conditions are zero. The Laplace transform of this function gives the transfer function.
• transfer function and impulse-response function of a linear, time-invariant system contain the same information about the
system dynamics. It is hence possible to obtain complete information about the dynamic characteristics of the system
by exciting it with an impulse input and measuring the response.
2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL
SYSTEMS
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

• A control system may consist of a number of components. To show the functions performed by each component, in
control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the block diagram.
 Block Diagrams.
• A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each component and of the
flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various components.
• Differing from a purely abstract mathematical representation, a block diagram has the advantage of indicating
more realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
• All system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The functional block or simply block is
a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the block that produces the output.
• The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks. The signal can pass
only in the direction of the shown. Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral
property.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)
 Block Diagrams.(Cont.)
• Figure below shows an element of the block diagram. The arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the
input, and the arrowhead leading away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are referred to as
signals.

• the dimension of the output signal from the block is the dimension of the input signal multiplied by the
dimension of the transfer function in the block.
• The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system are that it is easy to form the overall block
diagram for the entire system by merely connecting the blocks of the components according to the signal flow
and that it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each component to the overall performance of the system.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Block Diagrams.(Cont.)
• The functional operation of the system can be visualized more readily by examining the block diagram than by
examining the physical system itself. A block diagram contains information concerning dynamic behavior, but it
does not include any information on the physical construction of the system. Consequently, many dissimilar
and unrelated systems can be represented by the same block diagram.
• In a block diagram the main source of energy is not explicitly shown and that the block diagram of a given
system is not unique. A number of different block diagrams can be drawn for a system, depending on the point
of view of the analysis.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Summery
• Referring to Figure, a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is
to be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted
have the same dimensions and the same units.
 Branch Point
• A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes concurrently to other
blocks or summing points.
 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System.
• Figure below shows an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System. (Cont.)

• The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the reference input R(s). The closed-
loop nature of the system is clearly indicated by the figure. The output of the block, C(s) in this case, is obtained by
multiplying the transfer function G(s) by the input to the block, E(s).
• Any linear control system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points, and branch
points
• When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert
the form of the output signal to that of the input signal.
2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System. (Cont.)

• For example, in a temperature control system, the output signal is usually the
controlled temperature.
• The output signal, which has the dimension of temperature, must be converted to aforce or position or
voltage before it can be compared with the input signal.
• This conversion is accomplished by the feedback element whose transfer function is H(s).
2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function.

• Referring to previous Figure, the ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is
called the open-loop transfer function.That is,

• The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feedforward transfer function, so
that

• If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and the feedforward
transfer function are the same.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
(CONT.)
Closed-Loop Transfer Function.

• For the system shown below, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related as
follows: since

• eliminating E(s) from these equations gives

• Or
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Closed-Loop Transfer Function.(Cont.)

• The transfer function relating C(s) to R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer function. It relates the closed-loop
system dynamics to the dynamics of the feedforward elements and feedback elements.
• From Equation, C(s) is given by

• Thus the output of the closed-loop system clearly depends on both the closed-loop transfer function and the
nature of the input.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Automatic Controllers.
• An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant output with the reference input (desired value),
determines the deviation, and produces a control signal that will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value.
The manner in which the automatic controller produces the control signal is called the control action.
• Figure below is a block diagram of an industrial control system, which
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance.

 Figure below shows a closed loop system subjected to a disturbance.
• When two inputs (the reference input and disturbance) are present in
a linear time-invariant system, each input can be treated
independently of the other; and the outputs corresponding to each
input alone can be added to give the complete output. The way each
input is introduced into the system is shown at the summing point
by either a plus or minus sign.
• In examining the effect of the disturbance D(s), we may assume that
the reference input is zero; we may then calculate the response CD(s)
to the disturbance only.This response can be found from
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS
(CONT.)
 Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance.(Cont.)
• On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s), we may assume that the disturbance is
zero. Then the response𝐶𝑅 (s) to the reference input R(s) can be obtained from

• The response to the simultaneous application of the reference input and disturbance can be obtained by adding the two
individual responses. In other words, the response C(s) due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s)
and disturbance D(s) is given by
• Let’s consider now the case where |G1(s)H(s)| >>1 and |G1(s)G2(s)H(s)| >>1. In this case, the closed-loop
transfer function 𝐶𝐷(s)/D(s) becomes almost zero, and the effect of the disturbance is suppressed.This is an
advantage of the closed-loop system.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance.(Cont.)

• On the other hand, the closed-loop transfer function 𝐶𝑅(s)/R(s) approaches 1/H(s) as the gain of 𝐺1(s)𝐺2
(s)H(s) increases. This means that if |𝐺1(s)𝐺2 (s)H(s)| >> 1, then the closed-loop transfer function CR(s)/R(s)
becomes independent of G1(s) and G2(s) and inversely proportional to H(s), so that the variations of 𝐺1(s)
and 𝐺2(s) do not affect the closed-loop transfer function 𝐶𝑅(s)/R(s). This is another advantage of the closed-
loop system. It can easily be seen that any closed-loop system with unity feedback, H(s)=1, tends to equalize
the input and output.
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram.

• To draw a block diagram for a system, first write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior of each
component. Then take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions, and
represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form. Finally, assemble the elements into
a complete block diagram.
• As an example, consider the RC circuit shown in Figure (a). The equations for this circuit are
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram.(Cont.)

• The Laplace transforms of Equations , with zero initial condition, become

• The Equation represents a summing operation, and the corresponding diagram is shown in Figure (b). Equation
represents the block as shown in Figure (c). Assembling these two elements, we obtain the overall block diagram for
the system as shown in Figure (d).
 2-3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS (CONT.)

 Block Diagram Reduction.

• It is important to note that blocks can be connected in series only if the output of one block is not affected by the next following
block. If there are any loading effects between the components, it is necessary to combine these components into a single block.
• Any number of cascaded blocks representing non loading components can be replaced by a single block, the transfer function of
which is simply the product of the individual transfer functions.
• A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops can be simplified by a step-by-step rearrangement. Simplification
of the block diagram by rearrangements considerably reduces the labor needed for subsequent mathematical analysis. It should
be noted, however, that as the block diagram is simplified, the transfer functions in new blocks become more complex because
new poles and new zeros are generated.