SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Introduction
 Social institutions are the established patterns of beliefs, behaviors and
relationships that organize social life. These institutions exist to meet
society’s fundamental needs, such as providing structure, guidance, and
order within various social contexts.
 Common examples of social institutions include family, religion,
education, government and economy.
 Social institutions play a significant role in shaping gender and racial
norms and values. For instance, the family is a social institution that plays
a vital role in the socialization of children. The family is where children
learn social norms, values and expectations about gender and race.
 However, social institutions influence how we perceive ourselves and
others and can perpetuate or challenge inequalities.
 It is paramount to understand how social institutions shape these norms
and values to work toward promoting inclusivity and social justice.

Major Types of Social Institutions

 Social institutions provide a framework for organizing and regulating
social behavior.
 There are five major types of social institutions, each with its unique
characteristics and impact on society:
 Family
 Education
 Religion
 Government
 Economy

1. Family
 The family is generally regarded as a primary social institution.
 The institution of family is a basic unit in the society, and the multifaceted
functions performed by it make it a much-needed institution in a society.
 It is one of the oldest social institutions on the earth.
 Although families differ widely around the world, they also share certain
common concerns in their everyday lives
 The family provides emotional and practical support to its members.
 The family provides a foundation for children because it is where
socialization initially takes place.
 Families teach children cultural and social norms, values and
expectations, including those related to gender and race.
 Family values can vary widely based on cultural and historical factors. For
example, some families may emphasize the importance of self-sufficiency
and individualism, while others value interdependence and collectivism.

2. Education
 Educational institution is responsible for the systematic transmission of
knowledge, skills and cultural values within a formally organized
structure.
 It is one of the most influential institutions in contemporary societies.
 Every nation in the world is equipped with some form of education
system, though those systems vary greatly.
 Education plays a vital role in shaping individuals’ beliefs and values from
a young age.
 Education institutions, like schools and colleges, typically promote values
such as hard work, discipline and respect for authority.
 These institutions also reinforce gender and racial norms through dated
curriculums. For instance, the lack of diversity in history and literary
curriculums reinforces the idea that only certain groups of people are
significant contributors to society.

3. Religion
 Religion is a social institution composed of a unified system of beliefs,
symbols, and rituals— based on some sacred or supernatural realm— that
guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a
community.
 For many people, religious beliefs provide the answers for seemingly
unanswerable questions about the meaning of life and death.
 Religion is a system of faith and worship.
 Religion is a social institution that provides a moral framework for
individuals and communities.
 Religion typically reinforces the belief in a higher power.
 Religious institutions strengthen values such as compassion, forgiveness
and charity.
 However, religions also promote specific beliefs and practices related to
gender and race, which can challenge or reinforce societal norms.
 Some religious establishments welcome gender and racial equality, while
many others uphold traditional gender roles and racial hierarchies.

4. Government
 Government institutions are responsible for forming and enforcing laws
and ordinances that govern society.
 The government’s primary role is to maintain order and provide public
services.
 Governments reinforce values such as justice, equality and democracy.
 They also shape norms related to gender and race through policies and
legislation.
 Laws banning discrimination based on gender and race promote equality,
while policies that perpetuate imbalances strengthen societal norms.

5. Economy
 Economy is the social institution that ensures maintenance of society
through the production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services.
 Economy is the social institution that organizes a society’s production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services.
 The economy system is the complex of interrelated institutions through
which the economic activity of man is expressed.
 Economic institutions are fundamental social structures that encompass
the intricate systems and processes governing the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
 Its impact on individuals and communities is immense, shaping their
access to resources, opportunities, and overall well-being.
 Within economic systems, values like efficiency, growth, and competition
often take precedence, driving the allocation of resources and shaping
wealth distribution.
 While these values can foster innovation and productivity, they can also
lead to social consequences. For instance, the emphasis on individual
achievement in capitalism may promote economic mobility for some but
can also exacerbate income inequality and excessive consumerism,
highlighting the need for a balanced approach to economic development.

Characteristics of Social Institutions

 Social institutions have the following characteristics;
i. Social institutions are universal.
ii. They vary from time to time and across cultures, in terms of complexity,
specialization, scope, formality and organization. But their basic nature
and purpose are similar everywhere.
iii. Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend to persist.
iv. Each institution performs two types of social function. (a) primary
functions, which are also called manifest, explicit, or direct functions; (b)
secondary functions, which are also called indirect, hidden, or latent
functions. Through these functions, social institutions fulfill important
needs in the society.
v. Institutions are the controlling mechanisms: Institutions like religion,
morality, state, government, law, legislation etc. control the behaviour
of men. These preserve the social order and give stability to it.
vi. Institutions are interrelated: Institutions, though diverse, are interrelated
and interdependent. These are connected through statuses and roles of
the individuals.
vii. Relatively permanent: Many institutions are rigid and enduring.
Institutions normally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes. Changes
take place slowly and gradually in them. Therefore institutions are the
great conservers and transmitters of cultural heritage.
viii. Use Symbols to distinguish: Institutions have cultural symbols. The
symbols may be either material or non-material. A country has a flag, an
 emblem, a national anthem as its symbol. A school may have its own
flag, uniform dress etc.
ix. Possess material objects: The institutions being group of people have
national resources and material objects. The buildings, furniture, books
and other objects are part of social life are a part of institutions.
x. Social institutions are patterns of behaviour grouped about the central
needs of human beings in society.
SOCIALIZATION
 Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be
proficient members of a society. It describes the ways that people come to
understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs,
and to be aware of societal values.
 Socialization is not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like
family and friends); to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs
through socializing.
 People also unlearn and re-learn.
 It plays a crucial role in shaping personality, guiding social behavior, and
ensuring the continuity of cultural traditions.

Functions of Socialization
 Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which
they live.
 It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social
worlds are.
 Socialization is important in the following ways;
i. Passing cultural knowledge, skills, and traditions from one generation
to the next.
ii. Helps individuals develop a sense of self and belonging.
iii. Helps to teach individuals their roles within various social institutions
(e.g., family, work).
iv. It ensures conformity to societal norms and expectations.
v. It fosters shared beliefs and values, which contribute to social harmony
and cooperation.
vi. It equips individuals with the skills necessary for everyday life,
including communication, problem-solving and social interaction skills.
vii. Helps individuals learn how to manage and express emotions
appropriately. It provides emotional support through relationships with
family, friends, and other social groups, contributing to psychological
well-being.
viii. It prepares individuals for future social and occupational roles by
teaching the necessary norms, values, and skills. This anticipatory
socialization helps people understand and adapt to new environments,
such as schools or workplaces.
ix. Helps individuals adapt to changes within their environment, whether
it’s societal, technological, or personal.

Agents of Socialization
 Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social
worlds.
 How does the process of socialization occur?
 How do we learn to use the objects of our society’s material culture?
 How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent
its nonmaterial culture?
 This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of
socialization, like family, peer groups, education, religion, mass media,
government, and economics as discussed below.

Family
 Family is the first agent of socialization.
 Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an
extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know.
 For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes,
computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some
as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or
“neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what is
“imagined”).
 As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or from your
role in helping to raise one, socialization includes teaching and learning
about an unending array of objects and ideas.
 Keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a
vacuum.
 Many social factors affect the way a family raises its children.
 Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal
factors play an important role in socialization.
 For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity
when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment
and creativity. This may occur because working-class parents have less
education and more repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able
to follow rules and conform.
 Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in
managerial positions or careers that require creative problem solving, so
they teach their children behaviors that are beneficial in these positions.
This means children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types
of jobs their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system.
 Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of
race, and class-related behaviors.

Peer Groups
 A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social
status and who share interests.
 Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on
a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the
rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket.
 As children grow into teenagers, this process continues.
 Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to
develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence.
 Additionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization
since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers
than they do with their families.
 Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience
outside the realm of their families.

Education
 Students are not in school only to study math, reading, science, and other
subjects—the manifest function of this system.
 Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into
behaviors like practicing teamwork, following a schedule, and using
textbooks.
 School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and
leaders, regularly reinforce what society expects from children.
 Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum,
the informal teaching done by schools.

Religion
 While some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices
followed by formal institutions.
 Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people.
 People gather to worship and learn in synagogues, temples, churches,
mosques, and similar religious communities.
 Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to interact
with the religion’s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a
communion wafer).
 For some people, important ceremonies related to family structure—like
marriage and birth—are connected to religious celebrations.
 Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to
their enforcement through socialization.
 From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power
dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared
set of socialized values that are passed on through society.

Government
 Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go
through today are based on age norms established by the government.
 To be defined as an “adult” usually means being eighteen years old, the
age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself.
 And sixty-five years old is the start of “old age” since most people
become eligible for senior benefits at that point.
 Each time we embark on one of these new categories—senior, adult,
taxpayer—we must be socialized into our new role.
 Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and
senior shopping discounts.
 These government dictates mark the points at which we require
socialization into a new category.

Mass Media
 Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via
television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet.
 With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the
television (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly
influences social norms.
 People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and
transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is true
(beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).

Economics
 Economics serves as a significant agent of socialization by shaping
individuals' beliefs, values, and behaviors through their interactions with
economic systems and structures.
 It influences how people understand wealth, poverty, and social class,
impacting their perspectives on work, consumption, and resource
distribution.
 Economic conditions and policies can affect family dynamics, education
access, and community engagement, reinforcing societal norms and
expectations. Ultimately, the economic environment helps mold individual
identities and social roles, guiding people's choices and interactions
within society.

Types of Socialization:
i. Primary Socialization: Occurs in early childhood, where the basic
skills and values are learned primarily from the family.
ii. Secondary Socialization: Involves learning appropriate behavior
within smaller sections of society, such as schools, peer groups, and
workplaces.
iii. Anticipatory Socialization: The process of preparing for future roles
and responsibilities, such as a student learning about their prospective
career.
iv. Resocialization: The process of unlearning old behaviors and norms
and adopting new ones, often occurring in a new environment or
during significant life changes (e.g., joining the military, rehabilitation).
v. Gender Socialization: Learning the cultural norms associated with
one's gender, including roles, behaviors, and expectations.
vi. Political Socialization: The process of learning political values,
beliefs, and norms, often influenced by family, media, and education.
Stages of Socialization:
i. Infancy and Childhood: Learning basic language, values, and norms
from family.
ii. Adolescence: Developing a sense of identity, independence, and peer
influence becomes stronger.
iii. Adulthood: Learning new roles related to work, marriage, and
parenting.
iv. Old Age: Adjusting to retirement, aging, and sometimes resocializing
to cope with loss and changing roles.
SOCIAL GROUPS
 A social group is a collection of individuals who regularly interact with one
another, share a sense of identity or belonging, and adhere to defined
norms, values, and expectations.
 Social groups are foundational to the study of sociology because they
shape behavior, provide support, and create a sense of belonging for
individuals.
 Groups can vary in size, from small personal relationships to large
organizations, and play a key role in socializing individuals and providing
structure within society.

Characteristics of Social Groups

 Social groups share the following characteristics;
i. Members of a social group interact regularly, whether in person or
through other means.
ii. Members typically identify with one another and share a sense of
belonging.
iii. Groups develop norms (rules of behavior) and values (what the group
finds important) that guide behavior and decision-making.
iv. Members of a social group typically share a common identity, purpose,
or goal that unites them. This may be based on shared interests,
values, or activities.
v. Social groups, whether formal or informal, have a certain level of
organization or structure. Some groups are highly structured with
clearly defined roles and hierarchy, while others are more loosely
organized.
vi. In social groups, individuals influence and are influenced by other
members. This mutual influence occurs through communication,
shared experiences, and collective decision-making.
vii. Communication is a central characteristic of any social group. How
members communicate with each other—whether formally or
informally—affects the group's functioning.
viii. Social groups are not static; they change and evolve over time in
response to both internal and external factors. These changes can
include shifts in group membership, goals, norms, or structure.

Types of Social Groups

 Social groups are diverse, and they can be classified based on their
characteristics, purpose, size, and the nature of interactions. They are;

1. Primary Groups:
 A primary group is a small, close-knit, and intimate group where
relationships are personal, long-lasting, and emotionally deep.
 They are;
 Small in size.
 Strong emotional ties and bonds.
  Frequent and face-to-face interaction.
 Personal and enduring relationships.
 Informal social structure.
 Examples:
 Family: A classic example of a primary group, where members
have close and personal relationships.
 Close friends: Friends who share deep emotional bonds and
regularly engage with one another.
 Provide emotional support and play a critical role in socialization.

2. Voluntary and Involuntary Groups

 Voluntary groups are those that individuals freely choose to join
based on their interests, needs, or goals. Membership in these groups
is not compulsory, e.g. clubs and associations (book clubs, hobby
groups), religious groups
 Involuntary groups are those that individuals belong to without
having a choice. Membership is often ascribed by birth or
circumstance, e.g. family, caste system (individuals are born into a
social class that they cannot opt out of).
 Voluntary groups align with interests, while involuntary groups shape
identity and social position.

3. Secondary Groups:
 They are larger, more impersonal, and goal-oriented. Relationships in
these groups are typically short-term, formal, and based on specific
purposes or objectives.
 The main characteristics of these include:
 Larger in size than primary groups.
 Less emotional or personal.
 Formal and organized around specific tasks or goals.
 Temporary and task-focused relationships.
 Structured with defined roles and responsibilities.
 Examples are:
o Co-workers or Professional Teams: Employees in a workplace
who collaborate for work-related tasks.
o Classmates in a Course: Students who meet for academic
purposes but may not have personal connections outside the
class e.g. MSW 1.2 students
 Secondary groups are essential for accomplishing specific tasks or
fulfilling roles in larger society.
 These groups provide structure for complex organizations like
corporations, governments, or schools.

4. Reference Groups
 The groups are used as standards for self-evaluation and comparison.
 Examples: Celebrities, professional role models.
 Reference groups play a crucial role in shaping aspirations, decisions,
and behaviors.

5. In-Groups and Out-Groups:

 An in-group is a social group to which an individual feels they belong
and with which they identify. Members of in-groups often feel a sense
of loyalty and attachment to the group.
 They include
o A Sports Team: Fans or players who identify with their team and
feel a sense of belonging e.g. fans of Manchester United.
o Ethnic or National Groups: Individuals who identify with a
particular ethnicity or nationality.
 An out-group is a group to which an individual does not belong and
may even feel competition, opposition, or hostility toward. Out-groups
are often viewed as different or inferior by members of an in-group.
They include:
o Rival sports teams: Members of opposing teams often view each
other as competitors.
o Different political groups: Members of one political party may see
members of an opposing party as out-group members.
 These groups influence identity and social dynamics, often creating
divisions like "us vs. them."

6. Formal and Informal Groups

 Formal groups are highly structured with specific goals, roles, and
established norms. These groups are often created for achieving
specific objectives and are governed by rules and regulations.
 Formal groups are essential for maintaining order and achieving large-
scale goals in complex organizations.
 They include: Corporations, schools, etc.
 Informal groups have no formal structure, roles emerge organically,
and norms are not written down. These groups often form
spontaneously based on personal relationships and common interests.
 Examples: Friendship circles, neighborhood Communities
 Informal groups provide social support and cohesion in daily life and
foster personal relationships and spontaneous collaboration.

7. Small and Large Groups

 Small groups are intimate and involve direct, personal interaction.
Examples: Families, study groups.
 Large Groups are more formal with indirect or structured interaction.
Examples: corporations, political parties.
 Small groups offer close connections, while large groups handle
complex tasks.
Group Development
- The appointment of individuals to a group based on their compatibility,
diversity, or expertise does not assure effectiveness in achieving group
goals.
- A group is initially a collection of personalities with different
characteristics, needs, and influences. To be effective, these individuals
must spend time acclimatizing themselves to their environment, the task,
and to each other.
- Organizational experts and practitioners have observed that new groups
go through a number of stages before they achieve maximum
performance.
- Each stage presents the members with different challenges that must be
overcome before they can move on to the next stage.
- Bruce Tuckman’s model has been used extensively within youth work
theory and practice and is an excellent model for attempting to analyze
individual and group behaviour.
- These stages have been identified as forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning.
- This can be diagrammatically illustrated as below;

A brief synopsis of each stage is outlined below;

Stage 1: Forming
- The first stage of this group process is joining, referred to as engagement
by Rogers.
- This phase involves significant testing, and trial and error.
- Initial concerns about openness and support within the group are
manifested by a lack of cohesion and a difficulty in sharing thoughts,
feelings and experiences with each other.
- An internal appraisal of group value and how each individual belongs to
the group are key features of this stage.
- Anxiety, isolation, inadequacy and frustration are common emotions felt
by group members at this early stage in the life of a group, as well as
being emotionally threatened by members of the group who are
perceived to be stronger or better. Thus the group seeks to create a
comfort zone in which individuals are not keen to upset the status quo for
fear of alienation.
- Oppressive behaviour is least likely within the formation stage of a group
as individuals generally look to create a comfort zone and do not wish to
rock the boat.
- Often frustrations will be built upon between individuals who disagree
strongly, but this will generally not surface until storming begins.

Stage 2: Storming
- This stage sees group members begin to confront each other as they
begin to vie for roles within the group that will help them to belong and to
feel valued. Thus as members begin to assert their individual
personalities, the comfort of the forming stage begins to come under
siege.
- Members experience personal, intra and inter group conflicts.
- Aggression and resentment may manifest in this stage and thus if strong
personalities emerge and leadership is unresponsive to group and
individual needs, the situation may become destructive to the group’s
development.
- Indeed there is a high potential for individuals to abandon the group
during this stage, as for some the pressures created by the group may
become too much of a strain.
- The potential for oppressive behaviour is strong within the storming phase
as group members vie for preferred roles and release frustrations built
within the forming period. This personal oppression should be discouraged
whilst it is understood that a degree of conflict is necessary if the group is
to further develop.
- It is important to be aware that conflict will take place within all groups,
and if handled well this conflict can produce benefits for the group in
terms of development, objective and task setting, and ultimate outcome.
Thus conflict is not inherently something to be feared or avoided.

Stage 3: Norming
- During this stage the group begins to work more constructively together
towards formal identified or informal tasks.
- Roles begin to develop and be allocated within the group and although
these may be accepted, some members may not be comfortable with the
role or roles which they have been allocated.
- During this stage sub-groups are likely to form in order that a supportive
environment is once more created.
- Acceptable and unacceptable behaviours within the group are created
and reinforced and thus the `norms` for this group become fabricated.
- The storming and norming phases of group development are inextricably
linked, as it is often through the storming and challenging that acceptable
group norms become set.
- It is important that a youth worker works hard during this stage to ensure
oppression against individuals within the group do not become the
acceptable norm, as then all group members will oppress these
individuals.
- Thus, individual oppressions must be challenged and emphasis placed on
challenging attitudes and opinions but not group members.

Stage 4: Performing
- This stage sees the group performing effectively with defined roles, in fact
at this stage it could be said that the group has transformed into a team.
- It is now that decisions may be positively challenged or reinforced by the
group as a whole. The discomfort of the storming and norming phases has
been overcome and the group has a general feeling of unity.
- This is the best stage for a group to complete tasks, assuming that task,
rather than process and individuals, are the focus of the group.
- Potential exists within this stage for oppression to begin if one or more
group members does not appear to fit in with the group’s view of its task,
or is not performing as effectively as expected.
- Again it is important to challenge this if it occurs and to show how each
member can benefit the group, through achievement of task, leadership,
reviewing, moving on, or by monitoring the groups’ process.

Stage 5: Adjourning
- The final stage in the life of a group ultimately is its termination.
- Though often overlooked, this stage in group development is equally
important to positive outcomes.
- The ending of a group can be a very unhappy and distressing time for
some members, as they may feel some extent of dependency on the
group.

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS/ PROCESSES

 Social interaction refers to the process by which individuals act and react
in relation to others.
 It's a fundamental building block of social relationships and societal
structure.
 People may interact face-to-face, virtually, verbally, non-verbally, etc.

Types of Social Interactions/ Processes

 Social interactions are a fundamental aspect of human behavior,
occurring in various forms across different social settings.
 The key types of social interactions are as follows:
1. Exchange
 This occurs when individuals or groups interact with the expectation of
receiving something in return. The exchange can be material (like
goods or money) or intangible (like services, information, or emotional
support).
2. Cooperation
 In cooperation, individuals or groups work together to achieve a
common goal or outcome. This interaction is often necessary for the
completion of tasks that cannot be achieved alone.
3. Competition
 Competition occurs when individuals or groups vie for a limited
resource or achieve a goal that cannot be shared. It can be positive
(encouraging growth) or negative (leading to conflict). An example is
athletes competing for a gold medal in the Olympics.
4. Conflict
 Conflict happens when individuals or groups have opposing interests or
goals, often leading to disagreement, tension, or confrontation. It can
arise from differences in opinions, values, or needs.
5. Coercion
 Coercion involves the use of force or threats to make someone act in a
particular way. This interaction is often one-sided, where one party
holds power over the other.
6. Accommodation
 Accommodation refers to the process of adjusting or compromising
between conflicting parties to minimize conflict. It allows different
groups to coexist peacefully, even with differing interests.
7. Conformity
 Conformity occurs when individuals adjust their behaviors, attitudes, or
beliefs to align with the expectations of a group or society. It’s a way of
maintaining social order and cohesion.
8.Assimilation
 Assimilation can be defined as the process through which individuals or
groups adopt the customs, values, and behaviours of a dominant
culture, sometimes at the expense of their own cultural heritage. This
process can occur voluntarily or involuntarily, influenced by social,
economic, or political factors.
9.Acculturation
 Acculturation is a process of cultural contact and exchange through
which a person or group comes to adopt certain values and practices of
a culture that is not originally their own, to a greater or lesser extent.
The result is that the original culture of the person or group remains,
but it is changed by this process.